Remote Learning for K-12 Schools During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Congressional research reportAug 20, 2021
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Remote Learning for K-12 Schools During the
COVID-19 Pandemic
August 20, 2021
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R46883
SUMMARY
Remote Learning for K-12 Schools During the
COVID-19 Pandemic
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, most elementary and secondary schools and local
educational agencies (LEAs) across the United States closed schools in February or March 2020.
By the middle of April 2020, 48 states, four U.S. territories, the District of Columbia, and the
Department of Defense Education Activity ordered or recommended school building closures for
the rest of the school year, affecting at least 50.8 million public school students. The affected
states and LEAs then began pivoting to alternative modes of instruction and methods for
providing other services, including school meals and counseling services.
R46883
August 20, 2021
Rita R. Zota
Analyst in Education Policy
Boris Granovskiy
Analyst in Education Policy
Most methods utilized by schools and LEAs to continue providing instruction to students during the pandemic involved some
components of distance, or remote, learning, which may include synchronous (i.e., live) or asynchronous (i.e., pre -recorded)
virtual lessons delivered over the internet (online learning); physical learning materials, such as paper pa ckets; or some
combination of these approaches. According to the National Survey of Public Education’s Response to COVID-19 carried
out by the American Institutes for Research (AIR), in spring 2020, 34% of LEAs at the K-5 level used physical learning
materials as the primary means of instruction during the pandemic, while 46% of LEAs used online learning as their primary
means of delivering instruction. Over the course of the 2020-2021 school year, some schools eventually transitioned from
remote-only instruction to some hybrid approach involving a combination of remote and in-person learning, or to full-time
in-person learning. In May 2021, nearly 80% of students were still being offered a remote-only option for receiving
instruction.
As many LEAs pivoted to remote learning as their primary method of instruction soon after closing down their physical
school buildings, a number of issues related to remote and online learning were raised by practitioners and experts. These
include concerns about
the digital divide, or inequity in access to the internet and devices necessary for participation in online
learning;
the quality of online instruction and learning and the learning loss that may occur in comparison with inperson instruction;
difficulty in assessing student achievement and academic progress in a remote learning environment;
online privacy and increased cybersecurity concerns associated with online learning.
inadequate access to additional services provided by schools, including targeted services for children with
disabilities, English learners, and students experiencing homelessness; and
Additionally, given the abundance of research on COVID-19 and the deployment of highly effective vaccines to help protect
those able to receive them, schools and districts are now considering how to approach the 2021-2022 school year. Some of
the issues they may be considering are whether it is safe to reopen schools full-time for all students, whether to continue the
use of remote instruction in some way or for some students, how to improve online instruction and address any potential
learning loss amongst students, and whether there is federal support to continue the use of online learning.
To support the transition to, improve student access to, and enhance the quality of remote learning, states and LEAs can rely
on several sources of federal funding, including funding under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 and the
School and Libraries program, commonly referred to as E-Rate and funded through the Federal Communications
Commission’s (FCC’s) Universal Service Fund. Additionally, in response to the pandemic, Congress enacted the
Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security (CARES) Act (P.L. 116-136) and the Coronavirus Response and Relief
Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2021 (Division M of P.L. 116-260) in 2020, and the American Rescue Plan Act (ARPA;
P.L. 117-2) in 2021. These laws include funding for elementary and secondary education that can be used by states and LEAs
for purchasing technology for online learning for all students and for purchasing educational technology that aids in the
interaction between students and their classroom instructors.
Congressional Research Service
Remote Learning for K-12 Schools During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Contents
Background.................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
About This Report ..................................................................................................... 2
Access to the Internet and Devices Prior to the Pandemic................................................. 2
Education Services and Access at the Start of the Pandemic ............................................. 4
Overview of School Reopening Plans ........................................................................... 5
Selected Issues ............................................................................................................... 8
Digital Divide ........................................................................................................... 9
Lack of Access to Adequate Internet Services ........................................................... 9
Inadequate Access to Devices............................................................................... 10
Quality of Instruction and Learning During the Pandemic .............................................. 11
Teacher Training and Support in Delivering Online Instruction.................................. 12
Learning Loss .................................................................................................... 13
Inadequate Access to Targeted Educational Services Typically Provided in
Schools .......................................................................................................... 15
Privacy Concerns Related to Online Learning .............................................................. 20
Securing Student Data......................................................................................... 20
Cyber Attacks on School Networks ....................................................................... 21
Looking Forward to the 2021-2022 School Year ................................................................ 22
Reopening Safely .................................................................................................... 23
Continued Use of Online Learning ............................................................................. 23
Improving Online Learning and Addressing Learning Loss ............................................ 25
Addressing Learning Loss ................................................................................... 25
Federal Support for Continued Use of Online Learning ................................................. 26
Existing Federal Programs.............................................................................................. 27
Pre-pandemic Federal Funding .................................................................................. 27
E-rate ............................................................................................................... 27
Elementary and Secondary Education Act .............................................................. 27
Recently Enacted Federal Programs............................................................................ 28
CARES Act ....................................................................................................... 28
Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2021 .................. 29
American Rescue Plan Act of 2021 ....................................................................... 29
Tables
Table 1. Method in Which Children Attending Public or Private School Received
Education, and Computer and Internet Availability in Households with Children in
Public or Private School, by Selected Characteristics: April 23 through May 26, 2020 ............ 4
Table 2. Method in Which Children Attending Public or Private School Received
Education, and Computer and Internet Availability in Households with Children in
Public or Private School, by Selected Characteristics: April 28 through May 24, 2021 ............ 7
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Remote Learning for K-12 Schools During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Contacts
Author Information ....................................................................................................... 30
Congressional Research Service
Remote Learning for K-12 Schools During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Background
Introduction
In response to the COVID-19 pandemic, most elementary and secondary schools and local
educational agencies (LEAs) across the United States stopped offering in-person instruction in
February or March 2020. By the middle of April 2020, 48 states, four U.S. territories, the District
of Columbia, and the Department of Defense Education Activity ordered or recommended school
building closures for the rest of their academic year, affecting at least 50.8 million public school
students. 1 The affected states and LEAs had to pivot to alternative methods of offering instruction
and providing other services, including school meals and counseling services. Congress has
expressed interest in the impact of the pandemic on elementary and secondary schools, especially
states’ and LEAs’ ability to successfully transition to remote learning, as well as the extent to
which schools have implemented returns to in-person learning.
Most approaches initially utilized by schools and LEAs to continue providing instruction to
students during the pandemic involved components of distance, or remote, learning, which may
include synchronous (i.e., live) or asynchronous (i.e., pre-recorded) virtual lessons delivered over
the internet (online learning); physical learning materials, such as paper packets; or some
combination of these approaches. According to the National Survey of Public Education’s
Response to COVID-19 carried out by the American Institutes for Research (AIR), 34% of LEAs
at the K-5 level used physical learning materials as the primary means of instruction during
spring 2020, while 46% of LEAs used online learning as their primary means of delivering
instruction. Notably, 48% of high-poverty LEAs relied primarily on physical learning materials,
compared to 16% of low-poverty LEAs. 2 According to the same survey, 39% of high-poverty
LEAs relied primarily on online learning, compared to 56% of low -poverty LEAs. 3 Over the
course of the 2020-2021 school year, some schools eventually transitioned from remote-only
instruction to some hybrid approach involving a combination of remote and in-person learning, or
to full-time in-person learning. In May 2021, nearly 80% of students were still being offered a
remote-only option for receiving instruction. 4
The ramp-up to online learning took place on a mass scale at the start of the pandemic in spring
2020. As many LEAs pivoted to online learning as their primary method of instruction soon after
closing down their physical school buildings, a number of initial issues were raised by
practitioners and experts. These included concerns about inequity of access to resources to
participate in online learning, the quality of instruction and learning during the pandemic, and
online privacy and cybersecurity concerns. The return to full-time in-person instruction is likely
imminent in many settings, which may be the preference for many students and families; the
availability of a remote-only learning option may continue to be the preference for other students
1
Montana and Wyoming were the only states not to order school closures for the remainder of the academic year.
Source: https://www.edweek.org/leadership/the-coronavirus-spring-the-historic-closing-of-u-s-schools-a-timeline/
2020/07.
2 AIR used U.S. Census data and the U.S. Department of Education’s Common Core of Data to characterize the
poverty status of each LEA. T hey defined low-poverty LEAs as those with less than 10% of school-age children living
in poverty and high-poverty LEAs as those with at least 20% of school-age children in poverty .
3 More information about survey methodology and results can be found at https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/
COVID-Survey-Approaches-to-Remote-Instruction-FINAL-Oct-2020.pdf.
4 See the Monthly School Survey Dashboard, administered by the Institute of Education Sciences and available at
https://ies.ed.gov/schoolsurvey/.
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Remote Learning for K-12 Schools During the COVID-19 Pandemic
and families. Circumstances in the future may once again require schools to pivot to an onlineonly learning environment. Understanding the primary concerns with providing instruction
exclusively online can help schools develop an adequate infrastructure to deliver education
through such means and make the transition to online learning more manageable in the future
should circumstances require it.
As of the cover date of this report, these issues continue to dominate public and congressional
discussions about the impact of the pandemic on elementary and secondary schools and the
discussion surrounding a safe return to full-time in-person learning. Many school districts have
utilized a variety of approaches since the start of the pandemic to provide education to their
students: exclusively serving students through remote instruction, transitioning to full-scale inperson instruction five days a week, or implementing a hybrid approach that utilizes both remote
and in-person instruction. Additionally, many schools may have had to revise those approaches in
the event that a COVID-19 outbreak occurred at a school, requiring it to shut down to allow for
proper quarantining.
About This Report
This report focuses on online learning in elementary and secondary schools during the COVID-19
pandemic and on the most emergent issues associated with the implementation of online learning
on a mass scale that took place at the start of the pandemic in spring 2020. It also describes the
issues faced by school districts as they consider approaches for providing instruction in the 20212022 school year. Finally, it delineates federal efforts to provide assistance to support states and
localities dealing with these issues.
It is beyond the scope of this report to evaluate the efficacy of the numerous approaches
attempted by schools to provide instruction adequately during the pandemic. Additionally, some
students ordinarily access onsite services that are not related to the provision of instruction, such
as free and reduced-priced lunches and school breakfasts and mental and health services. When
schools close and transition to a remote learning environment, students may not be able to access
such services; those issues are outside the scope of this report. 5 Further, some parents may face
challenges with managing their children’s learning while working a full-time job, regardless of
whether parents are essential workers without remote work options or are able to do their jobs
remotely. This report also does not attempt to describe the issues faced by parents to provide their
children with a suitable learning environment. Finally, the report does not attempt to assess
broader health-related considerations associated with school reopenings.
Because the pandemic is ongoing, there is a lag in data reporting, especially with respect to
student achievement and learning loss. Further, because schools shift from remote to in-person
instruction and back, given their particular circumstances, data on school reopenings constantly
change in real time. The data contained in this report are the most recent available as of its cover
date.
Access to the Internet and Devices Prior to the Pandemic
For students to fully engage in online learning, access at home to the internet and a device that
enables internet use (e.g., desktop computer, laptop computer, tablet, smartphone) is necessary.
Based on National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) survey data of home internet users
5 For general information on federal school nutrition programs, see CRS Report R46234, School Meals and Other
Child Nutrition Programs: Background and Funding .
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between the ages of 3 and 18 in 2017, 86% had home internet access.6 Means for accessing the
internet included high-speed internet installed at home (88%), mobile internet service or a data
plan (92%), satellite internet service (5%), dial-up service (1%), or some other service (1%).7
Additionally, 97% had access to some type of device, which included a desktop or laptop (83%),
tablet or other portable device or computer (78%), or a smartphone (94%). 8
Access to the internet and a device vary by characteristics of a child and the child’s household,
including race and household income. For example, according to the NCES survey data, fewer
Black (84%), Hispanic (85%), and American Indian/Alaska Native (83%) children had access to
high-speed internet installed at home when compared to White children (90%). 9 Additionally,
fewer children in the lowest-income households (72%) had access to high-speed internet than
children in the highest-income households (94%).10 These trends persisted concerning access to a
desktop, laptop, tablet, or other portable wireless computer: fewer Black (82%), Hispanic (84%),
and American Indian/Alaska Native (75%) children had access to some type of computer when
compared to White children (94%). 11 Fewer children in the lowest-income households (68%) had
access to some type of computer than children in the highest-income households (98%). 12
According to the NCES survey data, among the reasons for households lacking internet access,
43% reported not needing or being interested in it and 34% reported not being able to afford it. 13
Those statistics varied by household characteristics such as race and income. Fewer White
households reported not having internet access due to affordability than Black and Hispanic
households. 14 Likewise, fewer high-income households reported not having internet access due to
affordability than low-income households. 15
6
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, T able 702.40.
“ Percentage of persons age 3 and over and ages 3 to 18 with no internet access at home and percentage distribution of
those with no home access, by main reason for not having access and selected characteristics: 2010 and 2017,”
https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_702.40.asp?current=yes (hereinafter, “ NCES T able 702.40,
Percentage of people with no internet access at home”).
7
U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, T able 702.35.
“ Percentage of home internet users age 3 and over and ages 3 to 18, by means of internet access from home and
selected characteristics: 2010 and 2017,” https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/dt18_702.35.asp?current=yes
(hereinafter, “NCES T able 702.35, Percentage of home users by means of internet access”). T hese categories are not
mutually exclusive—a household may have to more than one way of accessing the internet. No information was
provided about what “some other service” included.
8 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics, T able 702.10.
“ Percentage of children ages 3 to 18 living in households with a computer, by type of computer and selected child and
family characteristics: Selected years, 2010 through 2017,” https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d18/tables/
dt18_702.10.asp?current=yes (hereinafter, “NCES T able 702.10, Percentage of children in households with a
computer”). T hese categories are not mutually exclusive—a household may have access to more than one connected
device.
9 NCES T able 702.35, Percentage of home users by means of internet access.
10 NCES T able 702.35, Percentage of home users by means of internet access. Lowest -income households are those
with an annual income of less than $10,000, while highest -income households earn an annual income of greater than
$100,000.
11 NCES T able 702.10, Percentage of children in households with a computer.
12 NCES T able 702.10, Percentage of children in households with a computer. Lowest-income households are those
households with an annual income of less than $10,000, while highest -income households earn an annual income of
greater than $100,000.
13 NCES T able 702.40, Percentage of people with no internet access at home.
14 NCES T able 702.40, Percentage of people with no internet access at home.
15 NCES T able 702.40, Percentage of people with no internet access at home.
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Remote Learning for K-12 Schools During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Education Services and Access at the Start of the Pandemic
Faced with the sudden onset of the pandemic in spring 2020, many LEAs made decisions about
how to continue the provision of education with an eye toward preventing the spread of COVID19 within their communities. Some LEAs chose to shutter schools, either transitioning to remote
education or not, and others kept schools open. Further, those LEAs that did transition to some
type of remote instruction implemented it in varied ways.
The U.S. Census Bureau conducted Household Pulse Surveys starting April 23, 2020, to measure
education experiences, among other things, over the course of the pandemic.16 Table 1 presents a
CRS analysis of these survey data from April 23, 2020, through May 26, 2020—the period when
the vast majority of LEAs closed school buildings and shifted to some version of remote
learning. 17 Fewer Black, Hispanic/Latino, and low-income individuals reported their children’s
classes being moved to distance learning using online resources relative to their White and highincome counterparts, respectively. Additionally, higher rates of Black, Hispanic/Latino, and low income individuals reported that their children’s classes were canceled altogether relative to their
White and high-income counterparts, respectively.
Household Pulse Survey data also indicated that around 70% of all households with children in
schools always had a device or internet available for educational purposes; the same could be said
for fewer than 60% of households with incomes of less than $25,000. Schools or school districts
provided 37% of households with a computer or digital device to be used outside of school during
this time. 18
Table 1. Method in Which Children Attending Public or Private School Received
Education, and Computer and Internet Availability in Households with Children in
Public or Private School, by Selected Characteristics: April 23 through May 26, 2020
Classes
Moved to
Distance
Learning
Using Online
Resources a
Classes
Moved to
Distance
Learning
Using Paper
Materials a
73%
Hispanic or Latino
(may be of any
race)
White alone, not
Hispanic
Total
Schools
Did
Not
Closea
Device
Always
Available
for
Educational
Purposes
Internet
Always
Available
for
Educational
Purposes
4%
0.4%
69%
71%
45%
4%
0.3%
65%
68%
39%
3%
0.3%
72%
74%
Classes
Were
Canceleda
Classes
Changed
in Some
Other
Way a
21%
41%
69%
18%
76%
22%
Race/Ethnicity
16
U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Surveys in 2020 for Weeks April 23 -May 5, May 7-May 12, May 14-May 19,
May 21-May 26. Data from these surveys are available at https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/household-pulsesurvey/data.html.
17
T hese estimates were produced using U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Survey data in 2020 for Weeks April 23 May 5, May 7-May 12, May 14-May 19, May 21-May 26. Survey data from each of the weeks were summed to get
totals for the entire period. T hese totals were then used to calculate percentages for each column and row.
18 U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Surveys in 2020 for Weeks April 23 -May 5, May 7-May 12, May 14-May 19,
May 21-May 26. Data from these surveys are available at https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/household-pulsesurvey/data.html.
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Classes
Moved to
Distance
Learning
Using Online
Resources a
Classes
Moved to
Distance
Learning
Using Paper
Materials a
Schools
Did
Not
Closea
Device
Always
Available
for
Educational
Purposes
Internet
Always
Available
for
Educational
Purposes
65%
5%
0.5%
64%
65%
Less than $25,000
53%
6%
0.7%
55%
56%
25%
47%
4%
0.2%
56%
61%
68%
22%
45%
5%
0.3%
63%
67%
$50,000-$74,999
73%
24%
42%
4%
0.3%
70%
70%
$75,000-$99,999
80%
19%
40%
3%
0.4%
76%
80%
$100,000-$149,999
83%
19%
34%
3%
0.3%
82%
83%
$150,000-$199,999
87%
17%
34%
3%
0.2%
84%
86%
$200,000 and above
88%
17%
32%
2%
0.7%
89%
90%
Classes
Were
Canceleda
Classes
Changed
in Some
Other
Way a
22%
48%
59%
23%
$25,000-$34,999
64%
$35,000-$49,999
Black alone, not
Hispanic
Income
Source: CRS analysis of U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Surveys in 2020 for Weeks April 23-May 5, May
7-May 12, May 14-May 19, May 21-May 26. Data from these surveys are available at https://www.census.gov/
programs-surveys/household-pulse-survey/data.html.
Notes: The specific time period used in this table was selected because it reflects the time when most LEAs
were making their initial decisions about alternative approaches to providing instruction in the wake of the
COVID-19 pandemic. Households surveyed were identified from the Census Bureau’s Master Address File and
had both a known email address and phone number. Respondents were 18 years or older and lived in a
household with children who were enrolled in public or private school.
a.
These categories are not mutually exclusive. A household could select an y that apply, meaning that in the
last seven days, a child or children living in the household and enrolled in school could have received
education by multiple delivery methods. It is not clear from available documentation whether such methods
applied to all of the child’s or children’s classes.
Overview of School Reopening Plans
After the mass closing of school buildings and elementary and secondary schools in response to
the COVID-19 pandemic in spring 2020, schools, LEAs, and states took a variety of approaches
to reopening schools and resuming instruction for the fall 2020 semester. These approaches
included the following:
full-time in-person instruction (meeting with teachers in-person five days a
week);
exclusive online instruction (schools remaining closed and no in-person
instruction); and
hybrid learning, which includes some combination of in-person and remote
instruction. For example, students may receive in-person instruction two days a
week and online instruction three days a week, or groups of students may
alternate when they are in school for in-person instruction and when they are at
home for online instruction. In some cases, teachers may be providing instruction
to students both in-person and online at the same time.
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Remote Learning for K-12 Schools During the COVID-19 Pandemic
In many cases, LEAs have needed to change their approaches multiple times, including shifting
from in-person to fully remote learning during periods of increased COVID-19 incidence in their
areas. For many schools, at some juncture, students were offered the option to return to full-time
in-person instruction or to receive exclusively online instruction, based on family preferences.
As of the cover date of this report, there was no single authoritative and comprehensive resource
on school reopening plans. Some publications and organizations have attempted to present school
reopening trackers that provide a snapshot of LEA and state approaches. EducationWeek, for
example, collected data (last updated October 2020) on over 900 LEAs and reported information
on their initial reopening plans. 19
Some findings from EducationWeek’s survey are as follows:
74% of the 100 largest LEAs chose remote learning only as their back-to-school
instructional model, affecting over 9 million students;
almost half (49%) of all LEAs opened with remote learning;
hybrid instruction was used in 27% of LEAs;
full in-person instruction was available to all students in 24% of LEAs; and
almost a quarter (24%) of LEAs delayed the start of the school year.
Both EducationWeek and the Center for Reinventing Public Education (CRPE) have state-level
tracking tools that have been reporting, and updating, each state’s reopening plans and any
changes to student learning models implemented or recommended for the 2020-2021 school year.
According to CRPE data, as of July 2020, 15 states had required LEAs to plan for reopening with
a remote learning option and an additional 34 states recommended that LEAs plan on
incorporating remote learning into their reopening plans. 20 EducationWeek’s state-level database
of school closures reported that, as of May 21, 2021, 14 states had ordered that in-person
instruction be provided in all or some grades full-time. 21
Pursuant to President Biden’s Executive Order 14000 on Supporting the Reopening and
Continuous Operation of Schools and Early Childhood Education Providers, 22 in February 2021
NCES began collecting data on LEA operating statuses and the modes of instruction being
offered to students. 23 These data are collected for students in 4th and 8th grades from a nationally
representative sample of public schools. In May 2021 (the most recently available data), among
schools with 4th and 8th grade students,
EducationWeek’s methodology states that the survey included 907 LEAs, including the 100 largest ones in the
United States. It also included at least five LEAs in each state that has at least five LEAs. T he survey did not track
changes in LEA status after classes began. T hese data do not represent a nationally representative sample of LEAs and
are skewed towards large, urban LEAs. T he data were last updated on October 16, 2020, and can be accessed at
https://www.edweek.org/leadership/school-districts-reopening-plans-a-snapshot/2020/07.
19
20 T he CRPE database on state guidance related to school reopening can be accessed at https://www.crpe.org/current-
research/state-responses-covid-19. CRPE analysis of its findings is available at https://www.crpe.org/thelens/statesmust-take-decisive-action-avert-coming-education-crisis.
21
EducationWeek’s database of school closures can be accessed at https://www.edweek.org/leadership/map-where-areschools-closed/2020/07. For the large majority of states, decisions to reopen schools were left up to the school districts.
For Delaware, Hawaii, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, states have required that in -person instruction only
be provided if certain conditions were met, including the availability of space.
22 Executive Order 14000 was issued on January 21, 2021. T he full text is available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/
briefing-room/presidential-actions/2021/01/21/executive-order-supporting-the-reopening-and-continuing-operation-ofschools-and-early-childhood-education-providers/.
23 See the Monthly School Survey Dashboard, administered by the Institute of Education Sciences and available at
https://ies.ed.gov/schoolsurvey/.
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98% of schools were open for hybrid or some type of full-time in-person
learning, while 2% of schools offered only remote or online instruction; 63%
were open full-time in-person for all students;
for 4th graders only, 79% had remote learning available as an option, 40% had
hybrid learning as an option, and 63% had 100% in-person learning available;
and
for 8th graders only, 80% had remote learning as an option, 45% had hybrid
learning available, and 58% had 100% in-person learning available.
These data varied greatly by state, especially with respect to in-person instruction. For example,
100% of Florida’s 8th graders had in-person learning available to them, compared with 18% of
Maryland’s 8th graders.
Table 2 presents a CRS analysis of Household Pulse Survey data from April 28, 2021, through
May 24, 2021—this period includes some of the most recently available data (there are data
available from May 26, 2021–June 7, 2021) and is roughly one year after the period referenced in
Table 1. 24
Relative to 2020, these 2021 data suggest that some trends in the receipt of online instruction
have reversed: fewer White children and children from high-income households, and more Black
and Latino children and children from low-income households, received online instruction. As
with findings from prior-year survey data, more recent data also suggest disparities among
subgroups in modes of instruction implemented. For example, more White and high-income
individuals reported their children receiving in-person instruction at school relative to their Black
and Latino and low-income counterparts, respectively. Finally, compared to 2020, in 2021 the use
of paper materials as a means for delivering instruction seemed significantly less prevalent.
Household Pulse Survey data also indicated that around 80% of all households with children in
schools always had a device or internet available for educational purposes, which was up from
approximately 70% the previous year; however, disparities still existed across households when
factoring in income.
Table 2. Method in Which Children Attending Public or Private School Received
Education, and Computer and Internet Availability in Households with Children in
Public or Private School, by Selected Characteristics: April 28 through May 24, 2021
Otherad
Device
Always
Available
for
Educational
Purposes
Internet
Always
Available
for
Educational
Purposes
Received
In-Person
Instruction
at Schoola
Received
Virtual/
Online
Instructionab
Received
Instruction
Using
Paper
Materials ac
63%
68%
6%
8%
81%
80%
45%
78%
5%
6%
79%
74%
Total
Race/Ethnicity
Hispanic or Latino (may
be of any race)
24
T hese estimates were produced using U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Survey data in 2021 for Weeks April 23 May 5, May 7-May 12, May 14-May 19, May 21-May 26. Survey data from each of the weeks were summed to get
totals for the entire period. T hese totals were then used to calculate percentages for each column and row. Schools are
generally in session at this time, as in some areas, the 2020-2021 school year may have concluded after Memorial Day.
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Otherad
Device
Always
Available
for
Educational
Purposes
Internet
Always
Available
for
Educational
Purposes
Received
In-Person
Instruction
at Schoola
Received
Virtual/
Online
Instructionab
Received
Instruction
Using
Paper
Materials ac
White alone, not
Hispanic
74%
60%
7
9%
82%
82%
Black alone, not
Hispanic
50%
79%
5%
6%
82%
79%
Less than $25,000
51%
73%
6%
7%
72%
70%
$25,000-$34,999
55%
76%
5%
7%
75%
71%
$35,000-$49,999
58%
68%
5%
6%
80%
75%
$50,000-$74,999
63%
71%
6%
8%
83%
80%
$75,000-$99,999
67%
68%
8%
7%
85%
84%
$100,000-$149,999
72%
66%
6%
10%
87%
87%
$150,000-$199,999
73%
66%
7%
10%
92%
92%
$200,000 and above
73%
70%
7%
11%
90%
92%
Income
Source: CRS analysis of U.S. Census Bureau Household Pulse Surveys in 2021 for Weeks April 28 -May 10 and
May 12-May 24. Data from these surveys are available at https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/householdpulse-survey/data.html.
Note: This specific time period includes some of the most recently available data (there are dat a available from
May 26, 2021–June 7, 2021) and is roughly one year after the time period referenced in Table 1. Households
surveyed were identified from the Census Bureau’s Master Address File and had both a known email address and
phone number. Respondents were 18 years or older and lived in a household with children who were enrolled
in public or private school.
a.
These categories are not mutually exclusive. A household’s respondent could select an y that apply, meaning
that in the last seven days, a child or children living in the household and enrolled in school could have
received education by multiple methods of delivery. It is not clear from available documentation whether
such method applied to all of the child’s or children’s classes.
b.
This category includes respondents in households with a child or children who received virtual/online
instruction from a teacher in real time or learned on their own using online materials provided by their
school.
c.
This category includes respondents in households with a child or children who learned on their own using
paper materials provided by their school.
d.
This category includes respondents in households with a child or children who learned on their own using
materials that were not provided by their school, did not participate in any learning activities because their
school was closed, were sick and could not participate in education, or had something else as an issue.
Selected Issues
This section of the report covers some of the issues that have been prevalent in the public and
academic discussions surrounding the transition from in-person to remote learning in elementary
and secondary schools in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The section begins by focusing
on equity with respect to student access to online learning. It then discusses the quality of
instruction and learning during the pandemic, as well as privacy and cybersecurity concerns
inherent to delivering instruction via the internet.
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Digital Divide
One of the main issues with transitioning to an online learning environment is what has been
referred to as the digital divide. This is the gap between those families who have access to the
resources to be able to fully engage in an online learning environment and those families who
lack access to the means to fully participate in online learning. This digital divide presents in two
ways: (1) lack of access to adequate internet services such as high-speed internet and (2) lack of
access to devices to enable internet use. These issues are discussed in greater detail in the
following sections.
Lack of Access to Adequate Internet Services
Lack of adequate access to internet services may impact a student’s ability to engage in online
learning consistently or completely at home. Prior to the pandemic, many students did not have
internet access at home to complete homework assignments, which has been referred to as the
homework gap. 25 According to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), 18.2 million
Americans lacked an internet connection of download/upload speeds of at least 25 Megabytes per
second (Mbps)/3 Mbps in 2017. 26 A Pew Research Center analysis of 2015 U.S. Census Bureau
data found that 15% of U.S. households with school-age children did not have a high-speed
internet connection at home. 27
The homework gap is more pronounced for low-income students, students of color, and students
who live in rural communities. For example, according to another Pew Research Center analysis
of 2015 U.S. Census Bureau data, 35% of households with children ages 6 to 17 and an annual
income of $30,000 or below did not have a high-speed internet connection compared to 6% of
households with an annual income of $75,000 or above. 28 That same analysis also found that 25%
of households with children ages 6 to 17 with a Black head of household and 23% of households
with a Hispanic head of household did not have access to high-speed internet compared to 10% of
households with a White head of household. 29 CRS analysis of the Household Pulse Survey data
presented in Table 1 suggests similar trends in internet access at the start of the pandemic. More
recent data presented in Table 2 suggest that at-home internet access has improved for more
vulnerable groups (see the “Education Services and Access at the Start of the Pandemic” section),
and while disparities still existed, they seemed to be smaller. The Household Pulse Survey data
did not include information on internet quality.
25 Pew Research Center Fact T ank, “ As schools close due to the coronavirus, some U.S. students face a digital
‘homework gap,’” March 16, 2020, available at https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/16/as-schools-closedue-to-the-coronavirus-some-u-s-students-face-a-digital-homework-gap/.
26
Federal Communications Commission 2020 Broadband Deployment Report, FCC 20-50, April 2020, available at
https://docs.fcc.gov/public/attachments/FCC-20-50A1.pdf. T he FCC has identified 25 Mbps/3 Mbps as sufficient
download/upload speed benchmarks for providing “ advanced telecommunications capability.”
Pew Research Center Fact T ank, “ As schools close due to the coronavirus, some U.S. students face a digital
‘homework gap,’” March 16, 2020, available at https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/16/as-schools-closedue-to-the-coronavirus-some-u-s-students-face-a-digital-homework-gap/.
28 Pew Research Center Fact T ank, “Nearly one-in-five teens can’t always finish their homework because of the digital
divide,” October 26, 2018, available at https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/10/26/nearly-one-in-five-teenscant-always-finish-their-homework-because-of-the-digital-divide/.
27
29 Pew Research Center Fact T ank, “Nearly one-in-five teens can’t always finish their homework because of the digital
divide,” October 26, 2018, available at https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/10/26/nearly-one-in-five-teenscant-always-finish-their-homework-because-of-the-digital-divide/.
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Lack of or insufficient internet access may have occurred for several reasons: a household may
not have been able to afford internet services or may have had a disruption in internet services
because of falling behind on payments, a community may have lacked the infrastructure to
provide high-speed internet consistently or at all, or households may have relied on internet
access through cellular data usage, which could be limited each month. There may also have been
challenges with sufficient bandwidth if multiple household members tried to access the internet at
the same time. 30 Additionally, students who lacked internet access at home may have needed to go
elsewhere to utilize public Wi-Fi in order to complete schoolwork.
For example, among children ages 3 to 18 who did not have access to the internet in 2017, 34%
did not because their households could not afford it. These percentages were significantly higher
for Black and Hispanic/Latino children and children in households with incomes of less than
$30,000. 31 Additionally, according to the FCC, roughly 22% of Americans living in rural areas
and 28% of individuals living in Tribal areas lacked access to high-speed broadband
infrastructure.32 According to a survey conducted by the National 4-H Council and Microsoft,
20% of youth ages 13 to 19 living in rural communities lacked access to high-speed internet and
almost half struggled to complete homework assignments due to a slow internet connection. 33 A
2018 Pew Research Center survey of U.S. teens found that one-quarter of Black teens and just
over 20% of teens in households earning less than $30,000 went outside of the home to use public
Wi-Fi to do homework compared to 11% of White teens and 7% of teens in households earning
$75,000 or more. 34
As school districts continuously navigate the decision to reopen schools, to maintain remote
learning on a full-time basis, or to use a hybrid approach, one consideration is the effects of
inadequate access to high-speed internet on students’ ability to complete work and, over the long
term, the effects of that on student learning. As online learning continues, these effects may be
exacerbated for low-income students, students of color, and rural students who are more likely to
face barriers to sufficient internet access.35
Inadequate Access to Devices
Even if a household has reliable internet, children may not have adequate access to a device in
their home to receive instruction, which could present challenges to fully engaging in instruction.
30
Sumit Chandra, Amy Chang, and Lauren Day et al., Closing the K–12 Digital Divide in the Age of Distance
Learning, Common Sense Media, Boston Consulting Group, San Francisco, CA, and Boston, MA, 2020,
https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/pdfs/
common_sense_media_report_final_6_26_7.38am_web_updated.pdf .
31 NCES T able 702.40, Percentage of people with no internet access at home.
32
Federal Communications Commission 2020 Broadband Deployment Report, FCC 20-50, April 2020, available at
https://docs.fcc.gov/public/attachments/FCC-20-50A1.pdf.
33 4-H Council, New Survey Finds Teens Without Access to High-Speed Internet Are Less Likely to Believe They Can
Achieve the Am erican Dream, March 24, 2020, available at https://4-h.org/media/new-survey-finds-teens-withoutaccess-to-high-speed-internet-are-less-likely-to-believe-they-can-achieve-the-american-dream/.
34
Pew Research Center Fact T ank, “ As schools close due to the coronavirus, some U.S. students face a digital
‘homework gap,’” March 16, 2020, available at https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/16/as-schools-closedue-to-the-coronavirus-some-u-s-students-face-a-digital-homework-gap/.
35 Sumit Chandra, Amy Chang, and Lauren Day et al., Closing the K–12 Digital Divide in the Age of Distance
Learning, Common Sense Media, Boston Consulting Group, San Francisco, CA, and Boston, MA, 2020,
https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/pdfs/
common_sense_media_report_final_6_26_7.38am_web_updated.p df.
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Inadequate access to a device may occur for several reasons. Households may not be able to
afford a PC, laptop, tablet, or smartphone. If a device is present, only one may be available per
household with more than one school-aged child, and other children or a teleworking parent may
have need for it. Additionally, prior to the pandemic many students may have relied on accessing
publicly available computers at a library or community center to complete any assignments
requiring the use of a connected device. According to the 2018 Pew Research Center survey, 12%
of U.S. teens did not have access to a desktop or laptop computer. 36
As with access to high-speed internet, inadequate access to devices seems to disproportionately
impact low-income students and students of color. The Pew Research Center survey found that
prior to the pandemic, 25% of teens in households earning less than $30,000 per year and 18% of
Hispanic teens did not have access to a desktop or laptop computer versus 4% of teens in
households earning more than $75,000 per year and 9% of White teens. 37
CRS analysis of the Household Pulse Survey data presented in Table 1 presents similar trends in
access to a device at the start of the pandemic (see the “Education Services and Access at the Start
of the Pandemic” section). Further, a ParentsTogether 38 survey of its 1,500 members across the
country suggested that 32% of households earning less than $25,000 per year did not have a
device or their school-aged children had to share a device amongst siblings, compared to fewer
than 10% of households earning more than $100,000 per year. 39 However, similar to internet
access, more recent Household Pulse Survey data presented in Table 2 suggest that device access
had also improved for more vulnerable groups and that racial disparities have become nearly
nonexistent.
The challenge to providing adequate instruction via online learning is not limited to ensuring that
students have access to reliable internet services; it includes ensuring that students have an
adequate device. While some students have challenges with either connecting to the internet or
accessing a device, for the majority of students who face these challenges, it is because they lack
access to both the internet and a device. 40 The data presented in this and previous sections suggest
that both challenges may disproportionately impact low-income students and students of color,
which could also more negatively affect their learning.
Quality of Instruction and Learning During the Pandemic
In many school districts, the transition to an online learning environment happened rapidly as
COVID-19 cases began to rise. Teachers, along with students, needed to acclimate to a new
instructional environment. Additionally, as the pandemic has endured and schools toggle between
36 Pew Research Center Fact T ank, “ As schools close due to the coronavirus, some U.S. students face a digital
‘homework gap,’” March 16, 2020, available at https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/16/as-schools-closedue-to-the-coronavirus-some-u-s-students-face-a-digital-homework-gap/.
37 Pew Research Center Fact T ank, “ As schools close due to the coronavirus, some U.S. students face a digital
‘homework gap,’” March 16, 2020, available at https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/03/16/as-schools-closedue-to-the-coronavirus-some-u-s-students-face-a-digital-homework-gap/.
38
ParentsT ogether is a nonprofit organization that covers research, policies, and trends related to issues that affect
children and families.
39 ParentsT ogetherAction, “ ParentsTogether Survey Reveals Remote Learning is Failing Our Most Vulnerable
Students,” available at https://parentstogetheraction.org/2020/05/27/parentstogether-survey-reveals-remote-learning-isfailing-our-most-vulnerable-students-2/.
40
Sumit Chandra, Amy Chang, and Lauren Day et al., Closing the K–12 Digital Divide in the Age of Distance
Learning, Common Sense Media, Boston Consulting Group, San Francisco, CA, and Boston, MA, 2020,
https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/pdfs/
common_sense_media_report_final_6_26_7.38am_web_updated.pdf .
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different modes of instruction, school districts continue to determine the best strategies to support
teachers and student learning in these various alternative learning environments, including online
delivery of instruction. Some of the primary issues that have emerged related to quality of
instruction and learning are (1) teacher training and supports in delivering online instruction, (2)
learning loss and (3) inadequate access to targeted educational services provided in schools.
Teacher Training and Support in Delivering Online Instruction
When the President declared the COVID-19 pandemic to be a national emergency, states and
school districts directed their schools to close their doors months before the end of the school year
and most had to make a rapid and significant pivot to online learning lacking a robust plan to do
so. Some teachers did not have the necessary training or experience to operate virtual platforms,
deliver instruction remotely, and ensure students were fully engaged in learning online. According
to a USA Today/Ipsos poll of teachers in May 2020, 83% said they were struggling to do their
jobs. Two-thirds said that they had not been able to do their job properly since starting to teach
remotely—and most of these said that the district did not prepare them well to do so. 41 Survey
data of teachers in August 2020 from FutureEd suggested that veteran teachers struggled with
providing instruction online more than other teachers: about 13% of teachers with 20 to 29 years
of experience and 22% of teachers with 30 or more years of experience were not comfortable
using online teaching tools, compared to 6% of teachers with less than 10 years of experience and
7% of teachers with 10 to 19 years of experience. 42
There is mixed evidence regarding whether teachers are generally working longer hours during
the pandemic. While data from surveys by the EdWeek Research Center in May 2020 suggested
that on average, teachers were working two fewer hours per day than when they were in the
classroom, 43 according to the USA Today/Ipsos poll, two-thirds of teachers reported that they had
to work more than usual and were not able to do their jobs properly when teaching remotely. 44
More recently, RAND survey data from October 2020 suggested that about 57% of teachers spent
more time working than they did prior to the pandemic, and such teachers worked six more hours
per week, on average. 45 Other sources suggest that teachers are working longer hours compared to
pre-pandemic patterns to manage new challenges. Some challenges may include not only having
to master new learning technologies in a short amount of time but also retrofitting lessons meant
for the classroom to be delivered online, as well as providing support and comfort to students and
their families during this uncertain time. 46 A RAND American Teacher Panel survey from May
41 Susan Page, “Back to school? 1 in 5 teachers are unlikely to return to reopened classrooms this fall, p oll says,” USA
Today, May 26, 2020, available at https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/education/2020/05/26/coronavirus-schoolsteachers-poll-ipsos-parents-fall-online/5254729002.
Matthew A. Kraft and Nicole S. Simon, “ T eaching Under Quarantine: Results From A New Survey ,” FutureEd,
August 29, 2020, https://www.future-ed.org/teaching-under-quarantine-a-new-large-scale-survey/?mc_cid=
bdd5c441e6&mc_eid=c89735195e.
42
43 Catherine Gewertz, “ Instruction During COVID-19: Less Learning T ime Drives Fears of Academic Erosion ,”
EducationWeek, May 28, 2020, available at https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2020/05/27/instruction-during-covid19-less-learning-time-drives.html.
44
Susan Page, “Back to school? 1 in 5 teachers are unlikely to return to reopened classrooms this fall, poll says,” USA
Today, May 26, 2020, available at https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/education/2020/05/26/coronavirus-schoolsteachers-poll-ipsos-parents-fall-online/5254729002.
45 Julia Kaufman and Melissa Diliberti, “ T eachers are not all right: How the COVID-19 pandemic is taking a toll on the
nation’s teachers,” Center for Reinventing Public Education, January 2021, at https://www.crpe.org/sites/default/files/
ep_teachers_synthesis.pdf.
46 Catherine Gewertz, “ Exhausted and Grieving: T eaching During the Coronavirus Crisis,” EducationWeek, April 16,
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2020 found that nearly one-quarter of teachers spent 30 hours per week on instructional planning
activities alone. 47
Some teachers are balancing caretaking responsibilities for their own children while investing the
extra hours to transition to an online learning environment. For example, the FutureED survey
data suggested that half of the mid-career teachers, those with 5 to 15 years of experience and
more likely to have children at home, felt that caregiving responsibilities for children and/or
dependent adults made their jobs more difficult during the pandemic. 48
Some of these challenges with the transition to online learning during a pandemic may contribute
to lower teacher morale. EdWeek Research Center surveys in April 2020 indicated that two-thirds
of teachers in the sample were experiencing lower morale than they were prior to the pandemic. 49
Teachers may not feel as effective when providing instruction online: the FutureED survey found
that 73% of teachers felt successful compared to 96% of teachers prior to the pandemic. 50
Learning Loss
During the COVID-19 pandemic, students may have had to face school closures and learning
amidst the sudden transition to remote instruction, and later, potential shifts between various
modes of instruction. Even if students were able to return to in-person learning in some part or
fully, they likely still struggled to learn in an environment punctuated with several disruptions and
having to navigate different modes of instruction. Some faced challenges with the quality of the
learning experience that were likely exacerbated by prolonged periods of remote instruction.
Some areas of concern include student attendance and engagement, assessment validity, and
limited possibilities for interaction between students and teachers and among students.51
While systematic data on student achievement during the pandemic are not available as of the
cover date of this report, some studies have emerged that analyze achievement of certain student
populations during the pandemic. For example, Kuhfeld et al. (2020) 52 analyzed student
performance on NWEA’s 53 proprietary MAP Growth assessments in reading and math that were
administered to 4.4 million students in grades 3-8 both in person and online during fall 2020. The
2020, available at https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2020/04/16/exhausted-and-grieving-teaching-during-thecoronavirus.html.
47 Sy Doan, David Grant, and Daniella Henry et al., American Instructional Resources Surveys: 2020 Technical
Documentation and Survey Results, RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 2020, https://www.rand.org/pubs/
research_reports/RRA134-4.html.
48 Matthew A. Kraft and Nicole S. Simon, “ T eaching Under Quarantine: Results From A New Survey ,” FutureEd,
August 29, 2020, https://www.future-ed.org/teaching-under-quarantine-a-new-large-scale-survey/?mc_cid=
bdd5c441e6&mc_eid=c89735195e.
49 Catherine Gewertz, “ Exhausted and Grieving: T eaching During the Coronavirus Crisis,” EducationWeek, April 16,
2020, available at https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2020/04/16/exhausted-and-grieving-teaching-during-thecoronavirus.html.
50 Matthew A. Kraft and Nicole S. Simon, “ T eaching Under Quarantine: Results From A New Survey ,” FutureEd,
August 29, 2020, https://www.future-ed.org/teaching-under-quarantine-a-new-large-scale-survey/?mc_cid=
bdd5c441e6&mc_eid=c89735195e.
51 W. Keaton and A. Gilbert, Successful Online Learning: What Does Learner Interaction with Peers, Instructors, and
Parents Look Like? (2020) Journal of Online Learning Research, 6(2), 129-154.
52 Megan Kuhfeld et al., Learning During COVID-19: Initial Findings on Students’ Reading and Math Achievement
and Growth, NWEA, 2020, available at https://www.nwea.org/research/publication/learning-during-covid-19-initialfindings-on-students-reading-and-math-achievement-and-growth/ (hereinafter, “Kuhfeld et al.”).
53 NWEA, formerly known as the Northwest Evaluation Association, is a research -based, not-for-profit organization
that creates and develops assessments for K-12 students that aim to measure growth and proficiency.
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authors found that students’ achievement scores in reading in fall 2020 were similar to samegrade students in fall 2019 but in math were about 5-10 percentile points lower. They also found
that in almost all grades, most students had made some learning gains in both reading and math in
fall 2020 relative to their achievement scores from winter 2019. However, learning gains in math
were lower on average in fall 2020 than in prior years, suggesting that more students were falling
behind relative to their prior standing.
These results are likely not capturing the full picture with respect to potential learning loss caused
by the pandemic. In particular, these assessment results exclude the portion of the student
population consisting primarily of students who are absent from schools or unable to take the
assessments due to economic, health, technological, or other reasons unknown to researchers.
According to additional analyses carried out by Kuhfeld et al., it is likely that students not tested
during fall 2020 are disproportionately from disadvantaged backgrounds. Thus, the lack of
achievement data on these students means that the impacts of the pandemic on student
achievement are likely underestimated. 54
Some of these findings persist outside of the United States. The Netherlands, which shut down its
schools for eight weeks in response to the pandemic, administered national examinations prior to
and following school shutdowns. A study of these examination data for early-grade students
showed a learning loss that is equivalent to one-fifth of a school year, suggesting that students
made little or no progress while learning from home. 55 Similar findings were obtained in
Belgium, Switzerland, and Germany, which shut down schools for comparable periods. 56
A survey administered by the RAND Corporation to nationally representative samples of teachers
and principals in October 2020 found that respondents generally believed the pandemic
negatively impacted their students’ levels of preparedness for grade-level work. Sixty-six percent
of surveyed teachers reported that the majority of their students were less prepared to participate
in grade-level work during the 2020–2021 school year relative to this time in the previous school
year, and 27% indicated that the majority of their students were significantly less prepared than
they were the previous year. 57 Additionally, survey responders reported that 84% of students
enrolled in fully remote learning were typically present each day, 58 compared with the average
daily attendance rate in U.S. schools of 94% during the 2015–2016 school year, the last year for
which such data are available. 59
54 Kuhfeld et al., pp.7-8.
55 Per Engzell, Arun Frey, and Mark D. Verhagen, “Learning loss due to school closures during the COVID -19
pandemic,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America , April 2021,
https://www.pnas.org/content/118/17/e2022376118?fbclid=
IwAR0B0gKSv_jBS3Sdo SJpgPQWkFezms20Z2vkEKcNgPggCVlfMhJT AXrxa7Q.https://www.pnas.org/content/118/
17/e2022376118?fbclid=IwAR0B0gKSv_jBS3Sdo SJp gPQWkFezms20Z2vkEKcNgPggCVlfMhJT AXrxa7Q.
56 Harry Patrinos and Robin Donnelly, “Learning Loss During COVID-19: An Early Systematic Review,” Research
Square, May 2021, available at https://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-518655/v1.
57 M. Diliberti and J.H. Kaumfan, Will This School Year Be Another Casualty of the Pandemic? RAND Corporation,
2020, available at https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA168-4.html; and J.H. Kaumfan et al. COVID-19
and the State of K-12 Schools, RAND Corporation, 2020, available at https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/
RRA168-5.html.
58 It is possible that online class attendance earlier in the pandemic was significantly lower than in the fall semester,
when schools and LEAs had had more time to prepare for full remote learning. For example, an April 2020 survey of
teachers from Fishbowl Insights found that more than 55% of teachers reported less than half of their students attending
online classes. Survey findings are available at https://www.fishbowlapp.com/insights/2020/04/13/covide-19-surveyteachers-say-less-than-half-of-students-attending-their-remote-classes/.
59 National Center for Education Statistics, “Digest of Education St atistics: T able 203.90: Average Daily Attendance
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Student Assessment
One of the concerns associated with the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on student learning
has been the ability of schools, LEAs, and states to accurately assess student academic
achievement and progress during the 2019-2020 and 2020-2021 school years. In response to the
pandemic, the Secretary of Education announced on March 20, 2020, that she would waive
assessment, accountability and school identification, and related reporting requirements and
provided a waiver request template to streamline the process by which states could request a
waiver under Section 8401 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). 60
On November 25, 2020, the NCES Commissioner announced that, due to the impact of the
pandemic on school operations, it would not be possible for NCES to conduct the National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in accordance with the statutory requirements
defined by the Education Sciences Reform Act (ESRA), which requires NAEP to be conducted in
a valid and reliable manner every two years. 61
On February 21, 2020, ED invited states to request waivers only for ESEA-mandated
accountability and school identification requirements for the 2020-2021 school year. ED
maintained ESEA-mandated state and local reporting requirements, as well as ESEA-mandated
assessment requirements, though it permitted increased flexibility in how and when states
administer such assessments for the 2020-2021 school year. 62
Without readily available information from these assessments, it may be more challenging to
determine overall student academic achievement and how online learning may have affected
achievement.
Inadequate Access to Targeted Educational Services Typically Provided in
Schools
Another means in which learning may be impacted is through the lack of access to other
educational services typically provided in schools, which may further the disruption in a child’s
education. Specifically, services that may be impacted significantly are special education services
for students with Individualized Education Programs (IEPs), language support services for
English Learner students (ELs), and supplemental services for students experiencing
homelessness. Challenges related to providing educational services to children with disabilities,
ELs, and students experiencing homelessness in an online learning environment are described in
the following sections.
(ADA) as a Percentage of T otal Enrollment, School Day Length, and School Year Length in Public Schools, by School
Level and State: 2007-08 and 2011-12,” webpage, 2018. As of October 23, 2020: https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/
d18/tables/dt18_203.90.asp.
60
More information about ESEA waivers and flexibilities in response to the COVID-19 pandemic is available at
https://www2.ed.gov/documents/coronavirus/cares-waiver-report.pdf.
61
20 U.S.C. §9622(b)(2)(B). T he entire statement from NCES is available at https://nces.ed.gov/whatsnew/
commissioner/remarks2020/11_25_2020.asp.
U.S. Department of Education, Office of Elementary and Secondary Education, “Dear Colleague Letter to Chief of
State School Officers,” February 22, 2021, available at https://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/guid/stateletters/dclassessments-and-acct-022221.pdf#:~:text=
Accountability%20and%20School%20Identification.%20We%20are%20inviting%20states,adjusted%20to%20account
%20for%20a%20participation%20rate%20below.
62
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Special Education Services for Children with Disabilities
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 63 authorizes grant programs that support
special education and early intervention services for children with disabilities. As a condition of
receiving those grants, states are required to provide each child with a disability between the ages
of 3 through 21 a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) that emphasizes special education
and related services designed to meet his/her unique needs. In the 2018-2019 school year, over 7
million children with disabilities were enrolled in U.S. public schools, which was approximately
14% of all public school students.64
Each child identified as a child with a disability who requires special education must have an IEP.
An IEP is developed by an IEP team composed of school personnel, the child’s parents, and,
when appropriate, the child. The resulting IEP includes measureable goals, appropriate
accommodations, and a description of the special education and related services to be provided to
the child, to allow the child to be involved and to make progress in the general education
curriculum. 65
Anecdotal evidence suggests that remote learning environments may not be conducive to
ensuring that children with disabilities consistently receive the services and supports specified in
their IEPs and thus, access to FAPE as mandated by law. For example, some children with
disabilities may not be able to operate the necessary technology independently, may be nonverbal, and/or may struggle with writing and typing skills that may be needed to engage in online
learning. 66 More broadly, some children with disabilities’ IEPs require that they be provided
related services, such as physical therapy, occupational therapy, or therapeutic recreation, which
may be impossible to provide in a remote learning environment with social distancing in effect. 67
Many online learning platforms lack integration with assistive technologies, such as a screen
reader or braille reader for visually impaired students that may be required for some children with
disabilities to engage in online learning. 68 As mentioned previously, remote learning may prevent
students from accessing therapies and other related services required for their IEPs to be
implemented thoroughly and appropriately. 69 Parents may not have the required training, tools,
abilities, or capacity to provide such services at home. 70
63
20 U.S.C. §§1400 et seq.
64 National Center for Education Statistics. The Condition of Education: Students with Disabilities, available at
https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgg.asp.
65 For more information on the IDEA and the IEP process, see CRS Report R41833, The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), Part B: Key Statutory and Regulatory Provisions.
66 Elissa Nadworny, “With Schools Closed, Kids With Disabilities Are More Vulnerable T han Ever,” NPR, March 27,
2020, available at https://www.npr.org/2020/03/27/821926032/with-schools-closed-kids-with-disabilities-are-morevulnerable-than-ever.
67 Faith Hill, “ T he Pandemic Is a Crisis for Students With Special Needs,” The Atlantic, April 18, 2020, available at
https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2020/04/special-education-goes-remote-covid-19-pandemic/610231.
68 Faith Hill, “ T he Pandemic Is a Crisis for Students With Special Needs,” The Atlantic, April 18, 2020, available at
https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2020/04/special-education-goes-remote-covid-19-pandemic/610231.
69 Faith Hill, “ T he Pandemic Is a Crisis for Students With Special Needs,” The Atlantic, April 18, 2020, available at
https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2020/04/special-education-goes-remote-covid-19-pandemic/610231;
and Laura McKenna, “ When schools close or go online, what happens to students with disabilities?” USAToday, March
21, 2020, available at https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/03/21/coronavirus-what-happens-studentsdisabilities-when-schools-close-column/2867856001/.
70
Faith Hill, “ T he Pandemic Is a Crisis for Students With Special Needs,” The Atlantic, April 18, 2020, available at
https://www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2020/04/special-education-goes-remote-covid-19-pandemic/610231;
and Laura McKenna, “ When schools close or go online, what happens to students with disabilities?” USAToday, March
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In many cases, the necessary modifications, accommodations, and supports that are required by
each student’s IEP may be challenging, if not impossible, to implement for teachers, schools, and
families in an online learning environment. According to the ParentsTogether survey referenced
above, 39% of parents of children who have IEPs indicated that their children were receiving
none of the services to which they are entitled, while 20% indicated their children were receiving
all of the services to which they are entitled. 71 As such, a student may be entitled to compensatory
services if it is determined that the student was denied his or her right to a FAPE during a period
of online learning. 72
Language Support Services for English Learners73
Students who are identified as ELs by their schools are eligible to participate in language
assistance programs to help them attain English language proficiency and meet academic
standards that all students are expected to achieve. In 2017, there were 5 million ELs enrolled in
U.S. public schools, which was 10% of all public school students. 74
In a remote learning environment, ELs may face more challenges to getting the neces sary
instruction to ensure they are not only meeting the same academic standards as non-ELs but also
learning English. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, a 2019 U.S. Department of Education (ED)
study found data suggesting the following:
teachers are less likely to assign ELs digital resources outside of class due to
concerns about a lack of access to the internet or devices at home,
teachers are more likely to assign general education digital resources instead of
EL-specific digital resources, and
EL specialists reported receiving fewer hours of professional development in
remote learning than mainstream teachers. 75
Anecdotal data suggests that the ability of EL specialists and instructors to provide effective
language instruction becomes limited when instruction is shifted to a digital platform. Digital
resources may not be specific to the needs of ELs, and remote instruction may not ultimately be
able to replace the real-time adjustments that EL instructors make in-person. 76 Given that English
21, 2020, available at https://www.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2020/03/21/coronavirus-what-happens-studentsdisabilities-when-schools-close-column/2867856001/.
71 ParentsT ogetherAction, “ ParentsTogether Survey Reveals Remote Learning is Failing Our Mo st Vulnerable
Students,” available at https://parentstogetheraction.org/2020/05/27/parentstogether-survey-reveals-remote-learning-isfailing-our-most-vulnerable-students-2/.
72 U.S. Department of Education, Questions and Answers on Providing Services to Children with Disabilities during
the Coronavirus Disease 2019 Outbreak, March 2020, available at https://www2.ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/
memosdcltrs/qa-covid-19-03-12-2020.pdf.
73 For more information on the provisions covering language instruction for ELs and immigrant students in T itle III of
the ESEA, see CRS Report R45977, The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as Amended by the Every
Student Succeeds Act (ESSA): A Primer.
74
National Center for Education Statistics, “ T he Condition of Educat ion: English Language Learners in Public
Schools,” available at https://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/indicator_cgf.asp.
75 U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development, Policy and Program Studies
Service, Supporting English learners through technology: What districts and teachers say about digital learning
resources for English learners, Volume I: Final Report, Washington, DC, May 2019, https://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/
eval/title-iii/180414.pdf.
76 Jo Napolitano, “Teachers use high- and low-tech means to reach English Language Learners during coronavirus
crisis,” The Hechinger Report, April 28, 2020, available at https://hechingerreport.org/teachers-use-high-and-low-tech-
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is likely not the primary language spoken in ELs’ homes, ELs may not be getting as much
practice conversing in English and parents may be limited in how much they can support their
children in English language instruction. 77 In some EL households, particularly those where the
native language is not Spanish, the school may not be able to provide resources in the
household’s native language. 78
In 2019, the achievement gaps between ELs and non-ELs in the NAEP reading assessment were
33 points at the 4th grade level and 45 points at the 8th grade level. 79 There are some data to
suggest that the learning loss that ELs experience when schools are closed may be greater than for
non-ELs, 80 which could contribute to expanding the achievement gap between ELs and non-ELs.
Supplemental Services for Students Experiencing Homelessness 81
The McKinney-Vento Act82 authorizes the Education for Homeless Children and Youths program
to ensure all homeless children and youths have equal access to the same, appropriate education
that is provided to other children and youths. Grants made by states to LEAs under this program
must be used to facilitate the enrollment, attendance, transportation to school, and success in
school of homeless youths, including services such as tutoring, supplemental instruction, health
services, and referrals. The McKinney-Vento Act defines homeless children and youths as
individuals who lack a fixed, regular, and adequate nighttime residence. 83 In the 2017-2018
school year, there were approximately 1.5 million students enrolled in public schools
experiencing homelessness. 84
means-to-reach-english-language-learners-during-coronavirus-crisis/; and Corey Mitchell, “ English-Learners May Be
Left Behind as Remote Learning Becomes ‘New Normal’,” EducationWeek, March 17, 2020, available at
https://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/learning-the-language/2020/03/coronavirus_english_learners_digital_divide.html.
Erin Richards, “ Coronavirus’ online school is hard enough. What if you're still learning to speak English?”
USAToday, May 13, 2020, available at https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/education/2020/05/14/coronavirusonline-classes-school-closures-esl-students-learn-english/5178145002/.
77
Corey Mitchell, “ English-Learners May Be Left Behind as Remote Learning Becomes ‘New Normal’,”
EducationWeek, March 17, 2020, available at https://blogs.edweek.org/edweek/learning-the-language/2020/03/
coronavirus_english_learners_digital_divide.html.
78
79 T he Nation’s Report Card, “ NAEP Report Card: Reading, National Student Group Scores and Score Gaps,” available
at https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/reading/nation/groups/?grade=4.
80 Joshua F. Lawrence, “English vocabulary trajectories of students whose parents speak a language other than English:
steep trajectories and sharp summer setback,” Reading & Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 25, no. 5 (2012),
pp. 1113-1141.
81
For more information, see CRS In Focus IF11152, Federal Support for Runaway and Homeless Youth .
82 P.L. 100-77; 42 U.S.C. §11301 et seq.
83
U.S. Department of Education, Education for Homeless Children and Youths Program Non -Regulatory Guidance:
Title VII-B of the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act, as amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act, updated
August 2018, available at https://www2.ed.gov/policy/elsec/leg/essa/160240ehcyguidanceupdated082718.docx. T he
term includes “children and youths who are: sharing the housing of other persons due to loss of housing, economic
hardship, or a similar reason (sometimes referred to as “doubled-up”); living in motels, hotels, trailer parks, or camping
grounds due to lack of alternative adequate accommodations; living in emergency or transitional shelters; or abandoned
in hospitals.” Homeless children and youths also include “Children and youths who have a primary nighttime residence
that is a public or private place not designed for, or ordinarily used as, a regular sleeping accommodation for human
beings; Children and youths who are living in cars, parks, public spaces, abandoned buildings, substandard housing,
bus or train stations, or similar settings; and migratory children who qualify as homeless because they are living in
circumstances described above.”
84 National Center for Homeless Education, Federal Data Summary: School Years 2015-16 to 2017-18, January 2020,
available at https://nche.ed.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Federal-Data-Summary-SY-15.16-to-17.18-Published1.30.2020.pdf.
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Since the start of the pandemic and during school closures, one of the preeminent issues with
ensuring that students experiencing homelessness are still accessing the necessary supplemental
and targeted services to enable their learning is the ability to identify which students are
experiencing homelessness. According to a November 2020 Schoolhouse Connection report, 28%
fewer students were identified as experiencing homelessness at the start of the 2020-2021 school
year relative to the prior year. 85 One of the oft-cited reasons for this drop is that schools do not
have access to the typical means for identifying such students when school closures are in effect.
This includes use of enrollment forms about housing status, ability of school staff to look for
potential signs of homelessness in-person, and outreach to community agencies. During school
closures, there are fewer opportunities for school staff to have private conversations with students
and families about their living situations. Social distancing protocols also minimize opportunities
to observe signs of homelessness. Additionally, due to the high mobility of students and families
experiencing homelessness, it may be more challenging to stay in contact with them. 86
Even when it is known that a student is experiencing homelessness, shuttered schools can mean a
disruption in critical services for such students. For many students experiencing homelessness,
schools not only represent a place for academic learning, but also where they can reliably get
warm meals, mental health services, and other key wraparound supports.87 A halt in these
supplemental services—not a focus of this report—could significantly impair these students’
ability to succeed academically.
For many students experiencing homelessness, engaging in remote instruction may not be
possible. Issues stemming from the digital divide are further exacerbated in unstable living
situations. While schools may prioritize the distribution of devices and mobile hotspots to their
students experiencing homelessness, these students and their families may not be aware of such
availability because they may have moved or lack reliable access to phone or email. Shelters and
motels, where families experiencing homelessness often stay, lack reliable high-speed Wi-Fi, if
they have any at all. Additionally, the lack of a stable living situation may also create an
unsuitable learning environment in which to engage in remote instruction. As an example,
shelters are often overcrowded or many families may double-up in crowded apartments, which
may lead to conditions that are not conducive to learning. 88
Data suggest that lengthy periods of remote instruction could perpetuate the cycle of
homelessness for such students. According to a National Center for Homeless Education brief,
prior to the pandemic, students experiencing homelessness were much more likely to be
85 SchoolHouse Connection and Poverty Solutions at the University of Michigan, Lost in the Masked Shuffle & Virtual
Void: Children and Youth Experiencing Homelessness Amidst the Pandemic, November 2020, available at
https://www.schoolhouseconnection.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Lost-in-the-Masked-Shuffle-and-VirtualVoid.pdf.
86 Ibid.
Eliza Shapiro, “ T hese Families Feel Forgotten as N.Y.C. Pushes to Open Schools,” The New York Times, September
21, 2020, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/14/nyregion/homeless-school-reopening-nyc.html; and Cory
T urner, “ Homeless Families Struggle With Impossible Choices As School Closures Continue,” NPR, October 7, 2020,
available at https://www.npr.org/2020/10/07/920320592/an-impossible-choice-for-homeless-parents-a-job-or-theirchilds-education?utm_campaign=storyshare&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_medium=social.
87
88 Eliza Shapiro, “ T hese Families Feel Forgotten as N.Y.C. Pushes to Open Schools,” The New York Times, September
21, 2020, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/09/14/nyregion/homeless-school-reopening-nyc.html; Cory
T urner, “ Homeless Families Struggle With Impossible Choices As School Closures Continue,” NPR, October 7, 2020,
available at https://www.npr.org/2020/10/07/920320592/an-impossible-choice-for-homeless-parents-a-job-or-theirchilds-education?utm_campaign=storyshare&utm_source=twitter.com&utm_medium=social; and Katie Aulenbacher,
“Pandemic Heightens Homeless Students’ Hurdles with Remote Learning,” The Homeless Voice, August 21, 2020,
available at https://homelessvoice.org/pandemic-heightens-homeless-students-hurdles-with-remote-learning/.
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chronically absent from school then their housed peers. 89 Further, chronically absent students
were also more likely to have lower student achievement scores and to drop out of school
altogether. 90 A 2017 study from the Chapin Hall at the University of Chicago found that students
who drop out are more than four times as likely to experience homelessness as young adults than
their peers who graduate high school or complete a GED. 91 These data taken together with the
aforementioned issues in this section suggest that prolonged school closures could further
increase the likelihood that a student experiencing homelessness will be chronically absent from
school, drop out, and experience homelessness as an adult.
Privacy Concerns Related to Online Learning
Concerns related to student privacy and online learning have existed since before the COVID-19
pandemic. 92 These concerns include the collection and use of student data by third-party
educational software providers, ransomware or ransom attacks, inappropriate content, and the
appropriateness of on-camera interactions between students and teachers. Discussion of some of
these issues has taken on a new urgency due to the increased reliance on online education and the
proliferation of videoconferencing tools and other online educational platforms during the
pandemic.
Securing Student Data
The rush to adapt their schools and classrooms to online education has led many school districts
and states to bypass certain security precautions that are normally in place with regard to
restrictions on the use of student data. For example, Governor Ned Lamont of Connecticut signed
an executive order 93 on March 21, 2020, that allows the state’s education commissioner to
temporarily waive its student data privacy law that requires schools and companies entering a
partnership to sign a written contract that explicitly states the company will not use student data
for any purpose beyond the company’s stated function.
While a number of school districts had created lists of pre-approved online learning platforms and
educational tools prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, many others were caught unprepared and
needed to expedite the process of ensuring that a certain tool would not lead to cybersecurity
breaches or improper use of student data. In response to the rapid need for school districts to
89 Chronically absent means missing 10% or more of the school year, whether excused or unexcused.
90 National Center for Homeless Education, In School Every Day: Addressing Chronic Absenteeism Among Students
Experiencing Homelessness, September 2017, available at https://nche.ed.gov/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/chronabsent.pdf.
91 M.H. Morton, A. Dworsky, and G.M. Samuels,
Missed Opportunities: Youth Homelessness in America, Chapin Hall
at the University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 2017, https://voicesofyouthcount.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/VoYCNational-Estimates-Brief-Chapin-Hall-2017.pdf.
92
See, for example, J.R. Reidenberg and F. Schaub, Achieving big data privacy in education, T heory and Research in
Education, 2018, 16(3):263-279; S. Ben-Porath, T . Harel Ben Shahar, Introduction: Big data and education: Ethical
and moral challenges, T heory and Research in Education, 2017, 15(3): 243–248; and G. Dishon, New data, old
tensions: Big data, personalized learning, and the challenges of progressive education, T heory and Research in
Education, 2017, 15(3): 272–289.
93 Executive Order 7I, available at https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/Office-of-the-Governor/Executive-Orders/Lamont-
Executive-Orders/Executive-Order-No-7I.pdf. T he student data privacy flexibility provisions in this executive order
were extended by Executive Order 9D on September 25, 2020, available at https://portal.ct.gov/-/media/Office-of-theGovernor/Executive-Orders/Lamont-Executive-Orders/Executive-Order-No-9D.pdf.
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switch to online learning, ED published a compilation of resources aimed at school officials,
teachers, parents, and students trying to safely navigate online learning. 94
The main federal laws that address student data privacy are the Family Educational Rights and
Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA) 95 and the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA). 96
FERPA creates privacy protections for student education records. Education records are defined
broadly to include any “materials which contain information directly related to a student” and are
“maintained by an educational agency or institution.” FERPA generally requires that any
“educational agency or institution” (i.e., covered entities) give parents or, depending on their age,
the student (1) control over the disclosure of the student’s educational records, (2) an opportunity
to review those records, and (3) an opportunity to challenge them as inaccurate. Parents or adult
students who believe that their rights under FERPA have been violated may file a complaint with
ED.
COPPA regulates the online collection and use of children’s information and is not specific to
educational institutions. COPPA’s requirements apply to (1) any “operator” of a website or online
service that is “directed to children” or (2) any operator that has any “actual knowledge that it is
collecting personal information from a child” (i.e., covered operators). Covered operators must
comply with various requirements regarding data collection and use, privacy policy notifications,
and data security. COPPA provisions are enforced by the Federal Trade Commission. 97
Cyber Attacks on School Netw orks
Malware and ransomware attacks on school and LEA computer networks persisted with high
frequency throughout the 2019-2020 school year, according to a Joint Cybersecurity Advisory
issued by the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security
Agency, and the Multi-State Information Sharing and Analysis Center (MS-ISAC) on December
10, 2020. 98 Cyber actors likely view schools as targets of opportunity, and these types of attacks
continued through the 2020-2021 academic year. 99 These issues will be particularly challenging
for elementary and secondary schools that face resource and knowledge limitations; therefore,
educational leadership, information technology personnel, and security personnel will need to
balance this risk when determining their cybersecurity investments.
Ransomware attacks against school networks in particular have been on the rise since the
beginning of the pandemic. In these attacks, malicious cyber actors target school computer
systems, slowing access, and, in some instances, rendering the systems inaccessible for basic
functions, including online learning. Adopting tactics previously leveraged against business and
industry targets, ransomware actors have also stolen—and threatened to leak—confidential
student data to the public unless institutions pay a ransom.
94 See https://rems.ed.gov/docs/CyberSafetyProtectingYouth_COVID19_508C.pdf.
95 P.L. 93-380, codified at 20 U.S.C. § 1232g. See also FERPA and Virtual Learning, https://studentprivacy.ed.gov/
resources/ferpa-and-virtual-learning/.
96 15 U.S.C. §§6501–6506.
97 For more information about FERPA and COPPA, see CRS Report R45631, Data Protection Law: An Overview.
98
T he advisory is available at https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USDHSCISA/bulletins/2b08dcd.
99 Douglas A. Levin, The State of K-12 Cybersecurity: 2020 Year in Review, EdT ech Strategies/K-12 Cybersecurity
Resource Center and the K12 Security Information Exchange, March 10, 2021, https://k12cybersecure.com/wpcontent/uploads/2021/03/StateofK12Cybersecurity-2020.pdf.
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According to MS-ISAC data, the percentage of reported ransomware incidents against elementary
and secondary schools increased at the beginning of the 2020-2021 school year. In August and
September, 57% of ransomware incidents reported to the MS-ISAC involved elementary and
secondary schools, compared to 28% of reported ransomware incidents from January through
July 2020. 100 Additionally, according to a report published by the K-12 Cybersecurity Resource
Center, in coordination with the K12 Security Information Exchange, the number of publicly
disclosed data breaches in the 2020 calendar year rose by 18%, when compared to the 2019
calendar year. 101
Looking Forward to the 2021-2022 School Year
The 2020-2021 school year, during which students collectively experienced a variety of
instructional modes, has concluded and attention has turned to how school districts and schools
will approach the 2021-2022 school year. Compared to the early stages of the COVID-19
pandemic, the public now has a better understanding of how the virus operates. Further, many
pharmaceutical companies were able to rapidly develop, test, and deploy working vaccinations to
adults over age 18 and, in one case, to children as young as 12. 102 Vaccines currently authorized in
the United States have been shown to help protect against COVID-19 as well as reduce the
incidence of severe illness. 103 As of August 5, 2021, 58.2% of the total U.S. population has
received at least one dose of a COVID-19 vaccine, and 49.9% has been fully vaccinated. 104
Many adults and eligible youth may be unwilling or unable to get a vaccine. A vaccine is not
available to any child under age 12. In 2019, such children accounted for 15% of the total U.S.
population105 and 60% of all children enrolled in grades K-12 in public or private schools. 106
Further, the emergence of COVID-19 variants, such as the Delta variant, that are more easily
transmissible increase the risk of infection. The various and often changing circumstances
surrounding vaccination rates and the spread of the virus, including variants, may differ across
school districts and muddy decisions to reopen schools full-time for many students.
This section describes the issues that school districts, schools leaders, teachers, parents, and
students may be considering as the 2021-2022 school year nears. Specifically, some issues of
interest include whether it is safe for schools to reopen for all students in all grades, whether the
use of online learning will continue to persist after the pandemic has passed, how to address long100 See https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USDHSCISA/bulletins/2b08dcd.
101 Douglas A. Levin, The State of K-12 Cybersecurity: 2020 Year in Review, EdT ech Strategies/K-12 Cybersecurity
Resource Center and the K12 Security Information Exchange, March 10, 2021, https://k12cybersecure.com/wpcontent/uploads/2021/03/StateofK12Cybersecurity-2020.pdf.
102 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Different COVID-19 Vaccines,” May 27, 2021, available at
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/different-vaccines.html.
103 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Ensuring COVID-19 Vaccines Work,” May 10, 2021, available at
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/vaccines/effectiveness.html.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “COVID Data T racker Weekly Review,” July 2, 20 21, available at
https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/covid-data/covidview/index.html.
105
CRS analysis of data from the U.S. Census Bureau, Population Division, 2019 Population Estimates by Age, Sex,
Race and Hispanic Origin, “ Annual Estimates of the Resident Population by Single Year of Age and Sex for the United
States: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2019,” accessed on July 6, 2021, at https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-kits/2020/
population-estimates-detailed.html.
104
106 CRS analysis of data from the U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, School Enrollment Supplement,
October 2019, accessed on July 6, 2021, at https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2019/demo/school-enrollment/2019cps.html.
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term issues with shuttered schools and the continued use of online learning such as quality of
instruction and potential learning loss, and federal support for the continued use of online
learning.
Reopening Safely
In August 2021, the CDC updated guidance regarding the safe reopening of K-12 schools. 107
According to the CDC guidance, the following prevention strategies are recommended in order
for schools to reopen safely for in-person instruction:
promoting vaccination,
requiring universal and correct use of masks,
maintaining adequate physical distancing,
administering screening tests in appropriate circumstances,
improving ventilation,
reinforcing proper hand-washing and respiratory protocol,
encouraging students and school staff to stay home when they are experiencing
symptoms of an infectious illness and to seek out proper care and testing,
8. isolating and quarantining known cases and utilizing contact tracing in
accordance with privacy laws, and
9. employing frequent cleaning and disinfection.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The CDC recommends prioritizing the universal use of masks indoors and physical distancing,
and layering multiple such strategies to reduce the risk of infection and transmission.
To reopen schools safely, according to the CDC guidance, schools may require additional
resources. This may include funding for updates to school ventilation systems; additional staffing
to implement class sizes in which students are able to maintain at least three feet of physical
distance (or six feet in some cases); and purchases of masks, hand sanitizer and hand soap, and
other supplies to meet CDC recommendations.
Continued Use of Online Learning
In a May 2021 interview, Secretary of Education Miguel Cardona said that he expects all public
elementary and secondary schools to fully reopen five days a week at the start of the 2021-2022
school year, citing that “students don’t learn as well remotely. There is no substitute for in-person
learning.”108 Despite the CDC’s guidance and ED’s focus on the safe reopening of schools for the
2021-2022 school year, many school districts are still considering whether to employ the
continued use of online learning in some way.
In a survey by the RAND Corporation of 319 school districts and charter management
organizations in fall 2020, 20% indicated that they were considering, were planning to adopt, or
have already adopted a virtual learning school or fully online learning option for use after the
pandemic is over. Another 10% indicated that they were planning to adopt or have already
107 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, “Guidance for COVID-19 Prevention in K-12 Schools,” August 5,
2021, available at https://www.cdc.gov/coronavirus/2019-ncov/community/schools-childcare/k-12-guidance.html.
108 Justine Coleman, “ Education secretary expects all schools to fully reopen in -person in fall,” The Hill, May 6, 2021,
at https://thehill.com/policy/healthcare/552123-education-secretary-expects-all-schools-to-fully-reopen-in-person-infall?rl=1.
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adopted a hybrid or blended learning approach for use after the pandemic is over. 109 This response
is driven by a variety of factors, which could differ across school districts, including the
following:110
Concerns about safety. For various reasons, not all children and adults will be
vaccinated by the start of the school year. Additionally, as new variants of
COVID-19 emerge, risks of infection within a community will increase, and so
will the risk of becoming seriously ill for adults and students with underlying
health conditions. The American Federation of Teachers and the National
Education Association, two of the largest teacher unions, recommend that
accommodations be available to educators who, or whose family members, have
a high risk of becoming seriously ill if infected, including the option of providing
instruction remotely. 111
Mitigation of staffing shortages. One of the prevention strategies recommended
by the CDC is to maintain physical distance of at least three feet in some cases
and at least six feet for some youth and all adults. Schools may need to increase
staffing based on the capacity of their facilities in order to meet such guidelines,
which may require additional funding for hiring. School districts would need
access to a readily available pool of high quality teacher candidates from which
to select potential hires—a significant challenge in fields that already face
persistent shortages such as math, science, and special education. 112 Hybrid
options allow schools to deliver instruction in accordance with CDC guidelines
without the need for additional staff.
Greater flexibility. Online learning can offer more flexibility for schools,
parents, and students. For example, if a school is not able to offer a certain course
due to lack of staffing or student interest, an interested student may be able to
access such course at another school through online learning. Additionally,
virtual school options may allow parents and students more flexibility as lessons
can be delivered outside of traditional school hours.
Increased transparency for parents. For some parents, online learning has
allowed greater visibility into their children’s classrooms. Parents are able to gain
a deeper view of student-teacher interactions, instruction, and curricular
materials, as well as a means for intervening more immediately or even in real-
109 Heather L. Schwartz, David Grant, and Melissa Kay Diliberti et al., Remote Learning Is Here to Stay: Results from
the First American School District Panel Survey, RAND Corporation, 2020, https://www.rand.org/pubs/
research_reports/RRA956-1.html.
110 Heather L. Schwartz, David Grant, and Melissa Kay Diliberti et al., Remote Learning Is Here to Stay: Results from
the First American School District Panel Survey, RAND Corporation, 2020, https://www.rand.org/pubs/
research_reports/RRA956-1.html; and Benjamin Herold, “ ‘No Going Back’ From Remote and Hybrid Learning,
Districts Say,” EducationWeekly, January 7, 2021, at https://www.edweek.org/technology/no-going-back-from-remoteand-hybrid-learning-districts-say/2021/01.
111
American Federation of T eachers, “ Road Map to Safely Reopening Our Schools,” accessed July 12, 2021, from
https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/aft-reopen-schools-one-pager_feb2021.pdf; and National Education Association,
“NEA’s Checklist for Safely and Equitably Reopening Schools and Campus Buildings,” July 30, 2021,
file:///C:/Users/rzota/Downloads/Checklist%20for%20Safely%20&%20Equitably%20Reopening%20Schoo ls.pdf.
112 Leib Sutcher, Linda Darling-Hammond, and Desiree Carver-T homas, A Coming Crisis in Teaching? Teacher
Supply, Demand, and Shortages in the U.S., Learning Policy Institute, Palo Alto, CA, 2016,
https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/sites/default/files/product-files/A_Coming_Crisis_in_T eaching_REPORT .pdf.
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time if they perceive any kind of discrimination or mistreatment directed towards
their children. 113
The reality that school districts are facing is that many families may be eager for a return to inperson learning full-time as their children learn better in that environment, and parents may have
to worry less about providing suitable learning environments at home or outside of the school,
among other reasons. Other families may wish to continue learning under the new online and
hybrid models of instruction because their children may be thriving with the increased flexibility
and visibility into classrooms associated with such models.
Improving Online Learning and Addressing Learning Loss
The COVID-19 pandemic has likely ushered in a new era in which schools may become more
reliant on the use of technology inside and outside the classroom. As described earlier, there are a
number of issues that school districts and schools may need to address to foster the continued use
of online instruction and ensure all students are learning.
A recent Curriculum Associates analysis found that the schools that were able to minimize
learning loss during the pandemic were those that eliminated the digital divide for their students,
among other efforts. 114 This analysis and other studies suggest that successful schools seem to be
engaging with students’ families on how to use online learning platforms and to be providing
teachers with sufficient opportunities to obtain professional development and training in the use
of technology. 115
Schools may also want to consider ensuring that more students have sufficient access to
instructional content through technological means, including children with disabilities and ELs.
For example, schools could build appropriate accessibility features into their technology
platforms for children with disabilities. This may include ensuring that instructional content is
compatible with screen reader software and that videos include captioning and/or embedded sign
language interpretation. Similarly, schools could consider making content on devices and
technological support accessible in multiple languages. 116
Addressing Learning Loss
ED’s ED COVID-19 Handbook recommends that schools provide accelerated learning
opportunities to students as a means for addressing learning loss they may have experienced
during the COVID-19 pandemic and/or through remote instructional methods. Accelerated
learning refers to the provision of instructional content at grade-level by tying it to a student’s
prior knowledge at a pace that allows the student to engage with grade-level content. It would not
113 Melinda D. Anderson, “You’re Out of Your Mind if You T hink I’m Ever Going Back to School’,” The New York
Times, October 2020, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/10/28/opinion/virtual-school-racism.html.
114
Curriculum Associates, Overcoming the Digital Divide: Distance-Learning Successes during the Pandemic, Report
No. 2020-46, North Billerica, MA, September 2020, https://www.curriculumassociates.com/-/media/mainsite/files/iready/iready-digital-divide-2020.pdf.
115 Curriculum Associates, Overcoming the Digital Divide: Distance-Learning Successes during the Pandemic, Report
No. 2020-46, North Billerica, MA, September 2020, https://www.curriculumassociates.com/-/media/mainsite/files/iready/iready-digital-divide-2020.pdf; and U.S. Department of Education, ED COVID-19 Handbook, OPEPD-IO-21-02,
April 2021, https://www2.ed.gov/documents/coronavirus/reopening-2.pdf.
116 U.S. Department of Education, ED COVID-19 Handbook, OPEPD-IO-21-02, April 2021, https://www2.ed.gov/
documents/coronavirus/reopening-2.pdf.
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require remediation or pull-out interventions to support a student in efforts to catch up from a
potential loss.
The Handbook recommends strategies for accelerating learning, some of which could be
implemented onsite in schools or through remote instruction. Accelerated learning could be
promoted during the school day, or through after school or summer programs. 117
In-Classroom Instruction. This would require providing adequate training for
teachers in instructional techniques focused on supporting students in real-time to
engage with grade-level content in the classroom, and effectively differentiating
instruction to reach all students regardless of their starting points. The use of
diagnostic and formative assessments may aid in assessing student gaps in
knowledge.
Tutoring. High-dosage tutoring (i.e., personalized tutoring that is provided at
least three times a week for at least 30 minutes by a certified teacher,
paraprofessional, or other well-trained tutor) can be an effective means for
accelerating learning, especially when provided during the school day.
Out-of-School Programs. Out-of-school programs can provide another method
for delivering accelerated learning, and their efficacy may be enhanced if the outof-school program curriculum is aligned with the in-school curriculum and
delivered by a certified teacher. Out-of-school programs may also provide an
effective platform for conducting hands-on project-based learning to further a
student’s engagement with grade-level content.
Summer Enrichment Programs. Summer programs can also be used to
accelerate learning, perhaps especially if they are “voluntary, full-day lasting five
to six weeks, include three hours of language arts and mathematics taught by a
certified teacher each day, and include enrichment activities and experiences.”118
Federal Support for Continued Use of Online Learning
In the last few months, most of the federal support regarding instruction has been focused on a
return to in-person instruction. Along with the statements made by Secretary Cardona referenced
earlier, President Biden said in an April 2021 TODAY Show interview that “based on the science
and the CDC, [K-12 schools] should probably all be open.”119 While the American Rescue Plan
Act (ARPA; P.L. 117-2) (see more in “American Rescue Plan Act of 2021”) provides funding for
transitioning students to in-person learning, such funding could also be used to facilitate online
learning and remote instruction.
117 U.S. Department of Education, ED COVID-19 Handbook, OPEPD-IO-21-02, April 2021, https://www2.ed.gov/
documents/coronavirus/reopening-2.pdf.; and Emma Dorn, Bryan Hancock, and Jimmy Sarakatsannis et al., COVID-19
and learning loss—disparities grow and students need help, McKinsey & Company, December 2020,
https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/our-insights/covid-19-and-learning-loss-disparitiesgrow-and-students-need-help#.
118 U.S. Department of Education, ED COVID-19 Handbook, OPEPD-IO-21-02, April 2021, p. 22,
https://www2.ed.gov/documents/coronavirus/reopening-2.pdf.
119 “ President Biden talks about spending, race, pandemic, immigration in exclusive T ODAY interview,” the T ODAY
Show, April 30, 2021, at https://www.today.com/video/president-biden-talks-about-spending-race-pandemicimmigration-in-exclusive-today-interview-111106117892.
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Aside from the legislation discussed in the next section, congressional interest seems to be
focused on support for eliminating the digital divide and expanding access to broadband
internet, 120 or on encouraging school districts to reopen schools.121
Existing Federal Programs
Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, there were no federal programs explicitly targeting the
development and improvement of remote learning at the elementary and secondary education
level. Funding to improve school connectivity and technology was allowable under the ESEA and
under the FCC’s Universal Service Fund (USF) School and Libraries program (E-rate). As part of
the federal response to the pandemic, the Coronavirus Aid, Relief, and Economic Security
(CARES) Act (P.L. 116-136), the Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental Appropriations
Act, 2021 (Division M of P.L. 116-260), and ARPA authorized and provided funding that could
be used by states and localities to develop and enhance remote learning solutions.
Pre-pandemic Federal Funding
E-rate122
E-rate provides subsidies for eligible elementary and secondary schools, as well as libraries, for
internet access, internal network connections, and telecommunications services. While it is a
source of support for improved internet connectivity at schools and libraries, E-rate does not
typically provide funding to facilitate in-home internet connectivity for school children and their
families.
As part of its response to the COVID-19 pandemic, the FCC took some actions to temporarily
modify E-rate program rules to facilitate distance-learning objectives. The FCC waived its gift
rules, through December 31, 2020,123 to enable schools and libraries to solicit and accept
improved connections and additional equipment and devices from service providers to facilitate
distance learning during the pandemic without jeopardizing any existing E-rate funding.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act124
The ESEA is the primary source of federal aid for elementary and secondary education in the
United States. 125
120 For example, see the LIFT America Act (H.R. 1848) and the Broadband Parity Act of 2021 (S. 1884).
121
For example, see the Reopen for Kids Act (S. 980) and H.Res. 293, Expressing the sense of the House of
Representatives that elementary and secondary schools in the United States should be opened for in-person inst ruction,
and for other purposes.
122 For more information about the Universal Service Fund’s E-Rate program, see CRS In Focus IF11520, The
Universal Service Fund and COVID-19: The FCC and Industry Response and CRS Report R42524, Rural Broadband:
The Roles of the Rural Utilities Service and the Universal Service Fund .
123 See details at https://www.fcc.gov/document/e-rate-and-rhc-covid-related-waivers-extended.
124
For more information on ESEA, see CRS Report R45977, The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as
Amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA): A Primer.
125 T he ESEA was most recently comprehensively amended by the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA;
P.L. 114-95) in
2015.
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Title I-A, the largest program (by dollar amount) in the ESEA, authorizes federal aid to LEAs for
the education of disadvantaged children. Title I-A grants provide supplementary educational and
related services to low-achieving and other students attending elementary and secondary schools
with relatively high concentrations of students from low -income families, as well as eligible
students who live in the areas served by these public schools but attend private schools. Title I-A
funds are meant for improving student performance, which may include upgrading instructional
technology used in the classroom or improving access to online learning for lower-achieving
students in a school.
Another ESEA program that could potentially be used for providing support for online education
in elementary and secondary schools is Title IV-A, the Student Support and Academic
Enrichment (SSAE) grant program. 126 Title IV-A authorizes SSAE grants to improve students’
academic achievement by increasing the capacity of states, LEAs, schools, and local communities
to (1) provide all students with access to a well-rounded education, (2) improve school conditions
for student learning, and (3) improve the use of technology in order to increase the academic
achievement and digital learning of all students.
Recently Enacted Federal Programs
CARES Act127
As part of the CARES Act (P.L. 116-136, as amended), which was enacted on March 27, 2020,
Congress created and appropriated $30.75 billion for the Education Stabilization Fund (ESF) “to
prevent, prepare for, and respond to coronavirus, domestically or internationally.”128 More than
$13 billion of these funds were allocated to allow states and LEAs to address needs at the
elementary and secondary school level. Additionally, the Secretary of Education is required to
reserve up to 1% of the total ESF appropriation to provide competitive grants to the states with
the “highest coronavirus burden” to support activities under the ESF.
On July 29, 2020, the Secretary of Education announced the award of over $180 million in grant
funding under this reservation of ESF funds to 11 states under the new Rethink K-12 Education
Models Grant. 129 The grants, which range from $6 million to $20 million, have the stated goal of
supporting states’ efforts to create new, innovative methods for students to continue learning in
ways that meet their needs. Uses of funds under this program include microgrants to help families
get access to remote learning technology, statewide virtual learning, and new models for
providing high-quality remote education. These grants were awarded to Georgia, Iowa, Louisiana,
Maine, North Carolina, New York, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, and
Texas.
In addition to the 1% reservation for states with the highest coronavirus burden, the CARES Act
appropriated about $3.0 billion for the Governor’s Emergency Education Relief (GEER) Fund
and approximately $13.2 billion for the Elementary and Secondary School Emergency Relief
126 For more information about SSAE grants, see CRS In Focus IF10910, Student Support and Academic Enrichment
(SSAE) Grants.
127 For more information on the elementary and secondary provisions of the CARES Act, see CRS In Focus IF11509,
CARES Act Elementary and Secondary Education Provisions.
128
20 U.S.C. §3401.
129 U.S. Department of Education, “ Secretary DeVos Awards More than $180 Million to States Rethinking K-12
Education to Better Meet Students’ Needs During Coronavirus Disruption ,” July 29, 2020, available at
https://content.govdelivery.com/accounts/USED/bulletins/297dbbc.
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(ESSER) Fund. 130 Both of these funds allow states and LEAs to spend parts of their allocations on
technology and equipment necessary to enable and enhance online learning and to improve the
ability of students to interact with their classroom instructors.
The CARES Act also included the Coronavirus Relief Fund, which designated $150 billion for
payments to state, local, and tribal governments navigating the impact of the COVID-19
outbreak. States can use this funding to cover pandemic-related costs incurred from the beginning
of March through the end of 2020 that were not anticipated in their budgets before March 2020,
including improving broadband internet to increase access to online learning for K-12 students. 131
Amounts allocated to states, the District of Columbia, U.S. territories, and eligible units of local
government were based on population as provided in the CARES Act.
Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental Appropriations Act, 2021
As Division M of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 (P.L. 116-260), Congress passed and
President Trump signed into law the Coronavirus Response and Relief Supplemental
Appropriations Act, 2021, which included a supplementary appropriation of $81.9 billion for the
ESF. Of this amount, approximately $4.1 billion is reserved for the GEER Fund and
approximately $54.3 billion for the ESSER Fund. Allowable uses of funds under both the GEER
and ESSER Funds include providing technology for online learning for all students and
purchasing educational technology that aids in the interaction between classroom instructors and
their students, including low-income students and children with disabilities. Of the funds reserved
for the GEER Fund, $2.8 billion must be reserved for Emergency Assistance to Non-Public
Schools grants. This program also includes facilitation and enhancement of online and hybrid
learning among its allowable uses of funds.
American Rescue Plan Act of 2021
ARPA (P.L. 117-2) was signed into law by President Biden in March 2021. It includes a total of
$169.5 billion for programs administered by ED. Of this amount, approximately $122.8 is
reserved for the ESSER Fund and $2.8 billion for Emergency Assistance to Non-Public Schools.
Allowable uses of funds under both of these programs include purchasing education technology
and providing other support for online and remote learning, as well as for transitioning to inperson learning. Additionally, $800 million of the ESSER Fund is reserved specifically for
supporting students experiencing homelessness, including the continued identification of such
students, as well as providing them with the necessary wraparound services and enabling them to
attend school and fully participate in school activities.
Section 7402(c) of ARPA created and appropriated $7.2 billion for the Emergency Connectivity
Fund to support the purchasing of eligible equipment, such as modems, routers, devices, and WiFi hotspots, by schools and libraries eligible for the E-rate program.
130
For more information on the GEER and ESSER funds, see CRS In Focus IF11509, CARES Act Elementary and
Secondary Education Provisions; and CRS Report R46378, CARES Act Education Stabilization Fund: Background and
Analysis.
131 Pew Research Center, “States T ap CARES Act to Expand Broadband,” issue brief, November 16, 2020,
https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/issue-briefs/2020/11/states-tap-federal-cares-act-to-expandbroadband.
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Author Information
Rita R. Zota
Analyst in Education Policy
Boris Granovskiy
Analyst in Education Policy
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
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under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
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