Kingsley v. Hendrickson

(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2014 1

Syllabus

NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is

being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued.

The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been

prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader.

See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

Syllabus

KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON ET AL.

CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR

THE SEVENTH CIRCUIT

No. 14–6368. Argued April 27, 2015—Decided June 22, 2015

While petitioner Kingsley was awaiting trial in county jail, officers for-

cibly removed him from his cell when he refused to comply with their

instructions. Kingsley filed a complaint in Federal District Court

claiming, as relevant here, that two of the officers used excessive

force against him in violation of the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due

Process Clause. At the trial’s conclusion, the District Court instruct-

ed the jury that Kingsley was required to prove, inter alia, that the

officers “recklessly disregarded [Kingsley’s] safety” and “acted with

reckless disregard of [his] rights.” The jury found in the officers’ fa-

vor. On appeal, Kingsley argued that the jury instruction did not ad-

here to the proper standard for judging a pretrial detainee’s excessive

force claim, namely, objective unreasonableness. The Seventh Cir-

cuit disagreed, holding that the law required a subjective inquiry into

the officers’ state of mind, i.e., whether the officers actually intended

to violate, or recklessly disregarded, Kingsley’s rights.

Held:

1. Under 42 U. S. C. §1983, a pretrial detainee must show only

that the force purposely or knowingly used against him was objective-

ly unreasonable to prevail on an excessive force claim. Pp. 5–13.

(a) This determination must be made from the perspective of a

reasonable officer on the scene, including what the officer knew at

the time, see Graham v. Connor, 490 U. S. 386, 396, and must ac-

count for the “legitimate interests [stemming from the government’s]

need to manage the facility in which the individual is detained,” ap-

propriately deferring to “policies and practices that in th[e] judg-

ment” of jail officials “are needed to preserve internal order and dis-

cipline and to maintain institutional security,” Bell v. Wolfish,

441 U. S. 520, 540, 547. Pp. 5–7.

2 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

Syllabus

(b) Several considerations lead to this conclusion. An objective

standard is consistent with precedent. In Bell, for instance, this

Court held that a pretrial detainee could prevail on a claim that his

due process rights were violated by providing only objective evidence

that the challenged governmental action was not rationally related to

a legitimate governmental objective or that it was excessive in rela-

tion to that purpose. 441 U. S., at 541–543. Cf. Block v. Rutherford,

468 U. S. 576, 585–586. Experience also suggests that an objective

standard is workable. It is consistent with the pattern jury instruc-

tions used in several Circuits, and many facilities train officers to in-

teract with detainees as if the officers’ conduct is subject to objective

reasonableness. Finally, the use of an objective standard adequately

protects an officer who acts in good faith, e.g., by acknowledging that

judging the reasonableness of the force used from the perspective and

with the knowledge of the defendant officer is an appropriate part of

the analysis. Pp. 7–10.

(c) None of the cases respondents point to provides significant

support for a subjective standard. Whitley v. Albers, 475 U. S. 312,

and Hudson v. McMillian, 503 U. S. 1, lack relevance in this context

because they involved claims brought by convicted prisoners under

the Eighth Amendment’s Cruel and Unusual Punishment Clause, not

claims brought by pretrial detainees under the Fourteenth Amend-

ment’s Due Process Clause. And in County of Sacramento v. Lewis,

523 U. S. 833, a statement indicating the need to show “purpose to

cause harm,” id., at 854, for due process liability refers not to wheth-

er the force intentionally used was excessive, but whether the de-

fendant intended to commit the acts in question, id., at 854, and

n. 13. Finally, in Johnson v. Glick, 481 F. 2d 1028 (CA2), a mali-

cious-and-sadistic-purpose-to-cause-harm factor was not suggested as

a necessary condition for liability, but as a factor, among others, that

might help show that the use of force was excessive. Pp. 10–13.

2. Applying the proper standard, the jury instruction was errone-

ous. Taken together, the features of that instruction suggested that

the jury should weigh respondents’ subjective reasons for using force

and subjective views about the excessiveness of that force. Respond-

ents’ claim that, irrespective of this Court’s holding, any error in the

instruction was harmless is left to the Seventh Circuit to resolve on

remand. Pp. 13–14.

744 F. 3d 443, vacated and remanded.

BREYER, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which KENNEDY,

GINSBURG, SOTOMAYOR, and KAGAN, JJ., joined. SCALIA, J., filed a dis-

senting opinion, in which ROBERTS, C. J., and THOMAS, J., joined. ALITO,

J., filed a dissenting opinion.

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 1

Opinion of the Court

NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the

preliminary print of the United States Reports. Readers are requested to

notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Wash-

ington, D. C. 20543, of any typographical or other formal errors, in order

that corrections may be made before the preliminary print goes to press.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 14–6368

_________________

MICHAEL B. KINGSLEY, PETITIONER v. STAN

HENDRICKSON, ET AL.

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF

APPEALS FOR THE SEVENTH CIRCUIT

[June 22, 2015]

JUSTICE BREYER delivered the opinion of the Court.

In this case, an individual detained in a jail prior to trial

brought a claim under Rev. Stat. §1979, 42 U. S. C. §1983,

against several jail officers, alleging that they used exces-

sive force against him, in violation of the Fourteenth

Amendment’s Due Process Clause. The officers concede

that they intended to use the force that they used. But

the parties disagree about whether the force used was

excessive.

The question before us is whether, to prove an excessive

force claim, a pretrial detainee must show that the officers

were subjectively aware that their use of force was unrea-

sonable, or only that the officers’ use of that force was

objectively unreasonable. We conclude that the latter

standard is the correct one.

I

A

Some but not all of the facts are undisputed: Michael

Kingsley, the petitioner, was arrested on a drug charge

and detained in a Wisconsin county jail prior to trial. On

the evening of May 20, 2010, an officer performing a cell

2 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

Opinion of the Court

check noticed a piece of paper covering the light fixture

above Kingsley’s bed. The officer told Kingsley to remove

it; Kingsley refused; subsequently other officers told

Kingsley to remove the paper; and each time Kingsley

refused. The next morning, the jail administrator, Lieu-

tenant Robert Conroy, ordered Kingsley to remove the

paper. Kingsley once again refused. Conroy then told

Kingsley that officers would remove the paper and that he

would be moved to a receiving cell in the interim.

Shortly thereafter, four officers, including respondents

Sergeant Stan Hendrickson and Deputy Sheriff Fritz

Degner, approached the cell and ordered Kingsley to

stand, back up to the door, and keep his hands behind

him. When Kingsley refused to comply, the officers hand-

cuffed him, forcibly removed him from the cell, carried him

to a receiving cell, and placed him face down on a bunk

with his hands handcuffed behind his back.

The parties’ views about what happened next differ.

The officers testified that Kingsley resisted their efforts to

remove his handcuffs. Kingsley testified that he did not

resist. All agree that Sergeant Hendrickson placed his

knee in Kingsley’s back and Kingsley told him in impolite

language to get off. Kingsley testified that Hendrickson

and Degner then slammed his head into the concrete

bunk—an allegation the officers deny.

The parties agree, however, about what happened next:

Hendrickson directed Degner to stun Kingsley with a

Taser; Degner applied a Taser to Kingsley’s back for ap-

proximately five seconds; the officers then left the hand-

cuffed Kingsley alone in the receiving cell; and officers

returned to the cell 15 minutes later and removed Kings-

ley’s handcuffs.

B

Based on these and related events, Kingsley filed a

§1983 complaint in Federal District Court claiming

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 3

Opinion of the Court

(among other things) that Hendrickson and Degner used

excessive force against him, in violation of the Fourteenth

Amendment’s Due Process Clause. The officers moved for

summary judgment, which the District Court denied,

stating that “a reasonable jury could conclude that [the

officers] acted with malice and intended to harm [Kings-

ley] when they used force against him.” Kingsley v.

Josvai, No. 10–cv–832–bbc (WD Wis., Nov. 16, 2011), App

to Pet. for Cert. 66a–67a. Kingsley’s excessive force claim

accordingly proceeded to trial. At the conclusion of the

trial, the District Court instructed the jury as follows:

“Excessive force means force applied recklessly that

is unreasonable in light of the facts and circumstances

of the time. Thus, to succeed on his claim of excessive

use of force, plaintiff must prove each of the following

factors by a preponderance of the evidence:

“(1) Defendants used force on plaintiff;

“(2) Defendants’ use of force was unreasonable in

light of the facts and circumstances at the time;

“(3) Defendants knew that using force presented a

risk of harm to plaintiff, but they recklessly disre-

garded plaintiff ’s safety by failing to take reasonable

measures to minimize the risk of harm to plaintiff;

and

“(4) Defendants’ conduct caused some harm to

plaintiff.

“In deciding whether one or more defendants used

‘unreasonable’ force against plaintiff, you must con-

sider whether it was unreasonable from the perspec-

tive of a reasonable officer facing the same circum-

stances that defendants faced. You must make this

decision based on what defendants knew at the time

of the incident, not based on what you know now.

4 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

Opinion of the Court

“Also, in deciding whether one or more defendants

used unreasonable force and acted with reckless disre-

gard of plaintiff ’s rights, you may consider factors

such as:

“• The need to use force;

“• The relationship between the need to use force

and the amount of force used;

“• The extent of plaintiff ’s injury;

“• Whether defendants reasonably believed there was

a threat to the safety of staff or prisoners; and

“• Any efforts made by defendants to limit the

amount of force used.” App. 277–278 (emphasis

added).

The jury found in the officers’ favor.

On appeal, Kingsley argued that the correct standard

for judging a pretrial detainee’s excessive force claim is

objective unreasonableness. And, the jury instruction, he

said, did not hew to that standard. A panel of the Court of

Appeals disagreed, with one judge dissenting. The major-

ity held that the law required a “subjective inquiry” into

the officer’s state of mind. There must be “ ‘an actual

intent to violate [the plaintiff ’s] rights or reckless disre-

gard for his rights.’ ” 744 F. 3d 443, 451 (CA7 2014) (quot-

ing Wilson v. Williams, 83 F. 3d 870, 875 (CA7 1996)).

The dissent would have used instructions promulgated by

the Committee on Pattern Civil Jury Instructions of the

Seventh Circuit, which require a pretrial detainee claim-

ing excessive force to show only that the use of force was

objectively unreasonable. 744 F. 3d, at 455 (opinion of

Hamilton, J.); see Pattern Civ. Jury Instr. §7.08 (2009).

The dissent further stated that the District Court’s use of

the word “reckless” in the jury instruction added “an

unnecessary and confusing element.” 744 F. 3d, at 455.

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 5

Opinion of the Court

Kingsley filed a petition for certiorari asking us to de-

termine whether the requirements of a §1983 excessive

force claim brought by a pretrial detainee must satisfy the

subjective standard or only the objective standard. In

light of disagreement among the Circuits, we agreed to do

so. Compare, e.g., Murray v. Johnson No. 260, 367 Fed.

Appx. 196, 198 (CA2 2010); Bozeman v. Orum, 422 F. 3d

1265, 1271 (CA11 2005) (per curiam), with Aldini v. John-

son, 609 F. 3d 858, 865–866 (CA6 2010); Young v. Wolfe,

478 Fed. Appx. 354, 356 (CA9 2012).

II

A

We consider a legally requisite state of mind. In a case

like this one, there are, in a sense, two separate state-of-

mind questions. The first concerns the defendant’s state

of mind with respect to his physical acts—i.e., his state of

mind with respect to the bringing about of certain physical

consequences in the world. The second question concerns

the defendant’s state of mind with respect to whether his

use of force was “excessive.” Here, as to the first question,

there is no dispute. As to the second, whether to interpret

the defendant’s physical acts in the world as involving

force that was “excessive,” there is a dispute. We conclude

with respect to that question that the relevant standard is

objective not subjective. Thus, the defendant’s state of

mind is not a matter that a plaintiff is required to prove.

Consider the series of physical events that take place in

the world—a series of events that might consist, for exam-

ple, of the swing of a fist that hits a face, a push that leads

to a fall, or the shot of a Taser that leads to the stunning

of its recipient. No one here denies, and we must assume,

that, as to the series of events that have taken place in the

world, the defendant must possess a purposeful, a know-

ing, or possibly a reckless state of mind. That is because,

as we have stated, “liability for negligently inflicted harm

6 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

Opinion of the Court

is categorically beneath the threshold of constitutional due

process.” County of Sacramento v. Lewis, 523 U. S. 833,

849 (1998) (emphasis added). See also Daniels v. Williams,

474 U. S. 327, 331 (1986) (“Historically, this guarantee of

due process has been applied to deliberate decisions of

government officials to deprive a person of life, liberty, or

property”). Thus, if an officer’s Taser goes off by accident

or if an officer unintentionally trips and falls on a detainee,

causing him harm, the pretrial detainee cannot prevail on

an excessive force claim. But if the use of force is delib-

erate—i.e., purposeful or knowing—the pretrial detainee’s

claim may proceed. In the context of a police pursuit of a

suspect the Court noted, though without so holding, that

recklessness in some cases might suffice as a standard for

imposing liability. See Lewis, supra, at 849. Whether

that standard might suffice for liability in the case of an

alleged mistreatment of a pretrial detainee need not be

decided here; for the officers do not dispute that they acted

purposefully or knowingly with respect to the force they

used against Kingsley.

We now consider the question before us here—the de-

fendant’s state of mind with respect to the proper interpre-

tation of the force (a series of events in the world) that the

defendant deliberately (not accidentally or negligently)

used. In deciding whether the force deliberately used is,

constitutionally speaking, “excessive,” should courts use

an objective standard only, or instead a subjective stand-

ard that takes into account a defendant’s state of mind? It

is with respect to this question that we hold that courts

must use an objective standard. In short, we agree with

the dissenting appeals court judge, the Seventh Circuit’s

jury instruction committee, and Kingsley, that a pretrial

detainee must show only that the force purposely or know-

ingly used against him was objectively unreasonable.

A court (judge or jury) cannot apply this standard me-

chanically. See Lewis, supra, at 850. Rather, objective

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 7

Opinion of the Court

reasonableness turns on the “facts and circumstances of

each particular case.” Graham v. Connor, 490 U. S. 386,

396 (1989). A court must make this determination from

the perspective of a reasonable officer on the scene, includ-

ing what the officer knew at the time, not with the 20/20

vision of hindsight. See ibid. A court must also account

for the “legitimate interests that stem from [the govern-

ment’s] need to manage the facility in which the individual

is detained,” appropriately deferring to “policies and prac-

tices that in th[e] judgment” of jail officials “are needed to

preserve internal order and discipline and to maintain

institutional security.” Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U. S. 520, 540,

547 (1979).

Considerations such as the following may bear on the

reasonableness or unreasonableness of the force used: the

relationship between the need for the use of force and the

amount of force used; the extent of the plaintiff ’s injury;

any effort made by the officer to temper or to limit the

amount of force; the severity of the security problem at

issue; the threat reasonably perceived by the officer; and

whether the plaintiff was actively resisting. See, e.g.,

Graham, supra, at 396. We do not consider this list to be

exclusive. We mention these factors only to illustrate the

types of objective circumstances potentially relevant to a

determination of excessive force.

B

Several considerations have led us to conclude that the

appropriate standard for a pretrial detainee’s excessive

force claim is solely an objective one. For one thing, it is

consistent with our precedent. We have said that “the

Due Process Clause protects a pretrial detainee from the

use of excessive force that amounts to punishment.” Gra-

ham, supra, at 395, n. 10. And in Bell, we explained that

such “punishment” can consist of actions taken with an

“expressed intent to punish.” 441 U. S., at 538. But the

8 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

Opinion of the Court

Bell Court went on to explain that, in the absence of an

expressed intent to punish, a pretrial detainee can never-

theless prevail by showing that the actions are not “ra-

tionally related to a legitimate nonpunitive governmental

purpose” or that the actions “appear excessive in relation

to that purpose.” Id., at 561. The Bell Court applied this

latter objective standard to evaluate a variety of prison

conditions, including a prison’s practice of double-bunking.

In doing so, it did not consider the prison officials’ subjec-

tive beliefs about the policy. Id., at 541–543. Rather, the

Court examined objective evidence, such as the size of the

rooms and available amenities, before concluding that the

conditions were reasonably related to the legitimate pur-

pose of holding detainees for trial and did not appear

excessive in relation to that purpose. Ibid.

Bell’s focus on “punishment” does not mean that proof of

intent (or motive) to punish is required for a pretrial de-

tainee to prevail on a claim that his due process rights

were violated. Rather, as Bell itself shows (and as our

later precedent affirms), a pretrial detainee can prevail by

providing only objective evidence that the challenged

governmental action is not rationally related to a legiti-

mate governmental objective or that it is excessive in

relation to that purpose. Cf. Block v. Rutherford, 468 U. S.

576, 585–586 (1984) (where there was no suggestion that

the purpose of jail policy of denying contact visitation was

to punish inmates, the Court need only evaluate whether

the policy was “reasonably related to legitimate govern-

mental objectives” and whether it appears excessive in

relation to that objective); Schall v. Martin, 467 U. S. 253,

269–271 (1984) (similar); see also United States v. Salerno,

481 U. S. 739, 747 (1987) (“[T]he punitive/regulatory

distinction turns on ‘whether an alternative purpose to

which [the restriction] may rationally be connected is

assignable for it, and whether it appears excessive in

relation to the alternative purpose assigned [to it]’ ” (quot-

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 9

Opinion of the Court

ing Schall, supra, at 269; emphasis added and some inter-

nal quotation marks omitted)). The Court did not suggest

in any of these cases, either by its words or its analysis,

that its application of Bell’s objective standard should

involve subjective considerations. Our standard is also

consistent with our use of an objective “excessive force”

standard where officers apply force to a person who, like

Kingsley, has been accused but not convicted of a crime,

but who, unlike Kingsley, is free on bail. See Graham,

supra.

For another thing, experience suggests that an objective

standard is workable. It is consistent with the pattern

jury instructions used in several Circuits. We are also told

that many facilities, including the facility at issue here,

train officers to interact with all detainees as if the offic-

ers’ conduct is subject to an objective reasonableness

standard. See Brief for Petitioner 26; App. 247–248; Brief

for Former Corrections Administrators and Experts as

Amici Curiae 8–18.

Finally, the use of an objective standard adequately

protects an officer who acts in good faith. We recognize

that “[r]unning a prison is an inordinately difficult under-

taking,” Turner v. Safley, 482 U. S. 78, 84–85 (1987), and

that “safety and order at these institutions requires the

expertise of correctional officials, who must have substan-

tial discretion to devise reasonable solutions to the prob-

lems they face,” Florence v. Board of Chosen Freeholders of

County of Burlington, 566 U. S. ___, ___ (2012) (slip op., at

5). Officers facing disturbances “are often forced to make

split-second judgments—in circumstances that are tense,

uncertain, and rapidly evolving.” Graham, 490 U. S., at

397. For these reasons, we have stressed that a court

must judge the reasonableness of the force used from the

perspective and with the knowledge of the defendant

officer. We have also explained that a court must take

account of the legitimate interests in managing a jail,

10 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

Opinion of the Court

acknowledging as part of the objective reasonableness

analysis that deference to policies and practices needed to

maintain order and institutional security is appropriate.

See Part II–A, supra. And we have limited liability for

excessive force to situations in which the use of force was

the result of an intentional and knowing act (though we

leave open the possibility of including a “reckless” act as

well). Ibid. Additionally, an officer enjoys qualified im-

munity and is not liable for excessive force unless he has

violated a “clearly established” right, such that “it would

[have been] clear to a reasonable officer that his conduct

was unlawful in the situation he confronted.” Saucier v.

Katz, 533 U. S. 194, 202 (2001); see also Brief for United

States as Amicus Curiae 27–28. It is unlikely (though

theoretically possible) that a plaintiff could overcome

these hurdles where an officer acted in good faith.

C

Respondents believe that the relevant legal standard

should be subjective, i.e., that the plaintiff must prove that

the use of force was not “applied in a good-faith effort to

maintain or restore discipline” but, rather, was applied

“maliciously and sadistically to cause harm.” Brief for

Respondents 27. And they refer to several cases that they

believe support their position. See id., at 26–31 (citing

Whitley v. Albers, 475 U. S. 312 (1986); Hudson v. McMil-

lian, 503 U. S. 1 (1992); Lewis, 523 U. S. 833; Johnson v.

Glick, 481 F. 2d 1028 (CA2 1973)).

The first two of these cases, however, concern excessive

force claims brought by convicted prisoners under the

Eighth Amendment’s Cruel and Unusual Punishment

Clause, not claims brought by pretrial detainees under the

Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process Clause. Whitley,

supra, at 320; Hudson, supra, at 6–7. The language of the

two Clauses differs, and the nature of the claims often

differs. And, most importantly, pretrial detainees (unlike

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 11

Opinion of the Court

convicted prisoners) cannot be punished at all, much less

“maliciously and sadistically.” Ingraham v. Wright, 430

U. S. 651, 671–672, n. 40 (1977); Graham, supra, at 395,

n. 10 (1989); see also 4 W. Blackstone, Commentaries *300

(“[I]f the offence be not bailable, or the party cannot find

bail, he is to be committed to the county [jail] . . . [b]ut . . .

only for safe custody, and not for punishment”). Thus,

there is no need here, as there might be in an Eighth

Amendment case, to determine when punishment is un-

constitutional. Whitley and Hudson are relevant here only

insofar as they address the practical importance of taking

into account the legitimate safety-related concerns of those

who run jails. And, as explained above, we believe we

have done so.

Lewis does not prove respondents’ point, either. There,

the Court considered a claim that a police officer had

violated due process by causing a death during a high-

speed automobile chase aimed at apprehending a suspect.

We wrote that “[j]ust as a purpose to cause harm is needed

for Eighth Amendment liability in a [prison] riot case, so it

ought to be needed for due process liability in a pursuit

case.” 523 U. S., at 854. Respondents contend that this

statement shows that the Court embraced a standard for

due process claims that requires a showing of subjective

intent. Brief for Respondents 30–31. Other portions of

the Lewis opinion make clear, however, that this state-

ment referred to the defendant’s intent to commit the acts

in question, not to whether the force intentionally used

was “excessive.” 523 U. S., at 854, and n. 13. As ex-

plained above, the parties here do not dispute that re-

spondents’ use of force was intentional. See Part II–A,

supra.

Nor does Glick provide respondents with significant

support. In that case Judge Friendly, writing for the

Second Circuit, considered an excessive force claim

brought by a pretrial detainee under the Fourteenth

12 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

Opinion of the Court

Amendment’s Due Process Clause. Judge Friendly pointed

out that the “management by a few guards of large num-

bers of prisoners” in an institution “may require and justify

the occasional use of a degree of intentional force.” 481

F. 2d, at 1033. He added that, in determining whether

that intentional use of force “crosse[s]” the “constitutional

line,” a court should look:

“to such factors as [(1)] the need for the application of

force, [(2)] the relationship between the need and the

amount of force that was used, [(3)] the extent of in-

jury inflicted, and [(4)] whether force was applied in a

good faith effort to maintain or restore discipline or

maliciously and sadistically for the very purpose of

causing harm.” Ibid.

This statement does not suggest that the fourth factor

(malicious and sadistic purpose to cause harm) is a neces-

sary condition for liability. To the contrary, the words

“such . . . as” make clear that the four factors provide

examples of some considerations, among others, that

might help show that the use of force was excessive.

Respondents believe these cases nonetheless help them

make a broader point—namely, that a subjective standard

“protects against a relative flood of claims,” many of them

perhaps unfounded, brought by pretrial detainees. Brief

for Respondents 38. But we note that the Prison Litiga-

tion Reform Act of 1995, 42 U. S. C. §1997e, which is

designed to deter the filing of frivolous litigation against

prison officials, applies to both pretrial detainees and

convicted prisoners. Nor is there evidence of a rash of

unfounded filings in Circuits that use an objective standard.

We acknowledge that our view that an objective stand-

ard is appropriate in the context of excessive force claims

brought by pretrial detainees pursuant to the Fourteenth

Amendment may raise questions about the use of a subjec-

tive standard in the context of excessive force claims

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 13

Opinion of the Court

brought by convicted prisoners. We are not confronted

with such a claim, however, so we need not address that

issue today.

III

We now consider the lawfulness of the jury instruction

given in this case in light of our adoption of an objective

standard for pretrial detainees’ excessive force claims. See

Part II–A, supra. That jury instruction defined “excessive

force” as “force applied recklessly that is unreasonable in

light of the facts and circumstances of the time.” App.

277. It required Kingsley to show that the officers “reck-

lessly disregarded [Kingsley’s] safety.” Id., at 278. And it

suggested that Kingsley must show the defendants “acted

with reckless disregard of [Kingsley’s] rights,” while tell-

ing the jury that it could consider several objective factors

in making this determination. Ibid.

Kingsley argues that the jury instruction is faulty be-

cause the word “reckless” suggests a need to prove that

respondents acted with a certain subjective state of mind

with respect to the excessive or nonexcessive nature of the

force used, contrary to what we have just held. Reply

Brief 20–22. Respondents argue that irrespective of our

holding, any error in the instruction was harmless. Brief

for Respondents 57–58. And the Solicitor General sug-

gests that, because the instructions defined “recklessness”

with reference to objective factors, those instructions

effectively embody our objective standard and did not

confuse the jury. Brief for United States as Amicus Curiae

28–32.

We agree with Kingsley that the instructions were

erroneous. “[R]eckles[s] disregar[d] [of Kingsley’s] safety”

was listed as an additional requirement, beyond the need

to find that “[respondents’] use of force was unreasonable

in light of the facts and circumstances at the time.” App.

278. See also ibid. (Kingsley had to show respondents

14 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

Opinion of the Court

“used unreasonable force and acted with reckless disre-

gard of [Kingsley’s] rights” (emphasis added)). And in

determining whether respondents “acted with reckless

disregard of [Kingsley’s] rights,” the jury was instructed to

“consider . . . [w]hether [respondents] reasonably believed

there was a threat to the safety of staff or prisoners.” Ibid.

(emphasis added). Together, these features suggested the

jury should weigh respondents’ subjective reasons for

using force and subjective views about the excessiveness of

the force. As we have just held, that was error. But be-

cause the question whether that error was harmless may

depend in part on the detailed specifics of this case, we

leave that question for the Court of Appeals to resolve in

the first instance.

The decision of the Court of Appeals is vacated, and the

case is remanded for proceedings consistent with this

opinion.

It is so ordered.

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 1

SCALIA, J., dissenting

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 14–6368

_________________

MICHAEL B. KINGSLEY, PETITIONER v. STAN

HENDRICKSON, ET AL.

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF

APPEALS FOR THE SEVENTH CIRCUIT

[June 22, 2015]

JUSTICE SCALIA, with whom THE CHIEF JUSTICE and

JUSTICE THOMAS join, dissenting.

The Constitution contains no freestanding prohibition of

excessive force. There are, however, four constitutional

provisions that we have said forbid the use of excessive

force in certain circumstances. The Fourth Amendment

prohibits it when it makes a search or seizure “unreason-

able.” The Eighth Amendment prohibits it when it consti-

tutes “cruel and unusual” punishment. The Fifth and

Fourteenth Amendments prohibit it (or, for that matter,

any use of force) when it is used to “deprive” someone of

“life, liberty, or property, without due process of law.”

This is a Fourteenth Amendment case. The Fifth

Amendment applies only to federal actors; Kingsley for-

feited any argument under the Fourth Amendment by

failing to raise it below; and he acknowledges that the

Eighth Amendment standard is inapplicable, Brief for

Petitioner 27, n. 8. The only question before us is whether

a pretrial detainee’s due process rights are violated when

“the force purposely or knowingly used against him [is]

objectively unreasonable.” Ante, at 6. In my view, the

answer is no. Our cases hold that the intentional inflic-

tion of punishment upon a pretrial detainee may violate

the Fourteenth Amendment; but the infliction of “objec-

tively unreasonable” force, without more, is not the inten-

2 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

SCALIA, J., dissenting

tional infliction of punishment.

In Bell v. Wolfish, 441 U. S. 520 (1979), we held that the

Due Process Clause forbids holding pretrial detainees in

conditions that “amount to punishment.” Id., at 535.

Conditions amount to punishment, we explained, when

they are “imposed for the purpose of punishment.” Id., at

538. Acting with the intent to punish means taking a

“ ‘deliberate act intended to chastise or deter.’ ” Wilson v.

Seiter, 501 U. S. 294, 300 (1991) (quoting Duckworth v.

Franzen, 780 F. 2d 645, 652 (CA7 1985)); see also Bell,

supra, at 537–538. The Court in Bell recognized that

intent to punish need not be “expressed,” 441 U. S. at 538,

but may be established with circumstantial evidence.

More specifically, if the condition of confinement being

challenged “is not reasonably related to a legitimate

goal—if it is arbitrary or purposeless—a court permissibly

may infer that the purpose of the governmental action is

punishment.” Id., at 539. We endorsed the same infer-

ence when we applied Bell’s intent-to-punish test in chal-

lenges brought by pretrial detainees against jailhouse

security policies, id., at 560–562; Block v. Rutherford, 468

U. S. 576, 583–584 (1984), and statutes permitting pre-

trial detention, Schall v. Martin, 467 U. S. 253, 255, 269

(1984); United States v. Salerno, 481 U. S. 739, 741, 746–

747 (1987).

In light of these cases, I agree with the Court that “the

Due Process Clause protects a pretrial detainee from the

use of excessive force that amounts to punishment.” Gra-

ham v. Connor, 490 U. S. 386, 395, n. 10 (1989) (citing

Bell, supra, at 535–539). I disagree, however, that any

intentional application of force that is objectively unrea-

sonable in degree is a use of excessive force that

“amount[s] to punishment.” Bell, 441 U. S., at 535. The

Court reaches that conclusion by misreading Bell as for-

bidding States to take any harmful action against pretrial

detainees that is not “reasonably related to a legitimate

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 3

SCALIA, J., dissenting

goal.” Id., at 539.

Bell endorsed this “reasonable relation” inference in the

context of a challenge to conditions of a confinement—

specifically, challenges to the State’s policy of housing two

people in each cell, id., at 528, and various security poli-

cies, id., at 548–549, 553, 555, 558, 560–562. The condi-

tions in which pretrial detainees are held, and the security

policies to which they are subject, are the result of consid-

ered deliberation by the authority imposing the detention.

If those conditions and policies lack any reasonable rela-

tionship to a legitimate, nonpunitive goal, it is logical to

infer a punitive intent. And the same logic supports find-

ing a punitive intent in statutes authorizing detention

that lacks any reasonable relationship to a valid govern-

ment interest. Schall, supra, at 269; Salerno, supra, at

746–747.

It is illogical, however, automatically to infer punitive

intent from the fact that a prison guard used more force

against a pretrial detainee than was necessary. That

could easily have been the result of a misjudgment about

the degree of force required to maintain order or protect

other inmates, rather than the product of an intent to

punish the detainee for his charged crime (or for any other

behavior). An officer’s decision regarding how much force

to use is made “in haste, under pressure, and frequently

without the luxury of a second chance,” Hudson v. Mc-

Millian, 503 U. S. 1, 6 (1992) (internal quotation marks

omitted), not after the considered thought that precedes

detention-policy determinations like those at issue in Bell,

Block, Schall, and Salerno. That an officer used more

force than necessary might be evidence that he acted with

intent to punish, but it is no more than that.

In sum: Bell makes intent to punish the focus of its due-

process analysis. Objective reasonableness of the force

used is nothing more than a heuristic for identifying this

intent. That heuristic makes good sense for considered

4 KINGSLEY v. HENDRICKSON

SCALIA, J., dissenting

decisions by the detaining authority, but is much weaker

in the context of excessive-force claims. Kingsley does

not argue that respondents actually intended to punish

him, and his reliance on Bell to infer such an intent is

misplaced.

Kingsley claims that “the protections of due process . . .

extend beyond the narrow context of ‘punishment.’ ” Brief

for Petitioner 15. Unquestionably. A State would plainly

violate the Due Process Clause if it extended a detainee’s

confinement because it believed him mentally ill (not as

“punishment”), without giving him the constitutionally

guaranteed processes that must precede the deprivation of

liberty. But Kingsley does not claim deprivation of liberty

in that normal sense of that word—the right to walk about

free. He claims that the Due Process Clause confers, on

pretrial detainees, a substantive “liberty” interest that

consists of freedom from objectively unreasonable force.

Kingsley seeks relief, in other words, under the doctrine of

“substantive due process,” through which we have occa-

sionally recognized “liberty” interests other than freedom

from incarceration or detention, that “cannot be limited at

all, except by provisions that are ‘narrowly tailored to

serve a compelling state interest.’ ” Kerry v. Din, ante, at 6

(plurality opinion) (quoting Reno v. Flores, 507 U. S. 292,

301–302 (1993)).

Even if one believed that the right to process can confer

the right to substance in particular cases, Kingsley’s

interest is not one of the “fundamental liberty interests”

that substantive due process protects. We have said that

that doctrine protects only those liberty interests that,

carefully described, are “objectively, deeply rooted in this

Nation’s history and tradition, and implicit in the concept

of ordered liberty, such that neither liberty nor justice

would exist if they were sacrificed.” Washington v.

Glucksberg, 521 U. S. 702, 720–721 (1997) (citations and

internal quotation marks omitted). Carefully described,

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 5

SCALIA, J., dissenting

the liberty interest Kingsley asserts is the right of pretrial

detainees to be free from the application of force that is

more than is objectively required to further some legiti-

mate, nonpunitive, governmental interest. He does not

argue (nor could he) that this asserted interest could pass

the test announced in Glucksberg.

I conclude by emphasizing that our Constitution is not

the only source of American law. There is an immense

body of state statutory and common law under which

individuals abused by state officials can seek relief.

Kingsley himself, in addition to suing respondents for

excessive force under 42 U. S. C. §1983, brought a state-

law claim for assault and battery. 744 F. 3d 443, 446, n. 6

(CA7 2014). The Due Process Clause is not “a font of tort

law to be superimposed upon” that state system. Daniels

v. Williams, 474 U. S. 327, 332 (1986) (quoting Paul v.

Davis, 424 U. S. 693, 701 (1976)). Today’s majority over-

looks this in its tender-hearted desire to tortify the Four-

teenth Amendment.

Cite as: 576 U. S. ____ (2015) 1

ALITO, J., dissenting

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 14–6368

_________________

MICHAEL B. KINGSLEY, PETITIONER v. STAN

HENDRICKSON, ET AL.

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF

APPEALS FOR THE SEVENTH CIRCUIT

[June 22, 2015]

JUSTICE ALITO, dissenting.

I would dismiss this case as improvidently granted.

Before deciding what a pretrial detainee must show in

order to prevail on a due process excessive force claim, we

should decide whether a pretrial detainee can bring a

Fourth Amendment claim based on the use of excessive

force by a detention facility employee. We have not yet

decided that question. See Graham v. Connor, 490 U. S.

386, 395, n. 10 (1989). If a pretrial detainee can bring

such a claim, we need not and should not rely on substan-

tive due process. See Albright v. Oliver, 510 U. S. 266, 273

(1994) (plurality opinion); Graham, 490 U. S., at 395. It is

settled that the test for an unreasonable seizure under the

Fourth Amendment is objective, see id., at 397, so if a

pretrial detainee can bring such a claim, it apparently

would be indistinguishable from the substantive due

process claim that the Court discusses.

I would not decide the due process issue presented in

this case until the availability of a Fourth Amendment

claim is settled, and I would therefore dismiss this case as

improvidently granted.