Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Congressional research reportMar 15, 2012
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA):
What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
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Legislative Attorney
March 15, 2012
Congressional Research Service
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RL34531
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Summary
The deadly attacks on Afghan civilians allegedly by a U.S. servicemember have raised questions
regarding the Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) in place between the United States and
Afghanistan that would govern whether Afghan law would apply in this circumstance. SOFAs are
multilateral or bilateral agreements that generally establish the framework under which U.S.
military personnel operate in a foreign country and how domestic laws of the foreign jurisdiction
apply toward U.S. personnel in that country.
Formal requirements concerning form, content, length, or title of a SOFA do not exist. A SOFA
may be written for a specific purpose or activity, or it may anticipate a longer-term relationship
and provide for maximum flexibility and applicability. It is generally a stand-alone document
concluded as an executive agreement. A SOFA may include many provisions, but the most
common issue addressed is which country may exercise criminal jurisdiction over U.S. personnel.
Other provisions that may be found in a SOFA include, but are not limited to, the wearing of
uniforms, taxes and fees, carrying of weapons, use of radio frequencies, licenses, and customs
regulations.
SOFAs are often included, along with other types of military agreements, as part of a
comprehensive security arrangement with a particular country. A SOFA itself does not constitute a
security arrangement; rather, it establishes the rights and privileges of U.S. personnel present in a
country in support of the larger security arrangement. SOFAs may be entered based on authority
found in previous treaties and congressional actions or as sole executive agreements. The United
States is currently party to more than 100 agreements that may be considered SOFAs. A list of
current agreements included at the end of this report is categorized in tables according to the
underlying source of authority, if any, for each of the SOFAs.
In the case of Afghanistan, the SOFA, in force since 2003, provides that U.S. Department of
Defense military and civilian personnel are to be accorded status equivalent to that of U.S.
Embassy administrative and technical staff under the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations
of 1961. Accordingly, U.S. personnel are immune from criminal prosecution by Afghan
authorities and are immune from civil and administrative jurisdiction except with respect to acts
performed outside the course of their duties. The Government of Afghanistan has further
explicitly authorized the U.S. government to exercise criminal jurisdiction over U.S. personnel.
Thus, under the existing SOFA, the United States would have jurisdiction over the prosecution of
the servicemember who allegedly attacked the Afghan civilians.
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Multilateral vs. Bilateral SOFAs...................................................................................................... 1
Provisions of Status of Forces Agreements ..................................................................................... 3
Civil/Criminal Jurisdiction ........................................................................................................ 3
Example of Exclusive Jurisdiction...................................................................................... 4
Example of Shared Jurisdiction........................................................................................... 4
Status Determinations................................................................................................................ 5
Authority to Fight ...................................................................................................................... 5
Other Provisions Such as Uniforms, Taxes, and Customs......................................................... 6
Security Arrangements and SOFAs ................................................................................................. 6
Bilateral SOFAs: Historical Practice ............................................................................................... 7
Afghanistan................................................................................................................................ 7
Germany .................................................................................................................................. 10
Japan........................................................................................................................................ 11
South Korea............................................................................................................................. 12
Philippines ............................................................................................................................... 13
Iraq........................................................................................................................................... 14
Survey of Current Status of Forces Agreements............................................................................ 17
North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Status of Forces Agreement ........................................... 18
North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Partnership for Peace - Status of Forces
Agreement ............................................................................................................................ 18
Treaty as Underlying Source of Authority for Status of Forces Agreement............................ 18
Congressional Action as Underlying Source of Authority for Status of Forces
Agreement ............................................................................................................................ 19
Base Lease Agreement Containing Status of Forces Agreement Terms.................................. 19
Status of Forces Agreement in Support of Specified Activity/Exercises................................. 20
Status of Forces Agreement Not in Support of Specified Activity/Exercise and Not
Based on Underlying Treaty/Congressional Action ............................................................. 20
Tables
Table 1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Status of Forces Agreement ................................... 21
Table 2. North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Partnership for Peace - Status of Forces
Agreement .................................................................................................................................. 22
Table 3. Treaty as Underlying Source of Authority for Status of Forces Agreement .................... 24
Table 4. Congressional Action as Underlying Source of Authority for Status of Forces
Agreement .................................................................................................................................. 25
Table 5. Base Lease Agreement Containing Status of Forces Agreement Terms .......................... 25
Table 6. Status of Forces Agreement in Support of Specified Activity/Exercise........................... 26
Table 7. Status of Forces Agreement Not in Support of Specified Activity/Exercise and
Not Based on Underlying Treaty/Congressional Action............................................................. 27
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 30
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Introduction
The United States has been party to multilateral and bilateral agreements addressing the status of
U.S. Armed Forces while present in a foreign country. These agreements, commonly referred to
as Status of Forces Agreements (SOFAs), generally establish the framework under which U.S.
military personnel operate in a foreign country.1 SOFAs provide for rights and privileges of
covered individuals while in a foreign jurisdiction and address how the domestic laws of the
foreign jurisdiction apply to U.S. personnel.2 SOFAs may include many provisions, but the most
common issue addressed is which country may exercise criminal jurisdiction over U.S. personnel.
The United States has agreements where it maintains exclusive jurisdiction over its personnel, but
more often the agreement calls for shared jurisdiction with the receiving country.
A SOFA is not a mutual defense agreement or a security agreement, and generally does not
authorize specific exercises, activities, or missions. SOFAs are peacetime documents and
therefore do not address the rules of war, the Laws of Armed Conflict, or the Laws of the Sea.
The existence of a SOFA does not affect or diminish the parties’ inherent right of self-defense
under the law of war. In the event of armed conflict between parties to a SOFA, the terms of the
agreement would no longer be applicable.
The United States is currently party to more than 100 agreements that may be considered SOFAs.3
While a SOFA as a stand-alone document may not exist with a particular country, that does not
necessarily mean that the status of U.S. personnel in that country has not been addressed. Terms
commonly found in SOFAs may be contained in other agreements with a partner country and a
separate SOFA not utilized. As contracts, SOFAs may be subject to amendment or cancellation.
Multilateral vs. Bilateral SOFAs
With the exception of the multilateral SOFA among the United States and North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) countries, a SOFA is specific to an individual country and is in the form of
an executive agreement.4 The Department of State and the Department of Defense, working
together, identify the need for a SOFA with a particular country and negotiate the terms of the
agreement. The NATO SOFA5 is the only SOFA that was concluded as part of a treaty.6 The
1
In any discussion of SOFAs, it must be noted that there are at least 10 agreements that currently are classified
documents. The agreements are classified for national security reasons. They are not discussed in this report.
2
U.S. personnel may include U.S. armed forces personnel, Department of Defense civilian employees, and/or
contractors working for the Department of Defense. The scope of applicability is specifically defined in each
agreement.
3
TREATIES IN FORCE, A LIST OF TREATIES AND OTHER INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS OF THE UNITED STATES IN FORCE.
Prepared by the Department of State for the purpose of providing information on treaties and other international
agreements to which the United States is a party and which are carried on the records of the Department of State as
being in force as of November 1, 2007. Available at http://www.state.gov/s/l/treaty/treaties/2007/index.htm.
4
For a discussion on the form and content of international agreements under U.S. law, distinguishing between treaties
and executive agreements, see CRS Report R40614, Congressional Oversight and Related Issues Concerning
International Security Agreements Concluded by the United States, by (name redacted) and (name redacted).
5
4 U.S.T. 1792; T.I.A.S. 2846; 199 U.N.T.S. 67. Signed at London, June 19, 1951. Entered into force August 23, 1953.
6
See, e.g., Agreement under Article VI of the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Regarding Facilities and
Areas and the Status of United States Armed Forces in Japan, 11 U.S.T. 1652, entered into force June 23, 1960 (SOFA
in the form of an executive agreement pursuant to a treaty).
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Senate approved ratification of the NATO SOFA on March 19, 1970, subject to reservations. The
resolution included a statement
that nothing in the Agreement diminishes, abridges, or alters the right of the United States to
safeguard its own security by excluding or removing persons whose presence in the United
States is deemed prejudicial to its safety or security, and that no person whose presence in
the United States is deemed prejudicial to its safety or security shall be permitted to enter or
remain in the United States.7
The Senate reservations to the NATO SOFA include four conditions: (1) the criminal jurisdiction
provisions contained in Article VII of the agreement do not constitute a precedent for future
agreements; (2) when a servicemember is to be tried by authorities in a receiving state, the
commanding officer of the U.S. Armed Forces in that state shall review the laws of the receiving
state with reference to the procedural safeguards of the U.S. Constitution; (3) if the commanding
officer believes there is danger that the servicemember will not be protected because of the
absence or denial of constitutional rights the accused would receive in the United States, the
commanding officer shall request that the receiving state waive its jurisdiction; and, (4) a
representative of the United States be appointed to attend the trial of any servicemember being
tried by the receiving state and act to protect the constitutional rights of the servicemember.8
The NATO SOFA is a multilateral agreement that has applicability among all the member
countries of NATO. As of June 2007, 26 countries, including the United States, have either
ratified the agreement or acceded to it by their accession into NATO.9 Additionally, another 24
countries are subject to the NATO SOFA through their participation in the NATO Partnership for
Peace (PfP) program.10 The program consists of bilateral cooperation between individual
countries and NATO in order to increase stability, diminish threats to peace, and build
strengthened security relationships.11 The individual countries that participate in the PfP agree to
adhere to the terms of the NATO SOFA.12 Through the NATO SOFA and the NATO PfP, the
United States has a common SOFA with approximately 58 countries. Then-Secretary Rice and
Secretary Gates stated that the United States has agreements in more than 115 countries around
the world.13 The NATO SOFA and NATO PfP SOFA account for roughly half of the SOFAs to
which the United States is party.
Department of Defense Directive 5525.1 provides policy and information specific to SOFAs.14
The Department of Defense policy is “to protect, to the maximum extent possible, the rights of
U.S. personnel who may be subject to criminal trial by foreign courts and imprisonment in
foreign prisons.”15 The directive addresses the Senate reservations to the NATO SOFA by stating
even though the reservations accompanying its ratification only apply to NATO member countries
7
S.Res. of July 15, 1953, Advising and Consenting to Ratification of the NATO SOFA. See also 32 C.F.R. §151.6.
S.Res. of July 15, 1953, Advising and Consenting to Ratification of the NATO SOFA. See also 32 C.F.R. §151.6.
9
See http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/85630.pdf.
10
See http://www.nato.int/issues/pfp/index.html.
11
Id.
12
See http://www.nato.int/docu/basictxt/b950619a.htm.
13
What We Need In Iraq, By Condoleeza Rice and Robert Gates, February 13, 2008, available at
http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/12/AR2008021202001.html.
14
Available at http://www.dtic.mil/whs/directives/corres/pdf/552501p.pdf.
15
Id.
8
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where it is applicable, comparable reservations shall be applied to future SOFAs. Specifically, the
policy states that “the same procedures for safeguarding the interests of U.S. personnel subject to
foreign jurisdiction” be applied when practicable in overseas areas where U.S. forces are
stationed.16
Provisions of Status of Forces Agreements
There are no formal requirements governing the content, detail, and length of a SOFA. A SOFA
may address, but is not limited to, criminal and civil jurisdiction, the wearing of uniforms, taxes
and fees, carrying of weapons, use of radio frequencies, license requirements, and customs
regulations. The United States has concluded SOFAs as short as one page and in excess of 200
pages. For example, the United States and Bangladesh exchanged notes17 providing for the status
of U.S. Armed Forces in advance of a joint exercise in 1998.18 The agreement is specific to one
activity/exercise, consists of five clauses, and is contained in one page. The United States and
Botswana exchanged notes providing for the status of forces “who may be temporarily present in
Botswana in conjunction with exercises, training, humanitarian assistance, or other activities
which may be agreed upon by our two governments.”19 The agreement is similar in its scope to
the agreement with Bangladesh and is contained in one page. In contrast, in documents exceeding
200 pages, the United States and Germany entered into a supplemental agreement to the NATO
SOFA,20 as well as additional agreements and exchange of notes related to specific issues.21
Civil/Criminal Jurisdiction
The issue most commonly addressed in a SOFA is the legal protection from prosecution that will
be afforded U.S. personnel while present in a foreign country. The agreement establishes which
party to the agreement is able to assert criminal and/or civil jurisdiction. In other words, the
agreement establishes how the domestic civil and criminal laws are applied to U.S. personnel
while serving in a foreign country. The United States has entered agreements where it maintains
exclusive jurisdiction, but the more common agreement results in shared jurisdiction between the
United States and the signatory country. Exclusive jurisdiction is when the United States retains
the right to exercise all criminal and disciplinary jurisdiction for violations of the laws of the
foreign nation while the individual is present in that country. Shared jurisdiction occurs when
each party to the agreement retains exclusive jurisdiction over certain offenses, but also allows
the United States to request that the host country waive jurisdiction in favor of the United States
exercising criminal and disciplinary jurisdiction. The right to exert jurisdiction over U.S.
personnel is not solely limited to when an individual is located on a military installation. It may
16
Id.
Diplomatic notes are used for correspondence between the U.S. government and a foreign government. The
Secretary of State corresponds with the diplomatic representatives of foreign governments in Washington, DC, and
foreign offices or ministries abroad. See http://foia.state.gov/masterdocs/05fah01/CH0610.pdf.
18
T.I.A.S. Exchange of notes at Dhaka, August 10 and 24, 1998. Entered into force August 24, 1998. (Providing U.S.
armed forces status equivalent to administrative and technical staff of the U.S. Embassy).
19
T.I.A.S. Exchange of notes at Gaborone, January 22 and February 13, 2001. Entered into force February 13, 2001.
(Providing U.S. forces status equivalent to administrative and technical staff of the U.S. Embassy).
20
14 U.S.T. 531; T.I.A.S. 5351. Signed at Bonn, August 3, 1959. Entered into force July 1, 1963.
21
14 U.S.T. 689; T.I.A.S. 5352; 490 U.N.T.S. 30. Signed at Bonn, August 3, 1959. Entered into force July 1, 1963.
17
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
cover individuals off the installation as well. The right to exert jurisdiction can result in complete
immunity from the laws of the receiving country while the individual is present in that country.
Example of Exclusive Jurisdiction
The United States entered into an agreement regarding military exchanges and visits with the
Government of Mongolia.22 As part of the agreement, Article X addresses criminal jurisdiction of
U.S. personnel located in Mongolia. The language of the agreement provides, “United States
military authorities shall have the right to exercise within Mongolia all criminal and disciplinary
jurisdiction over United States [p]ersonnel conferred on them by the military laws of the United
States. Any criminal offenses against the laws of Mongolia committed by a member of the U.S.
forces shall be referred to appropriate United States authorities for investigation and
disposition.”23 The agreement allows the Government of Mongolia to request the United States to
waive its jurisdiction in cases of alleged criminal behavior unrelated to official duty.24 There is no
requirement for the United States to waive jurisdiction, only to give “sympathetic consideration”
of any such request.25
Example of Shared Jurisdiction
The NATO SOFA, applicable to all member countries, is an example of shared jurisdiction.
Article VII provides the jurisdictional framework.26 The SOFA allows for a country not entitled to
22
T.I.A.S., Agreement on Military Exchanges and Visits Between The Government of the United States of America
and The Government of Mongolia, agreement dated June 26, 1996.
23
Id.
24
Id.
25
Id.
26
4 U.S.T. 1792; T.I.A.S. 2846; 199 U.N.T.S. 67. Article VII:
1. Subject to the provisions of this Article,
(a) the military authorities of the sending State shall have the right to exercise within the receiving
State all criminal and disciplinary jurisdiction conferred on them by the law of the sending State
over all persons subject to the military law of that State;
(b) the authorities of the receiving State shall have jurisdiction over the members of a force or
civilian component and their dependents with respect to offenses committed within the territory of
the receiving State and punishable by the law of that State.
2.—(a) The military authorities of the sending State shall have the right to exercise exclusive
jurisdiction over persons subject to the military law of that State with respect to offenses, including
offenses relating to its security, punishable by the law of the sending State, but not by the law of the
receiving State.
(b) The authorities of the receiving State shall have the right to exercise exclusive jurisdiction over
members of a force or civilian components and their dependents with respect to offenses, including
offenses relating to the security of that State, punishable by its law but not by the law of the sending
State.
(c) For the purposes of this paragraph and of paragraph 3 of this Article a security offense against a
State shall include
(i) treason against the State;
(ii) sabotage, espionage or violation of any law relating to official secrets of that State, or
secrets relating to the national defense of that State.
3. In cases where the right to exercise jurisdiction is concurrent, the following rules shall apply:
(a) The military authorities of the sending State shall have the primary right to exercise jurisdiction
(continued...)
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primary jurisdiction to request the country with primary jurisdiction waive its right to jurisdiction.
There is no requirement for the country to waive jurisdiction, only that it gives “sympathetic
consideration” of the request.27 Under the shared jurisdiction framework, each of the respective
countries is provided exclusive jurisdiction in specific circumstances, generally when an offense
is only punishable by one of the country’s laws.28 In that case, the country whose law has been
offended has exclusive jurisdiction over the offender. When the offense violates the laws of both
countries, concurrent jurisdiction is present and additional qualifications are used to determine
which country will be allowed to assert jurisdiction over the offender.29
Status Determinations
While the NATO SOFA provides extensive language establishing jurisdiction, the United States
has entered numerous SOFAs that appear to have a very basic rule for determining jurisdiction.
Some agreements contain a single sentence stating that U.S. personnel are to be afforded a status
equivalent to that accorded to the administrative and technical staff of the U.S. Embassy in that
country. The Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of April 18, 1961 establishes classes of
personnel, each with varying levels of legal protections.30 Administrative and technical staff
receive, among other legal protections, “immunity from the criminal jurisdiction of the receiving
State.”31 Therefore, a SOFA which treats U.S. personnel as administrative and technical staff
confers immunity from criminal jurisdiction while in the receiving country.
Authority to Fight
SOFAs do not generally authorize specific military operations or missions by U.S. forces. While
SOFAs do not generally provide authority to fight, the inherent right of self-defense is not
(...continued)
over a member of a force or of a civilian component in relation to
(i) offenses solely against the property or security of that State, or offenses solely against the
person or property of another member of the force or civilian component of that State or of a
dependent;
(ii) offenses arising out of any act or omission in the performance of official duty.
(b) In the case of any other offense the authorities of the receiving State shall have the primary right
to exercise jurisdiction.
(c) If the State having the primary right decides not to exercise jurisdiction, it shall notify the
authorities of the other State as soon as practicable. The authorities of the State having the primary
right shall give sympathetic consideration to a request from the authorities of the other State for a
waiver of its right in cases where that other State considers such waiver to be of particular
importance.4. The foregoing provisions of this Article shall not imply any right for the military
authorities of the sending State to exercise jurisdiction over persons who are nationals of or
ordinarily resident in the receiving State, unless they are members of the force of the sending
State.”
27
Id.
28
Id.
29
Id.
30
23 U.S.T. 3227; T.I.A.S. 7502. Signed April 18, 1961. Entered into force December 13, 1972. For background see,
CRS Report RL33147, Immunities Accorded to Foreign Diplomats, Consular Officers, and Employees of International
Organizations Under U.S. Law, by (name redacted).
31
Vienna Convention, supra note 30, at art. 37(2), citing art. 31(1).
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affected or diminished. U.S. personnel always have a right to defend themselves, if threatened or
attacked, and a SOFA does not take away that right.32 Language is often found within the SOFA
that defines the scope of applicability of the agreement. For example, the SOFA with Belize
expressly applies to U.S. personnel “who may be temporarily in Belize in connection with
military exercises and training, counter-drug related activities, United States security assistance
programs, or other agreed purposes.”33 The United States had previously entered into two
different agreements with Belize related to military training and the provision of defense
articles.34 The SOFA itself does not authorize specific operations, exercises, or activities, but
provides provisions addressing the legal status and protections of U.S. personnel while in Belize.
Under the terms of the agreement, U.S. personnel are provided legal protections as if they were
administrative and technical staff of the U.S. Embassy.35
Other Provisions Such as Uniforms, Taxes, and Customs
While understandings regarding the assertion of legal jurisdiction are generally a universal
component of a SOFA, more detailed administrative and operational matters may be included as
well. A SOFA may address, for example, the wearing of uniforms by armed forces while away
from military installations, taxes and fees, carrying of weapons by U.S. personnel, use of radio
frequencies, driving license requirements, and customs regulations. A SOFA provides the legal
framework for day-to-day operations of U.S. personnel while a foreign country. Most SOFAs are
bilateral agreements; therefore they may be tailored to the specific needs of the personnel
operating in that country.
Security Arrangements and SOFAs
In support of U.S. foreign policy, the United States has concluded agreements with foreign
nations related to security commitments and assurances.36 These agreements may be concluded in
various forms including as a collective defense agreement (obligating parties to the agreement to
assist in the defense of any party to the agreement in the event of an attack upon it), an agreement
containing a consultation requirement (a party to the agreement pledges to take some action in the
event the other country’s security is threatened), an agreement granting the legal right to military
intervention (granting one party the right, but not the duty, to militarily intervene within the
territory of another party to defend it against internal or external threats), or other non-binding
arrangements (unilateral pledge or policy statement). SOFAs are often included, along with other
types of military agreements (i.e., basing, access, and pre-positioning), as part of a comprehensive
security arrangement. A SOFA may be based on the authority found in previous treaties,
congressional action, or sole executive agreements comprising the security arrangement.
32
See CJCSI 3121.01B, Standing Rules of Engagement for US Forces (U), June 13, 2005. (The SROE is a classified
document, but portions are unclassified).
33
T.I.A.S. Exchange of notes at Belize City September 4, 2001and April 24, 2002. Entered into force April 24, 2002.
34
34 U.S.T. 23; T.I.A.S. 10334. Exchange of notes at Belize and Belmopan December 8, 1981 and January 15, 1982.
Entered into force January 15, 1982. T.I.A.S. 11743; 2202 U.N.T.S. 141. Exchange of notes at Belize and Belmopan
August 6 and 23, 1990. Entered into force August 23, 1990.
35
T.I.A.S. Exchange of notes at Belize City September 4, 2001and April 24, 2002. Entered into force April 24, 2002.
36
For a discussion on security arrangements, see CRS Report R40614, Congressional Oversight and Related Issues
Concerning International Security Agreements Concluded by the United States, by (name redacted) and (name red
acted).
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Bilateral SOFAs: Historical Practice
The following sections provide a historical perspective on the inclusion of a SOFA as part of
comprehensive bilateral security arrangements by the United States with Afghanistan, Germany,
Japan, South Korea, and the Philippines. The arrangements may include a stand-alone SOFA or
other agreements including protections commonly associated with a SOFA.
Afghanistan
Following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the United States initiated Operation
Enduring Freedom to combat Al Qaeda and prevent the Taliban regime in Afghanistan from
providing them with safe harbor. Shortly thereafter, the Taliban regime was ousted by U.S. and
allied forces, and the United States thereafter concluded a number of security agreements with the
new Afghan government. In 2002, the United States and Afghanistan, by an exchange of notes,37
entered into an agreement regarding economic grants under the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961,38
as amended. Additionally, the agreement allows for the furnishing of defense articles, defense
services, and related training, pursuant to the United States International Military and Education
Training Program (IMET),39 from the U.S. government to the Afghanistan Interim Administration
(AIA).
The Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 is “an act to promote the foreign policy, security, and general
welfare of the United States by assisting peoples of the world in their efforts toward economic
development and internal and external security, and for other purposes.”40 Part I of the act,
addressing international development, established policy “to make assistance available, upon
request, under this part in scope and on a basis of long-range continuity essential to the creation
of an environment in which the energies of the peoples of the world can be devoted to
constructive purposes, free of pressure and erosion by the adversaries of freedom.”41 Part II of the
act, addressing international peace and security, authorizes “measures in the common defense
against internal and external aggression, including the furnishing of military assistance, upon
request, to friendly countries and international organizations.”42 The act authorizes the President
“to furnish military assistance on such terms and conditions as he may determine, to any friendly
country or international organization, the assisting of which the President finds will strengthen the
security of the United States and promote world peace and which is otherwise eligible to receive
such assistance.”43 The authorization to provide defense articles and services, noncombatant
personnel, and the transfer of funds is codified at 22 U.S.C. Section 2311. While this
authorization permits the President to provide military assistance, it limits it to “assigning or
37
Exchange of notes at Kabul April 6 and 13, 2002. Entered into force April 13, 2002. Not printed in Treaties and
Other International Acts Series (T.I.A.S.).
38
P.L. 87-195, 75 Stat. 424 (September 4 1961) (codified as amended at 22 U.S.C. §2151 et seq.).
39
22 U.S.C. §2347 et seq.
40
75 Stat. 424.
41
Id. at 425.
42
Id. at 434.
43
Id. at 435.
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detailing members of the Armed Forces of the United States and other personnel of the
Department of Defense to perform duties of a noncombatant nature.”44
An agreement exists regarding the status of military and civilian personnel of the U.S.
Department of Defense present in Afghanistan in connection with cooperative efforts in response
to terrorism, humanitarian and civic assistance, military training and exercises, and other
activities.45 Such personnel are to be accorded “a status equivalent to that accorded to the
administrative and technical staff” of the U.S. Embassy under the Vienna Convention on
Diplomatic Relations of 1961.46 Accordingly, U.S. personnel are immune from criminal
prosecution by Afghan authorities, and are immune from civil and administrative jurisdiction
except with respect to acts performed outside the course of their duties.47 In the agreement, the
Islamic Transitional Government of Afghanistan (ITGA)48 explicitly authorized the U.S.
government to exercise criminal jurisdiction over U.S. personnel, and the Government of
Afghanistan is not permitted to surrender U.S. personnel to the custody of another State,
international tribunal, or any other entity without consent of the U.S. government. Although the
agreement was signed by the ITGA, the subsequently elected government of the Islamic Republic
of Afghanistan assumed responsibility for ITGA’s legal obligations and the agreement remains in
force. The agreement does not appear to provide immunity for contract personnel.
The agreement with Afghanistan does not expressly authorize the United States to carry out
military operations within Afghanistan, but it recognizes that such operations are “ongoing.”
Congress authorized the use of military force there (and elsewhere) by joint resolution in 2001,
for targeting “those nations, organizations, or persons [who] planned, authorized, committed, or
aided the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001.”49 The U.N. Security Council
implicitly recognized that the use of force was appropriate in response to the September 11, 2001,
terrorist attacks,50 and subsequently authorized the deployment of an International Security
Assistance Force (ISAF) to Afghanistan.51 Subsequent U.N. Security Council resolutions provide
a continuing mandate for ISAF,52 calling upon it to “work in close consultation with” Operation
Enduring Freedom (OEF—the U.S.-led coalition conducting military operations in Afghanistan)
in carrying out the mandate.53 While there is no explicit U.N. mandate authorizing the OEF,
44
22 U.S.C. §2311(a)(2) (italics added).
T.I.A.S. Exchange of notes September 26 and December 12, 2002 and May 28, 2003. Entered into force May 28,
2003.
46
Id.
47
Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations of April 18, 1961, T.I.A.S. 7502; 23 U.S.T. 3227.
48
The transitional government has since been replaced by the fully elected government of the Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan. For information about the political development of Afghanistan since 2001, see CRS Report RS21922,
Afghanistan: Politics, Elections, and Government Performance, by (name redacted).
49
P.L. 107-40, 115 Stat. 224 (September 18, 2001).
50
U.N.S.C. Res. 1368 (September 12, 2001) (“Recognizing the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence in
accordance with the [UN] Charter,” and expressing its “readiness to take all necessary steps to respond to the terrorist
attacks”).
51
U.N.S.C. Res. 1386 (December 20, 2001).
52
ISAF has its own status of forces agreement with the Afghan government in the form of an annex to a Military
Technical Agreement entitled “Arrangements Regarding the Status of the International Security Assistance Force.” The
agreement provides that all ISAF and supporting personnel are subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of their respective
national elements for criminal or disciplinary matters, and that such personnel are immune from arrest or detention by
Afghan authorities and may not be turned over to any international tribunal or any other entity or State without the
express consent of the contributing nation. In 2003, NATO assumed command of ISAF in Afghanistan.
53
See U.N.S.C. Res. 1776 §5 (September 19, 2007); U.N.S.C. Res. 1707 §4 (2007).
45
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Security Council resolutions appear to provide ample recognition of the legitimacy of its
operations, most recently by calling upon the Afghan government, “with the assistance of the
international community, including the International Security Assistance Force and Operation
Enduring Freedom coalition, in accordance with their respective designated responsibilities as
they evolve, to continue to address the threat to the security and stability of Afghanistan posed by
the Taliban, Al-Qaida, other extremist groups and criminal activities.”54
In 2004, the United States and Afghanistan entered an acquisition and cross-servicing agreement,
with annexes.55 An acquisition and cross-servicing agreement (ACSA) is an agreement providing
logistic support, supplies, and services to foreign militaries on a cash-reimbursement,
replacement-in-kind, or exchange of equal value basis.56 After consultation with the Secretary of
State, the Secretary of Defense is authorized to enter into an ACSA with a government of a NATO
country, a subsidiary body of NATO, or the United Nations Organization or any regional
international organization of which the United States is a member.57 Additionally, the Secretary of
Defense may enter into an ACSA with a country not included in the above categories, if, after
consultation with the Secretary of State, a determination is made that it is in the best interests of
the national security of the United States.58 If the country is not a member of NATO, the Secretary
of Defense must submit notice, at least 30 days prior to designation, to the Committee on Armed
Services and the Committee on Foreign Relations of the Senate and the Committee on Armed
Services and the Committee on Foreign Affairs of the House of Representatives.59
On May 23, 2005, President Hamid Karzai and President Bush issued a “joint declaration”
outlining a prospective future agreement between the two countries.60 It envisions a role for U.S.
military troops in Afghanistan to “help organize, train, equip, and sustain Afghan security forces”
until Afghanistan has developed its own capacity, and to “consult with respect to taking
appropriate measures in the event that Afghanistan perceives that its territorial integrity,
independence, or security is threatened or at risk.” The declaration does not mention the status of
U.S. forces in Afghanistan, but if an agreement is concluded pursuant to the declaration, it can be
expected a status of forces agreement would be included. In August 2008, shortly after U.S.
airstrikes apparently resulted in civilian casualties, President Karzai called for a review of the
presence of all foreign forces in Afghanistan and the conclusion of formal SOFAs with the
respective countries.61 However, to date, it appears unclear whether the parties have entered into
formal negotiations that might lead to an updated SOFA.
On December 16, 2010, the Obama Administration, as part of its Afghanistan-Pakistan annual
review, stated that it, as part of the NATO coalition, remains committed to a long-term partnership
with Afghanistan.62 As such, the Administration maintained that U.S. forces would commence a
54
U.N.S.C. Res. 1746 §25 (2007). For additional information on the war in Afghanistan, see CRS Report R40156, War
in Afghanistan: Strategy, Operations, and Issues for Congress, by (name redacted).
55
T.I.A.S. Signed at Doha and Kabul January 22 and February 16, 2004. Entered into force February 16, 2004.
56
10 U.S.C. §§2341-2350.
57
Id. at §2342(a)(1).
58
Id. at §2342(b)(1).
59
Id. at §2342(b)(2).
60
http://www.mfa.gov.af/Documents/ImportantDoc/US-Afghanistan%20Strategic%20Partnership%20Declaration.pdf.
61
Karen DeYoung, “Only a Two-Page ‘Note’ Governs U.S. Military in Afghanistan,” Washington Post, August 28,
2008, p. A07.
62
The White House, “Press Briefing by Press Secretary Robert Gibbs, Secretary of State Clinton, Secretary of Defense
(continued...)
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
transfer of security responsibility to the Afghan government in 2011 and conclude the transfer in
2014.63 It remains unclear if the United States intends to enter into strategic and security
agreements, like those utilized in Iraq, during the announced period of transition.
On February 10, 2011, Representative Lynn Woolsey introduced H.R. 651, the United StatesAfghanistan Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA) Act of 2011.64 The bill requires, 90 days after
enactment, the President to “seek to negotiate and enter into a bilateral status of forces
agreement” with Afghanistan.65 Additionally, if enacted, the bill requires that the concluded
agreement must explicitly state that the presence of U.S. forces in Afghanistan is temporary,
permanent basing is prohibited, and all troops must withdraw from the country within one year of
the agreement.66
Germany
In 1951, prior to Germany becoming a member of NATO, the United States and Germany entered
into an agreement67 related to the assurances required under the Mutual Security Act of 1951.68
Germany subsequently joined NATO in 1955 and, in the same year, concluded an agreement
related to mutual defense assistance,69 obligating the United States to provide “such equipment,
materials, services, or other assistance as may be agreed” to Germany.70
Four years after Germany joined NATO, the countries entered into an agreement implementing
the NATO SOFA of 1953.71 The agreement provided additional supplemental agreements, beyond
those contained in the NATO SOFA, specific to the relationship between the United States and
Germany. The implementation and supplemental agreements to the NATO SOFA are in excess of
200 pages and cover the minutiae of day-to-day operations of U.S. forces and personnel in
Germany.
(...continued)
Gates and General Cartwright,” press release, December 16, 2010, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2010/
12/16/press-briefing-press-secretary-robert-gibbs-secretary-state-clinton-secr.
63
Id.
64
H.R. 651, 112th Congress, 1st Sess. (2011).
65
Id. at Sec. 3(a).
66
Id. at Sec 3(b).
67
3 U.S.T. 4564; T.I.A.S. 2607; 181 U.N.T.S. 45. Exchange of letters at Bonn December 19 and 28, 1951.
68
P.L. 82-165, 65 Stat. 373 (October 10, 1951) (An act to promote the foreign policy and provide for the defense and
general welfare of the United States by furnishing military assistance in the form of equipment, materials, and services
to NATO member countries).
69
6 U.S.T. 5999; T.I.A.S. 3443; 240 U.N.T.S. 47. Signed at Bonn June 30, 1955. Entered into force December 27,
1955.
70
Id.
71
14 U.S.T. 689; T.I.A.S. 5352; 490 U.N.T.S. 30. Signed at Bonn August 3, 1959. Entered into force July 1, 1963.
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Japan
Prior to the current security arrangements between the United States and Japan, the countries, in
1952, concluded a security treaty72 and an accompanying administrative agreement.73 The
administrative agreement covered, among other maters, the jurisdiction of the United States over
offenses committed in Japan by members of the U.S. forces, and provided that the United States
could waive jurisdiction in favor of Japan. One provision established that the United States
retained jurisdiction over offenses committed by a servicemember arising out of any act or
omission done in the performance of official duty.
In 1957, a member of the U.S. Army was indicted in the death of a Japanese civilian while
participating in a small unit exercise at Camp Weir range area in Japan.74 The United States
claimed that the act was committed in the performance of official duty, but Japan insisted that it
was outside the scope of official duty and therefore Japan had primary jurisdiction to try the
member. After negotiations, the United States acquiesced and agreed to turn the member over to
Japanese authorities. In an attempt to avoid trial in the Japanese Courts, the member sought a writ
of habeas corpus in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia.75 The writ was
denied, but the member was granted an injunction against delivery to Japanese authorities to
stand trial. The United States appealed the injunction to the U.S. Supreme Court.
In Wilson v. Girard,76 the Supreme Court first addressed the jurisdictional provisions contained in
the administrative agreement. The Court determined that by recommending ratification of the
security treaty and subsequently the NATO SOFA, the Senate had approved the administrative
agreement and protocol (embodying the NATO provisions) governing jurisdiction to try criminal
offenses.77 The Court held that “a sovereign nation has exclusive jurisdiction to punish offenses
against its laws committed within its border, unless it expressly or impliedly consents to surrender
its jurisdiction” and that Japan’s “cession to the United States of jurisdiction to try American
military personnel for conduct constituting an offense against the laws of both countries was
conditioned” by provisions contained in the protocol calling for “sympathetic consideration to a
request from the other State for a waiver of its right in cases where that other State considers such
waiver to be of particular importance.”78 The Court concluded that the issue was then whether the
Constitution or legislation subsequent to treaty prohibited carrying out of the jurisdictional
provisions. The Court found none and stated that “in the absence of such encroachments, the
wisdom of the arrangement is exclusively for the determination of the Executive and Legislative
Branches.”79
72
3 U.S.T. 3329. Signed at San Francisco September 8, 1951. Ratification advised by the Senate March 20, 1952.
Entered into force April 28, 1952.
73
3 U.S.T. 3341. Signed at Tokyo February 28, 1952; entered into force April 28, 1952.
74
The servicemember had been indicted in the death of a Japanese civilian while participating in a small unit exercise
at Camp Weir range area in Japan. The member had placed an expended 30-caliber cartridge case in a grenade launcher
attached to his rifle and projected the cartridge out of the launcher by firing a blank. The cartridge hit the Japanese
woman while she was gathering expended cartridge cases on the range and caused her death.
75
Girard v. Wilson, 152 F. Supp. 21 (D.D.C. 1957). For a brief explanation of the writ of habeas corpus, see CRS
Report RS22432, Federal Habeas Corpus: An Abridged Sketch, by (name redacted).
76
354 U.S. 524 (U.S. 1957).
77
Id. at 528.
78
Id. at 529.
79
Id. at 530.
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
The Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Between the United States of America and
Japan80 was concluded in 1960 and subsequently amended on December 26, 1990.81 Under
Article VI of the Treaty, the United States is granted “the use by its land, air and naval forces of
facilities and areas in Japan” in order to contribute “to the security of Japan and maintenance of
international peace and security in the Far East[.]”82 Article VI provides further that the use of
facilities and the status of U.S. Armed Forces will be governed under a separate agreement,83
much like the previous security treaty concluded in 1952.
A SOFA, as called for under Article VI of the Treaty, was concluded as a separate agreement
pursuant to and concurrently with the Treaty in 1960.84 The SOFA addresses the use of facilities
by the U.S. Armed Forces, as well as the status of U.S. forces in Japan. The agreement has been
modified at least four times since the original agreement.85
South Korea
In 1954 the United States and the Republic of Korea entered into a mutual defense treaty.86 As
part of the treaty the countries agree to attempt to settle international disputes peacefully, consult
whenever the political independence or security of either party is threatened by external armed
attack, and that either party would act to meet the common danger in accordance with their
respective constitutional processes.87 Article IV of the treaty grants the United States “the right to
dispose.... land, air and sea forces in and about the territory” of South Korea.88 Pursuant to the
treaty, specifically Article IV, the countries entered into a SOFA with agreed minutes and an
exchange of notes in 1966;89 it was subsequently amended January 18, 2001.
In 1968, two years after the SOFA was signed between the countries, a member of the U.S. Army
asserted in Smallwood v. Clifford90 that U.S. authorities did not have legitimate authority, under
the jurisdictional provisions contained in the agreement, to release him to the Republic of Korea
for trial by a Korean court on charges of murder and arson.91 The servicemember asserted that the
80
11 U.S.T. 1632; T.I.A.S. 4509; 373 U.N.T.S. 186. Signed at Washington January 19, 1960. Entered into force June
23, 1960.
81
T.I.A.S. 12335.
82
Id.
83
Id.
84
11 U.S.T. 1652; T.I.A.S. 4510; 373 U.N.T.S. 248. Signed at Washington January 19, 1960. Entered into force June
23, 1960.
85
Agreements concerning new special measures relating to Article XXIV of the agreement of January 19, 1960 (related
to costs of maintenance of U.S. forces in Japan and furnishment of rights of way related to facilities used by U.S. forces
in Japan), have been signed in 1991, 1995, 2000, and 2006.
86
5 U.S.T. 2368; T.I.A.S. 3097; 238 U.N.T.S. 199. Signed at Washington October 1, 1953. Entered into force
November 17, 1954.
87
Id.
88
Id.
89
17 U.S.T. 1677; T.I.A.S. 6127; 674 U.N.T.S. 163. Signed at Seoul July 9, 1966. Entered into force February 9, 1967.
90
286 F. Supp. 97 (D.D.C. 1968).
91
The servicemember was implicated in the murder of a female Korean national which occurred off post in the
Republic of Korea. Pursuant to the provisions of the SOFA, the Korean Minister of Justice notified the Commander,
United States Forces, Korea, that the Korean Government intended to exercise its primary right of jurisdiction over the
servicemember on charges of murder and arson.
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
agreement was not approved in a “constitutionally acceptable manner.”92 He maintained that U.S.
domestic law requires international agreements pertaining to foreign jurisdiction over U.S. forces
stationed abroad be approved “either expressly or impliedly by the [U.S.] Senate.”93 The court
found that the SOFA resulted in a diminished role for the Republic of Korea in enforcing its own
laws and that the United States did not waive jurisdiction over offenses committed within its own
territory. Therefore, ratification by the Senate was “clearly unnecessary” because Senate approval
would “have no effect on a grant of jurisdiction by the Republic of Korea, [of] which the United
States could not rightfully claim.”94
Additionally, the servicemember asserted that the Constitution and the Uniform Code of Military
Justice (UCMJ)95 provide the sole methods for trying servicemen abroad and that they can not be
changed by an executive agreement.96 The court held that the premise is true only when there has
not been a violation of the laws of the foreign jurisdiction. When a violation of the foreign
jurisdiction’s criminal laws occurs, the primary jurisdiction lies with that nation and the
provisions of the UCMJ only apply if the foreign nation expressly or impliedly waived its
jurisdiction.97 In support of its decision the court cited the principle, stated in Wilson,98 that the
primary right of jurisdiction belongs to the nation in whose territory the servicemember commits
the crime.
Philippines
In 1947 the United States and the Republic of the Philippines entered into an agreement on
military assistance.99 The agreement was for a term of five years, starting July 4, 1946, and
provided that the United States would furnish military assistance to the Philippines for the
training and development of armed forces. The agreement further created an advisory group to
provide advice and assistance to the Philippines as had been authorized by the U.S. Congress.100
The agreement was extended, and amended, for an additional five years in 1953.101
A mutual defense treaty was entered into by the United States and the Philippines in 1951.102 The
treaty publicly declares “their sense of unity and their common determination to defend
themselves against external armed attack, so that no potential aggressor could be under the
illusion that either of them stands alone in the Pacific Area[.]”103 The Treaty does not address or
provide for a SOFA.
92
Clifford, 286 F. Supp at 99.
Id.
94
Id. at 100.
95
10 U.S.C. §801 et seq.
96
Clifford, 286 F. Supp. at 101.
97
Id.
98
Wilson, 354 U.S. at 529.
99
61 Stat. 3283; T.I.A.S. 1662. Signed at Manila March 21, 1947. Entered into force March 21, 1947.
100
61 Stat. 3284.
101
4 U.S.T. 1682; T.I.A.S. 2834; 2163 U.N.T.S. 77. Exchange of notes at Manila June 26, 1953. Entered into force July
5, 1953.
102
3 U.S.T. 3947; T.I.A.S. 2529; 177 U.N.T.S. 133. Signed at Washington August 30, 1951. Entered into force August
27, 1952.
103
Id.
93
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
In 1993, the countries entered into a SOFA.104 The agreement was subsequently extended on
September 19, 1994; April 28, 1995; and November 29, December 1, and December 8, 1995. The
countries entered into an agreement regarding the treatment of U.S. Armed Forces visiting the
Philippines in 1998.105 This agreement was amended on April 11 and 12, 2006. The distinction
between this agreement and the SOFA originally entered into in 1993 is that this agreement
applies to U.S. Armed Forces visiting, not stationed in the Philippines. The countries also entered
into an agreement regarding the treatment of Republic of Philippines personnel visiting the
United States (counterpart agreement).106
The counterpart agreement contains provisions addressing criminal jurisdiction over Philippine
personnel while in the United States. The agreement was concluded as an executive agreement
and not ratified by the U.S. Senate. Arguably, following the logic of the U.S. District Court for the
District of Columbia in Clifford, because the agreement arguably diminishes the impact of U.S.
jurisdiction, it would need to be ratified by the Senate in order to be constitutionally valid. But,
the counterpart agreement can be distinguished from the SOFA with the Republic of Korea, and
SOFAs with other foreign jurisdictions, in that the United States is not fully waiving jurisdiction
over offenses committed within U.S. territory. Rather, the agreement states that U.S. authorities
will, at the request of the Government of the Philippines, request that the appropriate authorities
waive jurisdiction in favor of Philippine authorities.107 However, the U.S. Department of State
and Department of Defense retain the ability to determine that U.S. interests require that the
United States exercise federal or state jurisdiction over the Philippine personnel.108
Iraq109
Between March 2003 and August 2010,110 the United States engaged in military operations in
Iraq, first to remove the Saddam Hussein regime from power, and then to combat remnants of the
former regime and other threats to the stability of Iraq and its post-Saddam government. In late
2007, the United States and Iraq signed a Declaration of Principles for a Long-Term Relationship
of Cooperation and Friendship Between the Republic of Iraq and the United States of America.111
104
T.I.A.S. Exchange of notes at Manila April 2, June 11 and 21, 1993. Entered into force June 21, 1993.
T.I.A.S. Signed at Manila February 10, 1998. Entered into force June 1, 1999.
106
T.I.A.S. Signed at Manila October 9, 1998. Entered into force June 1, 1999.
107
Id.
108
Id.
109
In the 1950s, almost 40 years prior to the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the United States entered into a series of
agreements with Iraq, including (1) a military assistance agreement (T.I.A.S. 3108. Agreement of April 21, 1954); (2)
an agreement relating to the disposition of military equipment and materials provided under the military assistance
agreement (T.I.A.S. 3289. Agreement of July 25, 1955); and (3) an economic assistance agreement (T.I.A.S. 3835.
Agreement of May 18 and 22, 1957). However, in response to the Revolution of July 14, 1958, and the subsequent
change in the Government of Iraq, the United States agreed to a termination of the above agreements (10 U.S.T. 1415;
T.I.A.S. 4289; 357 U.N.T.S. 153. Exchange of notes at Baghdad May 30 and July 7, 1959. Entered into force July 21,
1959).
110
Aamer Madhani, “Withdrawal of U.S. combat forces is ‘New Dawn’ for Iraq,” USA Today, August 19, 2010,
available at http://www.usatoday.com/news/world/iraq/2010-08-20-iraq20_ST_N.htm.
111
The text of this agreement is available at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2007/11/
20071126-11.html (hereinafter “Declaration of Principles”). For a historical perspective of U.S. operations in Iraq and
issues related to Iraqi governance and security, see CRS Report RL31339, Iraq: Post-Saddam Governance and
Security, by (name redacted), and CRS Report RL33793, Iraq: Regional Perspectives and U.S. Policy, coordinated
by (name redacted).
105
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
The strategic arrangement contemplated in the Declaration was intended to ultimately replace the
United Nations mandate under which the United States and allied forces are responsible for
contributing to the security of Iraq, which terminated on December 31, 2008.112 The Declaration
was rooted in an August 26, 2007, communiqué, signed by five top political leaders in Iraq, which
called for a long-term relationship with the United States. Pursuant to the Declaration, the parties
pledged to “begin as soon as possible, with the aim to achieve, before July 31, 2008, agreements
between the two governments with respect to the political, cultural, economic, and security
spheres.”113 Among other things, the Declaration proclaimed the parties’ intention to negotiate a
security agreement:
To support the Iraqi government in training, equipping, and arming the Iraqi Security Forces
so they can provide security and stability to all Iraqis; support the Iraqi government in
contributing to the international fight against terrorism by confronting terrorists such as AlQaeda, its affiliates, other terrorist groups, as well as all other outlaw groups, such as
criminal remnants of the former regime; and to provide security assurances to the Iraqi
Government to deter any external aggression and to ensure the integrity of Iraq’s territory.114
This announcement became a source of congressional interest,115 in part because of statements by
Bush Administration officials that such an agreement would not be submitted to the legislative
branch for approval, despite potentially obliging the United States to provide “security
assurances” to Iraq.116 In the 110th Congress, multiple hearings were held which addressed the
proposed security agreement. In late 2007, Congress passed the Emergency Supplemental
Appropriations Act for Defense, 2008, which contained a provision limiting the funds it made
available from being used by U.S. authorities to enter into an agreement with Iraq that subjected
members of the U.S. Armed Forces to the criminal jurisdiction of Iraq.117 In October 2008,
Congress passed the Duncan Hunter National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2009,
which requires a report from the President to the House Foreign Affairs and Armed Services
Committees, and the Senate Foreign Relations and Armed Services Committees, on any
completed U.S.-Iraq agreement addressing specified subjects, including security assurances or
commitments by the United States, basing rights, and the status of U.S. forces in Iraq.118 Several
legislative proposals were introduced which would have required any such agreement to either be
submitted to the Senate for its advice and consent as a treaty or authorized by a statutory
enactment.
On November 17, 2008, after months of negotiations, U.S. Ambassador to Iraq Ryan Crocker and
Iraq Foreign Minister Hoshyar Zebari signed two documents: (1) the Strategic Framework
112
U.N.S.C. Res. 1790 (December 18, 2007).
Declaration of Principles, supra note 111.
114
Id.
115
For further discussion, see CRS Report RL34568, U.S.-Iraq Agreements: Congressional Oversight Activities and
Legislative Response, by (name redacted).
116
In a November 26, 2007, press briefing regarding the Declaration, General Douglas Lute, Assistant to the President
for Iraq and Afghanistan, stated that the Administration did not foresee a prospective agreement with Iraq having “the
status of a formal treaty which would then bring us to formal negotiations or formal inputs from the Congress.” White
House Office of the Press Secretary, Press Gaggle by Dana Perino and General Douglas Lute, Assistant to the
President for Iraq and Afghanistan, November 26, 2007, available at http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/
news/releases/2007/11/20071126-6.html.
117
P.L. 110-161, Div. L, §612 (2007).
118
P.L. 110-417, §1212 (2008).
113
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Agreement for a Relationship of Friendship and Cooperation between the United States and the
Republic of Iraq (Strategic Framework Agreement), and (2) the Agreement Between the United
States of America and Republic of Iraq On the Withdrawal of United States Forces from Iraq and
the Organization of Their Activities during Their Temporary Presence in Iraq (Security
Agreement).119 In some ways, the concluded agreements differ from the long-term security
arrangement originally contemplated by the Declaration of Principles. Perhaps most significantly,
the concluded agreements require the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Iraq by December 31, 2011.
The concluded agreements cover different issues and are intended by the parties to have different
legal significance. The Strategic Framework Agreement is a nonlegal, political agreement under
which the parties pledge to work cooperatively in a number of fields, including on diplomatic,
security, economic, cultural, and law enforcement matters. In the area of security, the Agreement
provides that the United States and Iraq shall “continue to foster close cooperation concerning
defense and security arrangements,” which are to be undertaken pursuant to the terms of the
Security Agreement. The Strategic Framework Agreement also states that “the temporary
presence of U.S. forces in Iraq is at the request and invitation of the sovereign government of
Iraq,” and that the United States may not “use Iraqi land, sea, or air as a launching or transit point
for attacks against other countries[,] nor seek or request permanent bases or a permanent military
presence in Iraq.”
The Security Agreement is a legally binding agreement that terminates within three years, unless
terminated at an earlier date by either Party. The Security Agreement contains provisions
addressing a variety of military matters. As previously mentioned, it establishes a deadline for the
withdrawal of all U.S. forces from Iraq by December 31, 2011. The Agreement also contains
numerous provisions resembling those regularly contained in SOFAs concluded by the United
States.120 Specifically, the Agreement contains provisions concerning the parties’ right to assert
civil and criminal jurisdiction over U.S. forces, as well as provisions which establish rules and
procedures applicable to U.S. forces relating to the carrying of weapons, the wearing of uniforms,
entry and exit into Iraq, taxes, customs, and claims.
The Security Agreement contains other rules and requirements which have traditionally not been
found in SOFAs concluded by the United States, including provisions addressing combat
operations by U.S. forces. Operations by U.S. forces pursuant to the Agreement must be approved
by the Iraqi government and coordinated with Iraqi authorities through a Joint Military
Operations Coordination Committee. U.S. forces are also permitted to arrest or detain persons in
the course of operations under the Agreement. More broadly, the Security Agreement provides for
“strategic deliberations” between the parties in the event of external or internal threat or
aggression against Iraq, and provides that, as mutually agreed by the parties, the United States
“shall take appropriate measures, including diplomatic, economic, or military measures” to deter
the threat.
The Security and Strategic Framework Agreements entered into force on January 1, 2009,
following an exchange of diplomatic notes between the United States and Iraq. Although the
agreements required approval on multiple levels by the Iraqi government, the Bush
119
The texts of the Strategic Framework Agreement and the Security Agreement are available at http://georgewbushwhitehouse.archives.gov/infocus/iraq/.
120
For further discussion, see CRS Report R40011, U.S.-Iraq Withdrawal/Status of Forces Agreement: Issues for
Congressional Oversight, by (name redacted).
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Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Administration did not submit the agreements to the Senate for its advice and consent as a treaty
or request statutory authorization for the agreements by Congress.
There has been some controversy regarding whether these agreements could properly be entered
on behalf of the United States by the Executive without the participation of Congress.121 Security
agreements authorizing the United States to take military action in defense of another country
have typically been ratified as treaties.122 It could be argued that the Security Agreement, which
contemplates the United States engaging in military operations in Iraq and potentially defending
the Iraqi government from external or internal security threats, requires congressional
authorization for it to be legally binding under U.S. law. On the other hand, because Congress has
authorized the President to engage in military operations in Iraq, both pursuant to the 2002
Authorization to Use Military Force Against Iraq and subsequent appropriations measures, it has
impliedly authorized the President to enter short-term agreements with Iraq which facilitate these
operations.123
As of August 31, 2010, the United States withdrew the last major combat unit, the U.S. Army’s 4th
Stryker Brigade Combat Team, 2nd Infantry Division, allowing Iraq to officially take over combat
operations within the country. The post-combat phase of operations, Operation New Dawn,
included the presence of approximately 50,000 U.S. troops conducting stability operations,
focusing on advising, assisting, and training Iraqi Security Forces in how to handle their own
security.124 As of December 18, 2011, the United States completed the withdrawal of U.S. forces,
transitioning responsibility for security within Iraq to the Iraqi government.125
Survey of Current Status of Forces Agreements
The charts below provide a list of current agreements according to the underlying source of
authority, if any, for each of the SOFAs. Within each category the agreements are arranged
alphabetically by partner country. The categories are defined as follows:
121
See CRS Report RL34568, U.S.-Iraq Agreements: Congressional Oversight Activities and Legislative Response,
supra note 115 (discussing congressional hearings and proposed legislation addressing the U.S.-Iraq security
arrangement).
122
Id. at “Collective Defense Agreements/“Security Commitments.”
123
The 2002 Authorization to Use Military Force Against Iraq (2002 AUMF, P.L. 107-243) authorized the President to
use military force as he deemed necessary and appropriate to “(1)defend the national security of the United States
against the continuing threat posed by Iraq; and (2) enforce all relevant United Nations Security Council resolutions
regarding Iraq.” It could be argued that the removal of Saddam Hussein’s regime from power in Iraq and the
termination of the U.N. Security Council mandate mean that the 2002 AUMF no longer serves as a legal basis for U.S.
operations in Iraq. Regardless of the continuing viability of the 2002 AUMF, Congress’s appropriation of funds in
support of ongoing military operations may be viewed as legal authorization for those operations. For further
discussion, see CRS Report RL33837, Congressional Authority to Limit U.S. Military Operations in Iraq, by (name red
acted), (name redacted), and (name redacted).
124
“Operation New Dawn,” Army Live, The Official Blog of the United States Army, September 1, 2010, available at
http://armylive.dodlive.mil/index.php/2010/09/operation-new-dawn/.
125
“Last US troops withdraw from Iraq,” BBC News, December 18, 2011, available at http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/
world-middle-east-16234723.
Congressional Research Service
17
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Status of Forces Agreement
The NATO SOFA is a multilateral agreement that has applicability among all the member
countries of NATO. As of June 2007, 26 countries, including the United States, have either
ratified the agreement or acceded to it by their accession into NATO.126 The NATO SOFA127 is the
only SOFA that was concluded as part of a treaty.128
North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Partnership for Peace - Status
of Forces Agreement
There are currently 24 countries, non-members of NATO, subject to the NATO SOFA through
their participation in the NATO Partnership for Peace (PfP) program.129 The program consists of
bilateral cooperation between individual countries and NATO in order to increase stability,
diminish threats to peace, and build strengthened security relationships.130 The individual
countries that participate in PfP agree to adhere to the terms of the NATO SOFA.131
Treaty as Underlying Source of Authority for Status of
Forces Agreement
The United States has concluded SOFAs where the underlying authority for the agreement is a
treaty ratified by the U.S. Senate. The United States entered into a SOFA with Japan in 1960132
under the authority contained in Article VI of the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security133
previously concluded between the countries. Additionally, the United States entered into a SOFA
with Korea in 1967134 under the authority in Article V of the Mutual Defense Treaty previously
concluded between the two countries.135
The United States entered into SOFAs with Australia and the Philippines after concluding treaties
with the respective countries. In the case of Australia, the U.S. Senate advised ratification of the
ANZUS Pact136 in 1952. In 1963, nine years after ratification of the Pact, Australia and the United
States entered into an agreement concerning the status of U.S. forces in Australia.137 The United
126
See http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/85630.pdf.
4 U.S.T. 1792; T.I.A.S. 2846; 199 U.N.T.S. 67. Signed at London, June 19, 1951. Entered into force August 23,
1953.
128
See, e.g., Agreement under Article VI of the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security Regarding Facilities and
Areas and the Status of United States Armed Forces in Japan, 11 U.S.T. 1652, entered into force June 23, 1960 (SOFA
in the form of an executive agreement subsequent to a treaty).
129
See http://www.nato.int/issues/pfp/index.html.
130
Id.
131
See http://www.nato.int/docu/basictxt/b950619a.htm.
132
11 U.S.T. 1652.
133
11 U.S.T. 1632.
134
17 U.S.T. 1677.
135
5 U.S.T. 2368.
136
3 U.S.T. 3420; T.I.A.S. 2493; 131 U.N.T.S. 83. Signed at San Francisco, September 1, 1951. Entered into force
April 29, 1952.
137
14 U.S.T. 506.
127
Congressional Research Service
18
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
States entered into a SOFA with the Philippines in 1993 after concluding a mutual defense treaty
with the country in 1952.138 The agreements with Australia and the Philippines can be
distinguished from the agreements with Japan and Korea in that they cite general obligations
under the previously concluded treaty, while the agreements with Japan and Korea cite to a
specific authority (i.e., Article VI and Article V, respectively) contained in the underlying treaty.
The United States is a party to the Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance (Rio Treaty),139
for which the U.S. Senate advised ratification December 8, 1947. The United States then entered
into military assistance agreements with Guatemala,140 Haiti,141 and Honduras.142 The agreements
cite obligations created under the Rio Treaty and address status of U.S. personnel in each of the
countries. The United States expanded on the status protections contained in the military
assistance agreements by later concluding SOFAs with each of the countries. In all three, the
military assistance agreements were cited as the basis of the new agreement.
Congressional Action as Underlying Source of Authority for Status
of Forces Agreement
As previously discussed, Congress approved compacts changing the status of the Marshall
Islands, Micronesia, and Palau from former territories and possessions to that of being Freely
Associated States (FAS).143 The language of the compacts calls for a SOFA to be concluded
between the respective parties. The Marshall Islands and Micronesia entered into SOFAs with the
United States in 2004.144 Palau entered into a SOFA with United States in 1986.145
Base Lease Agreement Containing Status of Forces
Agreement Terms
In 1941, the United States entered into an agreement with the United Kingdom regarding the
lease of naval and air bases in Newfoundland, Bermuda, Jamaica, St. Lucia, Antigua, Trinidad,
and British Guiana.146 The agreement not only described the physical location being leased, but
provided for status of U.S. personnel present in the leased location. The lease agreement, while
138
3 U.S.T. 3947.
62 Stat 1681; T.I.A.S. 1838. Done at Rio de Janeiro, September 2, 1947. Entered into force December 3, 1948.
140
6 U.S.T. 2107.
141
6 U.S.T. 3847.
142
5 U.S.T. 843.
143
Act Approving Compacts of Free Association with the Republic of the Marshall Islands and the Federated States of
Micronesia, P.L. 99-239, §311 (1986). See also Act approving Compact of Free Association between the United States
and the Government of Palau, P.L. 99-239, §352 (1986).
144
T.I.A.S.
145
T.I.A.S.
146
55 Stat. 1560; Executive Agreement Series 235 (The agreement titled “Leasing of Naval and Air Bases,” establishes
that the bases and facilities are to be leased to the United States for a period of ninety-nine years, free from all rent and
charges. A typical lease includes an agreement by a lessor to turn over specifically-described premises to the exclusive
possession of the lessee for a definite period of time and for consideration/rent. In the present case, the agreement
called for a lease without consideration/rent; therefore it could be asserted that a use agreement rather than a lease was
created.).
139
Congressional Research Service
19
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
not a stand-alone SOFA, served the purpose of a SOFA in the specified locations. The United
States and the United Kingdom concluded additional lease agreements in the 1950s, 1960s, and
1970s that contained status protection provisions in the leased locations.
Status of Forces Agreement in Support of Specified
Activity/Exercises
The United States has entered into SOFAs with countries in support of specific activities or
exercises. Generally, these agreements are entered in order to support a joint military exercise or a
humanitarian initiative. The SOFA will contain language limiting the scope of the agreement to
the specific activity, but sometimes language is present expanding the agreement to cover other
activities as agreed upon by the two countries. The agreements are not based upon a treaty or
congressional action; rather, they are sole executive agreements.
For example, the African Crisis Response Initiative (ACRI) was a bilateral training program
introduced by the Clinton Administration in 1997. The United States entered into SOFAs with
many African countries specifically addressing the ACRI. Each of the SOFAs contained language
limiting the agreements to U.S. personnel temporarily in the country in connection with ACRI
activities or other activities as agreed upon by the countries. While the agreement may have been
entered as a result of the ACRI, language allowing for other activities, as agreed between the two
countries, allows for the SOFA remain in force even though the ACRI does not currently exist.
Status of Forces Agreement Not in Support of Specified
Activity/Exercise and Not Based on Underlying
Treaty/Congressional Action
The last group of SOFAs discussed are agreements entered as sole executive agreements without
a specified activity or exercise. These agreements contain broad language of applicability. Some
of the agreements apply to U.S. personnel “present” in a country, others apply to U.S. personnel
“temporarily present” in a country. In addition to time limitations, most of the agreements contain
language which attempts to frame the scope of activities. The activities described may be as broad
as “official duties” or specific to a particular class of activities (i.e., humanitarian, exercises,
and/or training).
Congressional Research Service
20
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Table 1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Status of Forces Agreement
NATO Member Country
Agreements Supplementing or in Addition to the NATO SOFA
Belgium
Bulgaria
2001: Agreement concerning overflight, transit through, and presence in the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria of U.S. forces, personnel, and
contractors in support of Operation Enduring Freedom (Agreement concluded prior to Bulgaria joining NATO)
Canada
1953: Agreement relating to the application of the NATO status of forces agreement to U.S. forces in Canada, including those at the leased
bases in Newfoundland and Goose Bay, Labrador except for certain arrangements under the leased bases agreement
Czech Republic
Denmark
1956: Agreement relating to the status of personnel of the U.S. Military Assistance Advisory Group and of the personnel of the offshore
procurement program
Estonia
France
Germany, Federal Republic
of
1963: Agreements implementing the NATO status of forces agreement of August 3, 1959
Greece
1956: Agreement concerning the status of U.S. forces in Greece
Hungary
1997: Agreement concerning activities of U.S. forces in the territory of the Republic of Hungary
Iceland
1951: Annex on status of U.S. personnel and property
Italy
Latvia
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Netherlands
1954: Agreement relating to the stationing of U.S. armed forces in the Netherlands
Norway
1954: Agreement concerning the status of military assistance advisory group under paragraph 1(a) of the NATO status of forces agreement
Poland
Portugal
Romania
2002: Agreement regarding the status of U.S. forces in Romania (Agreement concluded prior to Romania joining NATO)
Slovak Republic
Slovenia
CRS-21
2003: Agreement concerning the overflight and transit through the territory and airspace of Slovenia by U.S. aircraft, vehicles and personnel for
purposes of supporting security, transition and reconstruction operations in Iraq (Agreement concluded prior to Slovenia joining NATO)
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
NATO Member Country
Agreements Supplementing or in Addition to the NATO SOFA
Spain
1988: Defense cooperation agreement
Turkey
1954: Agreement relating to implementation of the North Atlantic Treaty Status of Forces Agreement
United Kingdom
1941: First in series of numerous agreements, some predating NATO, related to defense containing status of forces terms
Source: Treaties in Force: A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force January 1, 2010. Available at http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/143863.pdf.
Table 2. North Atlantic Treaty Organization: Partnership for Peace - Status of Forces Agreement
NATO PfP Member
Country
Albania
Agreements Supplementing or in Addition to the NATO PfP SOFA
1995: Agreement concerning the status of U.S. military personnel and civilian employees of the DOD who may be present in Albania in
connection with Search and Rescue (SAREX) joint military exercise. 2004: Supplementary agreement to “Agreement among member countries
of the North Atlantic Treaty and other participating states in the Partnership for Peace regarding the status of their forces” on the status of the
forces of the U.S. in Republic of Albania
Armenia
Austria
Azerbaijan
Belarus
Bosnia-Herzegovina
2005: Agreement on status protections and access to and use of facilities and areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina
Croatia
2006: Memorandum of understanding concerning the use of airspace, ranges, airports, seaports, and training facilities by U.S. forces in Europe
Finland
Georgia
Ireland
Kazakhstan
Kyrgyz Republic
2001: Present in Kyrgyzstan in connection with cooperative efforts in response to terrorism, humanitarian assistance, and other agreed activities
Macedonia
Malta
Moldova
Montenegro
CRS-22
2007: Agreement on status protections and access to and use of military infrastructure in Montenegro
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
NATO PfP Member
Country
Agreements Supplementing or in Addition to the NATO PfP SOFA
Russian Federation
Serbia
2006: SOFA (Concluded prior to joining NATO PfP program)
Sweden
Switzerland
Tajikistan
2001: Agreement regarding status of U.S. military personnel and civilian personnel of DOD present in Tajikistan in connection with cooperative
efforts in response to terrorism, humanitarian assistance and other agreed activities
Turkmenistan
Ukraine
Uzbekistan
Source: Treaties in Force: A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force January 1, 2010. Available at http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/143863.pdf.
CRS-23
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Table 3. Treaty as Underlying Source of Authority for Status of Forces Agreement
Country
Year
Treaty/Agreement
Applicability Language
Australia
1963
Agreement concerning the status of U.S. forces in Australia (14 U.S.T.
506), cites ANZUS Pact (3 U.S.T. 3420)
Guatemala
2005
Agreement regarding the status of U.S. personnel (T.I.A.S.), cites
military assistance agreement (6 U.S.T. 2107), cites Rio Treaty (62 Stat
1681)
Temporarily present in Guatemala
Haiti
1995
Agreement regarding status of U.S. military and civilian employees of
DOD (NP), cites military assistance agreement (6 U.S.T. 3847), cites
Rio Treaty (62 Stat 1681)
Temporarily present in Haiti in connection with official duties
Honduras
1982
Agreement relating to privileges and immunities for U.S. armed forces
(35 U.S.T. 3884), cites military assistance agreement (5 U.S.T. 843),
cites Rio Treaty (62 Stat 1681)
Temporarily present in Honduras for the purpose of participating in
military exercises, or for other temporary purposes, authorized by the
Government of Honduras
Japan
1960
Agreement under Article VI of the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and
security (11 U.S.T. 1652), cites Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and
security (11 U.S.T. 1632)
Korea
1967
Agreement under Article V of the Mutual Defense Treaty regarding
facilities and areas and the status of U.S. armed forces in Korea (17
U.S.T. 1677), cites Mutual Defense Treaty (5 U.S.T. 2368)
Philippines
1993
Agreement regarding the status of U.S. military and civilian personnel
(T.I.A.S.), cites Mutual Defense Treaty (3 U.S.T. 3947)
Source: Treaties in Force: A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force January 1, 2010. Available at http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/143863.pdf.
CRS-24
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Table 4. Congressional Action as Underlying Source of Authority for Status of Forces Agreement
Country
Year
Source
Marshall Islands
2004
Compact of Free Association (P.L. 99-239)
Micronesia
2004
Compact of Free Association (P.L. 99-239)
Palau
1986
Compact of Free Association (P.L. 99-658)
Source: Treaties in Force: A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force January 1, 2010. Available at http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/143863.pdf.
Table 5. Base Lease Agreement Containing Status of Forces Agreement Terms
Country
Year
Source
Applicability Language
Antigua and Barbuda
1941/1977
U.K. - lease agreement
(55 Stat. 1560)
1941: Agreement pertains to naval and air bases leased to U.S.
1977: Agreement on defense areas and facilities (29 U.S.T. 4183)
Bahamas
1941/1950
U.K. - lease agreement
(55 Stat. 1560)
Numerous agreements pertaining to facilities and personnel
U.K. - Ascension Island
1956
Cites agreement between U.K./U.S. (1 U.S.T.
545)
Extension of the Bahamas Long Range Proving Ground
U.K. - Bermuda
1941/1950
U.K. - lease agreement
(55 Stat 1560)
Agreements pertain to naval and air bases leased to U.S.
U.K. - Diego Garcia
1966
Indian Ocean islands for defense (18 U.S.T. 28)
U.K. - Turks and Caicos Islands
1979
Defense area agreement (32 U.S.T. 429)
Source: Treaties in Force: A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force January 1, 2010. Available at http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/143863.pdf.
CRS-25
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Table 6. Status of Forces Agreement in Support of Specified Activity/Exercise
Country
Year
Applicability Language
Benin
1998
Temporarily present in Benin in connection with ACRI and other activities as may be agreed upon by the two governments
Cote D’Ivoire
1998
Temporarily present in Cote d’Ivoire in connection with ACRI and other activities as may be agreed upon by the two countries
Ethiopia
1994
Present in Ethiopia in connection with “Nectar Bend 94,” scheduled for 1 June, 1994 through 7 July, 1994, future exercises, and
otherwise in respect to their official duties
Gabon
1999
Temporarily present in Gabon in connection with “Gabon 2000” and other activities
Ghana
1998/2000
1998: Temporarily present in Ghana in connection with ACRI and other activities as may be agreed upon by two governments
2000: Additional agreement, separate from ACRI, addressing individuals temporarily present in Ghana in connection with humanitarian
relief operations in Southern Africa
Madagascar
2000
Temporarily present in Madagascar in connection with current humanitarian relief operations and other activities as may be agreed
upon the two governments
Malawi
1997
Temporarily present in the Republic of Malawi in connection with the ACRI Mobile Training Team visit and other activities related to
ACRI as may be agreed upon by two governments
Mali
1997
Temporarily present in Mali in connection with ACRI Mobile Training Team visit and other activities as may be agreed upon up two
governments
Nepal
2000
Temporarily present in the Kingdom of Nepal in connection with the Multi-Platoon Training Event
Nigeria
2000
Temporarily present in Nigeria in connection with upcoming military training and other activities as may be agreed upon by two
governments
Peru
1995
Certain U.S. personnel who may serve for a period of less than ninety days at the ground-based radar site at Yurimajuas, and at other
locations as agreed by the Peruvian Air Force
Rwanda
2005
Present in Rwanda in connection with the military airlift of Rwandan military forces in support of operations in Darfur and future
mutually agreed activities
Source: Treaties in Force: A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force January 1, 2010. Available at http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/143863.pdf.
CRS-26
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Table 7. Status of Forces Agreement Not in Support of Specified Activity/Exercise and
Not Based on Underlying Treaty/Congressional Action
Country
Year
Applicability Language
Afghanistan
2002
May be present in Afghanistan in connection with cooperative efforts in response to terrorism, humanitarian and civic assistance,
military training and exercises, and other activities
Bahrain
1971/1975/
1977/1991
1971: Agreement for the Deployment in Bahrain of the United States Middle East Force (22 U.S.T. 2184) - modified by 1975
agreement for the Deployment in Bahrain of the United States Middle East Force (26 U.S.T. 3027) and 1977 agreement on the Status
of Administrative Support Unit Personnel (28 U.S.T. 5312)
1991: Agreement concerning the deployment of United States forces (T.I.A.S. 12236)
Bangladesh
1998
Agreement regarding the status of U.S. forces visiting Bangladesh
Belize
2001
Temporarily present in Belize in connection with military exercises and training, counter-drug related activities, United States security
assistance programs, or other agreed upon purposes
Botswana
2001
Temporarily present in Botswana for the purpose of carrying out exercises, training, humanitarian assistance, or other activities which
may be agreed upon by both governments
Brunei
1994
MOU on defense cooperation (military training, military exercises, exchange of personnel, exchange of information)
Cambodia
1996
Temporarily present in Cambodia in connection with military assistance activities and other official duties
Chad
1987/1998/
2005
1987: Text classified
1998: Agreement regarding individuals temporarily present in Chad in connection with official duties relating to humanitarian demining
activities
2005: Agreement regarding status of personnel of the U.S. in Chad
Congo, Democratic
Republic of the
1994
May be present in Zaire in connection with humanitarian efforts
Costa Rica
1983
Agreement relating to privileges and immunities for United States personnel providing assistance to the drought stricken provinces in
northern Costa Rica
Djibouti
2001
Status of forces agreement with related note
Dominican Republic
1988
U.S. personnel not members of the U.S. Diplomatic Mission present in Dominican Republic for a period less than six months in
connection with their official duties
Egypt
1981
While in the Arab Republic of Egypt, in connection with assistance and training programs, defense industrial cooperation, or such
other matters as may from time to time be agreed
El Salvador
2007
Personnel and contractors who may be temporarily present in El Salvador in connection with ship visits, training, exercises,
humanitarian activities and other activities as mutually agreed
CRS-27
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Country
Year
Applicability Language
Grenada
1984/1993
1984: SOFA
1993: Additional agreement concerning temporary assignment in Grenada in connection with exercises or activities approved by both
governments in accordance with usual procedures
Guinea
2002
Temporarily present in the Republic of Guinea in connection with training exercises, humanitarian relief operations, and other
activities as may be agreed upon by the two governments
Guyana
2000
Temporarily present in Guyana in connection with military exercises and training, counter-drug related activities, U.S. security
assistance programs, or other agreed purposes
Israel
1994
U.S. personnel sent to Israel for ship and aircraft visits, military exercises and other mutually agreed military activities; recognizing that
any decision regarding the sending of U.S. personnel to Israel will be the subject of separate arrangements between the parties
Jordan
1996
Present in Jordan in connection with their official duties
Kenya
1980
Text classified
Kuwait
1991
Text classified
Liberia
2005
Temporarily present in Liberia
Malaysia
1990
Text classified
Maldives
2004
Agreement regarding military and DOD civilian personnel
Mongolia
1998
Agreement on military exchanges and visits, with annex
Mozambique
2000
Temporarily present in Mozambique in connection with humanitarian relief operations
Nicaragua
1998
Present in connection with the disaster relief/assistance effort and mutually agreed follow-on activities
Oman
1980
Text classified
Panama
2001
Temporarily present in Panama
Papua New Guinea
1989
Temporarily present in Papua New Guinea in connection with their official duties (disaster relief, humanitarian and civic assistance
activities) from time to time as authorized by the Government of Papua New Guinea
Paraguay
2005
Temporarily present in Paraguay
Qatar
1992
Text classified
Saint Kitts and
Nevis
1987
Present in connection with their official duties
Saint Lucia
2000
Present in St. Lucia in connection with military exercises and training, counter-drug related activities, U.S. security assistance
programs, or other agreed peaceful purposes
Saudi Arabia
1972
Agreement to govern the status, duties, administration and conduct of the United States Military Training Mission, to be known as the
United States Military Assistance Advisory Group, to Saudi Arabia
CRS-28
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Country
Year
Applicability Language
Senegal
2001
Temporarily present in Senegal in connection with training, humanitarian relief operations, exercises and other agreed purposes
Singapore
1990
Memorandum of Understanding between U.S. and Singapore regarding U.S. use of facilities in Singapore
Solomon Islands
1991
Temporarily present in Solomon Islands in connection with their official duties from time to time as authorized by the Government of
Solomon Islands
Somalia
1990
Text classified
South Africa
1999
Present in the Republic of South Africa in connection with mutually agreed exercises and activities
Sri Lanka
1995
Present in Sri Lanka for exercises or other official duties
Sudan
1981
Present in Sudan in connection with their official duties
Suriname
2005
Temporarily present in the Republic of Suriname
Timor-Leste
2002
Present in the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste in connection with humanitarian and civic assistance, ship visits, military training
and exercises and other agreed activities
Tonga
1992
Temporarily present in Tonga, as authorized by Tonga, in connection with their official duties
Uganda
1994
Temporarily present in Uganda in connection with their official duties
United Arab
Emirates
1994
Text classified
Western Samoa
1990
Present in Western Samoa in connection with their official duties, as authorized by the Government of Western Samoa
Source: Treaties in Force: A List of Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States in Force January 1, 2010. Available at http://www.state.gov/
documents/organization/143863.pdf.
CRS-29
Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): What Is It, and How Has It Been Utilized?
Author Contact Information
(name redacted)
Legislative Attorney
[redacted]@crs.loc.gov, 7-....
Congressional Research Service
30
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