Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Endangered or Threatened Status for Nineteen Plant Species From the Island of Kauai, Hawaii
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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
50 CFR Part 17
RIN 1018-AD46
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed
Endangered or Threatened Status for Nineteen Plant Species From the
Island of Kauai, Hawaii
AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.
ACTION: Proposed rule.
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SUMMARY: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) proposes
endangered status pursuant to the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as
amended (Act), for 17 plants: Alsinidendron lychnoides (kawawaenohu),
Alsinidendron viscosum (No common name (NCN)), Cyanea remyi (haha),
Cyrtandra cyaneoides (mapele), Delissea rivularis ('oha),
Hibiscadelphus woodii (hau kuahiwi), Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae
(koki'o ke'oke'o), Kokia kauaiensis (koki'o), Labordia tinifolia var.
wahiawaensis (kamakahala), Phyllostegia knudsenii (NCN), Phyllostegia
wawrana (NCN), Pritchardia napaliensis (loulu), Pritchardia viscosa
(loulu, Shiedea helleri (NCN), Schiedea membranacea (NCN), Schiedea
stellarioides (laulihilihi), and Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis
(nani wai'ale'ale). The Service also proposes threatened status for two
plant species: Cyanea recta (haha) and Myrsine linearifolia (kolea).
All of the species are endemic to the island of Kauai, Hawaiian
Islands. The 19 plant taxa and their habitats have been variously
affected or are currently threatened by one or more of the following:
competition, predation or habitat degradation from introduced species;
natural disasters; and trampling by humans. This proposal, if made
final, would implement the Federal protection provisions provided by
the Act. Listing under the Act would also trigger listed status for
these 19 taxa under State law.
DATES: Comments from all interested parties must be received by
November 24, 1995. Public hearing requests must be received by November
9, 1995.
uced species;
natural disasters; and trampling by humans. This proposal, if made
final, would implement the Federal protection provisions provided by
the Act. Listing under the Act would also trigger listed status for
these 19 taxa under State law.
DATES: Comments from all interested parties must be received by
November 24, 1995. Public hearing requests must be received by November
9, 1995.
ADDRESSES: Comments and materials concerning this proposal should be
sent to Robert P. Smith, Manager, Pacific Islands Ecoregion, U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Room 6307, P.O. Box
50167, Honolulu, Hawaii 96850. Comments and materials received will be
available for public inspection, by appointment, during normal business
hours at the above address.
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:
Robert P. Smith, Manager, Pacific Islands Ecoregion (see ADDRESSES
section) (telephone: 808/541-2749; facsimile: 808/541-2756).
SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:
Background
Alsinidendron lychnoides, Alsinidendron viscosum, Cyanea recta,
Cyanea remyi, Cyrtandra cyaneoides, Delissea rivularis, Hibiscadelphus
woodii, Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae, Kokia kauaiensis, Labordia
tinifolia var. wahiawaensis, Myrsine linearifolia, Phyllostegia
knudsenii, Phyllostegia wawrana, Pritchardia napaliensis, Pritchardia
viscosa, Schiedea helleri, Schiedea membranacea, Schiedea
stellarioides, and Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis are endemic to the
island of Kauai.
The island of Kauai is the northernmost and oldest of the eight
major Hawaiian Islands (Foote et al. 1972). This highly eroded island,
characterized by deeply dissected canyons and steep ridges, is 1,430
square kilometers (sq km) (553 sq miles (mi)) in area (Department of
Geography 1983). Kauai was formed about six million years ago by a
single shield volcano
endemic to the
island of Kauai.
The island of Kauai is the northernmost and oldest of the eight
major Hawaiian Islands (Foote et al. 1972). This highly eroded island,
characterized by deeply dissected canyons and steep ridges, is 1,430
square kilometers (sq km) (553 sq miles (mi)) in area (Department of
Geography 1983). Kauai was formed about six million years ago by a
single shield volcano. Its caldera, once the largest in the Hawaiian
Islands, now extends about 16 km (10 mi) in diameter and comprises the
extremely wet, elevated tableland of Alakai Swamp (Department of
Geography 1983). Because the highest point on Kauai, at Kawaikini Peak,
is only 1,598 m (5,243 ft) in elevation (Walker 1990), it lacks the
contrasting leeward montane rainfall patterns found on other Hawaiian
islands that have higher mountain systems. Rainfall is distributed
throughout the upper elevations, especially at Mount Waialeale, Kauai's
second highest point at 1,569 m (5,148 ft) in elevation (Walker 1990)
and one of the wettest spots on earth, where annual rainfall averages
1,145 centimeters (cm) (450 inches (in)) (Wagner et al. 1990). To the
west of the Alakai Swamp is the deeply dissected Waimea Canyon,
extending 16 km (10 mi) in length and up to 1.6 km (1 mi) in width.
Later volcanic activity on the southeastern flank of the volcano formed
the smaller Haupu caldera. Subsequent erosion and collapse of its flank
formed Haupu Ridge (Macdonald et al. 1983). One of the island's most
famous features is the Na Pali Coast, where stream and wave action have
cut deep valleys and eroded the northern coast to form precipitous
cliffs as high as 910 m (3,000 ft) (Joesting 1984).
Because of its age and relative isolation, levels of floristic
diversity and endemism are higher on Kauai than on any other island in
the Hawaiian archipelago. However, the vegetation of Kauai has
undergone extreme alterations because of past and present land use
action have
cut deep valleys and eroded the northern coast to form precipitous
cliffs as high as 910 m (3,000 ft) (Joesting 1984).
Because of its age and relative isolation, levels of floristic
diversity and endemism are higher on Kauai than on any other island in
the Hawaiian archipelago. However, the vegetation of Kauai has
undergone extreme alterations because of past and present land use.
Land with rich soils was altered by the early Hawaiians and, more
recently, converted to agricultural use (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990) or
pasture. Intentional or inadvertent introduction of alien plant and
animal species has also contributed to the reduction of native
vegetation on the island of Kauai. Native forests are now
limited to the upper elevation mesic and wet regions within Kauai's
conservation district. The 19 taxa proposed in this rule occur in that
district, between 150 and 1,310 m (500 and 4,300 ft) elevation, within
large State-owned tracts of natural area reserves, forest reserves, and
parks, and smaller privately owned tracts. Most of the proposed taxa
persist on steep slopes, precipitous cliffs, valley headwalls, and
other regions where unsuitable topography has prevented agricultural
development or where inaccessibility has limited encroachment by alien
animal and plant species.
The 19 taxa proposed in this rule are distributed mostly in the
northern and northwestern portions of the island and grow in a variety
of vegetation communities (shrublands, forests, and mixed communities),
elevational zones (lowland to montane), and moisture regimes (dry to
wet). Only one species, Pritchardia napaliensis, is found in lowland
dry communities. These once abundant communities are now fragmented due
to fire, development, and the ingression of alien plants and animals
portions of the island and grow in a variety
of vegetation communities (shrublands, forests, and mixed communities),
elevational zones (lowland to montane), and moisture regimes (dry to
wet). Only one species, Pritchardia napaliensis, is found in lowland
dry communities. These once abundant communities are now fragmented due
to fire, development, and the ingression of alien plants and animals.
Lowland dry forests in Hawaii are characterized by an annual rainfall
of 50 to 200 cm (20 to 80 in) which falls between November and March,
and a well-drained, highly weathered substrate rich in aluminum (Gagne
and Cuddihy 1990).
Most populations of the 19 taxa in this proposed rule are in
lowland mesic or wet shrubland or forest communities. Lowland mesic
shrublands lie between 30 and 850 m (100 and 2,790 ft) elevation and
are characterized by an open or closed canopy up to 3 m (10 ft) tall
with little or no herbaceous layer development. These shrublands
usually occur in habitats where forests cannot develop, such as on
cliffs, ridges, and steep slopes. The annual rainfall of 100 to 200 cm
(40 to 80 in) falls primarily during the winter months (Gagne and
Cuddihy 1990). Lowland mesic forest communities lie between 30 and
1,600 m (100 and 5,250 ft) elevation and are characterized by a 2 to 20
m (6.5 to 65 ft) canopy and a diverse understory of shrubs, herbs, and
ferns. The annual rainfall of 120 to 380 cm (45 to 150 in) falls
predominantly between October and March (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990).
Lowland mesic forests often grade into lowland wet forests that are
typically found on the windward sides of islands or in sheltered
leeward situations between 100 and 1,200 m (330 and 3,940 ft)
elevation. The rainfall in this lowland wet community may exceed 500 cm
(200 in) per year. These forests were once the predominant vegetation
on Kauai but now exist only on steep rocky terrain or cliff faces
mesic forests often grade into lowland wet forests that are
typically found on the windward sides of islands or in sheltered
leeward situations between 100 and 1,200 m (330 and 3,940 ft)
elevation. The rainfall in this lowland wet community may exceed 500 cm
(200 in) per year. These forests were once the predominant vegetation
on Kauai but now exist only on steep rocky terrain or cliff faces. The
substrate is generally well-drained soils that may support tree
canopies up to 40 m (130 ft) in height (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Gagne
and Cuddihy 1990). The habitat of 8 of the 19 taxa in this proposed
rule extends to the higher elevation montane mesic or wet forests.
Alsinidendron lychnoides, Delissea rivularis, and Schiedea helleri are
the only proposed taxa found strictly within these montane communities,
which typically occur above 910 m (3,000 ft) evaluation (Hawaii
Heritage Program (HHP) 1994a). The annual rainfall in montane
communities may exceed 700 cm (280 in) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1990).
The land that supports these 19 plant taxa is owned by various
private parties and the State of Hawaii (including State parks, forest
reserves, and natural area reserves).
Discussion of the 19 Taxa Proposed for Listing
Alsinidendron lychnoides was first described by Wilhelm Hillebrand
(1888) as Schiedea lychnoides based on a specimen collected by Valdemar
Knudsen (between about 1853 and 1871) above Waimea, Kauai. While both
Hillebrand and Amos A. Heller (1897) believed that there were good
reasons to place Schiedea lychnoides in the genus Alsinidendron, it
wasn't until 1944 that Earl E. Sherff transferred the species to this
genus.
Alsinidendron lychnoides, a member of the pink family
(Caryophyllaceae), is a weakly climbing or sprawling subshrub. The main
stems are 0.4 to 3 m (1.3 to 9.8 ft) long with short side branches. The
plant is woody, at least at the base, and densely covered with fine
glandular hairs throughout
genus Alsinidendron, it
wasn't until 1944 that Earl E. Sherff transferred the species to this
genus.
Alsinidendron lychnoides, a member of the pink family
(Caryophyllaceae), is a weakly climbing or sprawling subshrub. The main
stems are 0.4 to 3 m (1.3 to 9.8 ft) long with short side branches. The
plant is woody, at least at the base, and densely covered with fine
glandular hairs throughout. The thin leaves are egg-shaped to elliptic
and are 3.5 to 6.5 cm (1.4 to 2.6 in) long and 1.5 to 3.8 cm (0.6 to
1.5 in) wide. Eighteen to 21 flowers are arranged in clusters with
stalks ranging from 2 to 2.4 cm (0.8 to 0.9 in) long. The four sepals
are white and thin, and remain so at maturity. The outer two sepals
greatly overlap the inner ones. The sepals are oblong-ovate. 10 to 12
millimeters (mm) (0.4 to 0.5 in) long, but enlarge to 12 to 16 mm (0.5
to 0.6 in) long in fruit, completely enclosing the fruit at maturity.
The stamens are scarcely fused at the base with basal outgrowths 2.5 to
3.5 mm (0.1 in) long. nearly as wide, and two- to three-toothed. The
fruit are egg-shaped capsules, 9 to 12 mm (0.4 to 0.5 in) long. with 8
to 11 valves. The black seeds are approximately 1 mm (0.04 in) long
with low transverse ridges on the surface. This species is
distinguished from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by the weakly
climbing or sprawling habit, color of the sepals, number of flowers per
cluster, and size of the leaves. Alsinidendron lychnoides is closely
related to Alsinidendron viscosum, which differs primarily in having
narrower leaves, fewer capsule valves, and fewer flowers per cluster
(Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Alsinidendron lychnoides has been found on the east
rim of Kalalau Valley near Keanapuka, the western and southeastern
margins of the Alakai Swamp, and southwest of the Swamp near
Kaholuamano on the island of Kauai (HHP 1994b2 to 1994b4, 1994b7;
Wagner et al. 1990)
rs primarily in having
narrower leaves, fewer capsule valves, and fewer flowers per cluster
(Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Alsinidendron lychnoides has been found on the east
rim of Kalalau Valley near Keanapuka, the western and southeastern
margins of the Alakai Swamp, and southwest of the Swamp near
Kaholuamano on the island of Kauai (HHP 1994b2 to 1994b4, 1994b7;
Wagner et al. 1990). This species is extant on State-owned land in the
Alakai Swamp, including the Alakai Wilderness Preserve, and on State-
owned land on the east rim of Kalalau Valley. This latter population
occurs on the boundary of Hono O Na Pali Natural Area Reserve (NAR) and
Na Pali Coast State Park. The four known populations contain a total of
fewer than 10 plants (HHP 1994b1, 1994b5, 1994b6; Hawaii Plant
Conservation Center (HPCC) 1992a; Wood and Perlman 1993a; Yoshioka
1992). Alsinidendron lychnoides typically grows in montane wet forest
dominated by Metrosideros polymorpha (`ohi'a) and Cheirodendron sp.
(`olapa), or by `ohi'a and Dicranopteris linearis (uluhe), trailing on
the ground or on other vegetation, and at elevations between 1,100 and
1.320 m (3,600 and 4,330 ft). Associated plant species included
Athyrium sp., Carex sp., Cyrtandra sp. (ha'iwale), Machaerina sp.
(`uki), Vaccinium sp. (`ohelo), Peperomia sp. (`ala `ala wai nui),
Hedyotis terminalis (manono), Astelia sp. (pa'iniu), and Broussaisia
arquta (Kanawao) (HHP 1994b5, 1994b6; HPCC 1992a; Wagner et al. 1990;
Marie M. Bruegmann, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). in litt.,
1994).
The major threats to Alsinidendron lychnoides are competition from
the aggressive alien plant species Rubus arqutus (prickly Florida
blackberry), habitat degradation by feral pigs (Sus srofa), and
trampling by humans. One plant has died since Hurricane `Iniki struck
Kauai in September 1992
992a; Wagner et al. 1990;
Marie M. Bruegmann, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). in litt.,
1994).
The major threats to Alsinidendron lychnoides are competition from
the aggressive alien plant species Rubus arqutus (prickly Florida
blackberry), habitat degradation by feral pigs (Sus srofa), and
trampling by humans. One plant has died since Hurricane `Iniki struck
Kauai in September 1992. This species is also threatened by a risk of
extinction from naturally occurring events (such as landslides or
hurricanes) and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number
of extant individuals (Center for Plant Conservation (CPC) 1990; HHP
1994b1, 1994b5., 1994b6; HPCC 1992a; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Horace Mann, Jr. (1866) originally described Alsinidendron viscosum
as Schiedea viscosa based on a collection he made with William T.
Brigham
(between 1864 and 1865) on Kauai (Wagner et al. 1990). He chose the
specific name in reference to the sticky hairs covering the whole
plant. Later, Sherff (1944) placed the taxon in the genus Alsinidendron
based on a reassessment of this species and Schiedea lychnoides, as
suggested by Hillebrand (1888) and Heller (1897).
Alsinidendron viscosum, a member of the pink family, is a weakly
climbing or sprawling subshrub. The stems are 0.6 to 3 m (2.0 to 9.8
ft) long, and densely covered with fine glandular hairs throughout. The
thin and membranous leaves are narrowly elliptic and are 2.5 to 5 cm
(1.0 to 2.0 in) long and 0.8 to 1.8 cm (0.3 to 0.7 in) wide. Usually
three to nine flowers are arranged in loose clusters with stalks
ranging from 2 to 3.5 cm (0.8 to 1.4 in) long. The four sepals are
white, thin, and membranous, and remain so at maturity. The outer two
sepals greatly overlap the inner ones. The sepals are oblong in shape
and 8 to 9 mm (0.3 in) long. but enlarge to approximately 12 mm (0.5
in) long in fruit, completely enclosing the fruit at maturity
o nine flowers are arranged in loose clusters with stalks
ranging from 2 to 3.5 cm (0.8 to 1.4 in) long. The four sepals are
white, thin, and membranous, and remain so at maturity. The outer two
sepals greatly overlap the inner ones. The sepals are oblong in shape
and 8 to 9 mm (0.3 in) long. but enlarge to approximately 12 mm (0.5
in) long in fruit, completely enclosing the fruit at maturity. The
stamens are scarcely fused at the base and the basal outgrowths are
about 3 mm (0.1 in) long, nearly as wide, and two-toothed. The fruits
are egg-shaped capsules, 8 to 12 mm (0.3 to 0.5 in) long, and opening
by five to seven values. The seeds are dark reddish brown, and
approximately 0.8 mm (0.03 in) long with a minutely hairy surface. This
species is distinguished from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by
the weakly climbing or sprawling habit, color of the sepals, number of
flowers per cluster, and size of the leaves. Alsinidendron viscosum is
closely related toAlsinidendron lychnoides, which differs primarily in
having wider leaves and more capsule valves and flowers per cluster
(Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Alsinidendron viscosum was known from the
Kaholuamano, Kokee, Halemanu, Nawaimaka, and Waialae areas of
northwestern Kauai (HHP 1994c1 to 1994c3). This species had not been
seen since Forbes' 1917 collection near Kauaikinana in Kokee when, in
1991, Steven Perlman and Kenneth Wood of HPCC discovered a population
of 11 mature plants on the ridge between Waialae and Nawaimaka valleys.
In 19893, another 20 to 30 plants were discovered in the same general
area on a north-facing ridge in Nawaimaka Valley. In 1992, Timothy
Flynn and David Lorence of the National Tropical Botanical Garden
(NTBG) located 10 plants along the Mohihi-Waialae Trail. The 2 known
populations (2 subpopulations in Nawaimaka Valley and 1 population on
Mohihi-Waialae Trail) total between 40 and 60 mature plants on State-
owned land
plants were discovered in the same general
area on a north-facing ridge in Nawaimaka Valley. In 1992, Timothy
Flynn and David Lorence of the National Tropical Botanical Garden
(NTBG) located 10 plants along the Mohihi-Waialae Trail. The 2 known
populations (2 subpopulations in Nawaimaka Valley and 1 population on
Mohihi-Waialae Trail) total between 40 and 60 mature plants on State-
owned land. One population is within the Alakai Wilderness Preserve
(Flynn and Lorence 1992; HHP 1994c4; HPCC 1993a1, 1993a2; Yoshioka
1992; Timothy Flynn and Kenneth Wood, NTBG, pers. comms., 1994).
Alsinidendron viscosum is typically found at elevations between 820 and
1.070 m (2,700 and 3,510 ft), on steep slopes in Acacia koa (koa)-
'ohi'a lowland mesic or set forest. Associated plant species include
Alyxia oliviformis (maile), Bobea sp. ('ahakea), Carex sp., Dodonaea
viscosa ('a'ali'i), Ilex anomala ('aiea), Melicope sp., (alani),
Pleomele sp. (hala pepe), and Psychotria sp. (kopiko) (HHP 1994c4; HPCC
1993a1, 1993a2; Flynn and Lorence 1992; Wagner et al. 1990; K. Wood,
pers. comm., 1994).
Destruction of habitat by feral pigs and goats (Capra hircus);
competition with the alien plant species prickly Florida blackberry,
Lantana camara (lantana), and Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass); and
a risk of extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced
reproductive vigor, due to the small number of extant populations and
individuals, are the major threats to Alsinidendron viscosum (HHP
1994c4; HPCC 1993a1, 1993a2; Steven Perlman, and K. Wood, NTBG, pers.
comms., 1994; Christa Russell, The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii (TNCH),
pers. comm. 1994).
While a member of the Austrian East Asiatic Exploring Expedition,
Dr. Heinrich Wawra collected a new lobelioid on Kauai which he later
described and named Delissea recta (Wawra 1873). In 1888, Hillebrand
transferred this species to the genus Cyanea, and this is the name
accepted in the current treatment of the family (Lammers 1990)
The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii (TNCH),
pers. comm. 1994).
While a member of the Austrian East Asiatic Exploring Expedition,
Dr. Heinrich Wawra collected a new lobelioid on Kauai which he later
described and named Delissea recta (Wawra 1873). In 1888, Hillebrand
transferred this species to the genus Cyanea, and this is the name
accepted in the current treatment of the family (Lammers 1990). Other
published names which Lammers (1990) considers to be synonymous with
Cyanea recta include Cyanea larrisonii, Cyanea rockii, Cyanea salicina,
Delissea larrisonii, and Delissea rockii (Rock 1915, St. John 1987b,
Wimmer 1968).
Cyanea recta, a member of the bellflower family, is an unbranced
shrub 1 to 1.5 m (3.3 to 4.9 ft) tall. The narrowly elliptic leaves are
12 to 28 cm (4.7 to 11 in) long and 1.2 to 5 cm (0.5 to 2 in) wide,
with minutely toothed margins. The upper surface is green and smooth,
while the lower surface is whitish green to pale green, and smooth or
hairy. Five to seven flowers are arranged on an inflorescence stalk 7
to 10 cm (3 to 4 in) long, each having an individual stalk 5 to 17 mm
(0.2 to 0.7 in) in length. The densely hairy flowers are purple or
white with purple longitudinal stripes, 30 to 40 mm (1.2 to 1.6 in)
long, and 3 to 4 mm (0.1 to 0.2 in) wide, with spreading lobes. The
staminal column is smooth or sparsely hairy at the base. The anthers
are covered with minute epidermal projections, the lower two with tufts
of white hairs at the tip. The fruit is an egg-shaped, purple berry.
Cyanea recta is distinguished from other species in the genus that grow
on Kauai by the following collective characteristics: horizontal or
ascending inflorescence, narrowly elliptic leaves 12 to 28 cm (4.7 to
11 in) long, flat leaf margins, and purple berries (Lammers 1990)
te epidermal projections, the lower two with tufts
of white hairs at the tip. The fruit is an egg-shaped, purple berry.
Cyanea recta is distinguished from other species in the genus that grow
on Kauai by the following collective characteristics: horizontal or
ascending inflorescence, narrowly elliptic leaves 12 to 28 cm (4.7 to
11 in) long, flat leaf margins, and purple berries (Lammers 1990).
Historically, Cyanea recta was known from scattered locations of
northeastern and central Kauai, including upper Hanalei Valley, Waioli
Valley, Hanapepe Valley, Kalalau cliffs, Wainiha Valley, Makaleha
Mountains, Limahuli Valley, Powerline Trail, and the Lehua Makanoe-
Alakai area (HHP 1994d1 to 1994d7). Currently, six populations of this
species, totalling approximately 500 to 1,500 individuals, are found on
State and private land in the following areas: upper Waioli Valley,
with more than 150 plants; Wainiha Valley, with several hundreds of
plants; Makaleha Mountains, with an estimated 123 plants; Limahuli
Valley with fewer than 50 plants; Powerline Trail with a single plant;
and the back of Hanalei Valley with an unknown number of plants (HHP
1994d3, 1994d8 to 1994d10; HPCC 1992b, 1993c1, 1993c2; Lorence and
Flynn 1993a, 1993b; K. Wood and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1994). Cyanea
recta grows in lowland wet or mesic 'ohi'a forest or shrubland, usually
in gulches or on slopes, and typically from 400 to 940 m (1,300 to
3,070 ft) elevation. Associated plant species include kopiko, Antidesma
sp. (hame), Cheirodendron platyphyllum (lapalapa), Cibotium sp.
(hapu'u), and Diplazium sp. (HHP 1992; HPCC 1992b, 1993c1, 1993c2;
Lammers 1990; Lorence and Flynn 1993a, 1993b)
Cyanea
recta grows in lowland wet or mesic 'ohi'a forest or shrubland, usually
in gulches or on slopes, and typically from 400 to 940 m (1,300 to
3,070 ft) elevation. Associated plant species include kopiko, Antidesma
sp. (hame), Cheirodendron platyphyllum (lapalapa), Cibotium sp.
(hapu'u), and Diplazium sp. (HHP 1992; HPCC 1992b, 1993c1, 1993c2;
Lammers 1990; Lorence and Flynn 1993a, 1993b).
The major threats to Cyanea recta are bark removal by rats; habitat
degradation by feral pigs; browsing by goats; and competition with the
alien plant species Blechnum occidentale (blechnum fern), lantana,
Rubus rosifolius (thimbleberry), Clidemia hirta (Koster's curse),
Crassocephalum crepidioides, Deparia petersenii, Erechtites
valerianifolia (fireweed), Melastoma candidum, Paspalum conjugatum
(Hilo grass), Sacciolepis indica (Glenwood grass), and Youngia japonia
(Oriental hawksbeard) (Lorence and Flynn 1993a, 1993b; Wood and Perlman
1993b; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994).
The French naturalist and ethnologist Ezechiel Jules Remy first
collected Cyanea remyi on Kauai or Niihau between 1851 and 1855. The
specimen, labelled as an unidentified Delissea, languished in the
herbarium of the Natural History Museum in Paris until Joseph F. Rock
formally described it and named it in honor of the collector, in 1917.
In the current treatment of the family, Lammers (1990) surmised that
the taxon may be synonymous with Cyanea truncata due, at that time, to
the inadequate material available for study. However, several recent
collections by botanists from NTBG have confirmed the distinctness of
this species (Lammers 1993; Thomas Lammers, Field Museum of Natural
History, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1994).
Cyanea remyi, a member of the bellflower family, is a shrub 0.9 to
2 m (3 to 6.6 ft) tall with generally unbranched stems 1 to 2.5 cm (0.4
to 1 in) in diameter. The stems are erect, unarmed (lacking prickles),
dark purple and hairy toward the apex, and brown and hairless below
of
this species (Lammers 1993; Thomas Lammers, Field Museum of Natural
History, and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1994).
Cyanea remyi, a member of the bellflower family, is a shrub 0.9 to
2 m (3 to 6.6 ft) tall with generally unbranched stems 1 to 2.5 cm (0.4
to 1 in) in diameter. The stems are erect, unarmed (lacking prickles),
dark purple and hairy toward the apex, and brown and hairless below.
The leaves are broadly elliptic, egg-shaped, or broadly oblong, and 16
to 40 cm (6 to 16 in) long and 9.5 to 19.5 cm (3.7 to 7.7 in) wide. The
upper leaf surface is green, glossy, and hairless. The lower leaf
surface is whitish green and glossy with scattered short white hairs on
the midrib and veins. The leaf margins are hardened and slightly
toothed. The inflorescence rises upward, contains 6 to 23 flowers, and
is covered with short white hairs. The dark maroon sepal lobes are
triangular or narrowly triangular, spreading or ascending, and 4 to 6
mm (0.2 in) long and 1 to 2 mm (0.04 to 0.08 in) wide. The tubular
flowers, 40 to 53 mm (2 in) long, have two lips, are dark purple
(shading to purplish white at the apex of the lobes on their inner
surface), and are densely covered with short white hairs. The flower
tube is curved, 30 to 31 mm (1 in) long and 5 to 5.5 mm (0.2 in) in
diameter. The staminal column is slightly protruding. The maroon or
dark purple fruit is a round berry, 10 to 13 mm (0.4 to 0.5 in) in
diameter, with orange flesh and small projections on the outer surface.
Cyanea remyi is distinguished from others in the genus that grow on
Kauai by its shrubby habit; relatively slender, unarmed (lacking
prickles) stems; smooth or minutely toothed leaves; densely hairy
flowers; the shape of the calyx lobes; length of the calyx and corolla,
and length of the corolla lobe relative to the floral tube (Lammers and
Lorence 1993).
Cyanea remyi was originally known only from Remy's nineteenth
century collection
the genus that grow on
Kauai by its shrubby habit; relatively slender, unarmed (lacking
prickles) stems; smooth or minutely toothed leaves; densely hairy
flowers; the shape of the calyx lobes; length of the calyx and corolla,
and length of the corolla lobe relative to the floral tube (Lammers and
Lorence 1993).
Cyanea remyi was originally known only from Remy's nineteenth
century collection. In 1991, after more than 130 years, Cyanea remyi
was rediscovered in the Blue Hole on Kauai by botanists from NTBG.
Currently, this species is known from four widely separated locations
in northeastern and southeastern Kauai: a population of 14 plants in
Waioli Valley; several hundred plants at the base of Mount Waialeale;
about 140 to 180 plants in the Wahiawa Mountains, near Hulua; and a
population of about 10 to 50 plants on the summit plateau of the
Makaleha Mountains. This species, therefore, totals over several
hundred plants on State and private land. Cyanea remyi is usually found
in lowland wet forest or shrubland at an elevation of 360 to 930 m
(1,180 to 3,060 ft). Associated plant species include hame, kanawao,
'ohi'a, Freycinetia arborea ('ie'ie), and Perrottetia sandwicensis
(olomea) (HHP 1992, 1994e; HPCC 1991a1, 1991a2, 1992c; Lorence and
Flynn 1991, 1993a, 1993b).
Competition with the alien plant species fireweed, Hilo grass,
Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava), thimbleberry, and Melastoma
candidum; habitat degradation by feral pigs; browsing by goats;
predation by rats; unidentified slugs that feed on the stems; and a
risk of extinction from naturally occurring events, due to the small
number of remaining populations, are the major threats to Cyanea remyi
(HPCC 1991a1, 1991a2, 1992c; Lorence and Flynn 1991, 1993b; S. Perlman,
pers. comm., 1994).
In 1909, J.F. Rock collected a plant specimen on Kauai which he
named Cyrtandra cyaneoides (Rock 1913a). The specific epithet refers to
the resemblance of this distinctive plan to a species of the endemic
Hawaiian genus Cyanea
all
number of remaining populations, are the major threats to Cyanea remyi
(HPCC 1991a1, 1991a2, 1992c; Lorence and Flynn 1991, 1993b; S. Perlman,
pers. comm., 1994).
In 1909, J.F. Rock collected a plant specimen on Kauai which he
named Cyrtandra cyaneoides (Rock 1913a). The specific epithet refers to
the resemblance of this distinctive plan to a species of the endemic
Hawaiian genus Cyanea.
Cyrtandra cyaneoides, a member of the African violet family
(Gesneriaceae), is an erect or ascending, fleshy, unbranched shrub,
about 1 to 1.3 m (3.3 to 4.3 ft) tall. The opposite, symmetrical, egg-
shaped leaves are fleshy and leathery, 40 to 55 cm (16 to 22 in) long
and 22 to 35 cm (9 to 14 in) wide. The upper surface of the toothed
leaves is wrinkled with impressed veins and sparsley covered with long
hairs. The lower surface has raised veins and is sparsely covered with
hairs. The leaf stalks are 4.5 to 14 cm (1.8 to 5.5 in) long and
winged. The white flowers, covered with shaggy brown hairs, arise from
the leaf axils in small dense clusters. The corolla tube (fused petals)
is narrowly funnelform, curved near the middle, about 25 mm (1 in)
long, and hairless. The corolla lobes are elliptic and about 7 mm (0.3
in) long. The bilaterally summetrical calyx is spindle-shaped in bud
and about 26 to 36 mm (1 to 1.4 in) in length when the flower is fully
open, but falls off after the flower matures. The fruit is an egg-
shaped berry which is covered with shaggy hairs, at least when young.
Although poorly known, Cyrtandra cyaneoides is a very distinctive
species (Wagner et al. 1990). It differs from others of the genus that
grow in Kauai by being a succulent, erect or ascending shrub and having
a bilaterally symmetrical calyx that is spindle-shaped in bud and falls
off after flowering; leaves with a wrinkled surface, 40 to 55 cm (16 to
22 in) long and 22 to 35 cm (9 to 14 in) wide; and berries with shaggy
hairs (Wagner et al. 1990)
stinctive
species (Wagner et al. 1990). It differs from others of the genus that
grow in Kauai by being a succulent, erect or ascending shrub and having
a bilaterally symmetrical calyx that is spindle-shaped in bud and falls
off after flowering; leaves with a wrinkled surface, 40 to 55 cm (16 to
22 in) long and 22 to 35 cm (9 to 14 in) wide; and berries with shaggy
hairs (Wagner et al. 1990).
Cyrtandra cyaneoides was originally known only from the type
collection made at Kaholuamanu 80 years ago, along the trail to Waialae
Valley on the island of Kauai (HHP 1994fl, Wagner et al. 1990). In
1991, botanists from NTBG discovered a population of 50 to 100
individuals at Namolokama above Lumahai Valley. Three additional
populations were discovered over the next 2 years: 1 plant on the
Makaleha Plateau; more than 300 plants in Wainiha Valley; and 1 plant
in upper Waioli Valley for a total of between 350 and 400 plants (HHP
1994f2; Lorence and Flynn 1993a, 1993b; Wood and Perlman 1993b). The
four known populations occur on private and State land, between 550 and
1,220 m (1,800 and 4,000 ft) elevation. This species typically grows on
steep slopes or cliffs near streams or waterfalls in lowland or montane
wet forest or shrubland dominated by 'ohi'a or a mixture of 'ohi'a and
uluhe. Associated species include Boehmeria grandis ('akolea). Pipturus
sp. (mamaki), 'olapa, 'uki, Athyrium sp., and Jedyotis sp. (manono)
(Lorence and Flynn 1993a, 1993b; Wood and Perlman 1993b).
The major threat to Cyrtandra cyaneoides is competition with alien
plant species such as fireweed, Hilo grass, thimbleberry, Deparia
petersenii, and Drymaria cordata (pipili). Because of the small number
of known populations, this species is especially vulnerable to
extinction by reduced reproductive vigor and/or naturally occurring
events (for example, landslides and hurricanes)
man 1993b).
The major threat to Cyrtandra cyaneoides is competition with alien
plant species such as fireweed, Hilo grass, thimbleberry, Deparia
petersenii, and Drymaria cordata (pipili). Because of the small number
of known populations, this species is especially vulnerable to
extinction by reduced reproductive vigor and/or naturally occurring
events (for example, landslides and hurricanes). Feral pigs are
reported to occur in lower Wainiha Valley; however, no evidence exists
of their incursion into the upper valley to date (HHP 1994f2; HPCC
1993d; Lorance and Flynn 1993a, 1993b; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994).
In 1909, J.F. Rock collected a plant specimen on Kauai which he
later named Cyanea rivularis (Rock 1913b). In 1943, F.E. Wimmer
transferred this
species to Delissea, and Thomas Lammers (1990), in the current
treatment of this endemic Hawaiian genus, concurred. The specific
epithet refers to streams or brooks, the typical habitat of this plant.
Delissea rivularis, a member of the bellflower family, is a shrub,
unbranched or branched near the base, with hairy stems 4 to 5 m (13 to
16 ft) long. The leaves are arranged in a rosette at the tips of the
stems. The elliptic to lance-shaped leaves are 20 to 30 cm (8 to 12 in)
long and 3 to 8 cm (1.2 to 3.2 in) wide, with minutely toothed margins.
Both leaf surfaces are covered with hairs. Six to 12 flowers are
arranged on an inflorescence stalk 4 to 8 cm (1.6 to 3.2 in) long, each
having an individual stalk 10 to 15 mm (0.4 to 0.6 in) in length. The
curved, hairy flowers are white with blue longitudinal stripes, 30 to
40 mm (1.2 to 1.6 in) long, with one dorsal knob. The fruit is a
spherical, dark purple berry 10 to 15 mm (0.4 to 0.6 in) in diameter.
This species is distinguished from others of the genus by the color,
length, and curvature of the corolla; shape of the leaves; and presence
of hairs on the stems, leaves, flower clusters, and corolla (Lammers
1990)
white with blue longitudinal stripes, 30 to
40 mm (1.2 to 1.6 in) long, with one dorsal knob. The fruit is a
spherical, dark purple berry 10 to 15 mm (0.4 to 0.6 in) in diameter.
This species is distinguished from others of the genus by the color,
length, and curvature of the corolla; shape of the leaves; and presence
of hairs on the stems, leaves, flower clusters, and corolla (Lammers
1990).
Historically, Delissea rivularis was known from Waiakealoha
waterfall (location unknown), Waialae Valley, Hanakoa Valley, and
Kaholuamano on the island of Kauai (HHP 1994g1 to 1994g3, Lammers
1990). This species, recently recollected after almost 80 years, is now
known only from the upper Hanakoa Valley stream area of northwestern
Kauai (HPCC 1993e; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994). This population of
15 to 20 plants, scattered over an area of more than 100 sq m (1,100 sq
ft), is on State land within the Hono O Na Pali NAR at about 1,190 m
(3,900 ft) elevation. Delissea rivularis is found on steep slopes in
`ohi'a-'olapa montane wet or mesic forest, near streams. Associated
native species include kanawao, Athyrium sp., Carex sp., Coprosma sp.
(pilo), and Sadleria sp. (`ama'u) (HPCC 1993e; Lammers 1990; S.
Perlman, pers. comm., 1994).
The major threats to Delissea rivularis are competition with the
encroaching alien plant prickly Florida blackberry, habitat destruction
by feral pigs, and reduced reproductive vigor and/or a risk of
extinction from naturally occurring events due to the small number of
remaining individuals in the single remaining population (HPCC 1993e;
S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994).
In 1991, several new species were collected by Ken Wood of NTBG, M.
Query, and Steve Montgomery on the cliff walls of Kalalau Valley,
Kauai, including a new species in the endemic Hawaiian genus
Hibiscadelphus. Hibiscadelphus woodii was described in 1995 by D.
Lorence and Warren Wagner (1995; Wood and Perlman 1993a; D. Lorence and
K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994)
S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994).
In 1991, several new species were collected by Ken Wood of NTBG, M.
Query, and Steve Montgomery on the cliff walls of Kalalau Valley,
Kauai, including a new species in the endemic Hawaiian genus
Hibiscadelphus. Hibiscadelphus woodii was described in 1995 by D.
Lorence and Warren Wagner (1995; Wood and Perlman 1993a; D. Lorence and
K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994).
Hibiscadelphus woodii, a member of the mallow family (Malvaceae),
is a small branched tree 2.5 to 5 m (8.2 to 16.4 ft) tall with a
rounded crown. The leaves have stalks 2.8 to 5.8 cm (1.1 to 2.3 in)
long, with star-shaped hairs when young which are mostly lost as the
leaf matures. Awl-shaped stipules, also covered with star-shaped hairs,
are found at the base of the leaf stalk. The leaf blade is ovate, 7 to
9 cm (2.6 to 3.5 in) long, and 6.5 to 8.4 cm (2.6 to 3.3 in) wide.
Star-shaped hairs are scattered along the veins of the leaves. The leaf
margins are irregularly and coarsely toothed with the teeth either
pointed or rounded. Flowers are borne individually on stalks 1.4 to 2.1
cm (0.6 to 0.8 in) long with star-shaped hairs. Below each flower are
four to six bracts 11 to 15 mm (0.4 to 0.6 in) long and 1.8 to 4 mm
(0.07 to 0.16 in) wide. The calyx is tubular, 1.3 to 1.5 cm (0.5 to 0.6
in) long, green shallowly lobed, and moderately hairy with star-shaped
hairs. The corolla is 4.5 to 4.7 cm (1.8 to 1.9 in) long, yellow with a
coppery tinge when fresh which rapidly turns purplish-maroon. The
staminal column extends about 7 mm (0.3 in) beyond the lobes of the
corolla. Fruits are not known from this species. Hibiscadelphus woodii
differs from the other known Kauai species by differences in leaf
surface and involucral bract characters, and by flower color (Lorence
and Wagner 1995; D. Lorence, pers. comm., 1994)
ith a
coppery tinge when fresh which rapidly turns purplish-maroon. The
staminal column extends about 7 mm (0.3 in) beyond the lobes of the
corolla. Fruits are not known from this species. Hibiscadelphus woodii
differs from the other known Kauai species by differences in leaf
surface and involucral bract characters, and by flower color (Lorence
and Wagner 1995; D. Lorence, pers. comm., 1994).
Hibiscadelphus woodii is known only from the site of its discovery
in Kalalau Valley on the island of Kauai within the Na Pali Coast State
Park, from about 990 to 1,000 m (3,250 to 3,280 ft) elevation. Only
four trees of this species are known. The plants grow on cliff walls in
an `ohi'a montane mesic forest with alani, Dubautia sp. (na'ena'e),
Lepidium serra (`anaunau), Lipochaeta sp. (nehe), Lysimachia sp.,
Chamaesyce sp. (`akoko), manono, Nototrichium sp. (kulu'i), Myrsine sp.
(kolea), and the federally endangered species Stenogyne campanulata,
Lobelia niihauensis, and Poa mannii (Mann's bluegrass) (HPCC 1991c;
Lorence and Wagner 1995; D. Lorence and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994).
Habitat degradation by feral goats and pigs, competition and
invasion by the alien plant species Erigeron karvinskianus (daisy
fleabane), nectar robbing by Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus),
and a risk of extinction from naturally occurring events (e.g., rock
slides) and/or reduced reproductive vigor, due to the small number of
existing individuals in the only known population, are the major
threats to Hibiscadelphus woodii (HPCC 1991c; Lorence and Wagner 1995;
D. Lorence, pers. comm., 1994).
Reverned John Mortimer Lydgate collected Hibiscus waimeae ssp.
hannerae on Kauai in 1913, and more than 60 years passed before it was
collected again, in 1978, by Steven Perlman. Otto and Isa Degener named
Lydgate's collection as a variety of Hibiscus waimeae in honor of Mrs.
Ruth Knudsen Hanner, a supporter of their work on Kauai (Degener and
Degener 1962). David M
ence, pers. comm., 1994).
Reverned John Mortimer Lydgate collected Hibiscus waimeae ssp.
hannerae on Kauai in 1913, and more than 60 years passed before it was
collected again, in 1978, by Steven Perlman. Otto and Isa Degener named
Lydgate's collection as a variety of Hibiscus waimeae in honor of Mrs.
Ruth Knudsen Hanner, a supporter of their work on Kauai (Degener and
Degener 1962). David M. Bates, the author of the current treatment of
the Hawaiian members of the family, elevated the varietal name to a
subspecies (Bates 1989, 1990).
Hibicus waimeae ssp. hannerae, a member of the mallow family, is a
gray-barked tree, 6 to 10 m (20 to 33 ft) tall, with star-shaped hairs
densely covering its leaf and flower stalks and branchlets. The
circular to broadly egg-shaped leaves are usually 5 to 18 cm (2 to 7
in) long and 3 to 13 cm (1.2 to 5 in) wide. The strongly fragrant
flowers are borne singly near the ends of the branches on flower stalks
2 to 3 cm (0.8 to 1.2 in) long. The calyx is tubular, normally 3 to 4.5
cm (1.2 to 1.8 in) long, with lobes 8 to 15 mm (0.2 to 0.6 in) long.
The flaring petals are white when the flower opens in the morning, but
fade to pinkish in the afternoon. The petals, usually 4 to 6 cm (1.6 to
2.4 in) long, are basally attached to the staminal column to form a
tube about 1.5 cm (0.6 in) long. The exserted staminal column is up to
15 cm (6 in) long and reddish to crimson at the tip. The filaments
arise in the upper half of the staminal column and spread up to 2.5 cm
(1 in) long. The fruit is a cartilaginous, egg-shaped capsule 1.8 to
2.5 cm (0.7 to 1 in) long and hairless. Two subspecies are recognized,
both occurring on Kauai: spp. hannerae and ssp. waimeae. Subspecies
hannerae is distingushed by having larger leaves but smaller flowers
(Bates 1990)
crimson at the tip. The filaments
arise in the upper half of the staminal column and spread up to 2.5 cm
(1 in) long. The fruit is a cartilaginous, egg-shaped capsule 1.8 to
2.5 cm (0.7 to 1 in) long and hairless. Two subspecies are recognized,
both occurring on Kauai: spp. hannerae and ssp. waimeae. Subspecies
hannerae is distingushed by having larger leaves but smaller flowers
(Bates 1990). The species is distinguished from others of the genus by
the position of the anthers along the staminal column, length of the
staminal column relative to the petals, color of the petals, and length
of the calyx (Bates 1990).
Three collections of Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae are known, all
from the island of Kauai (HHP 1994i2). The Kalihiwai population of this
subspecies is apparently extinct and the two remaining populations are
found in adjacent valleys on Kauai's northern
coast on State and private land, and total between 75 and 125
individuals. Between 50 and 100 plants are scattered over a 100 sq m
(1,100 sq ft) area along the stream in Limahuli Valley, and another 50
or so plants were distributed over a 10 to 100 sq m (110 to 1,100 sq
ft) area below the cliffs in the back of Hanakapiai Valley before
Hurricane 'Iniki (HPCC 1990a, 1991d). After the hurricane, only 25
plants remain in Hanakapiai Valley (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994). In
Limahuli Valley, Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae is growing in an
'ohi'a-uluhe lowland wet forest between 190 and 560 m (620 and 1,850
ft) evaluation. At this location, associated species include 'ahakea,
'ama'u, haha, ha'iwale, and Syzygium sp. The Hanakapiai Valley
population is growing in Pisonia sp. (papala kepau)--Charpentiera
elliptica (papala) lowland mesic forest with 'ahakea, hame, kopiko,
mamaki, and the alien species Aleurites moluccana (kukui), between 220
and 370 m (720 and 1,200 ft) (Bates 1990; HHP 1990a, 1994i1; 1994i2;
HPCC 1990a, 1991d).
The major threats to Hibiscus waimeae ssp
'u, haha, ha'iwale, and Syzygium sp. The Hanakapiai Valley
population is growing in Pisonia sp. (papala kepau)--Charpentiera
elliptica (papala) lowland mesic forest with 'ahakea, hame, kopiko,
mamaki, and the alien species Aleurites moluccana (kukui), between 220
and 370 m (720 and 1,200 ft) (Bates 1990; HHP 1990a, 1994i1; 1994i2;
HPCC 1990a, 1991d).
The major threats to Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae are habitat
degradation by feral pigs; competition with alien plant species,
including thimbleberry, Koster's curse, and lantana; and a risk of
extinction from naturally occurring events (e.g., hurricanes) and/or
reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of remaining
populations (HHP 1994i2, 1994i3; HPCC 1990a, 1991d; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994).
In 1919, J.F. Rock and Augustus F. Knudsen collected a specimen of
a tree that Rock (1919) named as Kokia rockii var. kauaiensis. Later,
Otto Degener and Albert W. Duvel (1934) elevated the variety to a full
species, Kokia kauaiensis. The current treatment of the family upholds
this designation (Bates 1990).
Kokia kauaiensis, a member of the mallow family, is a tree 5 to 10
m (16.4 to 33 ft) tall. The seven- or nine-lobed, circular leaves are
12 to 25 CM (5 to 10 in) wide with a heart-shaped base. The solitary,
brick-red flowers are clustered near the ends of the branches on stout
flower stalks 3 to 9 cm (1.2 to 3.5 in) long. The broadly egg-shaped
floral bracts are 4 to 6 cm (1.5 to 2.4 in) long and hairless except
toward the base, which has a sparse covering of long, soft hairs. The
curved petals, 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) long, are twisted at the base
and densely covered with yellowish, silky hairs. The fruit is an egg-
shaped capsule. The egg-shaped seeds are 10 to 12 mm (0.4 to 0.5 in)
long and densely covered with reddish, woolly hairs up to 10 mm (0.4
in) long
1.5 to 2.4 in) long and hairless except
toward the base, which has a sparse covering of long, soft hairs. The
curved petals, 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) long, are twisted at the base
and densely covered with yellowish, silky hairs. The fruit is an egg-
shaped capsule. The egg-shaped seeds are 10 to 12 mm (0.4 to 0.5 in)
long and densely covered with reddish, woolly hairs up to 10 mm (0.4
in) long. These species is distinguished from others of this endemic
Hawaiian genus by the length of the bracts surrounding the flower head,
number of lobes and width of the leaves, the length of the petals, and
the length of the hairs on the seeds (Bates 1990).
Kokia kauaiensis is known from six scattered populations on
northwestern Kauai, but only five of these populations have been
relocated within the last six years (HHP 1994j1 to 1994j4). The five
extant populations are found on State land in the following areas:
Paaiki Valley; Mahanaloa-Kuia Valley junction within or on the boundary
of Kuia NAR; the western side of Kalaulau Valley, and Pohakuao Valley,
both within Na Pali Coast State Park; and Koaie Stream branch of Waimea
Canyon, where some plants may be within the boundary of the Alakai
Wilderness Preserve. The three largest populations contain between 30
and 70 individuals each, with the others each numbering fewer than 10
individuals. Estimates of the total number of individuals range from
145 to 170 (HHP 1994j1, 1994j3 to 1994j6; J. Lau and S. Perlman, pers.
comms., 1994). This species typically grows in diverse mesic forest at
elevations between 475 and 795 m (1,960 and 2,600 ft). Associated
species include 'ahakea, koa, kukui, Diospyros sandwicensis (lama),
manono, hala pepe, papala, Nestegis sandwicensis (olopua), and 'ohi'a
(Bates 1990; HHP 1990a, 1994j1, 1994j3 to 1994j6; HPCC 1990b1 to
1990b3; Wood and Perlman 1993a; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; J. Lau,
pers. comm., 1994)
lly grows in diverse mesic forest at
elevations between 475 and 795 m (1,960 and 2,600 ft). Associated
species include 'ahakea, koa, kukui, Diospyros sandwicensis (lama),
manono, hala pepe, papala, Nestegis sandwicensis (olopua), and 'ohi'a
(Bates 1990; HHP 1990a, 1994j1, 1994j3 to 1994j6; HPCC 1990b1 to
1990b3; Wood and Perlman 1993a; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; J. Lau,
pers. comm., 1994).
Competition with a habitat degradation by the invasive alien plant
species lantana, Passiflora liqularis (sweet granadilla), thimbleberry,
Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant), strawberry guava, and Triumfetta
semitriloba (Sacramento bur); substrate loss; habitat degradation and
browsing by feral goats and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus); predation
by rats, which eat the seeds; and a risk of extinction from naturally
occurring events due to the small number of remaining populations are
the major threats affecting the survival of Kokia kauaiensis (HHP
1994j1, 1994j3 to 1994j6; HPCC 1990b1 to 1990b3; Wood and Perlman
1993a; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; J. Lau, S. Perlman, and K. Wood,
pers. comms., 1994).
Based upon a specimen collected by Steven Perlman on Kauai in 1980,
Harold St. John (1984) described Labordia tinifolia var. wahiawaensis,
naming it for the Wahiawa Mountains where it was first collected.
Labordia tinifolia var. wahiawaensis, a member of the logania
family (Loganiaceae), is a shrub or small tree, usually 2 to 8 m (6.6
to 26.2 ft) tall. The young branches are cylindrical or nearly so and
hairless. The elliptic to lance-shaped leaves are usually 4.5 to 21 cm
(1.8 to 8.3 in) long and 2 to 5 cm (0.8 to 2 in) wide. The membranous
leaves are medium green hairless, and the veins are not impressed on
the upper leaf surface. Normally, 9 to 12 hairless flowers are
clustered on a downward curving inflorescence stalk 9 to 22 mm (0.35 to
0.9 in) long each having an individual stalk 8 to 11 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in)
in length
shaped leaves are usually 4.5 to 21 cm
(1.8 to 8.3 in) long and 2 to 5 cm (0.8 to 2 in) wide. The membranous
leaves are medium green hairless, and the veins are not impressed on
the upper leaf surface. Normally, 9 to 12 hairless flowers are
clustered on a downward curving inflorescence stalk 9 to 22 mm (0.35 to
0.9 in) long each having an individual stalk 8 to 11 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in)
in length. The pale yellowish green flower is narrowly urn-shaped, 17
to 19 mm (0.7 to 0.75 in) long. The tubular portion of the flower is
5.5 to 7.8 mm (0.2 to 0.3 in) long with long, white hairs inside, while
the egg-shaped lobes are 1.7 to 2.3 mm (0.07 to 0.09 in) long. The
fruit is an egg-shaped capsule, 8 to 17 mm (0.2 to 0.7 in) long,
usually with two valves and an apex with a beak 0.5 to 1.5 mm (0.02 to
0.1 in) long. Three varieties of Labordia tinifolia are recognized:
var. lanaiensis on Lanai and Molokai, var. tinifolia on Kauai and four
other islands, and var. wahiawaensis, endemic to Kauai. Variety
wahiawaensis is distinguished from the other two by its larger corolla.
This species differs from others of the genus by having a long common
flower cluster stalk, hairless young stems and leaf surfaces,
transversely wrinkled capsule valves, and corolla lobes usually 1.7 to
2.3 mm (0.1 in) long (Wagner et al. 1990).
Labordia tinifolia var. wahiawaensis is only known from the Wahiawa
Drainage in the Wahiawa Mountains of Kauai from about 630 to 740 m
(2,070 to 2,430 ft) elevation on privately owned land, within a 0.8 by
1.2 km (0.5 by 0.75 mi) area (HHP 1994k; HPCC 1991e1, 1991e2; Lorence
and Flynn 1991). More than 100 plants were known from the area before
Hurricane 'Iniki swept over Kauai in 1992. During a 1994 visit to the
area, only 20 to 30 surviving individuals were found (S. Perlman, pers.
comm., 1994). The plants grow along streams in lowland wet forests
dominated by `ohi'a and often in association with 'olapa or uluhe
mi) area (HHP 1994k; HPCC 1991e1, 1991e2; Lorence
and Flynn 1991). More than 100 plants were known from the area before
Hurricane 'Iniki swept over Kauai in 1992. During a 1994 visit to the
area, only 20 to 30 surviving individuals were found (S. Perlman, pers.
comm., 1994). The plants grow along streams in lowland wet forests
dominated by `ohi'a and often in association with 'olapa or uluhe.
Plants found in association with this taxon include ha 'iwale, hame,
kopiko, manono, and Athyrium sp. (HPCC 1991e1, 1991e2).
The primary threats to the remaining individuals of Labordia
tinifolia var. wahiawaensis are competition with the alien plant
strawberry guava, habitat degradation by pigs, trampling by humans, and
a risk of extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced
reproductive vigor due to the small number of individuals in the only
known population (HPCC 1991e1, 1991e2; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994).
Lydgate first collected Myrsine linearifolia on Kauai in 1912.
Edward Y. Hosaka (1940) chose the specific epithet to describe its
distinctive linear-lanceolate curved leaves. In an action that was not
supported by other taxonomists, Otto and Isa Degener (1971, 1975)
transferred several species from the genus Myrsine to the genus Rapanea
based upon minute floral features. The currently accepted treatment of
the Hawaiian members of the family follows Hosaka's earlier, broad
concept of Myrsine (Wagner et al. 1990).
Myrsine linearifolia, a member of the myrsine family (Myrsinaceae),
is a branched shrub, 2.5 to 8 m (8.2 to 26.2 ft) tall. The slightly
fleshy, linear leaves are 5 to 9 cm (1.7 to 3 in) long, 0.25 to 0.4 cm
(0.09 to 0.14 in) wide, often yellowish purple toward the base, and
tend to be clustered toward the upper branches. The margins of the
leaves are smooth and roll slightly toward the underside of the leaf.
One to three apparently perfect (containing male and female parts)
flowers, on stalks 1 to 4.2 mm (0.04 to 0.17 in) long, occur in
clusters among the leaves
.7 to 3 in) long, 0.25 to 0.4 cm
(0.09 to 0.14 in) wide, often yellowish purple toward the base, and
tend to be clustered toward the upper branches. The margins of the
leaves are smooth and roll slightly toward the underside of the leaf.
One to three apparently perfect (containing male and female parts)
flowers, on stalks 1 to 4.2 mm (0.04 to 0.17 in) long, occur in
clusters among the leaves. The greenish petals are inversely lance-
shaped, about 2.2 to 2.5 mm (0.09 to 0.1 in) long, and also have
margins fringed with hairs. At maturity, the fruits are black elliptic-
shaped drupes, about 6 mm (0.2 in) long. This species is distinguished
from others of the genus by the shape, length, and width of the leaves,
length of the petals, and number of flowers per cluster (Wagner et al.
1990).
Historically, Myrsine linearifolia was known from nine scattered
locations on Kauai: Olokele Valley, Kalualea, Kalalau Valley and
Kahuamaa Flat, Limahuli-Hanakapiai Ridge, Koaie Stream, Pohakuao,
Namolokama Summit Plateau, and Haupu (HHP 1994L1, 1991L4, 1994L6,
1994L9). This species is currently known from six populations on State
and private land: Kalalau Valley including Kahuamaa Flat above Kalalau,
Limahuli-Hanakapiai Ridge, Wahiawa Drainage, Koaie Stream, Pohakuao,
and Namolokama Summit Plateau (HHP 1994L2, 1994L3, 1994L5, 1994L7; HPCC
1991f5, Wood and Perlman 1993a; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1994). Myrsine
linearifolia typically grows in mesic to wet 'ohi'a forests that are
sometimes co-dominant with 'olapa or uluhe from 585 to 1,280 m (1,920
to 4,200 ft) elevation (HHP 1994L2, 1994L3, 1994L5, 1994L7; HPCC
1991f5; Wood and Perlman 1993a; J. Lau and K. Wood, pers. comms.,
1994). The largest population, located in Kalalau Valley, contains
several hundreds of individuals (S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994). The
remaining five populations total about 100 plants; hence, approximately
1,000 to 1,500 individuals are known for the entire species
4,200 ft) elevation (HHP 1994L2, 1994L3, 1994L5, 1994L7; HPCC
1991f5; Wood and Perlman 1993a; J. Lau and K. Wood, pers. comms.,
1994). The largest population, located in Kalalau Valley, contains
several hundreds of individuals (S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994). The
remaining five populations total about 100 plants; hence, approximately
1,000 to 1,500 individuals are known for the entire species. Plants
growing in association with this species include 'ahakea,' aiea, alani,
Eurya sandwicensis (anini), kopiko, Lysimachia sp., and native ferns.
Competition with alien plants such as daisy fleabane, lantana,
prickly Florida blackberry, strawberry guava, thimbleberry, and air
plant, and habitat degradation by ungulates such as pigs and goats are
major threats to Myrsine linearifolia (HPCC 1991f1 to 1991f5, 1993f; J.
Lau, S. Perlman, and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994).
Hillebrand (1888) described Phyllostegia knudsenii from a specimen
collected by Knudsen in the 1800s. He chose the specific epithet to
honor the collector.
Phyllostegia knudsenii, a member of the mint family (Lamiaceae), is
an erect, perennial herb or vine. The opposite leaves are limp, ovate,
faintly pubescent, 11.5 to 18 cm (4.5 to 7 in) long, and 5.1 to 9 cm (2
to 3.5 in) wide. Flowers are borne in groups of two to four along a
flower stalk 4 to 6.5 cm (1.6 to 2.6 in) long. The corolla is 6 to 8 mm
(0.2 to 0.3 in) long. The fruits are four black fleshy nutlets in each
flower and are 1.5 to 2 mm (0.06 to 0.8 in) long. This species differs
from others in this genus in its specialized flower stalk. It differs
from the closely related Phyllostegia floribunda in often having four
flowers per group (Hillebrand 1888, HPCC 1993j, Sherff 1935, Wagner et
al. 1990).
Until 1993, Phyllostegia knudsenii was only known from the type
collection made in the 1800s, from the woods of Waimea (HHP 1991a,
Hillebrand 1888, Sherff 1935, Wagner et al. 1990). In 1993, botanists
at NTBG rediscovered one individual of this species in Koaie Canyon
hyllostegia floribunda in often having four
flowers per group (Hillebrand 1888, HPCC 1993j, Sherff 1935, Wagner et
al. 1990).
Until 1993, Phyllostegia knudsenii was only known from the type
collection made in the 1800s, from the woods of Waimea (HHP 1991a,
Hillebrand 1888, Sherff 1935, Wagner et al. 1990). In 1993, botanists
at NTBG rediscovered one individual of this species in Koaie Canyon.
This species is found in 'ohi'a lowland mesic forest at 865 m (2,840
ft) elevation. Associated species include olomea, Cyrtandra kauaiensis
(ulunahele), Cyrtandra paludosa (moa), Elaeocarpus bifidus (kalia),
Cryptocarya mannii (holio), Doodia kunthiana, Selaginella arbuscula,
lama, Zanthoxylum dipetalum (a'e), Pittosporum sp. (ho' awa), Pouteria
sandwicensis ('ala'a), and Pritchardia minor (loulu) (HPCC 1993j; S.
Perlman, pers. comm., 1994).
Major threats to Phyllostegia knudsenii include habitat degradation
by pigs and goats; competition with alien plant species such as pipili,
Hilo grass, lantana, and air plant; and a risk of extinction from
naturally occurring events (e.g., landslides) and reduced reproductive
vigor due to the small number of individuals in the only known
population (HPCC 1993j).
Phyllostegia wawrana was described by Sherff (1934) from a
collection made in the 1800s. Sherff chose the specific epithet to
honor the collector, Dr. Heinrich Wawra.
Phyllostegia wawrana, a member of the mint family, is a perennial
vine that is woody toward the base and has long, crinkly hairs along
the stem. The leaves are opposite, ovate, and covered with hairs,
especially along the veins of the lower surface. The leaves are 10.5 to
20 cm (4.1 to 7.8 in) long and 4 to 11 cm (1.6 to 4.3 in) wide. Flowers
are borne in groups of four to six along a leafy flower stalk with one
or two short lateral branches. Each of these lateral branches have a
pair of leaves at the base. The corolla tube is about 10 mm (0.03 in)
long, with an upper lip about 2 mm (0.08 in) long
ly along the veins of the lower surface. The leaves are 10.5 to
20 cm (4.1 to 7.8 in) long and 4 to 11 cm (1.6 to 4.3 in) wide. Flowers
are borne in groups of four to six along a leafy flower stalk with one
or two short lateral branches. Each of these lateral branches have a
pair of leaves at the base. The corolla tube is about 10 mm (0.03 in)
long, with an upper lip about 2 mm (0.08 in) long. The fruits are four
greenish-black nutlets in each flower and are about 2 mm (0.8 in) long.
This species may be related to Phyllostegia floribunda and Phyllostegia
knudsenii, but has a less specialized flower stalk (Degener 1946,
Sherff 1934, Wagner et al. 1990).
Phyllostegia wawrana was reported from Hanalei in the 1800s and was
last observed along Kokee Stream in 1926, until 1993 when NTBG
botanists found two populations on State-owned land: 10 to 50
individuals in the Makaleha Mountains and 5 or 6 in Honopu Valley (HHP
1991bl, 1991b2; HPCC 1993k1, 1993k2; Sherff 1934, 1935; Wagner et al.
1990). This species grows in 'ohi'a-dominated forest with either 'olapa
or uluhe as codominant species. Associated species include Diplazium
sandwichianum, 'ohelo, kanawao, kolea, kopiko, Dubautia knudsenii
(na'ena'e), Scaevola procera (naupaka kuahiwi), Gunnera sp., Pleomele
aurea (hala pepe), Claoxylon sandwicense (po'ola), Elaphoglossum sp.,
'ala 'ala wai nui, manono, haupu'u, 'ama'u, ho'awa, 'uki, and Syzygium
sandwicensis ('ohi'a ha) (HPCC 1993k1, 1993k2).
The major threats to Phyllostegia wawrana include degradation of
habitat by feral pigs and competition with alien plant species such as
thimbleberry, Passiflora mollissima (banana poka), prickly Florida
blackberry, Melastoma candidum, fireweed, and daisy fleabane (HPCC
1993k1, 1993k2).
Harold St. John described Pritchardia napaliensis based upon a
specimen collected by Charles Christensen on Kauai in 1976 (St. John
1981). He named this plant for the Na Pali Coast of Kauai where it was
first collected
n plant species such as
thimbleberry, Passiflora mollissima (banana poka), prickly Florida
blackberry, Melastoma candidum, fireweed, and daisy fleabane (HPCC
1993k1, 1993k2).
Harold St. John described Pritchardia napaliensis based upon a
specimen collected by Charles Christensen on Kauai in 1976 (St. John
1981). He named this plant for the Na Pali Coast of Kauai where it was
first collected.
Pritchardia napaliensis, a member of the palm family (Arecaceae),
is a small palm with about 20 leaves and an open
crown. The palm ranges from 4 to 6 m (13 to 10 ft) tall and has a
slender trunk measuring 18 to 20 cm (7 to 8 in) in diameter. The green
leave blades are about 85 cm (33.5 in) long and are almost flat
irrespective of the longitudinal folds). The lower leave surface is
covered with elliptic, pale, thin, flexible, and somewhat translucent
scales with fringed margins. Upon maturity, the leaves are almost
smooth and the leaf segments are lax, flexible, and droop with
increasing age. The flowers are arranged in branched clusters about 14
cm (5.5 in) long which are equal or shorter in length than the leaf
stalks. Each flower is associated with a small, bristly bract. Bracts
associated with the flowers or flower stalks are sparsely and
inconspicuously coated with scales which are usually lost at maturity.
The black fruits are 1.7 to 2.3 cm (0.7 to 0.9 in) long, 1.4 to 1.8 cm
(0.6 to 0.7 in) in diameter, and inversely egg-shaped. This species is
distinguished from others of the genus that grown on Kauai by having
about 20 flat leaves with pale scales on the lower surface that fall
off with age, inflorescences with hairless main axes, and globose
fruits less than 3 cm (1.2 in) long (Read and Hodel 1990)
k fruits are 1.7 to 2.3 cm (0.7 to 0.9 in) long, 1.4 to 1.8 cm
(0.6 to 0.7 in) in diameter, and inversely egg-shaped. This species is
distinguished from others of the genus that grown on Kauai by having
about 20 flat leaves with pale scales on the lower surface that fall
off with age, inflorescences with hairless main axes, and globose
fruits less than 3 cm (1.2 in) long (Read and Hodel 1990).
Pritchardia napaliensis is known from three locations on the island
of Kauai on State-owned land: Hoolulu and Waiahuakua valleys in the
Hono O Na Pali NAR and Alealau in Kalalau Valley (within or close to
the boundaries of Hono O Na Pali NAR and Na Pali Coast State Park) (HHP
1994m1, 1994m2; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994). This species is not known
to occur anywhere else (HHP 1994ml, 1994m2). Pritchardia napaliensis
typically grows in a wide variety of habitats ranging from lowland dry
to mesic forests to montane wet forests dominated by lama and
sometimes, kukui, 'ohi'a, and uluhe from 150 to about 1,160 m (500 to
about 3,800 ft) elevation (HHP 1994m1, 1994m2; HPCC 1990c1, 1990c2,
1991g; S. Perlman and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994). The largest
population in Hoolulu Valley contains between 60 and 80 plants and the
2 other populations each contain 3 or fewer plants, giving a total of
fewer than 90 known individuals for this species (HHP 1994m1, 1994m2;
HPCC 1991g; S. Perlman and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994). Several
associated plant species besides those mentioned above include hala
pepe, kopiko, Cordyline fruticosa (ti), Cheirodendron trigynum
('olapa), and Ochrosia sp. (holei) (HHP 1994m1, 1994m2; HPCC 1990c1,
1990c2, 1991g)
contain 3 or fewer plants, giving a total of
fewer than 90 known individuals for this species (HHP 1994m1, 1994m2;
HPCC 1991g; S. Perlman and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994). Several
associated plant species besides those mentioned above include hala
pepe, kopiko, Cordyline fruticosa (ti), Cheirodendron trigynum
('olapa), and Ochrosia sp. (holei) (HHP 1994m1, 1994m2; HPCC 1990c1,
1990c2, 1991g).
Major threats to Pritchardia napaliensis include habitat
degradation and/or grazing by goats and pigs; seed predation by rats;
competition with the alien plants air plant, daisy fleabane, lantana,
Psidium guajava (common guava), and possibly ti; and a risk of
extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced reproductive
vigor due to the small number of remaining populations and individuals
(HPCC 1990c1, 1990c2, 1991g).
Pritchardia viscosa was first described by Rock in 1921, based on a
specimen he collected on Kauai a year earlier (Beccari and Rock 1921).
The specific epithet refers to the very viscous inflorescence, calyx,
and corolla.
Pritchardia viscosa, a member of the palm family, is a small palm 3
to 8 m (10 to 26 ft) tall. The lower surface of the leaf blades is
silvery grey and covered with small scales. The inflorescences are
about the same length as the leaf stalks and consist of one to three
loosely branched panicles, each about 15 to 20 cm (6 to 8 in) long. The
flowers occur in two opposite rows and are extremely sticky and shiny.
The elliptic, pear-shaped fruits are up to 4 cm (1.6 in) long and about
2.5 cm (1 in) wide. This species differs from others of the genus that
grow on Kauai by the degree of hairness of lower surface of the leaves
and main axis of the flowr cluster, and length of the flower cluster
(Read and Hodel 1990).
Historically, Pritchardia viscosa was known only from the 1920
collection from Kalihiwai Valley on the island of Kauai (HHP 1994n2)
4 cm (1.6 in) long and about
2.5 cm (1 in) wide. This species differs from others of the genus that
grow on Kauai by the degree of hairness of lower surface of the leaves
and main axis of the flowr cluster, and length of the flower cluster
(Read and Hodel 1990).
Historically, Pritchardia viscosa was known only from the 1920
collection from Kalihiwai Valley on the island of Kauai (HHP 1994n2).
It was not seen again until 1990, when naturalist John Obata and NTBG
botanist Ken Wood observed it in the same general area as Rock's type
locality off the Powerline Road at 510 m (1,680 ft) elevation on State
land (HHP 1994n1; J. Obata, pers. comm., 1991; S. Perlman, pers. comm.
1994). This population of one juvenile and two mature plants comprise
the only known extant individuals; three additional plants from this
population were destroyed by Hurricane 'Iniki in 1992. The plants are
found in an 'ohi'a-uluhe lowland wet forest associated with plant
species including 'aiea, 'ahakea, hame, hapu'u, and kopiko (S. Perlman,
pers. comm., 1994).
Strawberry guava and alien grasses such as Hilo grass are major
threats to Pritchardia viscosa because these alien plants are effective
competitors for space, light, nutrients, and water. Rats are known to
eat the fruit of Pritchardia viscosa and are, therefore, a serious
threat to the reproductive success of this species (S. Perlman, pers.
comm., 1994). At least one of the remaining mature trees has been
damaged by spiked boots used by a seed collector to scale these trees
(L. Mehrhoff, in litt., 1994). Also, because of the small numbers of
individuals in the only known population, this species is susceptible
to extinction because a single naturally occurring event (e.g., a
hurricane) could destroy all remaining plants.
In 1895, Heller collected a plant specimen on Kauai that Sherff
as been
damaged by spiked boots used by a seed collector to scale these trees
(L. Mehrhoff, in litt., 1994). Also, because of the small numbers of
individuals in the only known population, this species is susceptible
to extinction because a single naturally occurring event (e.g., a
hurricane) could destroy all remaining plants.
In 1895, Heller collected a plant specimen on Kauai that Sherff
(1943) later named Schiedea helleri in honor of its collector. Listed
as possibly extinct in the current treatment of the family (Wagner et
al. 1990), Schiedea helleri was recently collected on Kauai by
botanists from NTBG (HPCC 1993g).
Schiedea helleri, a member of the pink family, is a vine. The
stems, smooth below and minutely hairy above, are probably prostrate
and at least 0.15 m (0.5 ft) long with internodes at least 4 to 15 cm
(1.6 to 6 in) long. The opposite leaves are somewhat thick and range
from 10 to 14 cm (4 to 5.5 in) long and 4.5 to 6 cm (1.8 to 2.4 in)
wide. The leaves are triangular, egg-shaped to heart-shaped,
conspicuously three-veined, and nearly hairless to sparsely covered
with short, fine hairs, especially along the margins. The perfect
flowers occur in loose, open branched clusters, each branch being 20 to
26 cm (8 to 10.2 in) long. The flower contains three styles and
probably ten stamens. The fruits are capsules, about 3 to 3.4 mm (0.12
to 0.13 in) long. This species differs from others of the genus that
grow on Kauai by its viney habitat (Wagner et al. 1990).
Schiedea helleri was originally known only from a single location
above Waimea, at Kaholuamano on the island of Kauai, collected 100
years ago (HHP 1994o). In 1993, this species was discovered on a steep
wall above a side stream off Mohihi Stream, approximately 5.6 km (3.5
mi) north of the original location (HPCC 1993g)
the genus that
grow on Kauai by its viney habitat (Wagner et al. 1990).
Schiedea helleri was originally known only from a single location
above Waimea, at Kaholuamano on the island of Kauai, collected 100
years ago (HHP 1994o). In 1993, this species was discovered on a steep
wall above a side stream off Mohihi Stream, approximately 5.6 km (3.5
mi) north of the original location (HPCC 1993g). The only known
population consists of 30 to 40 mature individuals found on a steep
cliff in closed 'ohi'a-uluhe montane wet forest on State-owned land,
within or close to the Alakai Wilderness Preserve, at approximately
1,070 m (3,500 ft) elevation (HPCC 1993g); S. Perlman, pers. comm.,
1994). Other native plants growing in association with this population
include hapu'u, kanawao, 'olapa, Cyanea hirtella (haha), Dianella
sandwicensis ('uki'uki), and Viola wailenalenae (HPCC 1993g). The
federally endangered Poa sandvicensis is also found here (M. Bruegmann,
in litt., 1994).
Competition with the noxious alien plant prickly Florida blackberry
and a risk of extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced
reproductive vigor, due to the small number of extant individuals in
the only known population, are serious threats to Schiedea helleri
(HPCC 1993g). Pigs
have not yet been reported from this drainage, but pose a potential
threat since they are found in nearby areas (M. Bruegmann, in litt.,
1994).
Robert Hobdy collected a specimen of Schiedea membranacea on Kauai
in 1969. Harold St. John (1972) later described and named the taxon.
The specific epithet refers to the membranous texture of the leaves.
Schiedea membranacea, a member of the pink family, is a perennial
herb. The unbranched, fleshy stems rise upwards from near the base and
are somewhat sprawling. They are 0.5 to 1 m (1.6 to 3.3 ft) long with
internodes 6 to 12 cm (2.4 to 4.7 in) long. During dry seasons, the
plant dies back to a woody, short stem at or beneath the ground
surface
ther
locations. Although the number of plants of this species remaining in
Paaiki Valley is not known, about 200 to 250 individuals are known in
the other five populations (HHP 1994p1 to 1994p3; S. Perlman and K.
Wood, pers. comm., 1994). This species is typically found on cliffs and
cliff bases in a wide variety of mesic to wet habitats between 520 and
1,160 m (1,700 and 3,800 ft) elevation. The vegetation ranges from open
to closed lowland to montane shrubland to forest communities with
either a variety of canopy and understory species or dominated by
kukui, mamaki, or 'ohi'a (HHP 1994p1 to 1994p3; HPCC 1990d1 to 1990d3,
1991h, 1993h; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994).
Habitat degradation by feral ungulates (mule deer, goats, and
pigs); competition with the alien plant species daisy fleabane.
lantana, prickly Florida blackberry, thimbleberry, strawberry guava,
Ageratine adenophora (Maui pamakani), A. riparia (Hamakua pamakani),
and banana poka; and landslides are the primary threats to schiedea
membranacea (CPC 1990; HPCC 1990d1 to 1990d3, 1991h, 1993h; Wood and
Perlman 1993a; M. Breugmann, in litt., 1994; S. Perlman, pers. comm.,
1994).
Mann and Brigham first collected a specimen of Schiedea
stellarioides in the mountains of Kauai between 1864 and 1865. Benedict
Pierre Georges Hochreutiner (1925) and E.E. Sherff (1943, 1945, 1954)
published several varieties of this species, characterized only by
slight differences in leaf shape and size, which are not recognized in
the current treatment of the family (Wagner et al. 1990).
Schiedea stellarioides, a member of the pink family, is a slightly
erect to prostrate subshrub 0.3 to 0.6 m (1 to 2 ft) tall with branched
stems and internodes generally 3.5 to 6.5 cm (1.4 to 2.5 in) long. The
opposite leaves are very slender to oblong-elliptic, 2.7 to 8.2 cm (1.1
to 3.2 in) long. 0.2 to 1.3 cm (0.1 to 0.5 in) wide, and one-veined.
The perfect flowers lack petals and occur in open branched clusters
a member of the pink family, is a slightly
erect to prostrate subshrub 0.3 to 0.6 m (1 to 2 ft) tall with branched
stems and internodes generally 3.5 to 6.5 cm (1.4 to 2.5 in) long. The
opposite leaves are very slender to oblong-elliptic, 2.7 to 8.2 cm (1.1
to 3.2 in) long. 0.2 to 1.3 cm (0.1 to 0.5 in) wide, and one-veined.
The perfect flowers lack petals and occur in open branched clusters.
The inflorescence ranges from 15 to 32 cm (6 to 12.6 in) long. The
flower stalks are 7 to 10 mm (0.28 to 0.4 in) long and the narrowly
egg-shaped sepals are 2.9 to 3.3 mm (0.11 to 0.13 in) long. The flowers
contain ten stamens, three styles, and a two-lobed nectary. The
capsular fruits are 2.2 to 3.4 mm (0.09 to 0.13 in) long and contain
tiny, dark brown, circular to kidney-shaped, slightly wrinkled seeds.
This species is distinguished from others of the genus that grow on
Kauai by the number of veins in the leaves, shape of the leaves,
presence of a leaf stalk, length of the flower cluster, and shape of
the seeds (Wagner et al. 1990).
Historically, Schiedea stellarioides was known from the sea cliffs
of Hanakapiai Beach, Kaholuamano-Opaewela region, the ridge between
Waialaw and Nawaimaka valleys, and Haupu Range on the island of Kauai
(HHP 1994q1 to 1994q3). This species is now known only from the ridge
between Waialea and Nawaimaka valleys on State land, just 0.8 km (0.5
mi) northwest of the Kaholuamano-Opaewela region (HHP 1994q4). This
population of approximately 500 to 1,000 individuals is found on steep
slopes in a closed koa-'ohi'a a lowland to montane mesic forest between
610 and 1,120 m (2,000 and 3,680 ft) elevation (HHP 1994q4, HPCC
1993i). The plants are scattered in an approximately 2-km (1.25-mi) by
0.3-km (0.2-mi) area. Associated plant species include 'a'ali'i, alani,
'uki'uki, Bidens cosmoides (po'ola nui), Mariscus sp., and Styphelia
tameiameiae (pukiawe) (HHP 1994q4)
d on steep
slopes in a closed koa-'ohi'a a lowland to montane mesic forest between
610 and 1,120 m (2,000 and 3,680 ft) elevation (HHP 1994q4, HPCC
1993i). The plants are scattered in an approximately 2-km (1.25-mi) by
0.3-km (0.2-mi) area. Associated plant species include 'a'ali'i, alani,
'uki'uki, Bidens cosmoides (po'ola nui), Mariscus sp., and Styphelia
tameiameiae (pukiawe) (HHP 1994q4).
The primary threats to this species include habitat degradation by
feral ungulates (pigs and goats), direct destruction of plants by
goats, competition with the alien plants molasses grass and prickly
Florida blackberry, and a risk of extinction of the one remaining
population from naturally occurring events (HPCC 1993i; S. Perlman,
pers. comm., 1994).
Charles Noyes Forbes collected a specimen of Viola kauaensis var.
wahiawaensis on Kauai in 1909. In 1920, he described the variety,
naming it for Wahiawa Bog where it was first collected.
Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis, a member of the violet family
(Violaceae), is a perennial herb with upward curving or weakly rising,
hairless, lateral stems about 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in) long. The
kidney- to heart-shaped leaves are usually 2 to 5 cm (0.8 to 2 in) long
and 3.5 to 6 cm (1.4 to 2.4 in) wide, and widely spaced. The toothed
leaf blades are unlobed or rarely three-lobed, hairless or covered with
a few minute hairs, with a broadly wedge-shaped base. The solitary
flowers are borne in the leaf axils. Two types of flowers are present.
One is self-pollinating and does not open, while the other opens and
requires cross-pollination. The flowers that open have hairless petals
which are white on the upper surface and purple or blue to white on the
lower surface. These petals are narrowly spatula-shaped, the upper
petals measuring about 15 to 19 mm (0.6 to 0.7 in) long, the lateral
ones about 18 to 23 mm (0.7 to 0.9 in) long, and the lower ones about
18 to 23 mm (0.7 to 1 in) long. The non-opening flowers usually occur
on short lateral stems
en have hairless petals
which are white on the upper surface and purple or blue to white on the
lower surface. These petals are narrowly spatula-shaped, the upper
petals measuring about 15 to 19 mm (0.6 to 0.7 in) long, the lateral
ones about 18 to 23 mm (0.7 to 0.9 in) long, and the lower ones about
18 to 23 mm (0.7 to 1 in) long. The non-opening flowers usually occur
on short lateral stems. Their greenish petals are hairless, the upper
ones being three-lobed and about 1 to 1.6 mm (0.04 to 0.06 in) long.
The fruit is a deeply lobed capsule 8 to 13 mm (0.3 to 0.5 in) long.
Two varieties of this species are recognized, both occurring on Kauai:
var. kauaensis and var. wahiawaensis. Variety wahiawaensis is
distinguished by having broadly wedge-shaped leaf bases, whereas var.
kauaensis has heart-shaped to truncate leaf bases. The species is
distinguished from others of the genus by its non-woody habit, widely
spaced leaves, and by having
two types of flowers: conspicuous, open flowers and smaller, unopened
flowers (Wagner et al. 1990).
Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis is known only from the Wahiawa
Mountains of Kauai on privately owned land (HHP 1994r, Lorence and
Flynn 1991). This taxon is not known to have occurred beyond its
current range. Fewer than 100 individuals are known to remain in
Kanaele Swamp (often referred to as Wahiawa Bog), an open bog
surrounded by low scrub of 'ohi'a,uluhe, and 'ohi'a ha at about 640 m
(2,100 ft) elevation. Another eight plants are on a nearby ridge
between Mount Kapalaoa and Mount Kahili in wet shrubland dominated by
uluhe-Diplopterygium pinnatum ground cover, with scattered 'ohi'a and
Syzygium sp., at about 865 m (2,840 ft) elevation (HHP 1994r; Lorence
and Flynn 1991; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994).
The primary threats to Viola kauaiensis var
, and 'ohi'a ha at about 640 m
(2,100 ft) elevation. Another eight plants are on a nearby ridge
between Mount Kapalaoa and Mount Kahili in wet shrubland dominated by
uluhe-Diplopterygium pinnatum ground cover, with scattered 'ohi'a and
Syzygium sp., at about 865 m (2,840 ft) elevation (HHP 1994r; Lorence
and Flynn 1991; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994).
The primary threats to Viola kauaiensis var. wahiawaensis are a
risk of extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced
reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing populations and
individuals, habitat degradation through the rooting activities of
feral pigs, and competition with alien plants such as Juncus
planifolius and Pterolepis glomerata (HHP 1994r; Lorence and Flynn
1991; K. Wood. pers. comm., 1994).
Previous Federal Action
Federal action on these plants began as a result of section 12 of
the Endangered Species Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), which directed the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare a report on plants
considered to be endangered, threatened, or extinct in the United
States. This report, designated as House Document No. 94-51, was
presented to Congress on January 9, 1975. In that document, Hibiscus
waimeae ssp. hannerae (as H. waimeae), Kokia kauaiensis, Myrsine
linearifolia, (as Myrsine linearifolia var. linearifolia), Phyllostegia
knudsenii, and Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis were considered to be
endangered. Delissea rivularis and Schiedea membranacea were considered
to be threatened. On July 1, 1975, the Service published a notice in
the Federal Register (40 FR 27823) of its acceptance of the Smithsonian
report as a petition within the context of section 4(c)(2) (now section
4(b)(3)) of the Act, and giving notice of its intention to review the
status of the plant taxa named therein
endangered. Delissea rivularis and Schiedea membranacea were considered
to be threatened. On July 1, 1975, the Service published a notice in
the Federal Register (40 FR 27823) of its acceptance of the Smithsonian
report as a petition within the context of section 4(c)(2) (now section
4(b)(3)) of the Act, and giving notice of its intention to review the
status of the plant taxa named therein. As a result of that review, on
June 16, 1976, the Service published a proposed rule in the Federal
Register (41 FR 24523) to determine endangered status pursuant to
section 4 of the Act for approximately 1,700 vascular plant species,
including all of the above taxa considered to be endangered. The list
of 1,700 plant taxa was assembled on the basis of comments and data
received by the Smithsonian Institution and the Service in response to
House Document No. 94-51 and the July 1, 1975, Federal Register
publication.
General comments received in response to the 1976 proposal are
summarized in an April 26, 1978, Federal Register publication (43 FR
17909). In 1978, amendments to the Act required that all proposals over
two years old be withdrawn. A one-year grace period was given to
proposals already over two years old. On December 10, 1979, the Service
published a notice in the Federal Register (44 FR 70796) withdrawing
the portion of the June 16, 1976, proposal that had not been made
final, along with four other proposals that had expired. The Service
published an updated notice of review for plants on December 15, 1980
(45 FR 82479), September 27, 1985 (50 FR 39525), February 21, 1990 (55
FR 6183), and September 30, 1993 (58 FR 51144). Fourteen of the species
in this proposal (including synonymous taxa) have at one time or
another been considered either Category 1 or Category 2 candidates for
Federal listing
that had expired. The Service
published an updated notice of review for plants on December 15, 1980
(45 FR 82479), September 27, 1985 (50 FR 39525), February 21, 1990 (55
FR 6183), and September 30, 1993 (58 FR 51144). Fourteen of the species
in this proposal (including synonymous taxa) have at one time or
another been considered either Category 1 or Category 2 candidates for
Federal listing. Category 1 species are those for which the Service has
on file substantial information on biological vulnerability and threats
to support preparation of listing proposals but for which listing
proposals have not been published because they are precluded by other
listing activities. Category 2 species are those for which listing as
endangered or threatened is possibly appropriate, but for which
sufficient data on biological vulnerability and threats are not
currently available. Schiedea membranacea and Kokia kauaiensis were
considered Category 2 species in all notices of review. In the 1980 and
1985 notices, Myrsine linearifolia (as M. linearifolia var.
linearifolia), Phyllostegia knudsenii, and Viola kauaensis var.
wahiawaensis were considered Category 1 species. In the 1990 and 1993
notices, Myrsine linearifolia and Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis
were considered Category 2 status. Phyllostegia knudsenii was
considered Category 3A in the 1990 notice. Category 3A species are
those for which the Service has persuasive evidence of extinction.
Delissea rivularis was considered a Category 2 species in the 1980 and
1985 notices, but was believed to be extinct and considered Category 3A
in the 1990 notice. In the 1985 notice, Alsinidendron viscosum,
Schiedea helleri, and Schiedea stellarioides were considered Category
1*, and were moved to Category 3A in the 1990 notice. Category 1*
species are those which are possibly extinct. Cyanea recta and
Phyllostegia wawrana were considered Category 3A species in the 1990
notice
t was believed to be extinct and considered Category 3A
in the 1990 notice. In the 1985 notice, Alsinidendron viscosum,
Schiedea helleri, and Schiedea stellarioides were considered Category
1*, and were moved to Category 3A in the 1990 notice. Category 1*
species are those which are possibly extinct. Cyanea recta and
Phyllostegia wawrana were considered Category 3A species in the 1990
notice. Because new information indicates their current existence and
provides support for listing, the above seven taxa have been included
in this proposed rule. Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae (as H. waimeae)
was considered Category 3C in the 1980 and 1985 notices. Category 3C
species are those that have proven to be more abundant or widespread
than previously believed and/or are not subject to any identifiable
threat. In the 1990 and 1993 notices, this subspecies was considered a
Category 2 species, along with Pritchardia napaliensis and Pritchardia
viscosa. Alsinidendron lychonoides and Cyrtandra cyaneoides were
considered Category 2 species in the 1993 notice. Since the last
notice, new information suggests that the numbers and distribution are
sufficiently restricted and threats sufficient for the above nine
Category 2 species, as well as Cyanea remyi and the recently discovered
Hibiscadelphus woodii, to warrant listing.
Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the Act requires the Secretary to make
findings on petitions that present substantial information indicating
that the petitioned action may be warranted within 12 months of their
receipt. Section 2(b)(1) of the 1982 amendments further requires all
petitions pending on October 13, 1982, be treated as having been newly
submitted on that date. On October 13, 1983, the Service found that the
petitioned listing of these taxa was warranted, but precluded by other
pending listing actions, in accordance with section 4(b)(3)(B)(iii) of
the Act; notification of this finding was published on January 20, 1984
(49 FR 2484)
nts further requires all
petitions pending on October 13, 1982, be treated as having been newly
submitted on that date. On October 13, 1983, the Service found that the
petitioned listing of these taxa was warranted, but precluded by other
pending listing actions, in accordance with section 4(b)(3)(B)(iii) of
the Act; notification of this finding was published on January 20, 1984
(49 FR 2484). Such a finding requires the Service to consider the
petition as having been resubmitted, pursuant to section 4(b)(3)(C)(i)
of the Act. The finding was reviewed annually in October of 1984
through 1993. Publication of the present proposal constitutes the final
such finding for these taxa.
Summary of Factors Affecting the Species
Section 4 of the Endangered Species Act and regulations (50 CFR
part 424) promulgated to implement the listing provisions of the Act
set forth the procedures for adding species to the Federal lists. A
species may be
determined to be an endangered or threatened species due to one or more
of the five factors described in section 4(a)(1). The threats facing
these 19 taxa are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1.--Summary of Threats
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alien mammals Substrate
Species ---------------------------------------- Alien loss/ Human Limited Other
Deer Goats Pigs Rats plants hurricane impacts numbers*
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Alsinidendron lychnoides......................... ........ ........ X ........ X X X X1,2 .............
Alsinidendron viscosum........................... ........ X X ........ X X P X1,3 .............
Cyanea recta..................................... ........ X X X X X P .......... .............
Cyanea remyi..................................... ........ X X X X .......... .......... X1 Slugs
-----
Alsinidendron lychnoides......................... ........ ........ X ........ X X X X1,2 .............
Alsinidendron viscosum........................... ........ X X ........ X X P X1,3 .............
Cyanea recta..................................... ........ X X X X X P .......... .............
Cyanea remyi..................................... ........ X X X X .......... .......... X1 Slugs.
Crytandra cyaneoides............................. ........ ........ P P X X .......... X1 .............
Delissea rivularis............................... ........ ........ X P X X .......... X1,3 .............
Hibiscadelphus woodii............................ ........ X X ........ X X .......... X1,2 White-eye.
Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae................... ........ ........ X ........ X X .......... X1 .............
Kokia Kauaiensis................................. X X ........ X X X .......... X1 .............
Labordia tininfolia var. wahiawaensis............ ........ ........ X ........ X X X X1,3 .............
Myrsine linearifolia............................. ........ X X ........ X .......... .......... .......... .............
Phyllostegia knudsenii........................... ........ X X ........ X .......... .......... X1,2 .............
Phyllostegia wawrana............................. ........ ........ X ........ X .......... .......... X1,3 .............
Pritchardia napaliensis.......................... ........ X X X X .......... .......... X1,3 .............
Pritchardia viscosa.............................. ........ ........ ........ X X X X X1,2 .............
Schiedea helleri................................. ........ ........ P ........ X .......... P X1,3 .............
Schiedea membranacea............................. X X X ........ X X .......... .......... .............
Schiedea stellarioides........................... ........ X X ........ X .......... .......... X1 .............
Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis................ ........ ........ X ........ X .......... .........
................. ........ ........ P ........ X .......... P X1,3 .............
Schiedea membranacea............................. X X X ........ X X .......... .......... .............
Schiedea stellarioides........................... ........ X X ........ X .......... .......... X1 .............
Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis................ ........ ........ X ........ X .......... .......... X1,3 .............
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Key
X = Immediate and significant threat.
P = Potential threat.
* = No more than 100 individuals and/or no more than 5 populations.
1 = No more than 5 populations.
2 = No more than 10 individuals.
3 = No more than 100 individuals.
These factors and their application to Alsinidendron lychnoides
(Hillebr.) Sherff (kuawawaenohu), Alsinidendron viscosum (H. Mann)
Sherff (NCN), Cyanea recta (Wawra) Hillebr. (haha), Cyanea remyi Rock
(haha), Cyrtandra cyaneoides Rock (mapele), Delissea rivularis (Rock)
F. Wimmer ('oha), Hibiscadelphus woodii Lorence and Wagner (hau
kuahiwi), Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae A. Heller (koki'o ke'oke'o),
Kokia kauaiensis (Rock) Degener & Duvel (koki'o), Labordia tinifolia
var. wahiawaensis St. John (kamakahala), Myrsine linearifolia Hosaka
(kolea), Phyllostegia knudsenii Hillebr. (NCN), Phyllostegia wawrana
Sherff (NCN), Pritchardia napaliensis St. John (loulu). Pritchardia
viscosa Rock (loulu), Schiedea helleri Sherff (NCN), Schiedea
membranacea St. John (NCN), Schiedea stellarioides H. Mann
(laulihilihi), Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis C. Forbes (nani
wai'ale'ale) are as follows:
A. The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range
ostegia wawrana
Sherff (NCN), Pritchardia napaliensis St. John (loulu). Pritchardia
viscosa Rock (loulu), Schiedea helleri Sherff (NCN), Schiedea
membranacea St. John (NCN), Schiedea stellarioides H. Mann
(laulihilihi), Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis C. Forbes (nani
wai'ale'ale) are as follows:
A. The present or threatened destruction, modification, or
curtailment of its habitat or range. The habitats of the plants
included in this proposed rule have undergone extreme alteration
because of past and present land management practices, including
deliberate alien animal and plant introductions, agricultural
development, and recreational use. Natural disturbances such as storms
and landslides also destroy habitat and can have a significant effect
on small populations of plants. Destruction and modification of habitat
by introduced animals and competition with alien plants are the primary
threats facing the 19 taxa being proposed (See Table 1).
When Polynesian immigrants settled in the Hawaiian Islands, they
brought with them water-control and slash-and-burn systems of
agriculture and encouraged plants that they introduced to grow in
valleys. Their use of the land resulted in erosion, changes in the
composition of native communities, and a reduction of biodiversity
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, HHP 1990b, Kirch 1982, Wagner et al. 1985).
Hawaiians settled and altered many areas of Kauai including areas in
which some of the proposed taxa grew (Department of Land and Natural
Resources (DLNR) 1981a; HHP 1990a, 1990b). Many forested slopes were
denuded in the mid-1800s to supply firewood to whaling ships,
plantations, and island residents. Native plants were undoubtedly
affected by this practice. Also, sandalwood and tree fern harvesting
occurred in many areas, changing forest composition and affecting
native species (Cuddihy and Stone 1990)
nt of Land and Natural
Resources (DLNR) 1981a; HHP 1990a, 1990b). Many forested slopes were
denuded in the mid-1800s to supply firewood to whaling ships,
plantations, and island residents. Native plants were undoubtedly
affected by this practice. Also, sandalwood and tree fern harvesting
occurred in many areas, changing forest composition and affecting
native species (Cuddihy and Stone 1990).
Beginning with Captain James Cook in 1792, early European explorers
introduced livestock, which became feral, increased in number and
range, and caused significant changes to the natural environment of
Hawaii. The 1848 provision for land sales to individuals allowed large-
scale agricultural and ranching ventures to begin. So much land was
cleared for these enterprises that climatic conditions began to change,
and the amount and distribution of rainfall were altered (Wenkam 1969).
Plantation owners supported reforestation programs which resulted in
many alien trees being introduced in the hope that the watershed could
be conserved. Beginning in the 1920s, water collection and diversion
systems were constructed in upland areas to irrigate lowland fields,
and this undoubtedly destroyed individuals and populations of native
plants. The irrigation system also opened new routes for the invasion
of alien plants and animals into native forests (Cuddihy and Stone
1990, Culliney 1988, Wagner et al. 1990, Wenkam 1969).
conserved. Beginning in the 1920s, water collection and diversion
systems were constructed in upland areas to irrigate lowland fields,
and this undoubtedly destroyed individuals and populations of native
plants. The irrigation system also opened new routes for the invasion
of alien plants and animals into native forests (Cuddihy and Stone
1990, Culliney 1988, Wagner et al. 1990, Wenkam 1969).
Past and present activities of introduced alien mammals are the
primary factor altering and degrading vegetation and habitats on Kauai.
Feral ungulates trample and eat native vegetation and disturb and open
areas. This causes erosion and allows the entry of alien plant species
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Wagner et al. 1990). Sixteen taxa in this
proposal are directly threatened by habitat degradation resulting from
introduced ungulates: 15 taxa are threatened by pigs, 10 by goats, and
2 by deer.
The pig (Sus scrofa) is originally native to Europe, northern
Africa, Asia Minor, and Asia. European pigs, introduced to Hawaii by
Captain James Cook in 1778, became feral and invaded forested areas,
especially wet and mesic forests and dry areas at high elevations. They
are currently present on Kauai and four other islands, and inhabit rain
forests and grasslands. Pig hunting is allowed on all islands either
year-round or during certain months, depending on the area (DLNR n.d.-
a, n.d.-b, n.d.-c, 1990). While rooting in the ground in search of the
invertebrates and plant material they eat, feral pigs disturb and
destroy vegetative cover, trample plants and seedlings, and threaten
forest regeneration by damaging seeds and seedlings. They disturb soil
and cause erosion, especially on slopes. Alien plant seeds are
dispersed on their hooves and coats as well as through their digestive
tracts, and the disturbed soil is fertilized by their feces, helping
these plants to establish. Pigs are a major vector in the spread of
banana poka and strawberry guava, and enhance populations of common
guava
y damaging seeds and seedlings. They disturb soil
and cause erosion, especially on slopes. Alien plant seeds are
dispersed on their hooves and coats as well as through their digestive
tracts, and the disturbed soil is fertilized by their feces, helping
these plants to establish. Pigs are a major vector in the spread of
banana poka and strawberry guava, and enhance populations of common
guava. Hamakua pamakani, Maui pamakani, and prickly Florida blackberry,
all of which threaten one or more of the proposed taxa (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990, Medeiros et al. 1986, Scott et al. 1986, Smith 1985, Stone
1985, Tomich 1986, Wagner et al. 1990).
Feral pigs pose an immediate threat to 1 or more populations of 15
of the proposed taxa. All known populations of the following taxa are
threatened by feral pigs: Alsinidendron viscosum, Delissea rivularis,
Hibiscadelphus woodii, Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae, Labordia
tinifolia var. wahiawaensis, Phyllostegia knudsenii, Phyllostegia
wawrana, and Schiedea stellarioides. Populations of other proposed taxa
threatened by feral pigs are: the Alakai Wilderness and Keanapuka
populations of Alsinidendron lychnoides; the Makaleha Mountains
population of Cyanea recta; the Makaleha Mountains and Wahiawa
Mountains populations of Cyanea remyi; the Wahiawa Mountains population
of Myrsine linearifolia; the Kalalau Valley population of Pritchardia
napaliensis; three of the six populations of Schiedea membranacea at
Kalalau Valley, Nualolo, and Waialae Valley; and the Wahiawa Mountains
population of Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis. Pigs also constitute a
potential threat to the only known population of Schiedea helleri off
Mohihi Stream, the Pohakuao and Kalalau cliffs populations of Myrsine
linearifolia, and the Wainiha Valley populations of Cyanea recta and
Cyrtandra cyaneoides
hiedea membranacea at
Kalalau Valley, Nualolo, and Waialae Valley; and the Wahiawa Mountains
population of Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis. Pigs also constitute a
potential threat to the only known population of Schiedea helleri off
Mohihi Stream, the Pohakuao and Kalalau cliffs populations of Myrsine
linearifolia, and the Wainiha Valley populations of Cyanea recta and
Cyrtandra cyaneoides. Habitat degradation reported to occur in areas
near these populations, if not controlled, may become a problem for
these populations (HHP 1990a, 1992, 1994b7, 1994i1, 1994i3; HPCC 1990a,
1991a2, 1991d, 1991f1, 1991f3, 1991f4, 1992a, 1993a1, 1993c1, 1993e,
1993j, 1993k1, 1993k2; Lorence and Flynn 1991, 1993b; Wood and Perlman
1993a; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; T. Flynn, J. Lau. D. Lorence, S.
Perlman, and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994).
The goat (Capra hircus), a species originally native to the Middle
East and India, was successfully introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in
1792. Currently populations exist on Kauai and four other islands. On
Kauai, feral goats have been present in drier, more rugged areas since
the 1820s and they still occur in Waimea Canyon and along the Na Pali
Coast, as well as the drier perimeter of Alakai Swamp and even in its
wetter areas during periods with low rainfall. Goats are managed in
Hawaii as a game animal, but many herds populate inaccessible areas
where hunting has little effect on their numbers (HHP 1990c). Goat
hunting is allowed year-round or during certain months, depending on
the are (DLNR n.d.-a, n.d.-b, n.d.-c, 1990). Goats browse on introduced
grasses and native plants, especially in drier and more open
ecosystems. Feral goats eat native vegetation, trample roots and
seedlings, cause erosion, and promote the invasion of alien plants.
They are able to forage in extremely rugged terrain and have a high
reproductive capacity (Clarke and Cuddihy 1980. Cuddihy and Stone 1990,
Culliney 1988, Scott et al. 1986, Tomich 1986, van Riper and van Riper
1982)
ve plants, especially in drier and more open
ecosystems. Feral goats eat native vegetation, trample roots and
seedlings, cause erosion, and promote the invasion of alien plants.
They are able to forage in extremely rugged terrain and have a high
reproductive capacity (Clarke and Cuddihy 1980. Cuddihy and Stone 1990,
Culliney 1988, Scott et al. 1986, Tomich 1986, van Riper and van Riper
1982).
Although many of the proposed plants survive on steep cliffs
inaccessible to goats, their original range was probably much larger,
and they are vulnerable to the long-term, indirect effects of goats,
such as large-scale erosion (Corn et al. 1979). The habitats of many of
the 19 proposed plants were damaged in the past by goats, and these
effects are still apparent in the form of alien vegetation and erosion.
One or more populations of ten of the proposed taxa are currently
threatened by direct damage from feral goats, such as trampling of
plants and seedlings and erosion of substrate (Clarke and Cuddihy 1980,
Culliney 1988, Scott et al. 1986, van Riper and van Riper 1982).
The only known populations of Hibiscadelphus woodii, Phyllostegia
knudsenii, and Schiedea stellarioides are threatened by goats.
Populations of other proposed taxa threatened by goats include: the
Waialae and Nawaimaka Valley populations of Alsinidendron viscosum, the
Makaleha Mountains populations of Cyanea recta and Cyanea remyi, four
of the five populations (Kalalau Valley, Koaie Stream, Mahanaloa
Valley, and Pohakuao Valley) of Kokia kauaiensis, the Kalalau cliffs
and Namolokama Summit plateau populations of Myrsine linearifolia, the
largest population of Pritchardia napaliensis at Hoolulu Valley, and
three of the six populations (Kalalau Valley, Mahanaloa-Kuia Valley,
and Waialae Valley) of Schiedea membranacea (HHP 1994j5, 1994j6; HPCC
1990b3, 1990c2, 1991f5, 1991h, 1993a1, 1993a2, 1993f, 1993i; Lorence
and Flynn 1993b; Wood and Perlman 1993a; J. Lau, D. Lorence, S.
Perlman, K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994)
nearifolia, the
largest population of Pritchardia napaliensis at Hoolulu Valley, and
three of the six populations (Kalalau Valley, Mahanaloa-Kuia Valley,
and Waialae Valley) of Schiedea membranacea (HHP 1994j5, 1994j6; HPCC
1990b3, 1990c2, 1991f5, 1991h, 1993a1, 1993a2, 1993f, 1993i; Lorence
and Flynn 1993b; Wood and Perlman 1993a; J. Lau, D. Lorence, S.
Perlman, K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994).
Individuals of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), native from western
North America to central Mexico, were brought to Kauai from Oregon in
the 1960s for game hunting and have not been introduced to any other
Hawaiian island. Mule deer were introduced, in part, to provide another
animal for hunting, since the State had planned to reduce the number of
goats on Kauai because they were so destructive to the landscape
(Kramer 1971). About 400 animals are known in and near Waimea Canyon,
with some invasion into Alakai Swamp in drier periods. Mule deer,
legally hunted during only one month each year, trample native
vegetation and cause erosion by creating trails and removing vegetation
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, DLNR 1985, Tomich 1986). They are a threat to
the Mahanaloa-Kuia Valley and Nualolo populations of Schiedea
membranacea and the Paaiki and Kuia Valley populations of Kokia
kauaiensis (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; S. Perlman, pers. comm.,
1994).
Substrate loss due to agriculture, grazing animals (especially
goats), hikers, and vegetation change results in habitat degradation
and loss. This particularly affects plant populations on cliffs or
steep slopes, such as the Koaie Stream population of Kokia kauaiensis
(HHP 1994j6).
B. Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational
S. Perlman, pers. comm.,
1994).
Substrate loss due to agriculture, grazing animals (especially
goats), hikers, and vegetation change results in habitat degradation
and loss. This particularly affects plant populations on cliffs or
steep slopes, such as the Koaie Stream population of Kokia kauaiensis
(HHP 1994j6).
B. Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or
educational
purposes. Unrestricted collecting for scientific or horticultural
purposes and excessive visits by individuals interested in seeing rare
plants are potential threats to all of the proposed taxa, but
especially to Hibiscadelphus woodii, Phyllostegia knudsenii, and
Pritchardia viscosa, each of which has only one or two populations and
fewer than five individuals. Collection of whole plants or reproductive
parts of any of these three species could adversely impact the gene
pool and threaten the survival of the species. Some taxa, such as
Alsinidendron lychnoides, Alsinidendron viscosum, Cyanea recta,
Labordia tinifolia var. wahiawaensis, Pritchardia viscosa, and Schiedea
helleri have populations close to trails or roads and are thus easily
accessible to collectors and, therefore, are potentially threatened by
overcollection (Flynn and Lorence 1992; HHP 1994b1, 1994d8, 1994h1,
1994n1; HPCC 1991e2, 1993g; T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1994). At least one
of the three remaining Pritchardia viscosa individuals has been damaged
by spiked boots used to scale those trees and collect seeds (L.
Mehrhoff, in litt., 1994).
Many of the proposed plants occur in recreational areas used for
hiking, camping, and hunting. Tourism is a growing industry in Hawaii,
and as more people seek recreational activities, they are more likely
to come into contact with rare native plants. People can transport or
introduce alien plants through seeds on their footwear, and they can
cause erosion, trample plants, and start fires (Corn et al. 1979).
Alsinidendron lychnoides and Labordia tinifolia var
ing, camping, and hunting. Tourism is a growing industry in Hawaii,
and as more people seek recreational activities, they are more likely
to come into contact with rare native plants. People can transport or
introduce alien plants through seeds on their footwear, and they can
cause erosion, trample plants, and start fires (Corn et al. 1979).
Alsinidendron lychnoides and Labordia tinifolia var. wahiawaensis have
populations near trails and are considered to be immediately threatened
by recreational use of the areas in which they occur (HHP 1994b1; HPCC
1991e2, 1992a).
C. Disease or predation. Browsing damage by goats has been verified
for Cyanea recta and Cyanea remyi (Lorence and Flynn 1993b). Goats have
directly destroyed individuals of Schiedea stellarioides (S. Perlman,
pers. comm., 1994). The remaining proposed species are not known to be
unpalatable to goats or deer and, therefore, predation is a probable
threat where those animals have been reported, potentially affecting
eight additional proposed taxa: Alsinidendron viscosum, Hibiscadelphus
woodii, Kokia kauaiensis, Myrsine linearifolia, Phyllostegia knudsenii,
Pritchardia napaliensis, Schiedea membranacea, and Schiedea
stellarioides (HHP 1994J5, 1994j6; HPCC 1990b3, 1990c2, 1991f5, 1991h,
1993a1, 1993f, 1993i, 1993j; Wood and Perlman 1993a; J. Lau, D.
Lorence, S. Perlman, K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994). The lack of
seedlings of many of the taxa and the occurrence of individuals of
several taxa only on inaccessible cliffs may indicate that browsing
animals, especially goats, have restricted the distribution of these
plants (HPCC 1991c; Wood and Perlman 1993a; D. Lorence and K. Wood,
pers. comms., 1994).
Of the four species of rodents that have been introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands, the species with the greatest impact on the native
flora and fauna is probably Rattus rattus (black or roof rat), which
now occurs on all the main Hawaiian Islands around human habitations,
in cultivated fields, and in dry to wet forests
991c; Wood and Perlman 1993a; D. Lorence and K. Wood,
pers. comms., 1994).
Of the four species of rodents that have been introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands, the species with the greatest impact on the native
flora and fauna is probably Rattus rattus (black or roof rat), which
now occurs on all the main Hawaiian Islands around human habitations,
in cultivated fields, and in dry to wet forests. Black rats and to a
lesser extent Mus musculus (house mouse), Rattus exulans (Polynesian
rat), and R. norvegicus (Norway rat) eat the fruits of some native
plants, especially those with large, fleshy fruits. Many native
Hawaiian plants produce their fruit over an extended period of time,
and this produces a prolonged food supply which supports rodent
populations. Black rats strip bark from some native plants, and their
predation of plants in the bellflower and African violet families,
which have fleshy stems and fruits, has been confirmed (Cuddihy and
Stone 1990; Tomich 1986; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1994). Rat damage to the
stems of species of Cyanea has been reported in the Makaleha Mountains,
Waioli Valley, and at the base of Mount Waialeale, and poses a threat
to the populations of Cyanea recta and Cyanea remyi that occur there
(HPCC 1991a1; Lorence and Flynn 1993a; L. Mehrhoff, in litt., 1994; S.
Perlman, pers. comm., 1994). It is probable that rats eat the fruits of
related species such as Cyrtandra cyaneoides and Delissea rivularis (C.
Russell, pers. comm., 1994). Rats threaten the only known population of
Pritchardia viscosa, two of three populations of Pritchardia
napaliensis, and one population of Kokia kauaiensis by predation of
their flowers or fruit (HPCC 1990b1, 1990c2; S. Perlman and K. Wood,
pers. comms., 1994).
Little is known about the predation of certain rare Hawaiian plants
by slugs. Indiscriminate predation by slugs on plant parts of Cyanea
remyi has been observed by field botanists (L. Mehrhoff, in litt.,
1994; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994)
liensis, and one population of Kokia kauaiensis by predation of
their flowers or fruit (HPCC 1990b1, 1990c2; S. Perlman and K. Wood,
pers. comms., 1994).
Little is known about the predation of certain rare Hawaiian plants
by slugs. Indiscriminate predation by slugs on plant parts of Cyanea
remyi has been observed by field botanists (L. Mehrhoff, in litt.,
1994; S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994). The effect of slugs on the
decline of this and related species is unclear, although slugs may pose
a threat because they feed on the stems and eat the fruit, reducing the
vigor of the plants and limiting regeneration.
Japanese white-eye (Zosterops japonicus) was introduced to the
island of Oahu from eastern Asia in 1930, and has since spread to all
of the main Hawaiian Islands. It is currently the most abundant bird in
Hawaii (Pratt et al. 1989). Japanese white-eye has been observed
piercing the corollas of Hibiscadelphus woodii, presumably to rob
nectar (Lorence and Wagner 1995).
D. The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms. Hawaii's
Endangered Species Act states--``Any species of aquatic life, wildlife,
or land plant that has been determined to be an endangered species
pursuant to the [Federal] Endangered Species Act shall be deemed to be
an endangered species under the provisions of this chapter * * *''
(Hawaii Revised Statutes (HRS), sect. 195D-4(a)). Therefore, Federal
listing would automatically invoke listing under Hawaii State law,
which prohibits taking of listed plants in the State and encourages
conservation by State agencies (HRS, sect. 195D-4 and 5).
None of the 19 proposed taxa are listed by the State. Eight of the
proposed taxa have populations on privately owned land. Labordia
tinifolia var. wahiawaensis and Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis are
found exclusively on private land. At least 1 population of each of the
other 17 taxa occurs on State land
in the State and encourages
conservation by State agencies (HRS, sect. 195D-4 and 5).
None of the 19 proposed taxa are listed by the State. Eight of the
proposed taxa have populations on privately owned land. Labordia
tinifolia var. wahiawaensis and Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis are
found exclusively on private land. At least 1 population of each of the
other 17 taxa occurs on State land. Fourteen of the proposed taxa have
one or more populations in State parks, NARs, or the Alakai Wilderness
Preserve, which have rules and regulations for the protection of
resources (DLNR 1981b; HRS, sects. 183D-4, 184-5, 195-5, and 195-8).
However, the regulations are difficult to enforce because of limited
personnel.
One or more populations of each of the 19 proposed taxa is located
on land classified within conservation districts and owned by the State
of Hawaii or private companies or individuals. Regardless of the owner,
lands in these districts, among other purposes, are regarded as
necessary for the protection of endemic biological resources and the
maintenance or enhancement of the conservation of natural resources
(HRS, sect. 205-2). Some uses, such as maintaining animals for hunting,
are based on policy decisions, while others, such as preservation of
endangered species, are mandated by State laws. Requests for amendments
to district boundaries or variances within existing classifications can
be made by government agencies and private landowners (HRS, sect. 205-
4). Before decisions about these requests are made, the impact of the
proposed reclassification on ``preservation or maintenance of important
natural systems or habitat'' (HRS, sects. 205-4, 205-17) as well as the
maintenance of
equests for amendments
to district boundaries or variances within existing classifications can
be made by government agencies and private landowners (HRS, sect. 205-
4). Before decisions about these requests are made, the impact of the
proposed reclassification on ``preservation or maintenance of important
natural systems or habitat'' (HRS, sects. 205-4, 205-17) as well as the
maintenance of
natural resources is required to be taken into account (HRS, sects.
205-2, 205-4). Before any proposed land use that will occur on State
land, is funded in part or whole by county or State funds, or will
occur within land classified as conservation district, an environmental
assessment is required to determine whether or not the environment will
be significantly affected (HRS, chapt. 343). If it is found that an
action will have a significant effect, preparation of a full
Environmental Impact Statement is required. Hawaii environmental
policy, and thus approval of land use, is required by law to safeguard
``* * * the State's unique natural environmental characteristics * *
*'' (HRS, sect. 344-3(1)) and includes guidelines to ``protect
endangered species of individual plants and animals * * *'' (HRS, sect.
344-4(3)(A)). Federal listing, because it automatically invokes State
listing, would also implement these other State regulations protecting
the plans.
State laws relating to the conservation of biological resources
allow for the acquisition of land as well as the development and
implementation of programs concerning the conservation of biological
resources (HRS, sect. 195D-5(a)). The State also may enter into
agreements with Federal agencies to administer and manage any area
required for the conservation, management, enhancement, or protection
of endangered species (HRS, sect. 195D-5(c)). If listing were to occur,
funds for these activities could be made available under section 6 of
the Act (State Cooperative Agreements)
f biological
resources (HRS, sect. 195D-5(a)). The State also may enter into
agreements with Federal agencies to administer and manage any area
required for the conservation, management, enhancement, or protection
of endangered species (HRS, sect. 195D-5(c)). If listing were to occur,
funds for these activities could be made available under section 6 of
the Act (State Cooperative Agreements). The Hawaii DLNR is mandated to
initiate changes in conservation district boundaries to include ``the
habitat of rare native species of flora and fauna within the
conservation district'' (HRS, sect. 195D-5.1). Twelve of the proposed
taxa are threatened by seven plants considered by the State of Hawaii
to be noxious weeds. The State has provisions and funding available for
eradication and control of noxious weeds on State and private land in
conservation districts and other areas (HRS, chapt. 152; Hawaii
Department of Agriculture (DOA) 1981, 1991).
Despite the existence of various State laws and regulations that
protect Hawaii's native plants, their enforcement is difficult due to
limited funding and personnel. Listing of these 19 plant taxa would
trigger State listing under Hawaii's Endangered Species Act and
supplement the protection available under other State laws. The Federal
Endangered Species Act would offer additional protection to these 19
taxa. For example, for species listed as endangered, it would be a
violation of the Act for any person to remove, cut, dig up, damage, or
destroy any such plant in knowing violation of State law or regulation
or in the course of any violation of a State criminal trespass law.
E. Other natural or manmand factors affecting its continued
existence. The small numbers of populations and invididuals of most of
these taxa increase the potential for extinction from naturally
occuring events
ny person to remove, cut, dig up, damage, or
destroy any such plant in knowing violation of State law or regulation
or in the course of any violation of a State criminal trespass law.
E. Other natural or manmand factors affecting its continued
existence. The small numbers of populations and invididuals of most of
these taxa increase the potential for extinction from naturally
occuring events. The limited gene pool may depress reproductive vigor,
or a single human-caused or natural environmental disturbance could
destroy a significant percentage of the individuals or the only known
extant population. Seven of the proposed taxa, Delissea rivularis,
Hibiscadelphus woodii, Laboridia tinifolia var. wahiawaensis.
Phyllostegia knudsenii, Pritchardia viscosa, Schiedea helleri, and
Schiedea stellarioides, are known only from a single population. Nine
other proposed taxa are known from only two to five populations (See
Table 1). Eleven of the proposed taxa are estimated to number no more
than 100 known individuals (See Table 1). Four of these taxa,
Alsinidendron lychnoides, Hibiscadelphus, woodii, Phyllostegia
knudsenii, and Pritchardia viscosa, number fewer than 10 individuals.
One or more species of almost 30 introduced plants directly
threaten all 19 of the proposed taxa. The original native flora of
Hawaii consisted of about 1,000 species, 89 percent of which were
endemic. Of the total native and naturalized Hawaiian flora of 1,817
species, 47 percent were introduced from other parts of the world and
nearly 100 species have become pests (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990).
Naturalized, introduced species compete with native plants for space,
light, water, and nutrients (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). Some of these
species were brought to Hawaii by various groups of people, including
the Polynesian immigrants, for food or cultural reasons
47 percent were introduced from other parts of the world and
nearly 100 species have become pests (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990).
Naturalized, introduced species compete with native plants for space,
light, water, and nutrients (Cuddihy and Stone 1990). Some of these
species were brought to Hawaii by various groups of people, including
the Polynesian immigrants, for food or cultural reasons. Plantation
owners, alarmed at the reduction of water resources for their crops
caused by the destruction of native forest cover by grazing feral
animals, supported the introduction of a alien tree species for
reforestation. Ranchers intentionally introduced pasture grasses and
other species for agriculture, and sometimes inadvertently introduced
weed seeds as well. Other plants were brought to Hawaii for their
potential horiticultural value (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Scott et al.
1996, Wenkam 1969).
Two subshrubs in the genus Ageratina gave naturalized in the
Hawaiian Islands and are classified as noxious weeds by the State (DOA
1981). Ageratina adenophora (Maui pamakani), naturalized in dry areas
to wet forest on Kauai and also classifed as a noxious weed by the
Federal government (7 CFR 360), threatens the Kalalau Valley population
of Schiedea membranacea (Wood and Perlman 1993a). Ageratina riparia
Hamakua pamakani), naturalized in disturbed, dry to mesic areas and wet
forests on Kauai, is a threat to the same population of Schiedea
membranacea (Wood and Perlman 1993a). Belchnum occidentale (blechnum
fern), probably accidentally introduced from tropical America, has
naturalized in mesic forests on most of the main Hawaiian Islands
(Degener 1932; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1994). Blechnum fern poses a threat
to the Waioli Valley population of Cyanea recta (Lorence and Flynn
1993a; T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1994)
ation of Schiedea
membranacea (Wood and Perlman 1993a). Belchnum occidentale (blechnum
fern), probably accidentally introduced from tropical America, has
naturalized in mesic forests on most of the main Hawaiian Islands
(Degener 1932; J. Lau, pers. comm., 1994). Blechnum fern poses a threat
to the Waioli Valley population of Cyanea recta (Lorence and Flynn
1993a; T. Flynn, pers. comm., 1994).
Classified as a noxious weed by the State of Hawaii, Clidemia hirta
(Koster's curse) is an aggressive shrub found in mesic to wet forests
on at least five islands in Hawaii (Almeda 1990, DOA 1981). It is a
threat to the Waioli Valley populations of Cyanea recta and the
Limahuli Valley population of Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae (HHP 1992,
1994i1; HPCC 1991d; Lorence and Flynn 1993a, 1993b; J. Lau and K. Wood,
pers. comms., 1994). Cordyline fruticosa (ti) is a shrub brought to
Hawaii by the Polynesian immigrants. Its original range is unknown, but
in Hawaii it is now naturalized on all the main islands except
Kahoolawe in Pandanus tectorius (hala) forest and mesic valleys and
forests, sometimes forming dense stands (Wagner et al. 1990; J. Lau,
pers. comm., 1994). The Hoolulu Valley population of Pritchardia
napaliensis may compete for space with ti (HHP 1994m1). Crassocephalum
crepidioides, an annual herb native to tropical Africa, is naturalized
in dry areas to wet forest on Kauai and four other islands. This weed
has been considered a pest in Hawaii since 1966, and is a threat to the
Waioli Valley population of Cyanea recta (Haselwood and Motter 1983;
Lorence and Flynn 1993a; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994). Deparia
petersenii is a perennial fern capable of forming a thick groundcover
(J. Lau, pers. comm., 1994). The Makaleha Mountains populations of
Cyanea recta and Cyrtandra cyaneoides compete for space with this fern
(Lorence and Flynn 1993b). Drymaria cordata (pipili), a pantropical
annual herb, is naturalized in shaded, moist sites on Kauai and four
other islands (Wagner et al. 1990)
1994). Deparia
petersenii is a perennial fern capable of forming a thick groundcover
(J. Lau, pers. comm., 1994). The Makaleha Mountains populations of
Cyanea recta and Cyrtandra cyaneoides compete for space with this fern
(Lorence and Flynn 1993b). Drymaria cordata (pipili), a pantropical
annual herb, is naturalized in shaded, moist sites on Kauai and four
other islands (Wagner et al. 1990). Pipili threatens the Makaleha
Mountains population of Cyrtandra cyaneoides and
the only known population of Phyllosteqia knudsenii (HPCC 1993j,
Lorence and Flynn 1993b).
Erechtites valerianifolia (fireweed) is an annual herb native from
Mexico to Brazil and Argentina. It is naturalized on all of the main
Hawaiian Islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe, and is found in
disturbed, relative wet areas. This weed threatens the Makaleha
Mountains and Waioli Valley populations of Cyanea recta, the Makaleha
Mountains and Wahiawa Mountains populations of Cyanea remyi, and the
Makaleha Mountains populations of Cyrtandra cyaneoides and Phyllostegia
wawrana (HPCC 1993k2; Lorence and Flynn 1991. 1993a, 1993b; Wagner et
al. 1990; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994). Brought to Hawaii as a
cultivated herbaceous plant, Erigeron Karvinskianus (daisy fleabane) is
naturalized in wetter areas of Kauai and three other islands (Wagner et
al. 1990). An invasion of daisy fleabane on the Kalalau cliffs
threatens Schiedea membranacea, Myrsine linearifolia, and the only
population of Hibiscadelphus woodii. Daisy fleabane also threatens the
Alealau population of Pritchardia napaliensis and the Honopu Valley
population of Phyllostegia wawrana (HPCC 1990d1, 1991c, 1993f, 1993k1;
Lorence and Wagner 1995; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994).
Juncus planifolius is a perennial herb native to South America, New
Zealand, and Australia and is naturalized in open, disturbed, moist
areas in forest edges and bogs (Wagner et al. 1990). Found on Kauai and
four other islands, Juncus planifolius threatens the population of
Viola kauaensis var
a wawrana (HPCC 1990d1, 1991c, 1993f, 1993k1;
Lorence and Wagner 1995; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994).
Juncus planifolius is a perennial herb native to South America, New
Zealand, and Australia and is naturalized in open, disturbed, moist
areas in forest edges and bogs (Wagner et al. 1990). Found on Kauai and
four other islands, Juncus planifolius threatens the population of
Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis in the Wahiawa Bog (Lorence and Flynn
1991; K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994). Kalanchoe pinnata (air plant) is an
herb which occurs on all the main islands except Niihau and Kaholawe,
especially in dry to mesic areas (Wagner et al. 1990). The Paaiki
Valley and Kuia populations of Kokia kauaiensis, the only known
population of Phyllostegia knudsenii, the Pohakuao population of
Myrsine linearifolia, and the Alealau and Hollulu Valley populations of
Pritchardia napaliensis are threatened by competition with air plant
(HPCC 1991g, 1993j; M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994; K. Wood, pers. comm.,
1994).
Lantana camara (lantana), brought to Hawaii as an ornamental plant,
is an aggressive, thicket-forming shrub which can now be found on all
of the main islands in mesic forests, dry shrublands, and other dry,
disturbed habitats (Wagner et al. 1990). One or more populations of
each of the following species are threatened by lantana: Alsinidendron
viscosum, Cyanea recta, Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae, Kokia
kauaiensis, Myrsine linearifolia, the only known population of
Phyllostegia knudsenii, Pritchardia napaliensis, and Schiedea
membranacea (HHP 1990a, 1994i3, 1994j1, 1994j3 to 1994j6, 1994m2, HPCC
1990a, 1990b1, 1990c2, 1991d, 1993a1, 1993j; Lorence and Flynn 1993b;
S. Perlman and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994). Melastoma candidum is a
member of a genus in which all species have been classified as noxious
weeds by the State of Hawaii (DOA 1992). This species is naturalized in
mesic to wet areas on Cyanea recta, Cyanea remyi, Phyllostegia wawrana
(Almeda 1990, HPCC 1993k2, Lorence and Flynn 1993b)
90b1, 1990c2, 1991d, 1993a1, 1993j; Lorence and Flynn 1993b;
S. Perlman and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994). Melastoma candidum is a
member of a genus in which all species have been classified as noxious
weeds by the State of Hawaii (DOA 1992). This species is naturalized in
mesic to wet areas on Cyanea recta, Cyanea remyi, Phyllostegia wawrana
(Almeda 1990, HPCC 1993k2, Lorence and Flynn 1993b).
Passiflora mollissima (banana poka), a woody vine, poses a serious
problem to mesic forests on Kauai and Hawaii by covering trees,
reducing the amount of light that reaches trees as well as understory,
and causing damage and death to trees by the weight of the vines.
Animals, especially feral pigs, eat the fruit and distribute the seeds
(Cuddihy and Stone 1990, Escobar 1990). Banana poka is classified as a
noxious weed by the State (DOA 1992) and threatens the Nualolo
population of Schiedea membranacea and the Honopu Valley population of
Phyllostegia wawrana (HPCC 1993k1: K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994).
Passiflora liqularis (sweet granadilla) was first collected in Hawaii
in 1909, and has since spread to mesic and wet areas of Kauai, Oahu,
Lanai, and Hawaii (Escobar 1990). This taxon threatends Kokia
kauaiensis (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994).
Two small tree species, Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava) and
Psidium quajava (common guava), were brought to Hawaii and have become
widely naturalized on all the main islands, forming dense stands in
disturbed areas. Strawberry guava, found in mesic and wet forests,
develops into stands in which few other plants grow, physically
displacing natural vegetation and greatly affecting Hawaiian plants,
many of which are narrowly endemic taxa. Pigs depend on strawberry
guava for food and, in turn, disperse the plant's seeds through the
forests (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990)
ng dense stands in
disturbed areas. Strawberry guava, found in mesic and wet forests,
develops into stands in which few other plants grow, physically
displacing natural vegetation and greatly affecting Hawaiian plants,
many of which are narrowly endemic taxa. Pigs depend on strawberry
guava for food and, in turn, disperse the plant's seeds through the
forests (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990). Strawberry guava is
considered to be the greatest weed problem in Hawaiian rain forests and
is known to pose a direct threat to all remaining plants of Pritchardia
viscosa, the Wahiawa Mountains populations of Cyanea remyi and Labordia
tinifolia var. wahiawaensis, the Paaiki population of Kokia kauaiensis,
the Wahiawa Drainage population of Myrsine linearifolia, and the
Mahanaloa-Kuia population of Schiedea membrancea (HPCC 1991f3, 1991f4,
1992c; Lorence and Flynn 1991, 1993b; Smith 1995; M. Bruegmann, in
litt., 1994; T. Flynn and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1994). Common guava
invades disturbed sites, forming dense thickets in dry, mesic, and wet
forests (Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990). Common guava threatens the
Honolulu Valley population of Pritchardia napaliensis (HHP 1994m1, HPCC
1990c2). Pterolepis glomerata, an herb or subshrub locally naturalized
in mesic to wet disturbed sites on Kauai, Oahu, and Hawaii, threatens
the Wahiawa Bog population of Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis
(Lorence and Flynn 1991; K. Wood. pers. comm., 1994).
Rubus argutus (prickly Florida blackberry), an aggressive alien
species in disturbed mesic to wet forests and subalpine grasslands on
Kauai and three other islands, is considered a noxious weed by the
State of Hawaii (DOA 1981, Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990)
awaii, threatens
the Wahiawa Bog population of Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis
(Lorence and Flynn 1991; K. Wood. pers. comm., 1994).
Rubus argutus (prickly Florida blackberry), an aggressive alien
species in disturbed mesic to wet forests and subalpine grasslands on
Kauai and three other islands, is considered a noxious weed by the
State of Hawaii (DOA 1981, Smith 1985, Wagner et al. 1990). Prickly
Florida blackberry threatens the only known populations of Schiedea
helleri, Schiedea stellarioides, and Delissea rivularis, the Alakai
Wilderness and Keanapuka populations of Alsinidendron lychnoides, the
Waialae-Nawaimaka population of Alsinidendron viscosum, the Koaie
Stream, and Pohakuao populations of Myrsine linearifolia, the Honopu
Valley population of Phyllostegia wawrana, and the Nualolo population
of Schiedea membranacea (HHP 1994b4; HPCC 1992a, 1993a1, 1993a2, 1993g,
1993i, 1993k1; J. Lau. S. Perlman, K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994). Rubus
rosifolius (thimbleberry), native to Asia, is naturalized in disturbed
mesic to wet forest on all of the main Hawaiian Islands. This shrub
threatens the three largest populations of Cyanea recta in Wainiha
Valley, Makaleha Mountains, and Waioli Valley; the Wahiawa Mountains an
Waioli Valley populations of Cyanea remyi; the Makaleha Mountains
population of Cyrtandra cyaneoides, the Limahuli Valley population of
Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae; the Mahanaloa-Kuia Valley junction
population of Kokia kauaiensis; the Limahul-Hanakapiai Ridge population
of Myrsine linearifolia; the Makaleha Mountains population of Schiedea
membranacea (HHP 1992, 1994i1, 1994j3, HPCC 1990d2, 1991d, 1991f2,
1992c, 1993c2, 1993k2; Lorence and Flynn 1991, 1993a, 1993b; S. Perlman
and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994).
Triumfetta semitriloba (Sacramento bur) is a subshrub now found on
four Hawaiian Islands and considered to be a noxious weed by the State
of Hawaii
of Myrsine linearifolia; the Makaleha Mountains population of Schiedea
membranacea (HHP 1992, 1994i1, 1994j3, HPCC 1990d2, 1991d, 1991f2,
1992c, 1993c2, 1993k2; Lorence and Flynn 1991, 1993a, 1993b; S. Perlman
and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994).
Triumfetta semitriloba (Sacramento bur) is a subshrub now found on
four Hawaiian Islands and considered to be a noxious weed by the State
of Hawaii
(DOA 1981, Wagner et al. 1990). Sacramento bur threatens the Koaie
Stream population of Kokia kauaiensis (HPCC 1990b3). Youngia japonica
(Oriental hawksbeard) is an annual herb native to southeast Asia and
now is a common weed in disturbed moist and shaded sites, as well as
intact wet forests, on most of the main Hawaiian Islands (Wagner et al.
1990). The Waioli Valley population of Cyanea recta is threatened by
this weed (Lorence and Flynn 1993a).
Several hundred species of grasses have been introduced to the
Hawaiian Islands, many for animal forage. Of the approximately 100
grass species that have become naturalized, 3 species threaten 8 of the
19 proposed plant taxa. Melinis minutiflora (molasses grass), a
perennial grass brought to Hawaii for cattle fodder, is now naturalized
in dry to mesic, disturbed areas on most of the main Hawaiian Islands.
The mats it forms smother other plants and fuel more intense fires than
would normally affect an area (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, O'Connor 1990,
Smith 1985). The largest populations of Alsinidendron viscosum and
Schiedea stellarioides, in Waialae-Nawaimaka Valley, are threatened by
molasses grass (HPCC 1993a1, 1993a2, 1993i)
in dry to mesic, disturbed areas on most of the main Hawaiian Islands.
The mats it forms smother other plants and fuel more intense fires than
would normally affect an area (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, O'Connor 1990,
Smith 1985). The largest populations of Alsinidendron viscosum and
Schiedea stellarioides, in Waialae-Nawaimaka Valley, are threatened by
molasses grass (HPCC 1993a1, 1993a2, 1993i). The perennial grass
Paspalum conjugatum (Hilo grass), naturalized in moist to wet,
disturbed areas on most Hawaiian Islands, produces a dense ground
cover, even on poor soil), and threatens the Makaleha Mountains
population of Cyanea recta, Cyanea remyi, Cyrtandra cyaneoides, the
only know population of Phyllostegia knudsenii, and the Powerline Road
population of Pritchardia viscosa (HHP 1992; HPCC 1993j; Lorence and
Flynn 1993b; J. Lau and S. Perlman, pers. comms., 1994). Sacciolepis
indica (Glenwood grass), and annual or perennial grass naturalized on
five islands in Hawaii in open, wet areas, threatens the Waioli Valley
and Makaleha Mountains populations of Cyanea recta (HHP 1992; Lorence
and Flynn 1993a, 1993b; J. Lau and K. Wood, pers. comm., 1994).
Erosion, landslides, and rock slides due to natural weathering
result in the death of individual plants as well as habitat
destruction. This especially affects the continued existence of taxa or
populations with limited numbers and/or narrow ranges, such as: the two
largest populations of Cyanea recta, the Makaleha Mountains and upper
Waioli Valley populations of Cyrtandra cyaneoides, each of which has
only one individual, the only populations of Delissea rivularis and
Phyllostegia knudsenii, the only population of Hibiscadelphus woodii,
and the largest population of Schiedea membranacea (HPCC 1990d2, 1991c,
1993c1, 1993j; Lorence and Flynn 1993a, 1993b; Lorence and Wagner 1995;
L. Mehrhoff, in litt., 1994; J. Lau and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994).
This process is often exacerbated by human disturbance and land use
practices (See Factor A)
sea rivularis and
Phyllostegia knudsenii, the only population of Hibiscadelphus woodii,
and the largest population of Schiedea membranacea (HPCC 1990d2, 1991c,
1993c1, 1993j; Lorence and Flynn 1993a, 1993b; Lorence and Wagner 1995;
L. Mehrhoff, in litt., 1994; J. Lau and K. Wood, pers. comms., 1994).
This process is often exacerbated by human disturbance and land use
practices (See Factor A).
In September 1992, Hurricane 'Iniki struck the Hawaiian Islands and
caused extensive damage, especially on the island of Kauai. Many forest
trees were destroyed, opening the canopy and thus allowing the invasion
of light-loving alien plants, which are a threat to the continued
existence of many of the proposed taxa. Over three-fourths of all known
Labordia tinifolia var. wahiawaensis plants were destroyed as a result
of the hurricane-force winds and substrate subsidence caused by the
hurricane (S. Perlman, pers. comm., 1994). One plant of Alsinidendron
lychoides and half of one population of Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae
were destroyed by the hurricane (M. Bruegmann, in litt., 1994). Damage
by future hurricanes could further decrease the already reduced numbers
and reduced habitat of most of the 19 proposed taxa.
The Service has carefully assessed the best scientific and
commercial information available regarding the past, present, and
future threats faced by these species in determining to propose this
rule. Based on this evaluation, the preferred action is to propose
listing 17 of these plant taxa as endangered (Alsinidendron lychnoides,
Alsinidendron viscosum, Cyanea remyi, Cyrtandra cyaneoides, Delissea
rivularis, Hibiscadelphus woodii, Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae, Kokia
kauaiensis, Labordia tinifolia var. wahiawaensis, Phyllostegia
knudsenii, Phyllostegia wawrana. Pritchardia napaliensis, Pritchardia
viscosa, Schiedea helleri, Schiedea membranacea, Schiedea
stellarioides, and Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis) and 2 taxa as
threatened (Cyanea recta and Myrsine linearifolia)
es, Delissea
rivularis, Hibiscadelphus woodii, Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae, Kokia
kauaiensis, Labordia tinifolia var. wahiawaensis, Phyllostegia
knudsenii, Phyllostegia wawrana. Pritchardia napaliensis, Pritchardia
viscosa, Schiedea helleri, Schiedea membranacea, Schiedea
stellarioides, and Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis) and 2 taxa as
threatened (Cyanea recta and Myrsine linearifolia). Sixteen of the taxa
proposed for listing either number no more than about 100 individuals
or are known from 5 or fewer populations. The 17 taxa proposed as
endangered are threatened by one or more of the following: habitat
degradation and/or predation by feral pigs, feral goats, rats, and
deer; competition from alien plants; substrate loss; human impacts; and
lack of legal protection or difficulty in enforcing laws that are
already in effect. Small population size and limited distribution make
these species particularly vulnerable to extinction and/or reduced
reproductive vigor from naturally occurring events. Because these 17
taxa are in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant
portion of their ranges, they fit the definition of endangered as
defined in the Act.
Although populations of Cyanea recta and Myrsine linearifolia are
threatened by predation (by rats and/or goats), habitat modification by
pigs and goats, and competition with alien plant species, the larger
distribution of populations, presence of population regeneration, and
total numbers of plants reduce the likelihood that these species will
become extinct in the near future. For these reasons, Cyanea recta and
Myrsine linearifolia are not now in immediate danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of their ranges. However, both
species are likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future if
the threats affecting these species are not curbed. As a result Cyanea
recta and Myrsine linearifolia are proposed to be listed as threatened
species
. For these reasons, Cyanea recta and
Myrsine linearifolia are not now in immediate danger of extinction
throughout all or a significant portion of their ranges. However, both
species are likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future if
the threats affecting these species are not curbed. As a result Cyanea
recta and Myrsine linearifolia are proposed to be listed as threatened
species.
Critical habitat is not being proposed for the 19 taxa included in
this rule, for reasons discussed in the ``Critical Habitat'' section of
this proposal.
Critical Habitat
Critical habitat is defined in section 3 of the Act as: (i) the
specific areas within the geographical area occupied by a species, at
the time it is listed in accordance with the Act, on which are found
those physical or biological features (I) essential to the conservation
of the species and (II) that may require special management
consideration or protection and; (ii) specific areas outside the
geographical area occupied by a species at the time it is listed, upon
a determination that such areas are essential for the conservation of
the species. ``Conservation'' means the use of all methods and
procedures needed to bring the species to the point at which listing
under the Act is no longer necessary.
Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as amended, and implementing
regulations (50 CFR 424.12) require that, to the maximum extent prudent
and determinable, the Secretary propose critical habitat at the time a
species is proposed to be endangered or threatened. The Service finds
that designation of critical habitat is not presently prudent for these
19 taxa. Service regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)) state that
designation of critical habitat is not prudent when one or both of the
following situations exist--(1) The species is threatened by taking or
other human activity, and identification of critical habitat can be
expected to increase the degree of threat to the species, or (2) such
designation of
t is not presently prudent for these
19 taxa. Service regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)) state that
designation of critical habitat is not prudent when one or both of the
following situations exist--(1) The species is threatened by taking or
other human activity, and identification of critical habitat can be
expected to increase the degree of threat to the species, or (2) such
designation of
critical habitat would not be beneficial to the species. As discussed
under Factor B, these taxa are threatened by overcollection, due to low
population size. The publication of precise maps and descriptions of
critical habitat in the Federal Register and local newspapers as
required in a proposal for critical habitat would increase the degree
of threat to these plants from take or vandalism and, therefore, could
contribute to their decline and increase enforcement problems. The
listing of these taxa as endangered publicizes the rarity or the plants
and, thus, can also make these plants attractive to curiosity seekers
or collectors of rare plants.
All involved parties and the major landowners have been notified of
the location and importance of protecting the habitat of these taxa.
Protection of the habitats of these plants will be addressed through
the recovery process and through the section 7 consultation process as
necessary. At present, the Service is not aware of any Federal activity
within the currently known habitats of these plants.
Available Conservation Measures
owners have been notified of
the location and importance of protecting the habitat of these taxa.
Protection of the habitats of these plants will be addressed through
the recovery process and through the section 7 consultation process as
necessary. At present, the Service is not aware of any Federal activity
within the currently known habitats of these plants.
Available Conservation Measures
Conservation measures provided to plant taxa listed as endangered
or threatened under the Act include recognition, recovery actions,
requirements for Federal protection, and prohibitions against certain
activities. Recognition through listing results in public awareness and
conservation actions by Federal, State, and local agencies, private
organizations, and individuals. The Act provides for possible land
acquisition and cooperation with the State and requires that recovery
plans be developed for listed species. The requirements for Federal
agencies and the prohibitions against certain activities involving
listed plants are discussed, in part, below.
Section 7(a) of the Act, as amended, requires Federal agencies to
evaluate their actions with respect to any species that is proposed or
listed as endangered or threatened and with respect to its critical
habitat, if any is being designated. Regulations implementing this
interagency cooperation provision of the Act are codified at 50 CFR
part 402. Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires Federal agencies to
confer with the Service on any action that is likely to jeopardize the
continued existence of a species proposed for listing or result in
destruction or adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. If a
species is listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) requires Federal
agencies to ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out
are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or
to destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat
continued existence of a species proposed for listing or result in
destruction or adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. If a
species is listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) requires Federal
agencies to ensure that activities they authorize, fund, or carry out
are not likely to jeopardize the continued existence of the species or
to destroy or adversely modify its critical habitat. If a Federal
action may affect a listed species or its critical habitat, the
responsible Federal agency must enter into consultation with the
Service. None of the 19 proposed taxa occur on Federal lands and no
known Federal activities occur within the present known habitat of
these 19 plant taxa.
The Act and its implementing regulations set forth a series of
general prohibitions and exceptions that apply to all endangered and
threatened plants. With respect to the 19 plant taxa in this rule, the
prohibitions of section 9(a)(2) of the Act, implemented by 50 CFR
17.61, apply. These prohibitions, in part, make it illegal for any
person subject to the jurisdiction of the United States to import or
export any listed plant species; transport such species in interstate
or foreign commerce in the course of a commercial activity; sell or
offer for sale in interstate or foreign commerce; or to remove and
reduce to possession any such species from areas under Federal
jurisdiction. In addition, it is illegal to maliciously damage or
destroy any endangered plant from areas under Federal jurisdiction; or
remove, cut, dig up, damage, or destroy any endangered species on any
other area in knowing violation of any State law or regulation or in
the course of any violation of a State criminal trespass law. Section
4(d) of the Act allows for the provision of such protection to
threatened species through regulation. This protection may apply to
these taxa in the future if regulations are promulgated
remove, cut, dig up, damage, or destroy any endangered species on any
other area in knowing violation of any State law or regulation or in
the course of any violation of a State criminal trespass law. Section
4(d) of the Act allows for the provision of such protection to
threatened species through regulation. This protection may apply to
these taxa in the future if regulations are promulgated. Seeds from
cultivated specimens of threatened plants are exempt from these
prohibitions provided that their containers are marked ``Of Cultivated
Origin.'' Certain exceptions to the prohibitions apply to agents of the
Service and State conservation agencies.
The Act and 50 CFR 17.62, 17.63, and 17.72 also provide for the
issuance of permits to carry out otherwise prohibited activities
involving listed plant species under certain circumstances. Such
permits are available for scientific purposes and to enhance the
propagation or survival of the species. For threatened plants, permits
are also available for botanical or horticultural exhibition,
educational purposes, or special purposes consistent with the purposes
of the Act. It is anticipated that few trade permits would be sought or
issued for most of the taxa, because they are not in cultivation or
common in the wild. Requests for copies of the regulations concerning
listed plants and inquiries regarding prohibitions and permits may be
addressed to the Fish and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services,
Permits Branch, 911 N.E. 11th Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97232-4181
(telephone: 503/231-6241; facsimile: 503/231-6243).
Public Comments Solicited
The Service intends that any final action resulting from this
proposal will be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore,
comments or suggestions from the public, other concerned governmental
agencies, the scientific community, industry, or any other interested
party concerning this proposed rule are hereby solicited. Comments
particularly are sought concerning:
Comments Solicited
The Service intends that any final action resulting from this
proposal will be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore,
comments or suggestions from the public, other concerned governmental
agencies, the scientific community, industry, or any other interested
party concerning this proposed rule are hereby solicited. Comments
particularly are sought concerning:
(1) biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning
any threat (or lack thereof) to these 19 taxa;
(2) the location of any additional populations of these taxa and
the reasons why any habitat should or should not be determined to be
critical habitat as provided by section 4 of the Act;
(3) additional information concerning the range, distribution, and
population size of these taxa; and
(4) current or planned activities in the range of these taxa and
their possible impacts on these taxa.
The final decision on this proposal will take into consideration
the comments and any additional information received by the Service,
and such communications may lead to a final regulation that differs
from this proposal.
The Act provides for one or more public hearings on this proposal,
if requested. Requests must be received within 45 days of the date of
publication of the proposal in the Federal Register. Such requests must
be made in writing and be addressed to the Pacific Islands Ecoregion
Manager (See ADDRESSES section).
National Environmental Policy Act
The Fish and Wildlife Service has determined that Environmental
Assessments and Environmental Impact Statements, as defined under the
authority of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be
prepared in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section
4(a) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. A notice
outlining the Service's reasons for this determination was published in
the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).
References Cited
ntal Impact Statements, as defined under the
authority of the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, need not be
prepared in connection with regulations adopted pursuant to section
4(a) of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended. A notice
outlining the Service's reasons for this determination was published in
the Federal Register on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244).
References Cited
A complete list of all references cited herein is available upon
request from the Pacific Islands Ecoregion Office. (See ADDRESSES
section).
Author
The author of this proposed rule is Marie M. Bruegmann, Pacific
Islands Ecoregion Office. (See ADDRESSES section).
List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17
Endangered and threatened species, Exports, Imports, Reporting and
recordkeeping requirements, and Transportation.
Proposed Regulation Promulgation
Accordingly, the Service hereby proposes to amend part 17,
subchapter B of chapter I, title 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations,
as set forth below:
PART 17--[AMENDED]
1. The authority citation for part 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C.
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.
2. Section 17.12(h) is amended by adding the following, in
alphabetical order under FLOWERING PLANTS, to the List of endangered
and Threatened Plants to read as follows:
Sec. 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants.
* * * * *
art 17 continues to read as follows:
Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361-1407; 16 U.S.C. 1531-1544; 16 U.S.C.
4201-4245; Pub. L. 99-625, 100 Stat. 3500; unless otherwise noted.
2. Section 17.12(h) is amended by adding the following, in
alphabetical order under FLOWERING PLANTS, to the List of endangered
and Threatened Plants to read as follows:
Sec. 17.12 Endangered and threatened plants.
* * * * *
(h) * * *
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Species
--------------------------------------------------- Historic range Family Status When listed Critical Special
Scientific name Common name habitat rules
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Flowering Plants
* * * * * * *
Alsinidendron lychnoides Kuawawaenohu............ U.S.A. (HI)............. Caryophyllaceae--P
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