United States v. Tohono O’odham Nation

(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2010 1

Syllabus

NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is

being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued.

The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been

prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader.

See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

Syllabus

UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR

THE FEDERAL CIRCUIT

No. 09–846. Argued November 1, 2010—Decided April 26, 2011

Respondent Tohono O’odham Nation (Nation) filed suit in Federal Dis

trict Court against federal officials who managed tribal assets held in

trust by the Federal Government, alleging violations of fiduciary duty

and requesting equitable relief. The next day, the Nation filed this

action against the United States in the Court of Federal Claims

(CFC), alleging almost identical violations and requesting money

damages. The CFC case was dismissed under 28 U. S. C. §1500,

which bars CFC jurisdiction over a claim if the plaintiff has another

suit “for or in respect to” that claim pending against the United

States or its agents in another court. The Federal Circuit reversed,

finding that the two suits were not for or in respect to the same claim

because, although they shared operative facts, they did not seek over

lapping relief.

Held:

1. Two suits are for or in respect to the same claim, precluding CFC

jurisdiction, if they are based on substantially the same operative

facts, regardless of the relief sought in each suit. Pp. 2–9.

(a) Since 1868, Congress has restricted the jurisdiction of the

CFC and its predecessors when related actions are pending else

where. Keene Corp. v. United States, 508 U. S. 200, 212, held that

two suits are for or in respect to the same claim when they are “based

on substantially the same operative facts . . . , at least if there [is]

some overlap in the relief requested,” but it reserved the question

whether the jurisdictional bar operates if suits based on the same op

erative facts do not seek overlapping relief. The rule now codified in

§1500 was first enacted to curb duplicate lawsuits by residents of the

Confederacy who, in seeking to recover for cotton taken by the Fed

eral Government, sued the Government in the Court of Claims and,

2 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

Syllabus

at the same time, sued federal officials in other courts, seeking tort

relief for the same actions. Section 1500’s robust response to this

problem bars CFC jurisdiction not only if the plaintiff sues on an

identical claim elsewhere, but also if the other action is related but

not identical. The phrase “in respect to” does not resolve all doubt as

to the bar’s scope, but it suggests a broad prohibition, regardless of

whether “claim” carries a special or limited meaning. Pp. 2–4.

(b) Keene permits two constructions of “for or in respect to” the

same claim, one based on facts alone and the other on factual plus

remedial overlap. The former is the more reasonable interpretation

in light of the statute’s use of a similar phrase in a way consistent

only with factual overlap. The CFC bar applies where the other ac

tion is against a “person who, . . . when the cause of action . . . arose,

was, in respect thereto, acting” under color of federal law. But at the

time that a cause of action arose, the person could not act in respect

to the relief requested, for no complaint was yet filed. Although the

phrase at issue involves a “claim” rather than a cause of action, there

is reason to think that both phrases refer to facts alone and not to re

lief. As Keene explained, “ ‘claim’ is used here synonymously with

‘cause of action,’ ” 508 U. S., at 210. And if the phrase that uses

“cause of action,” the more technical term, does not embrace the con

cept of remedy, it is reasonable to conclude that neither phrase does.

Pp. 4–5.

(c) This reading also makes sense in light of the CFC’s unique

remedial powers. Because the CFC is the only judicial forum for

most nontort requests for significant monetary relief against the

United States and because it has no general power to provide equita

ble relief against the Government or its officers, a statute aimed at

precluding duplicate CFC suits would be unlikely to require remedial

overlap. Remedial overlap was even more unusual when §1500’s rule

was first enacted in 1868. The Federal Circuit could identify no pur

pose the statute served in light of that court’s precedent. But courts

should not render statutes nugatory through construction. The stat

ute’s purpose is clear from its origins—the need to save the Govern

ment from redundant litigation—and the conclusion that two suits

are for or in respect to the same claim when they share substantially

the same operative facts allows the statute to achieve that aim. Con

centrating on operative facts is also consistent with the doctrine of

claim preclusion, or res judicata. The Nation errs in arguing that

this Court’s interpretation unjustly forces plaintiffs to choose be

tween partial remedies available in different courts. The Nation

could have recovered any losses in the CFC alone. Even if some

hardship were shown, this Court “enjoy[s] no ‘liberty to add an excep

tion . . . to remove apparent hardship.’ ” Keene, supra, at 217–218.

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 3

Syllabus

Pp. 5–9.

2. The substantial overlap in operative facts between the Nation’s

District Court and CFC suits precludes jurisdiction in the CFC. Both

actions allege that the United States holds the same assets in trust

for the Nation’s benefit, and they describe almost identical breaches

of fiduciary duty. Pp. 9–10.

559 F. 3d 1284, reversed and remanded.

KENNEDY, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which ROBERTS,

C. J., and SCALIA, THOMAS, and ALITO, JJ., joined. SOTOMAYOR, J., filed

an opinion concurring in the judgment, in which BREYER, J., joined.

GINSBURG, J., filed a dissenting opinion. KAGAN, J., took no part in the

consideration or decision of the case.

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 1

Opinion of the Court

NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the

preliminary print of the United States Reports. Readers are requested to

notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Wash

ington, D. C. 20543, of any typographical or other formal errors, in order

that corrections may be made before the preliminary print goes to press.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 09–846

_________________

UNITED STATES, PETITIONER v. TOHONO O’ODHAM

NATION

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF

APPEALS FOR THE FEDERAL CIRCUIT

[April 26, 2011]

JUSTICE KENNEDY delivered the opinion of the Court.

The Tohono O’odham Nation is an Indian Tribe with

federal recognition. The Nation’s main reservation is in

the Sonoran desert of southern Arizona. Counting this

and other reservation lands, the Nation’s landholdings are

approximately 3 million acres.

The Nation brought two actions based on the same

alleged violations of fiduciary duty with respect to the

Nation’s lands and other assets. One action was filed

against federal officials in district court and the other

against the United States in the Court of Federal Claims

(CFC). The Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit held

that the CFC suit was not barred by the rule that the CFC

lacks jurisdiction over an action “for or in respect to” a

claim that is also the subject of an action pending in an

other court. 28 U. S. C. §1500. The question presented is

whether a common factual basis like the one apparent in

the Nation’s suits suffices to bar jurisdiction under §1500.

I

The case turns on the relationship between the two suits

the Nation filed. The first suit was filed in the United

2 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

Opinion of the Court

States District Court for the District of Columbia against

federal officials responsible for managing tribal assets

held in trust by the Federal Government. The complaint

alleged various violations of fiduciary duty with respect to

those assets. The Nation claimed, for example, that the

officials failed to provide an accurate accounting of trust

property; to refrain from self-dealing; or to use reasonable

skill in investing trust assets. The complaint requested

equitable relief, including an accounting.

The next day the Nation filed the instant action against

the United States in the CFC. The CFC complaint de

scribed the same trust assets and the same fiduciary

duties that were the subject of the District Court com

plaint. And it alleged almost identical violations of fiduci

ary duty, for which it requested money damages. The CFC

case was dismissed under §1500 for want of jurisdiction.

A divided panel of the Court of Appeals for the Federal

Circuit reversed. 559 F. 3d 1284 (2009). Two suits are for

or in respect to the same claim, it reasoned, only if they

share operative facts and also seek overlapping relief.

Finding no overlap in the relief requested, the court held

that the two suits at issue were not for or in respect to the

same claim.

This Court granted certiorari. 559 U. S. ___ (2010).

II

Since 1868, Congress has restricted the jurisdiction of

the CFC and its predecessors when related actions are

pending elsewhere. Section 1500, identical in most re

spects to the original statute, provides:

“The United States Court of Federal Claims shall

not have jurisdiction of any claim for or in respect to

which the plaintiff or his assignee has pending in any

other court any suit or process against the United

States or any person who, at the time when the cause

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 3

Opinion of the Court

of action alleged in such suit or process arose, was, in

respect thereto, acting or professing to act, directly or

indirectly under the authority of the United States.”

The rule is more straightforward than its complex wording

suggests. The CFC has no jurisdiction over a claim if the

plaintiff has another suit for or in respect to that claim

pending against the United States or its agents.

The question to be resolved is what it means for two

suits to be “for or in respect to” the same claim. Keene

Corp. v. United States, 508 U. S. 200 (1993), provided a

partial answer. It held that two suits are for or in respect

to the same claim when they are “based on substantially

the same operative facts . . . , at least if there [is] some

overlap in the relief requested.” Id., at 212. The Keene

case did not decide whether the jurisdictional bar also

operates if the suits are based on the same operative facts

but do not seek overlapping relief. Still, Keene narrows

the permissible constructions of “for or in respect to” a

claim to one of two interpretations. Either it requires

substantial factual and some remedial overlap, or it re

quires substantial factual overlap without more.

Congress first enacted the jurisdictional bar now codi

fied in §1500 to curb duplicate lawsuits brought by resi

dents of the Confederacy following the Civil War. The

so-called “cotton claimants”—named for their suits to

recover for cotton taken by the Federal Government—sued

the United States in the Court of Claims under the Aban

doned Property Collection Act, 12 Stat. 820, while at the

same time suing federal officials in other courts, seeking

relief under tort law for the same alleged actions. See

Keene, supra, at 206–207; Schwartz, Section 1500 of the

Judicial Code and Duplicate Suits Against the Govern

ment and Its Agents, 55 Geo. L. J. 573, 574–580 (1967).

Although the rule embodied in §1500 originated long ago,

Congress reenacted the statute at various times, most

4 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

Opinion of the Court

recently in 1948. See Act of June 25, 1948, 62 Stat. 942;

Keene, 508 U. S., at 206–207.

The text of §1500 reflects a robust response to the prob

lem first presented by the cotton claimants. It bars juris

diction in the CFC not only if the plaintiff sues on an

identical claim elsewhere—a suit “for” the same claim—

but also if the plaintiff’s other action is related although

not identical—a suit “in respect to” the same claim. The

phrase “in respect to” does not resolve all doubt as to the

scope of the jurisdictional bar, but “it does make it clear

that Congress did not intend the statute to be rendered

useless by a narrow concept of identity.” Id., at 213. It

suggests a broad prohibition, regardless of whether

“claim” carries a special or limited meaning. Cf. United

States v. Jones, 131 U. S. 1 (1889) (“claim” in the Little

Tucker Act refers only to requests for money).

Of the two constructions of “for or in respect to” the

same claim that Keene permits—one based on facts alone

and the other on factual plus remedial overlap—the for

mer is the more reasonable interpretation in light of the

statute’s use of a similar phrase in a way consistent only

with factual overlap. The CFC bar applies even where the

other action is not against the Government but instead

against a “person who, at the time when the cause of

action alleged in such suit or process arose, was, in respect

thereto, acting or professing to act, directly or indirectly

under the authority of the United States.” The statute

refers to a person who acts under color of federal law in

respect to a cause of action at the time it arose. But at

that time, the person could not act in respect to the relief

requested, for no complaint was yet filed. This use of the

phrase “in respect to a cause of action” must refer to op

erative facts and not whatever remedies an aggrieved

party might later request. A person acts under color of

federal law in respect to a cause of action by claiming or

wielding federal authority in the relevant factual context.

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 5

Opinion of the Court

Although the two phrases are not identical—one is in

respect to a claim, the other a cause of action—they are

almost so, and there is reason to think that both phrases

refer to facts alone and not to relief. As the Keene Court

explained, “the term ‘claim’ is used here synonymously

with ‘cause of action.’ ” 508 U. S., at 210. And if either of

the two phrases were to include both operative facts and a

specific remedy, it would be the one that uses the term

“cause of action” rather than “claim.” “Cause of action” is

the more technical term, while “claim” is often used in a

commonsense way to mean a right or demand. Here, for

the reasons stated in the preceding paragraph, “in respect

to a cause of action” refers simply to facts without regard

to judicial remedies. So, if the phrase with the more tech

nical of the two terms does not embrace the concept of

remedy, it is reasonable to conclude that neither phrase

does. Even if the terms “claim” or “cause of action” include

the request for relief, the phrase “for or in respect to” gives

the statutory bar a broader scope.

Reading the statute to require only factual and not also

remedial overlap makes sense in light of the unique reme

dial powers of the CFC. The CFC is the only judicial

forum for most non-tort requests for significant monetary

relief against the United States. See 28 U. S. C. §1491

(2006 ed. and Supp. III); §1346(a)(2) (2006 ed.). Unlike

the district courts, however, the CFC has no general power

to provide equitable relief against the Government or its

officers. Compare United States v. King, 395 U. S. 1, 2–3

(1969), with 5 U. S. C. §702; see also United States v.

Alire, 6 Wall. 573, 575 (1868) (“[T]he only judgments

which the Court of Claims are authorized to render

against the government . . . are judgments for money

found due from the government to the petitioner”). The

distinct jurisdiction of the CFC makes overlapping relief

the exception and distinct relief the norm. For that rea

son, a statute aimed at precluding suits in the CFC that

6 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

Opinion of the Court

duplicate suits elsewhere would be unlikely to require

remedial overlap.

Remedial overlap between CFC actions and those in

other courts was even more unusual when §1500’s rule

was first enacted in 1868. At that time the CFC had a

more limited jurisdiction than it does now, for the Tucker

Act’s general waiver of sovereign immunity for non-tort

claims for monetary relief had not yet been enacted. See

24 Stat. 505. And while the district courts can today

adjudicate suits against the United States for money

damages under the Little Tucker Act, 28 U. S. C.

§1346(a)(2), and the Federal Tort Claims Act §1346(b), in

1868 the United States could only be sued in the Court of

Claims. United States v. Mitchell, 463 U. S. 206, 212–214

(1983); G. Sisk, Litigation with the Federal Government

§4.02(a)(1) (4th ed. 2006). Because the kinds of suits and

forms of relief available against the United States were

few and constrained, remedial overlap between CFC suits

and those in other courts was even less common then than

now. If the statute were to require remedial as well as

factual overlap, it would have had very limited application

in 1868 despite its broad language that bars not only

identical but also related claims. The rule in §1500 effects

a significant jurisdictional limitation, and Congress reen

acted it even as changes in the structure of the courts

made suits on the same facts more likely to arise. Doing

so reaffirmed the force of the bar and thus the commit

ment to curtailing redundant litigation.

The panel of the Court of Appeals could not identify

“any purpose that §1500 serves today,” 559 F. 3d, at 1292,

in large part because it was bound by Circuit precedent

that left the statute without meaningful force. For exam

ple, the panel cited Tecon Engineers, Inc. v. United States,

170 Ct. Cl. 389, 343 F. 2d 943 (1965), which held that

§1500 does not prohibit two identical suits from proceed

ing so long as the action in the CFC, or at that time the

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 7

Opinion of the Court

Court of Claims, is filed first. The Tecon holding is not

presented in this case because the CFC action here was

filed after the District Court suit.

Still, the Court of Appeals was wrong to allow its prece

dent to suppress the statute’s aims. Courts should not

render statutes nugatory through construction. In fact the

statute’s purpose is clear from its origins with the cotton

claimants—the need to save the Government from bur

dens of redundant litigation—and that purpose is no less

significant today. The conclusion that two suits are for or

in respect to the same claim when they are based on sub

stantially the same operative facts allows the statute to

achieve its aim. Keene, supra, at 206. Developing a fac

tual record is responsible for much of the cost of litigation.

Discovery is a conspicuous example, and the preparation

and examination of witnesses at trial is another. The form

of relief requested matters less, except insofar as it affects

what facts parties must prove. An interpretation of §1500

focused on the facts rather than the relief a party seeks

preserves the provision as it was meant to function, and it

keeps the provision from becoming a mere pleading rule,

to be circumvented by carving up a single transaction into

overlapping pieces seeking different relief. Cf. Casman v.

United States, 135 Ct. Cl. 647 (1956) (CFC had jurisdiction

notwithstanding common facts in district court suit be

cause the plaintiff sought different relief in each forum).

Concentrating on operative facts is also consistent with

the doctrine of claim preclusion, or res judicata, which

bars “repetitious suits involving the same cause of action”

once “a court of competent jurisdiction has entered a final

judgment on the merits.” Commissioner v. Sunnen, 333

U. S. 591, 597 (1948). The jurisdictional bar in §1500 was

enacted in part to address the problem that judgments in

suits against officers were not preclusive in suits against

the United States. Matson Nav. Co. v. United States, 284

U. S. 352, 355–356 (1932). So it is no surprise that the

8 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

Opinion of the Court

statute would operate in similar fashion. The now

accepted test in preclusion law for determining whether

two suits involve the same claim or cause of action de

pends on factual overlap, barring “claims arising from the

same transaction.” Kremer v. Chemical Constr. Corp., 456

U. S. 461, 482, n. 22 (1982); see also Restatement (Second)

of Judgments §24 (1980). The transactional test is of

course much younger than the rule embodied in §1500, but

even in the 19th century it was not uncommon to identify

a claim for preclusion purposes based on facts rather than

relief. See J. Wells, Res Adjudicata and Stare Decisis

§241, p. 208 (1878) (“The true distinction between de

mands or rights of action which are single and entire, and

those which are several and distinct, is, that the former

immediately arise out of one and the same act or contract,

and the latter out of different acts or contracts” (internal

quotation marks omitted)); 2 H. Black, Law of Judgments

§726, p. 866 (1891) (The test for identity is: “Would the

same evidence support and establish both the present and

the former cause of action?”). Reading §1500 to depend on

the underlying facts and not also on the relief requested

gives effect to the principles of preclusion law embodied in

the statute.

There is no merit to the Nation’s assertion that the

interpretation adopted here cannot prevail because it is

unjust, forcing plaintiffs to choose between partial reme

dies available in different courts. The hardship in this

case is far from clear. The Nation could have filed in the

CFC alone and if successful obtained monetary relief to

compensate for any losses caused by the Government’s

breach of duty. It also seems likely that Indian tribes in

the Nation’s position could go to district court first without

losing the chance to later file in the CFC, for Congress has

provided in every appropriations Act for the Department

of Interior since 1990 that the statute of limitations on

Indian trust mismanagement claims shall not run until

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 9

Opinion of the Court

the affected tribe has been given an appropriate account

ing. See, e.g., 123 Stat. 2922; 104 Stat. 1930.

Even were some hardship to be shown, considerations of

policy divorced from the statute’s text and purpose could

not override its meaning. Although Congress has permit

ted claims against the United States for monetary relief in

the CFC, that relief is available by grace and not by right.

See Beers v. Arkansas, 20 How. 527, 529 (1858) (“[A]s this

permission is altogether voluntary on the part of the

sovereignty, it follows that it may prescribe the terms and

conditions on which it consents to be sued, and the man

ner in which the suit shall be conducted”). If indeed the

statute leads to incomplete relief, and if plaintiffs like the

Nation are dissatisfied, they are free to direct their com

plaints to Congress. This Court “enjoy[s] no ‘liberty to add

an exception . . . to remove apparent hardship.’ ” Keene,

508 U. S., at 217–218 (quoting Corona Coal Co. v. United

States, 263 U. S. 537, 540 (1924)).

Keene reserved the question whether common facts are

sufficient to bar a CFC action where a similar case is

pending elsewhere. To continue to reserve the question

would force the CFC to engage in an unnecessary and

complicated remedial inquiry, and it would increase the

expense and duration of litigation. The question thus

demands an answer, and the answer is yes. Two suits are

for or in respect to the same claim, precluding jurisdiction

in the CFC, if they are based on substantially the same

operative facts, regardless of the relief sought in each suit.

III

The remaining question is whether the Nation’s two

suits have sufficient factual overlap to trigger the jurisdic

tional bar. The CFC dismissed the action here in part

because it concluded that the facts in the Nation’s two

suits were, “for all practical purposes, identical.” 79 Fed.

Cl. 645, 656 (2007). It was correct to do so.

10 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

Opinion of the Court

The two actions both allege that the United States holds

the same assets in trust for the Nation’s benefit. They

describe almost identical breaches of fiduciary duty—that

the United States engaged in self-dealing and imprudent

investment, and failed to provide an accurate accounting

of the assets held in trust, for example. Indeed, it appears

that the Nation could have filed two identical complaints,

save the caption and prayer for relief, without changing

either suit in any significant respect.

Under §1500, the substantial overlap in operative facts

between the Nation’s District Court and CFC suits pre

cludes jurisdiction in the CFC. The Court of Appeals erred

when it concluded otherwise.

IV

The holding here precludes the CFC from exercising

jurisdiction over the Nation’s suit while the District Court

case is pending. Should the Nation choose to dismiss the

latter action, or upon that action’s completion, the Nation

is free to file suit again in the CFC if the statute of limita

tions is no bar. In the meantime, and in light of the sub

stantial overlap in operative facts between them, the two

suits are “for or in respect to” the same claim under §1500,

and the CFC case must be dismissed. The contrary judg

ment of the Court of Appeals is reversed, and the case is

remanded for further proceedings consistent with this

opinion.

It is so ordered.

JUSTICE KAGAN took no part in the consideration or

decision of this case.

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 1

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 09–846

_________________

UNITED STATES, PETITIONER v. TOHONO O’ODHAM

NATION

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF

APPEALS FOR THE FEDERAL CIRCUIT

[April 26, 2011]

JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR, with whom JUSTICE BREYER joins,

concurring in the judgment.

Congress enacted the statute currently codified at 28

U. S. C. §1500 to put an end to parallel litigation seeking

duplicative relief against the United States and its agents.

Respondent Tohono O’odham Nation seeks in the Court of

Federal Claims (CFC) some of the same relief on the same

facts as it does in its pending District Court action. Ac

cordingly, applying our decision in Keene Corp. v. United

States, 508 U. S. 200 (1993), I agree with the Court that

§1500 bars the Nation’s CFC action. Because the Nation’s

two actions seek overlapping relief, this case does not

present the question that the Court decides today—

whether §1500 bars an action in the CFC when the plain

tiff’s actions share a common factual basis but seek differ

ent forms of relief. Nonetheless, the Court holds that a

common factual basis alone suffices to bar jurisdiction in

the CFC. Under the Court’s reading of the statute, a

plaintiff cannot pursue a claim in the CFC based on the

same facts as another pending action, even when Congress

has required that plaintiff to file separate actions in two

courts to obtain different forms of relief necessary to make

the plaintiff whole. I cannot agree that §1500 demands

this result.

2 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

I

Section 1500 bars jurisdiction in the CFC over “any

claim for or in respect to which the plaintiff . . . has pend

ing in any other court any suit or process against the

United States” or any agent of the United States. In

Keene, we construed this statute to “turn on whether the

plaintiff’s other suit was based on substantially the same

operative facts as the Court of Claims action, at least if

there was some overlap in the relief requested.” Id., at

212. It was irrelevant for purposes of §1500, we observed,

that the two suits proceeded on different legal theories.

Id., at 212. Because the plaintiff’s actions both sought the

same monetary relief, albeit on different theories, we held

that the CFC lacked jurisdiction. Id., at 217–218. We

thus found “it unnecessary to consider” whether §1500

barred a CFC claim that was based on substantially the

same operative facts as another suit but that sought dif

ferent relief. See id., at 212, n. 6, 216.

As construed in Keene, §1500 bars the Nation’s CFC

action. As the majority holds, see ante, at 9–10, the Na

tion’s CFC and District Court actions are based on nearly

identical facts. The two actions also seek overlapping

relief: Both complaints request money to remedy the same

injury—the Government’s alleged breach of its fiduciary

duty to maintain accurate accounts of the Nation’s assets.

The Nation does not dispute that its District Court com

plaint requests such relief.1 See Brief for Respondent 51

(“If . . . the accounting reveals that assets that belong to

the Nation do not appear on the books, it may be appro

priate to order equitable restitution of those assets”). The

Nation’s CFC complaint is fairly read to do the same. The

——————

1 The

majority characterizes the Nation’s District Court complaint as

seeking “equitable relief,” ante, at 2, but does not mention that the

complaint seeks, among other things, equitable monetary relief such as

disgorgement and restitution, see App. to Pet. for Cert. 91a.

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 3

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

CFC complaint alleges that the Government has failed

“to keep and render clear and accurate accounts.” App. to

Pet. for Cert. 66a. It claims that by reason of this and

other alleged breaches of fiduciary duty, the Nation “has

been damaged in such amounts as may be proven at trial.”

Id., at 67a. And the complaint requests “a determination

that the Defendant is liable to the Nation in damages for

the injuries and losses caused as a result of Defendant’s

breaches of fiduciary duty” and a “determination of the

amount of damages due the Nation.” Id., at 72a–73a.

Thus, just like the District Court complaint, the CFC

complaint requests money to remedy the Government’s

alleged failure to keep accurate accounts.2

Because the Nation’s two complaints are “based on

substantially the same operative facts” and there is “at

least . . . some overlap in the relief requested,” Keene, 508

U. S., at 212, §1500 bars jurisdiction over the Nation’s

CFC action.

II

The case does not present the question, left open in

Keene, “whether common facts [alone] are sufficient to bar

a CFC action where a similar case is pending elsewhere.”

Ante, at 9. Indeed, for most of the history of this case, the

Government did not even argue that common facts were

sufficient to preclude CFC jurisdiction; until its petition

for rehearing in the Court of Appeals, the Government

——————

2 In reaching the opposite conclusion, the Court of Appeals relied on

the fact that the Nation’s District Court complaint seeks equitable

relief whereas its CFC complaint seeks damages. See 559 F. 3d 1284,

1288–1289 (CA Fed. 2009). Keene makes clear, however, that actions

based on substantially the same operative facts implicate §1500 so long

as they seek overlapping relief. See Keene Corp. v. United States, 508

U. S. 200, 212 (1993). The formal label affixed to the form of relief

sought is irrelevant. In this case, both the Nation’s CFC complaint and

its District Court complaint seek money to remedy the Government’s

alleged failure to keep accurate accounts.

4 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

argued only that Keene required dismissal of the Nation’s

CFC action because the Nation’s two actions were based

on the same facts and sought overlapping relief. Deciding

this case on the basis of Keene would have been the “far

more prudent course than recharacterizing the case in an

attempt to reach premature decision on an important

question.” Missouri v. Jenkins, 495 U. S. 33, 80 (1990)

(KENNEDY, J., concurring in part and concurring in judg

ment). Instead, discarding the restraint we exhibited in

Keene, the Court unnecessarily chooses to hold that §1500

bars jurisdiction in the CFC whenever a plaintiff’s CFC

action is based on substantially the same facts as a suit

pending elsewhere.3 This reading of §1500 is, in my opin

ion, incorrect.

A

Since the enactment of §1500 in 1868, Congress has

expanded the avenues by which persons with legitimate

claims against the United States may obtain relief. See

ante, at 6. In some circumstances, Congress has chosen to

require plaintiffs to file actions in two different courts to

obtain complete relief relating to a single set of operative

facts. For example, with some exceptions, the CFC has no

power to issue equitable relief. See Bowen v. Massachu

——————

3 Themajority does not contend that the facts of this case require it to

decide this question. It justifies its decision to reach the question on

the ground that its rule would eliminate “an unnecessary and compli

cated remedial inquiry” and would decrease “the expense and duration

of litigation.” Ante, at 9. It provides no reason to believe, however, that

inquiry into relief requested is unduly complicated in the vast majority

of cases. Cf. Loveladies Harbor, Inc. v. United States, 27 F. 3d 1545,

1552 (CA Fed. 1994) (en banc) (“The principles of Casman [v. United

States, 135 Ct. Cl. 647 (1956)] . . . are not that difficult to comprehend

or apply”). More importantly, the majority does not explain why the

benefits it perceives to result from deciding this question today out

weigh the potential for its reading of the statute to leave some plaintiffs

with incomplete recompense for their injuries. See infra, this page and

5–6.

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 5

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

setts, 487 U. S. 879, 905 (1988); see also 28 U. S. C.

§1491(a). As a result, a plaintiff seeking both money

damages and injunctive relief to remedy distinct harms

arising from the same set of facts may be forced to file

actions in both the CFC and federal district court.

For half a century, the CFC has recognized that §1500

does not preclude jurisdiction in that court when Congress

has required a plaintiff to split a claim into two actions to

obtain different forms of relief necessary to make the

plaintiff whole. In Casman v. United States, 135 Ct. Cl.

647 (1956), a terminated federal employee sought backpay

in the Court of Claims and reinstatement to his position in

District Court. The plaintiff’s two suits arose from the

same facts (his termination) but sought “entirely different”

forms of relief within the exclusive jurisdiction of two

courts.4 Id., at 650. In light of our previous recognition

that the purpose of §1500 “ ‘was only to require an election

between a suit in the Court of Claims and one brought in

another court,’ ” id., at 649 (quoting Matson Nav. Co. v.

United States, 284 U. S. 352, 355–356 (1932)), the Court of

Claims held that §1500 was inapplicable when a “plaintiff

has no right to elect between two courts,” 135 Ct. Cl., at

650. To hold otherwise, the court acknowledged, “would

be to say to plaintiff, ‘If you want your job back you must

forget your back pay’; conversely, ‘If you want your back

pay, you cannot have your job back.’ ” Ibid.; see also Love

ladies Harbor, Inc. v. United States, 27 F. 3d 1545, 1551

(CA Fed. 1994) (en banc) (reaffirming Casman’s inquiry

into the form of relief sought).

By reserving the question “whether two actions based on

——————

4 Congress has since enacted legislation to permit plaintiffs in Cas

man’s situation to obtain complete relief in the CFC. See Act of Aug.

29, 1972, §1, 86 Stat. 652, 28 U. S. C. §1491(a)(2) (permitting the CFC

to “issue orders directing restoration to office or position, placement in

appropriate duty or retirement status, and correction of applicable

records”).

6 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

the same operative facts, but seeking completely different

relief, would implicate §1500,” our decision in Keene ex

pressly preserved the Casman holding. 508 U. S., at 212,

n. 6. The consequence of today’s decision is clear: The

Casman rule is no longer good law. Under the majority’s

reading of §1500, because Casman’s two suits were based

on common facts, §1500 barred jurisdiction in the CFC

over his backpay claim even though he could not have

obtained backpay in his District Court action.

The jurisdictional scheme governing actions against the

United States often requires other plaintiffs to file two

actions in different courts to obtain complete relief in

connection with one set of facts. As just one example, an

action seeking injunctive relief to set aside agency action

must proceed in district court, but a claim that the same

agency action constitutes a taking of property requiring

just compensation must proceed in the CFC. See, e.g.,

Alaska v. United States, 32 Fed. Cl. 689 (1995). After

today’s decision, §1500 may well prevent a plaintiff from

pursuing a takings claim in the CFC if an action to set

aside the agency action is pending in district court. This

type of plaintiff may face a choice between equally unat

tractive options: forgo injunctive relief in the district court

to preserve her claim for monetary relief in the CFC, or

pursue injunctive relief and hope that the statute of limi

tations on her takings claim, see 28 U. S. C. §2501, does

not expire before the district court action is resolved.5

——————

5 The majority apparently doubts that its holding puts the Nation to a

similarly difficult choice. It first suggests that the Nation could file

solely in the CFC to obtain damages for the Government’s alleged

breaches of fiduciary duty. See ante, at 8. The Nation could indeed

choose to file only in the CFC—just as any plaintiff could choose to

forgo injunctive relief to pursue money damages in the CFC—but the

Nation believes it is entitled to more than monetary relief. The Na

tion’s District Court action seeks an equitable accounting to remedy the

same breaches of fiduciary duty, and the CFC has held that it lacks

jurisdiction to issue a preliability accounting. See Klamath and Modoc

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 7

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

B

1

The text, purpose, and history of §1500 provide strong

reason to believe that Congress did not intend for §1500

to put plaintiffs to a choice between two nonduplicative

remedies that Congress has made available exclusively in

two forums. The statute bars jurisdiction in the CFC over

a “claim for or in respect to which” a plaintiff has a suit or

process pending elsewhere. When Congress first enacted

§1500’s predecessor, the statute establishing the jurisdic

tion of the Court of Claims used the term “claims” to refer

to demands for money damages. See Act of Mar. 3, 1863,

§§2–3, 12 Stat. 765; see United States v. Jones, 131 U. S.

1, 17 (1889) (noting that the statute’s provisions “were

inconsistent with the enforcement of any claims under the

law except claims for money”).6 Congress thus would have

——————

Tribes v. United States, 174 Ct. Cl. 483, 487–488, 490 (1966). But see

Eastern Shawnee Tribe of Okla. v. United States, 582 F. 3d 1306, 1308

(CA Fed. 2009) (suggesting in dicta that the CFC can order an equita

ble accounting as “ancillary relief” under 28 U. S. C. §§1491(a)(2) and

(b)(2)), cert. pending, No. 09–1521.

The majority next suggests that Congress has tolled the statute of

limitations governing the Nation’s CFC claims. See ante, at 8–9. But

the cited statute only applies to claims “concerning losses to or mis

management of trust funds.” 123 Stat. 2922. It does not appear to toll

the statute of limitations for claims concerning assets other than funds,

such as tangible assets. See App. to Pet. for Cert. 67a–69a (seeking

damages for the Government’s mismanagement of the Nation’s mineral

estates). Expiration of the 6-year statute of limitations governing

claims in the CFC is a very real prospect in this and other cases; the

Nation’s District Court action has been pending for more than four

years.

As the majority notes, see ante, at 6–7, the validity of the Court of

Claims’ holding in Tecon Engineers, Inc. v. United States, 170 Ct. Cl.

389, 343 F. 2d 943 (1965), is not presented in this case. This Court has

never considered that holding. Accordingly, I do not consider whether

the Nation could have avoided application of §1500 altogether by filing

its CFC action first.

6 Congress has consistently used the term “claim” to refer to a de

8 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

understood the term “claim” in §1500 to describe the

particular relief sought in the Court of Claims. Cf. Com

missioner v. Keystone Consol. Industries, Inc., 508 U. S.

152, 159 (1993).

Determining the meaning of “claim” is only part of the

inquiry, however. The question remains what constitutes

a suit or process “for or in respect to” a CFC claim. The

purpose and history of the statute elucidate the meaning

of this ambiguous phrase. As the majority explains, Con

gress enacted the statute to prevent “duplicative lawsuits”

brought by the so-called “cotton claimants” in the after

math of the Civil War. Keene, 508 U. S., at 206; see ante,

at 3. The cotton claimants sought monetary compensation

for seized cotton in the Court of Claims pursuant to the

Abandoned Property Collection Act, 12 Stat. 820. Because

they had difficulty satisfying the statutory requirement

that, to obtain compensation, they must not have given aid

or comfort to participants in the rebellion, see §3 of the

Act, they also sought relief—either in the form of money

damages or actual cotton—in separate lawsuits against

federal officials on tort theories such as conversion. “It

was these duplicative lawsuits that induced Congress” to

enact §1500’s predecessor. Keene, 508 U. S., at 206.

This historical backdrop sheds light on what Congress

would have understood to be a suit or process “for or in

respect to” a “claim” in the Court of Claims. Congress

undoubtedly intended to preclude a claim for money in the

——————

mand for money in the context of the CFC. See 28 U. S. C. §1491(a)(1)

(conferring jurisdiction in the CFC over “any claim against the United

States founded either upon the Constitution, or any Act of Congress

or any regulation of an executive department, or upon any express or

implied contract with the United States, or for liquidated or unliqui

dated damages in cases not sounding in tort” (emphasis added)). Of

course, since §1500’s enactment, Congress has authorized the CFC

to issue relief other than money damages in certain cases. See

§1491(a)(2).

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 9

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

Court of Claims when the plaintiff was pursuing a suit

“for” the same money in district court. Because, however,

some cotton claimants sought return of the cotton itself in

district court, it was also necessary to preclude jurisdiction

in the Court of Claims when the plaintiff’s other action

was “in respect to” that demand for money—i.e., when the

plaintiff was seeking duplicative relief. Had the courts

awarded such plaintiffs both the cotton itself and money

damages, the plaintiffs would have obtained twice what

they deserved. In this way, Congress eschewed “a narrow

concept of identity” that would have permitted plaintiffs to

pursue and obtain duplicative relief to remedy the very

same harm. Id., at 213.

The legislative history confirms Congress’ intent to

preclude requests for duplicative relief. The statute’s

sponsor explained that the purpose of the statute was “to

put to their election that large class of persons having

cotton claims[,] . . . who are here at the same time endeav

oring to prosecute their claims, and have filed them in the

Court of Claims, so that after they put the Government to

the expense of beating them once in a court of law they

can turn around and try the whole question in the Court of

Claims.”7 Cong. Globe, 40th Cong., 2d Sess., 2769 (1868)

(statement of Sen. Edmunds); see also Matson Nav. Co.,

284 U. S., at 355–356. Congress thus appears to have had

in mind cases in which “the whole question” could be tried

in the Court of Claims. The statute’s history does not

suggest that Congress intended to require an election

between two nonduplicative forms of relief available ex

clusively in two different courts. In such a case, “the

whole question” could not be tried in either court.

——————

7 Because §1500’s jurisdictional bar applies only when the other suit

is pending, “there is a good argument that, even when first enacted, the

statute did not actually perform the preclusion function emphasized by

its sponsor.” Keene, 508 U. S., at 217.

10 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

2

None of the majority’s reasons for its contrary construc

tion of the statute is convincing. First, the majority rea

sons that the phrase “claim for or in respect to” must refer

only to factual overlap because the statute uses the phrase

“cause of action . . . in respect thereto” (which the majority

paraphrases as “in respect to a cause of action”) in a way

that is “consistent only with factual overlap.” Ante, at 4.

This point rests on a misreading of the statutory text. The

statute asks whether a plaintiff has pending a “suit or

process” for or in respect to the plaintiff’s CFC claim—not

whether it has pending a “cause of action” for or in respect

to that claim.8 Even if the term “cause of action” refers

only to operative facts—such that the inquiry whether a

person was acting under color of federal law in respect to

a cause of action is purely factual in nature—a “suit or

process” will inevitably include a request for relief.

Second, the majority states that, “in light of the unique

remedial powers of the CFC,” requiring remedial overlap

would make no sense because it would result in a “very

limited application” of the statute. Ante, at 5, 6. Here, the

majority overlooks the nearly 150-year history of the

statute. It was the cotton claimants’ parallel requests for

duplicative relief that prompted passage of §1500 in the

first place. Since then, litigants have continued to seek

duplicative relief against the Government in two courts, as

Keene and this very case illustrate. See 508 U. S., at 204–

205 (seeking tort damages in the District Court and com

pensation on a takings theory in the CFC); supra, at 1–3

(seeking restitution and disgorgement in the District

——————

8 Section 1500 refers to the “cause of action alleged in such suit or

process” only for the limited purpose of determining whether the other

suit or process is against an agent of the United States. When the

plaintiff’s other action is against the United States itself, the term

“cause of action” has no relevance to the §1500 inquiry.

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 11

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

Court and money damages in the CFC); see also, e.g., Ex

parte Skinner & Eddy Corp., 265 U. S. 86, 91–92 (1924)

(seeking money damages against the United States in the

Court of Claims and against a federal entity in state

court); Corona Coal Co. v. United States, 263 U. S. 537,

539 (1924) (seeking money damages against the United

States in the Court of Claims and against a federal agent

in District Court); British American Tobacco Co. v. United

States, 89 Ct. Cl. 438, 439–440 (1939) (per curiam) (seek

ing tort damages in the District Court and contract dam

ages in the Court of Claims). As these cases make clear,

interpreting §1500 to prohibit requests for duplicative

relief hardly renders the statute of limited application.

Third, the majority suggests that its construction of

§1500 is necessary to achieve the statute’s aim of “sav[ing]

the Government from burdens of redundant litigation.”

Ante, at 7. Parallel actions seeking the same or duplica

tive relief, or different forms of relief that are available

entirely in one court, are redundant; actions seeking dif

ferent forms of relief that Congress has made available

exclusively in different courts are not. To the extent the

majority is concerned about the burdens of parallel discov

ery, federal courts have ample tools at their disposal, such

as stays, to prevent such burdens. See Schwartz, Section

1500 of the Judicial Code and Duplicate Suits Against the

Government and Its Agents, 55 Geo. L. J. 573, 599 (1967).

Finally, the majority contends that focusing on opera

tive facts is consistent with the principles of claim preclu

sion embodied in the statute. Claim preclusion ordinarily

“bar[s] claims arising from the same transaction.” Kremer

v. Chemical Constr. Corp., 456 U. S. 461, 482, n. 22 (1982).

There is, however, an exception to this rule when a plain

tiff was unable to obtain a certain remedy in the earlier

action. See Restatement (Second) of Judgments §26(1)(c)

(1980) (claim preclusion does not apply where “[t]he plain

tiff was unable to rely on a certain theory of the case or to

12 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

seek a certain remedy or form of relief in the first action

because of the limitations on the subject matter jurisdic

tion of the courts”); see also Marrese v. American Academy

of Orthopaedic Surgeons, 470 U. S. 373, 382 (1985); 18 C.

Wright, A. Miller, & E. Cooper, Federal Practice and

Procedure §4412, p. 276 (2d ed. 2002). This principle has

long informed claim preclusion law. See, e.g., Restatement

of Judgments §62, Comment k (1942) (“[W]here a plaintiff

brings an action in a State in which the courts have juris

diction only with reference to one portion of his cause of

action, he is not barred from maintaining an action in a

proper court for the other portion”); 2 H. Black, Law of

Judgments §618, p. 744 (1891) (“A judgment is not conclu

sive of any matter which, from the nature of the case, the

form of action, or the character of the pleadings, could not

have been adjudicated in the former suit”). For these

reasons, preclusion doctrine actually undermines the

majority’s position.

In sum, the majority offers no coherent justification for

its conclusion that Congress intended to preclude jurisdic

tion in the CFC whenever a plaintiff’s claim in that court

is based on substantially the same facts as a suit pending

elsewhere without reference to the relief sought.

* * *

Even before today’s decision, §1500 had been described

as “anachronistic,” Keene, 508 U. S., at 217, “harsh,” id., at

222 (Stevens, J., dissenting), and “arbitrar[y],” 79 Fed. Cl.

645, 659, n. 16 (2007). Judges and commentators have

long called for congressional attention to the statute. See,

e.g., Keene, 508 U. S., at 222 (Stevens, J., dissenting);

Schwartz, supra, at 601. Today’s decision—which unnec

essarily considers and repudiates the Casman rule—

renders such attention all the more pressing. Under the

Court’s construction of §1500, plaintiffs whom Congress

has forced to file parallel actions in the CFC and a district

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 13

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring in judgment

court to obtain complete relief must now choose either to

forgo relief in the district court or to file first in the district

court and risk the expiration of the statute of limitations

on their claims in the CFC. I cannot agree that Congress

intended, or intends, for §1500 to produce this result. For

these reasons, I respectfully concur only in the judgment.

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 1

GINSBURG, J., dissenting

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 09–846

_________________

UNITED STATES, PETITIONER v. TOHONO O’ODHAM

NATION

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF

APPEALS FOR THE FEDERAL CIRCUIT

[April 26, 2011]

JUSTICE GINSBURG, dissenting.

I dissent from the Court’s immoderate reading of 28

U. S. C. §1500 and would affirm the Federal Circuit’s

judgment.

According to the Court, the Court of Federal Claims

(CFC) lacks subject-matter jurisdiction over the Tohono

O’odham Nation’s (Nation) claim because the Tribe was

simultaneously pursuing in the D. C. District Court an

action with “a common factual basis.” Ante, at 1. It mat

ters not, the Court holds, that to gain complete relief, the

Nation had to launch two suits, for neither of the two

courts whose jurisdiction the Tribe invoked could alone

provide full redress. See ante, at 8–9.

The Court concludes that “claim” or “cause of action,”

terms the Court considers synonymous as used in §1500,*

——————

* “ ‘Cause of action,’ ” the Court simultaneously states, “is the more

technical term.” Ante, at 5. If “more technical” means more precise,

clear or certain, the Court is incorrect. See United States v. Memphis

Cotton Oil Co., 288 U. S. 62, 67–68 (1933) (“A ‘cause of action’ may

mean one thing for one purpose and something different for another.”).

In its discourse on the term, the Court has fallen into an old error; the

drafters of the Federal Rules endeavored to “eliminate the unfortunate

rigidity and confusion surrounding the words ‘cause of action.’ ” 5 C.

Wright & A. Miller, Federal Practice and Procedure §1216, p. 207 (3d

ed. 2004). Today’s invocation of a supposed particular or exact meaning

for the phrase risks reviving that confusion.

2 UNITED STATES v. TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION

GINSBURG, J., dissenting

see ante, at 5, refers to “operative facts,” and not to the

remedies a plaintiff seeks. See ante, at 4. Section 1500

speaks of “the time when the cause of action . . . arose,” a

time antedating the commencement of suit. The Court

infers, therefore, that a “claim” or “cause of action” is

discrete from a pleading’s request for relief. See ante, at 4.

In fact, however, entitlement to relief is essential to the

existence of a claim or cause of action, which arises when a

person suffers a harm capable of judicial redress. See 2 J.

Story, Equity Jurisprudence §1521a, p. 741 (8th ed. 1861)

(“[T]he cause of action . . . arises when . . . the party has a

right to apply to a court . . . for relief.”).

A plaintiff may not, §1500 instructs, petition both the

CFC and a district court, invoking in each a distinct legal

theory appropriate to the forum, but seeking redress for a

single injury. When Congress bars a plaintiff from obtain

ing complete relief in one suit, however, and does not call

for an election of remedies, Congress is most sensibly read

to have comprehended that the operative facts give rise to

two discrete claims. Casman v. United States, 135 Ct. Cl.

647 (1956), as JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR spells out, see ante, at

5, is the paradigm case. There, a discharged federal em

ployee, complaining of wrongful termination, sought rein

statement in a district-court action and backpay in the

Court of Claims. Section 1500 does not stand in the way,

the Court of Claims held in Casman, when the plaintiff

suffered two distinct injuries, for which she seeks discrete

forms of relief within the exclusive competence of different

courts. See 135 Ct. Cl., at 649–650 (claim for backpay

“entirely different” from claim for reinstatement). The

Federal Circuit, in my view, rightly adhered to Casman in

Loveladies Harbor, Inc. v. United States, 27 F. 3d 1545

(1994) (en banc), and rightly did so in this case.

While I agree with much of JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR’s opin

ion concurring in the judgment, I do not agree with her

conclusion that §1500 bars the Nation’s CFC action.

Cite as: 563 U. S. ____ (2011) 3

GINSBURG, J., dissenting

JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR joins the Court’s judgment (although

not the Court’s reasoning) because the “Tohono O’odham

Nation seeks in the [CFC] . . . some of the same relief on

the same facts as it does in its pending District Court

action.” Ante, at 1 (emphasis added). But to the extent

that “the Nation’s two actions seek overlapping relief,”

ibid., a disposition less harsh would be in order. Ordinar

ily, when a plaintiff’s allegations and demands for relief

are excessive, her complaint is not instantly dismissed on

that account. Instead, she may seek leave to trim her

pleading, permission a court “should freely give . . . when

justice so requires.” Rule 15(a)(2) (CFC 2010). Cf. Rule

54(c) (CFC 2010) (judgment, other than default, need not

conform to demand for relief, but “should grant the relief

to which each party is entitled”).

As JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR and the Nation recognize, to

avoid both duplication and the running of the statute of

limitations, the CFC suit could be stayed while the com

panion District Court action proceeds. See ante, at 11;

Brief for Respondent 35. That is a common practice when

a prior action is pending. See Pennsylvania R. Co. v.

United States, 363 U. S. 202, 204–206 (1960) (instructing

Court of Claims to stay pending proceedings to enable

litigant to obtain District Court review of relevant agency

order); Creppel v. United States, 41 F. 3d 627, 633 (CA

Fed. 1994) (“[T]he Court of Federal Claims may stay a

takings action pending completion of a related action in a

district court.”).

Why is this Court not positioned to direct the CFC to

disregard requests for relief simultaneously sought in a

district-court action, or at least to recognize that an

amended CFC complaint could save the case? I see no

impediment to either course, in §1500 or any other law or

rule.