United States v. American Express Co.

DECISION

NICHOLAS G. GARAUFIS, District Judge.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.149

FINDINGS OF FACT AND CONCLUSIONS OF LAW.152

' I. BACKGROUND .152

A. Overview of the GPCC Card Industry.152

B. Competition and Pricing in the GPCC Card Industry.156

C. The Non-Discrimination Provisions.160

1. Origins of Amex’s NDPs.160

2. The Challenged Restraints.162

*149 II. LEGAL STANDARD.167

III. MARKET DEFINITION.170

A.. GPCC Card Network Services Market. 171

1. The Relevant Product Is Network Services.171

2. Debit Network Services Are Not Reasonably Interchangeable.175

B. Plaintiffs’ Proposed T & E Submarket.185

IV. MARKET POWER.187

A. Market Share, Concentration, and Barriers to Entry.188

B'. Cardholder Insistence.191

C. Pricing Practices.195

1. Value Recapture.!.195

2. Price Discrimination.198

3. Merchant Pricing Premium.199

D. Amex’s Remaining Market Power Counterarguments .202

V.ADVERSE EFFECTS ON COMPETITION. to O -o

A. The NDPs Impede Horizontal Interbrand Competition. to O 00

B. The NDPs Block Low-Cost Business Models. to I — 1 CO

C. The NDPs Have Resulted in Higher Prices to Merchants and '

Consumers . to M Ol

D. The NDPs Stifle Innovation. to M -o

E. Removal of the NDPs Would Benefit Merchants and Consumers to M GO

VI.PRO-COMPETITIVE JUSTIFICATIONS. to to ^

A. Defendants’ Ability To Drive Competition. to to CB

B. Free-Riding. to CO ^

VII.CONCLUSION. .238

INTRODUCTION

The United States and the attorneys general of seventeen states 1 (collectively, “Plaintiffs” or the “Government”) bring this antitrust, enforcement action against Visa Inc. (“Visa”), MasterCard International Incorporated (“MasterCard”), American Express Company, and American Express Travel Related Services Company, challenging each network’s anti-steering rules as anticompetitive restraints in violation of Section 1 of the Sherman Antitrust Act. (Compl. (Dkt. 1).) Visa and MasterCard entered into consent decrees with the Government, pursuant to which they voluntarily agreed to remove or revise the bulk of their challenged restraints. (See Final J. as to Defs. MasterCard Int’l Inc. & Visa Inc. (Dkt. 143).) Defendants American Express Company and American Express Travel Related Services Company (collectively, “Defendants,” “American Express,” or “Amex”) elected to litigate Plaintiffs’ challenge to their anti-steering rules, which they term American Express’s Non-Discrimination Provisions (the “NDPs”). The NDPs, which are contained in both Defendants’ standard acceptance agreement and also the more customized agreements they negotiate with a select number of large merchants, prevent the roughly 3.4 million merchants who accept American Express credit and charge cards from steering cus *150 tomers to alternative credit card brands, such as Visa, MasterCard, and Discover.

Before turning to the contractual restraints at issue in this case, it is helpful to outline the type of behavior that Defendants’ NDPs are intended to prevent. As a general matter, steering is both pro-competitive and ubiquitous. Merchants routinely attempt to influence customers’ purchasing decisions, whether by placing a particular brand of cereal at eye level rather than on a bottom shelf, discounting last year’s fashion inventory, or offering promotions such as “buy one, get one free.” This dynamic, however,, is absent in the credit card industry. Under American Express’s NDPs, a merchant may not attempt to induce or “steer” a customer to use the merchant’s preferred card network by, for example, offering a 10% discount for using a Visa card, free shipping for using a Discover card, or a free night at a hotel for using an American Express card.

Each time a customer uses a credit card, the merchant, in one way or another, pays a fee to the network services provider that facilitates the customer’s purchase. Thus, when a customer uses a Visa credit card, the merchant pays some combination of fees, commonly known as the “discount rate” or the “merchant discount rate,” for the privilege of accepting that card. When a customer uses an American Express card, the merchant similarly pays a fee. However, the merchant’s cost of accepting American Express — one of the three largest network services providers in the country — has tended to be greater than the cost of accepting other cards, such as Visa or MasterCard. To speak in generalities that are perhaps unwarranted given the extensive trial record in this case, all else being equal, a given merchant might prefer that a customer carrying both a Visa card and an Amex card in her wallet use the Visa card, since the cost of the transaction is likely to be lower for the merchant. But pursuant to Amex’s NPDs, merchants who accept American Express are not permitted to encourage customers to pay for their transactions with credit cards that cost the merchants less to accept.

As explained below, these NDPs create an environment in which there is nothing to offset credit card networks’ incentives— including American Express’s incentive— to charge merchants inflated prices for their services. This, in turn, results in higher costs to all consumers who purchase goods and services from these merchants.

The court does not come to its decision in this case eagerly or easily. The credit card industry is complex, and it is a critical component of commerce in the United States. General purpose credit and charge (“GPCC”) card networks, including American Express, must balance the demands of two sets of customers — -merchants and cardholders — in a market that is highly concentrated and distorted by a history of antitrust violations. The court recognizes that it does not possess the experience or expertise necessary to advise, much less dictate to, the firms in this industry how they must conduct their affairs as going concerns. For that reason, the court has repeatedly urged the parties in this case to negotiate a mutually agreeable settlement that appropriately balances American Express’s legitimate business interests with the public’s interest in robust interbrand competition. However, the parties having failed to do so, the court is left with no alternative but to discharge its duty by deciding the question before it: whether Plaintiffs have shown by the preponderance of the evidence that Amex’s NDPs violate the U.S. antitrust laws. Upon consideration of the case law in this circuit and the factual record developed at the lengthy bench trial, which was held *151 over a seven-week period during the summer of 2014 and featured over thirty fact witnesses and four expert witnesses, the court finds that Plaintiffs have made such a showing.

As noted, credit card networks cater to the needs of two distinct sets of consumers, merchants and cardholders. Their very function is to bring these two sides together to consummate value-generating transactions. Guided by the Second Circuit’s 2003 decision in United States v. Visa, 344 F.3d 229 (2d Cir.2003), which conducted an antitrust market analysis in this industry to resolve a public enforcement action initiated by the Department of Justice under Section 1, the court agrees with Plaintiffs that this two-sided platform comprises at least two separate, yet deeply interrelated, markets: a market for card issuance, in which Amex and Discover compete with thousands of Visa- and MasterCard-issuing banks; and a network services market, in which Visa, MasterCard, Amex, and Discover compete to sell acceptance services. For the reasons described herein, the court concludes that the relevant market for its antitrust analysis in this case is the market for GPCC card network services. Notwithstanding Defendants’ vigorous arguments to the contrary, the dramatic growth in customers’ use of debit cards in the decade since Visa has not rendered obsolete the market definitions used in that ease, nor does it warrant debit’s inclusion in the relevant antitrust market. Indeed, both anecdotal merchant testimony and the testimony of Plaintiffs’ economics expert presented at trial result in the court’s determination that debit cards have not become reasonably interchangeable with GPCC cards or network services in the eyes of credit-accepting merchants, who are the relevant consumers in this case. Plaintiffs’ attempt to define a submarket for GPCC card network services provided to merchants in travel and entertainment industries, however, is unavailing.

In reaching its decision, the court applies a full rule of reason analysis that takes stock of the voluminous evidentiary record developed at trial, and also considers and accounts for the interrelationships between the merchant and cardholder sides of the credit card platform. A few of the court’s primary findings bear mentioning here. First, American Express possesses sufficient market power in the network services market to harm competition, as evidenced by its significant market share, the market’s highly concentrated nature and high barriers to entry, and the insistence of Defendants’ cardholder base on using their American Express cards— insistence that prevents most merchants from dropping acceptance of American Express when faced with price increases or similar conduct. The record demonstrates, in fact, that Defendants have the power to repeatedly and profitably raise their merchant prices without worrying about significant merchant attrition. In addition, Plaintiffs have proven that American Express’s NDPs have caused actual anticompetitive effects on interbrand competition. By preventing merchants from steering additional charge volume to their least expensive network, for example, the NDPs short-circuit the ordinary price-setting mechanism in the network services market by removing the competitive “reward” for networks offering merchants a lower price for acceptance services. The result is an absence of price competition among American Express and its rival networks. In fact, the record shows that merchant prices have risen dramatically in the absence of merchant steering. Defendants’ NDPs also have foreclosed the possibility of a current network or a new entrant to the market differentiating itself from its competitors by pursuing a lowest- *152 cost provider strategy. Finally, the court-has carefully considered American Express’s proffered pro-competitive justifications and finds them to be insufficient to render the NDPs permissible under Section 1.

FINDINGS OF FACT & CONCLUSIONS OF LAW

1. BACKGROUND

This public enforcement action was tried without a jury before this court over a seven-week period between July 7, 2014, and August 18, 2014. Over the course of the proceedings the court received testimony from over thirty fact witnesses, including nearly twenty merchant witnesses representing a selection of the nation’s largest retailers, airlines, and hotels; representatives from each of the three major credit card networks that compete with American Express; and an array of current and former American Express employees and executives, including the company’s long-time Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, Kenneth Chenault. Plaintiffs additionally presented expert testimony from Dr. Michael Katz, a Professor of Economies at the Haas School of Business at the University of California at Berkley, and Dr. Gary Ford, a Professor Emeritus at the Kogod School of Business at American University. Professors Richard J. Gilbert, Ph.D., also of the University of California at Berkley, and B. Douglas Bern-heim, Ph.D., a Professor of Economics at Stanford University, provided expert testimony on behalf of American Express. In addition to the testimony adduced at trial, which amounts to nearly 7,000 transcript pages, the court received over 1,000 exhibits into the evidentiary record. In reaching a determination as to Defendants’ liability under Section 1 of the Sherman Act, the court has considered carefully the relevance of and appropriate weight to afford this evidence, as well as the credibility of the parties’ respective witnesses and their testimony. 2

Based upon its measured consideration of the record just described, and upon the findings of fact and conclusions of law set forth herein pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 52(a), the court concludes that Plaintiffs have proven by a preponderance of the evidence that the challenged restraints violate Section 1 of the Sherman Act.

A. Overview of the GPCC Card Industry

Since the advent of the modern payment card industry in the 1950s, general pur *153 pose credit and charge cards, or “GPCC” cards, have become a principal means by which consumers in the United States purchase goods and services from the nation’s millions of merchants. (See PX2578A at '389-90 3 ; Tr. at 3581:10-12 (Silver-man/Amex).) In 2013, for example, the four dominant networks providing authorization and settlement services — Visa, American Express, MasterCard, and Discover — facilitated roughly $2,399 trillion in credit and charge card spending at participating merchants. (See DX6576 at 8.) The typical U.S. consumer carries multiple forms of payment in his or her wallet. 4 Alongside general purpose credit and charge cards — the focus of the court’s analysis in the this litigation — merchants also accept payment through some combination of debit cards, proprietary or private label credit or charge cards issued by individual merchants, direct Automated Clearing House or “ACH” transfers, checks, and cash, among other means. While each of these methods competes to some degree for share of consumers’ wallets, they have one essential characteristic in common: Each payment system brings customers and merchants together in order to consummate a transaction that benefits both participants.

An introduction to the credit and charge card industry is a suitable starting point for the court’s inquiry into the competitive dynamics therein. Credit cards enable cardholders to make purchases at participating merchants by accessing a line of credit extended to the cardholder by the issuer of that card. (Joint Stmt, of Undisputed Facts (“Jt. Stmt.”) (Dkt. 447-1) ¶ 2.) Cardholders are invoiced for purchases typically once per month and often have a grace period during which payment may be made. (Id.) The delay between a purchase event and the cardholder’s deadline for paying the bill on which that purchase appears is referred to as the “float,” and it enables cardholders to temporarily defer payment on their purchases at no additional cost (i.e., without paying interest). (Tr. at 6245:1-12, 6532:6-9 (Bernheim).) A cardholder may either pay off the balance of his bill in full each month or pay it off over time while accruing interest on the balance. (Jt. Stmt. ¶ 2.) Many credit card issuers impose a preset spending limit on a cardholder’s outstanding credit amount, typically based on the issuer’s determination of the cardholder’s creditworthiness. (Id.)

Charge cards similarly allow cardholders to make payments by accessing a line of credit extended by the card issuer, but generally do not offer a revolving credit facility akin to that offered on credit cards, and instead require that the cardholder pay the balance in full each month. (Id. ¶ 3.) Some American Express cardholders, however, do have an ability to maintain a *154 balance, or “revolve,” on their Amex charge cards, blurring the distinction between Defendants’ credit and charge offerings. (Tr. at 5161:5-24 (Gilbert).) Even though charge cards typically are not paired with a line of credit, cardholders generally derive a benefit from the ability to defer payment during the float period, depending on the point during the billing cycle at which the purchase is made. (Jt. Stmt. ¶ 3; Tr. at 4065:15-19 (Katz).) Unlike credit cards, charge cards typically do not have preset spending limits. (Jt. Stmt. ¶ 3.)

Two specific types of credit and charge cards bear brief mention here, and will be the subject of greater discussion in later sections. First, general purpose credit cards may be issued in partnership with a merchant pursuant to a co-brand agreement. These “co-brand” cards typically bear the logos of the merchant, network, and issuing bank (where relevant), and enable cardholders to earn rewards directly from the merchant partner when purchases are made on the card. (See, e.g., Tr. at 1617:13-1618:22 (Brennan/Hilton), 3603:3-21 (Silverman/Amex).) Prominent examples of co-brand cards include the Delta SkyMiles Credit Card issued by American Express, which processes over the American Express network; the American Airlines AAdvantage Card, which is issued .by Citibank and runs on MasterCard’s network; and the Marriott Rewards Premier Credit Card, which is issued by Chase on the Visa network. Second, American Express also maintains a robust — indeed, the largest — corporate card business in the industry. (Id. at 817:2-9 (Hochschild/Discover); PX2486 at '053.) American Express issues corporate cards to individuals through a corporate account that has been established with their employers, allowing employers to more easily monitor employees’ business expenditures and streamline the accounting and reimbursement processes. (Tr. at 817:2-12 (Hochschild/Discover), 1226:18-1227:12 (Kimmet/Home Depot), 3963:11-24 (Katz).)

By facilitating transactions between merchants and their cardholding consumers, the general purpose credit and charge card systems that are the subject of this litigation function as “two-sided platforms.” (Id. at 3827:15-20, 3828:23-3829:3 (Katz), 5022:24-5023:22 (Gilbert).). In a two-sided platform, a single firm or collection of firms sells different products or services to two separate yet interrelated groups of customers who, in turn, rely on the platform to intermediate some type of interaction between them. (Id. at 3828:23-3829:14 (Katz).) See generally David S. Evans & Richard Schmalensee, Industrial Organization of Markets with Two-Sided Platforms, 3 Competition Pol’y Int’l 150 (2007) [hereinafter Evans & Schmalensee (2007) ]; Jean-Charles Rochet & Jean Ti-róle, Two-Sided Markets: A Progress Report, 37 RAND J. Econ. 645 , 645-46 (2006) (describing basic contours of two-sided systems). Examples of such two-sided models abound: Newspapers and other advertising-based forms of media sell distinct products and services to subscribers and advertisers; shopping malls provide services jointly to retailers and shoppers; computer operating systems provide a platform for bringing together program developers and end users; and a seemingly endless array of Internet companies like eBay, OpenTable, eHarmony, and Groupon exist to facilitate some form of value-generating interaction between distinct sets of consumers. See David S. Evans & Michael Noel, Defining Antitrust Markets When Firms Operate Two-Sided Platforms, 2005 Colum. Bus. L.Rev. 667, 672-79 (2005) [hereinafter Evans & Noel (2005) ]. The fundamental function of a two-sided platform is to reduce the trans *155 action costs associated with the parties finding one another, and to thereby enable their customers to realize gains from trade or other interactions that otherwise might not occur. See Evans & Schmalensee (2007) at 151, 158.

Credit and charge cards, like all methods of payment, serve as two-sided intermediaries between merchants and their cardholding customers. American Express, for example, provides cardholders with card-payment services and merchants with card-acceptance services in order to facilitate transactions between the two. Importantly, and unlike many two-sided platforms, American Express provides these services simultaneously; for every unit of payment services sold to the cardholder at the moment of purchase, a matching service is sold to the merchant in order to execute the transaction, and vice versa. (Tr. at 6211:3-11, 6211:23-6212:13 (Bernheim).) Thus, credit and charge card networks are also referred to as two-sided “transaction markets”-the two sides of the platform are brought together to consummate a single, simultaneous transaction, and the products provided by the platform are consumed in fixed proportions by the consumer and merchant. See Lapo Filistrucci et al., Market Definition in Two-Sided Markets: Theory and Practice (Tilburg Law Sch. Legal Studies Research Paper Series No. 09/2013) at 12, available at http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/ papers.cfm?abstract_id=2240850.

The two-sided nature of the GPCC card industry necessarily affects the court’s antitrust analysis in this case. While the nature and import of these effects are addressed in greater detail where relevant, a number of observations relating to the symbiotic relationship between the two sides of the credit card platform provide context both for American Express’s separate value propositions for merchants and cardholders and the contractual restraints at issue in this litigation. A key feature of the payment network services industry, like all two-sided platforms, is that it is subject to indirect or cross-platform network effects, a phenomenon referred to in this case' as the “chicken and the egg problem.” (Tr. at 820:23-821:16 (Ho-ehschild/Discover), 4296:11-4297:10 (Che-nault/Amex).) See also ABA Section of Antitrust Law, Market Definition in Antitrust: Theory and Case Studies 439-44 (2012) [hereinafter ABA, Market Definition ]. Indirect network effects exist when the number of agents or the quantity of services bought on one side of a two-sided platform affects the value that an agent on the other side of the platform can realize. (Tr. at 3829:15-20 (Katz).) See ABA, Market Definition at 440-42; Evans & Schmal-ensee (2007) at 151-52. In this case, for example, having a credit or charge card on a particular network like Discover is more valuable to the cardholder when there are more merchants willing to accept that card and, conversely, the value to merchants of accepting Discover cards increases with the number of cards on that network in circulation. '(Tr. at 3829:21-3830:7 (Katz), 4397:2-11 (Chenault/Amex); DX4184 at ’856.)

The GPCC industry’s susceptibility to spillover effects is closely related. In the present context, spillover refers to the phenomenon by which a cardholder’s experience at one merchant when using a particular network’s card, here an American Express card, affects that cardholder’s willingness to use the same card on the next transaction, whether at the same merchant or a different merchant. (Tr. at 4169:5-17 (Katz), 4339:7-18 (Chenault/Amex).) As with indirect network effects, spillover can be either positive or negative. For example, when a major merchant is added to Amex’s network, cardholders are more likely to use their *156 Amex cards at other merchants in the same area. (See DX4007 at '928, '932-34 (ascribing this effect to inactive cardholders becoming active cardholders, rather than to higher spending levels among active cardholders).) American Express’s defense of the restraints in this case centers on the NDPs role in avoiding negative spillover and preserving what the company calls “welcome acceptance.” Defendants contend that if the NDPs are eliminated, a cardholder who is steered away from American Express at one merchant will be less likely to use an Amex card at the next merchant, even if that second merchant does not attempt to influence the card choice. (Tr. at 3066:4-3068:12 (Poje-ro/Amex), 6356:10-6357:24 (Bernheim).) See infra Part VI.A (discussing Amex’s primary pro-competitive justification for the challenged restraints).

Therefore, in order to compete effectively, networks must account for the interdependence between the demands of each side of the platform and strike a profit— maximizing balance between the two. As a result, even in a case such as this, where the court’s analysis focuses on one side of the relevant platform (merchants), due consideration must be given to the competitive dynamics on the other side (cardholders). This is particularly true here, as merchants’ demand for payment card acceptance is largely derived from consumers’ demand for payment card usage. (Jt. Stmt. ¶ 4; Tr. at 6628:24-6629:13 (Katz).) As explained by Defendants’ economics expert, “[t]he only reason that a merchant wants to use a payment product is that a customer wants to use the product” to purchase some good or service from the merchant. (Tr. at 6217:5-12 (Bernheim).) Yet even though merchants may not have an independent demand for American Express’s network services, the choice of which GPCC network is used for any given transaction is a joint decision between the merchant and consumer. Steering, as Professor Katz correctly noted, describes “the interaction between the two sides in order to make that joint decision.” (Tr. at 3834:7-24, 3831:1-21 (Katz).)

B. Competition and Pricing in the GPCC Card Industry

American Express operates a business model that is materially different than that of Visa and MasterCard, its primary competitors in the credit and charge card industry. However, to understand American Express’s differentiated structure, it is helpful to' understand how Visa and MasterCard function. Visa and MasterCard sit. at the center of a disaggregated platform that can involve as many as five distinct actors: cardholders, issuers, networks, acquirers, and merchants. Cardholders obtain their credit or charge cards from issuers, which are banks or other financial institutions that issue cards with particular features (i.e., rewards, cash back, purchase protection), set the financial terms on the cards (i.e., annual fees, interest rates, float periods), extend cardholders credit where required, and issue cardholders their bills and collect required payments. (Jt. Stmt. ¶ 5.) Similarly, to accept credit cards, a merchant must have a relationship with an acquiring bank or financial institution. (Id. ¶ 6.) The acquirer is responsible both for merchant acquisition (i.e., signing up merchants to accept particular brands of cards, providing point-of-sale technology) and for accepting card transaction data from merchants for verification and processing. (Id. ¶ 7.) The network sits as the platform’s middleman, bringing merchants and their acquirers together with cardholders and their issuers. (Tr. at 3827:23-3828:13 (Katz).) The network’s most fundamental function is to establish protocols and procedures by which issuers and acquirers capture, authorize, and settle *157 transactions; they also'establish nearly all elements of the price charged to merchants on each transaction (except for the fee charged by the acquirer/processor), provide valuable fraud protection services, and operate the infrastructure necessary to facilitate interactions between the two sides of the platform. (Id. at 3828:14-22.)

When a cardholder swipes his credit or charge card at a point-of-sale device in order to make a purchase, the transaction information is immediately sent to the merchant’s acquirer. The acquirer effectively obtains the receivable owed by the consumer arising from his purchase, and therefore has a payable obligation to the merchant. (See Jt. Stmt., ¶ 12.) The acquirer discharges this obligation by paying the merchant the funds owed on the transaction less the “merchant discount fee,” which represents the merchant’s cost of accepting payment on the credit or charge card used by the consumer. The merchant discount fee paid by the merchant generally consists of an ad valorem element — i.e., a percentage discount rate multiplied by the purchase price — but may include additional flat fees. (Id. ¶¶ 13, 15.) On the Visa and MasterCard networks, which are frequently referred to as “4-party” or “5-party” systems to reflect the number of agents involved, the merchant discount fee is primarily comprised of three elements: a percentage interchange fee, an acquirer fee, and a network fee. (Id.) As the terminology suggests, the acquirer fee is retained by the acquiring bank for services rendered to the merchant, while the network fee is paid to Visa and MasterCard as the price of facilitating the transaction. (Id.) Like the network fee, the interchange component, which represents the bulk of the overall discount fee and is passed through to the issuing bank, is set by Visa or MasterCard. (See Tr. at 2966:8-2967:12 (Pojero/Amex); DX7295 at 4 (MasterCard Interchange Rate Programs).) Unlike American Express and Discover, as will be discussed shortly, the interchange rate charged on the Visa and MasterCard network varies along two axes: (1) the industry the merchant belongs to, and (2) the actual card product used by the cardholder. MasterCard, for example, has more than 240 different interchange rate categories, and Visa has more than 70 categories. (Jt. Stmt. ¶ 16.)

By contrast, American Express operates a partially integrated “3-party” or “closed-loop” payment card system. In addition to operating its credit and charge card network, American Express also acts as the card issuer and merchant acquirer for the vast majority of transactions involving its cards. (See Tr. at 3791:4-15 (Silver-man/Amex); see also Jt. Stmt. ¶ 9; Tr. at 1069:18-1070:15 (Quagliata/Amex).) Thus, in most cases, American Express maintains direct relationships with its cardholders and accepting merchants: It provides issuing services to cardholders, acquiring and processing services to merchants, and network services to both sides of the platform in order to facilitate the use and acceptance of its payment cards. The same cannot be said of Visa and MasterCard, Defendants’ largest competitors. Rather, Visa and MasterCard function exclusively as networks, providing certain core payment services but relying on banks and other financial institutions to undertake the card issuance and merchant acquisition and processing functions. (Jt. Stmt. ¶ 10; Tr. at 2116:4-10 (Berry/Amex).) Visa cardholders therefore generally interact with the network through their issuing banks, the largest of which include JPMorgan Chase, Bank of America, Citibank, and Capital One (see PX1560 at 10), and merchants that accept Visa cards interface with acquirer-processors like Chase Paymentech and First Data Corporation, rather than with Visa *158 itself (see Tr. at 2384:19-22 (Priebe/South-west), 2965:2-7 (Pojero/Amex)).

American Express does not always interact directly with its cardholders and merchants, however. Prior to the decision in United States v. Visa U.S.A., Inc., Visa and MasterCard maintained bylaws preventing their member banks from issuing credit cards on competing networks, like Discover and American Express. 5 163 F.Supp.2d 322 (S.D.N.Y.2001) (“Visa I”), modified, 183 F.Supp.2d 613 (S.D.N.Y.2001), aff 'd, 344 F.3d 229 (2d Cir.2003) (“Visa II ”). After these so-called “exclusionary rules” were removed following the Department of Justice’s successful antitrust enforcement action In Visa , Amex launched its Global Network Services (“GNS”) business and began partnering with traditional issuing banks to disseminate cards through non-proprietary channels. (Tr. at 4295:6-18 (ChenaulVAmex), 2995:16-20 (Pojero/Amex).) There are currently nine GNS partners issuing Amex cards, which account for roughly one percent of its total U.S. charge volume each year. (Id. at 4295:16-18, 4326:19-25) (ChenaulVAmex.) Likewise, in its efforts to close its “merchant coverage gap”— American Express is accepted in approximately three million fewer merchant locations than Visa, MasterCard, and Discover — the company has increasingly relied on third-party merchant acquirers to recruit small merchants to its network. (Id. at 2845:17-2850:2 (Pojero/Amex) (discussing American Express’s External Sales Agent, OnePoint, and OptBlue initiatives).) See also infra Part IV.D. Discover, the fourth and final significant competitor in this market, has pursued a hybrid model; in addition to operating its network, Discover issues its own card products but relies on third-party acquirers and processors to service the merchant side of the platform. (See Tr. at 812:21-814:9, 815:12-24, 824:7-825:7 (Hochschild/Discover).)

American Express’s merchant pricing structure further differentiates its model from those of Visa, MasterCard, and Discover. Whereas the discount rates applied to purchases on Visa or MasterCard products vary depending on the type of card used — i.e., high-rewards cards are subject to higher interchange rates and thus cost merchants more to accept — American Express charges a single discount rate for all Amex credit and charge products, in addition to certain flat fees charged on a per transaction basis. (See Jt. Stmt. ¶ 16; Tr. at 2132:14-19 (Berry/Amex), 2566:16-25 (Funda/Amex), 2978:6-2979:19. (Poje-ro/Amex); see also DX7295.) Accordingly, the discount rate merchants are charged by American Express for purchases made on the high-rewards Platinum Card, the “bedrock of [Amex’s] brand,” is the same as for purchases made on its cards with less generous rewards, like the Green Card or EveryDay Credit Card. (Tr. at 2566:11-20 (Funda/Amex), 3112:9-20 (Po-jero/Amex), 3602:5 (Silverman/Amex).) *159 Like its competitors, American Express strives to maintain “pricing integrity” within industry groups, such as airlines, lodging, or gas stations. To that end, American Express sets a pricing table for each merchant segment that contains a “headline” or “base” discount rate charged across the entire industry, often with minor variations depending on the annual charge volume of each individual merchant in that industry. (Tr. at 4684:3-4685:12, 4697:16-21 (Glenn/Amex).) However, American Express will negotiate its acceptance agreements with certain large merchants, and sometimes is required to provide monetary incentives such as signing bonuses or cooperative marketing funds in order to ensure continued acceptance by the merchant. (See id. at 4685:16-4687:3 (Glenn/Amex).) See also infra Part IV.D. These “side payments” are credited against the merchant’s headline discount rate, often on a retrospective basis, in order to calculate its “effective” discount rate.

Finally, the “spend-centric” nature of American Express’s business model is unique in the industry. Unlike its competitors’ “lend-centric” models, which rely on the interest charged on revolving balances to generate more than half of their revenue, the primary driver of American Express’s revenue is the merchant discount fee. (See Tr. at 827:20-828:9 (Ho-chschild/Discover), 3534:19-3535:6 (Silver-man/Amex), 4303:6-24 (Chenault/Amex).) Together with its closed-loop framework, which also is a “key differentiator” for the network vis-a-vis its competitors, Defendants’ spend-centric model is integral to the company’s value proposition to its merchants. (Tr. 1069:20-1070:17 (Quaglia-ta/Amex).) American Express contends that due to its efforts .to “encourage [cardholders] to maximize their spend on [Amex’s] card products” — including, among other things, offering premium rewards programs, superior customer service, and other ancillary benefits to cardholders — merchants that accept American Express gain access to customers who are both “ready to spend” and who generally spend more on an annual and per transaction basis than non-cardholders. (See id. at 1061:21-1062:5 (Quagliata/Amex), 2091:12-2092:12 (Glass/Amex), 3535:25-3536:4 (Silverman/Amex), 4304:813 (Che-nault/Amex); see also id. at 3290:3-14 (Biornstad/MasterCard); DX7238 at '375.) See also infra Part IY.C.3.

In addition to delivering higher spending customers, Amex’s merchant value proposition relies on the network’s ability to leverage its closed-loop infrastructure to deliver marketing and data analytics services to merchants that its competitors cannot match. (Tr. at 4305:7-4306:6 (Chenauli/Amex), 4720:3-10 (Glenn/ Amex).) By retaining end-to-end control of all spending data on its network, American Express is able to sell its merchants information on and analysis of its cardholders’ spending behaviors, allowing the merchant to engage in more effective targeted marketing or identify new locations for geographic expansion, among other applications. (Id. at 1072:5-1079:18 (Quagliata/Amex), 2117:2-2119:4, .2277:4-17 (Berry/Amex) (noting Amex can assist merchants in understanding their customers by providing data on spending in the merchant’s own industry, as well as in other industries), 4307:8-4309:15 (Che-nault/Amex), 4718:5-21, 4720:19-4721:6 (Glenn/Amex), 5530:10-5531:21 (Landau/DryBar); see also, e.g., DX7598 at '015.) The closed-loop system also allows American Express to provide merchants and cardholders with advanced fraud management services. (Tr. at 4306:7-17 (Chenault/Amex), 4933:22-4934:6 (Glenn/ Amex).) Finally, American Express provides dedicated client managers for its *160 largest merchants (see id. at 625:12-626:24 (Quagliata/Amex)), and engages in a variety of efforts intended to promote spending at small businesses — a merchant population where the network enjoys less widespread acceptance than its competitors — including promotions like “Small Business Saturday” and “Shop Small” (id. at 5704:2-5709:23 (Gilligan/Amex)).

On the other side of the platform, American Express’s cardholder value proposition centers on the suite of rewards and other benefits the company provides to encourage cardholders to use their cards for purchases at Amex-accepting merchants. These enticements commonly are offered by the issuers of general purpose credit and charge cards and may include a combination of per transaction benefits, such as “points,” cash back, or airline frequent flyer miles, as well as other membership benefits, such as airport lounge access, purchase protection, or rental car insurance. Cardholders enrolled in American Express’s Membership Rewards program, for example, receive Membership Rewards points for purchases made on their Amex cards, and may then redeem those points with Amex or one of its redemption partners for merchandise, gift cards, frequent flyer miles, statement credits, or other goods and services. (Tr. at 3548:13-3549:22 (Silverman/Amex), 4298:20-4300:13 (Chenault/Amex).) When offered on Visa or MasterCard products, these rewards are generally funded through the interchange fee paid by the merchant that is passed through to the issuing bank. (See Tr. at 4040:21-24 (Katz).) As a general matter, Visa and MasterCard products that tend to have rich rewards packages also tend to carry higher interchange rates, which explains why it is more expensive for merchants to accept high-rewards Visa and MasterCard cards when compared to more basic cards on the same networks. See infra Part IV.D (discussing, among other things, Visa’s and MasterCard’s introduction of premium interchange categories). In addition to its rewards programs, American Express also offers its cardholders what it believes to be superior customer service, fraud protection, and purchase and return protection, among other benefits. (Tr. at 3610:1-16 (Silverman/Amex), 4296:11-4297:10, 4309:20-4310:2 (ChenaulVAmex).)

C. The Non-Discrimination Provisions

The purpose and effect of American Express’s NDPs, as well as the vigor with which the company defends them, cannot be fully appreciated without an understanding of their historical context.

1. Origins of Amex’s NDPs

American Express entered the payment cards industry in 1958, offering charge cards for use primarily at travel and entertainment, or “T & E,” merchants. (Tr. at 4327:21-4328:6 (Chenault/Amex).) Intended to cater to the needs of business travelers, American Express’s early charge cards competed with other niche payment systems offered by Diners Club and Carte Blanche. (Id. at 4328:16-4329:10 (Che-naul/Amex).) Following the entry of Visa and MasterCard into this market in the mid-1960s, American Express undertook a concerted effort to shift its payments business from a T & E-centric enterprise to a general purpose credit and charge card network similar to those offered by the bank associations (Visa and MasterCard). For instance, at the urging of its current Chief Executive Officer, Kenneth Che-nault, and later under his leadership, Amex endeavored to expand its acceptance network to include so-called “everyday spend” merchants like gas stations, supermarkets, and pharmacies, with an aim toward increasing its cards’ relevance to con *161 sumers’ everyday spending needs. (Id. at 4394:25-4395:5 (Chenault/Amex).) Amex additionally took steps during the late 1980s and early 1990s to improve its value propositions to both merchants and cardholders by, for example, introducing what would become the company’s touted Membership Rewards program and developing new technology to better leverage its closed-loop network in service of its merchants. (Id. at 4333:18-4334:10, 4336:17-4337:18 (Chenault/Amex).) As a result of these efforts, Amex’s share of credit and charge card spending in the United States rose to about 25% by 1990. (See DX7828 at 50; Tr. at 5154:7-10 (Gilbert).)

Beginning in the late 1980s, however, Visa and MasterCard took a number of steps intended to curtail American Express’s efforts to move into non-T & E merchant segments, which had traditionally been the bankcards’ “bread and butter.” (See PX0132 at '867; Tr. at 3312:24-3313:6 (Morgan/Visa).) First, the bank associations adopted the so-called exclusionary rules, which prevented member institutions from issuing card products on either American Express’s or Discovers networks. These rules were later found to violate the Sherman Act in Visa, and were removed in 2004. (See Tr. at 859:21-860:4 (Hochschild/Discover)). Second, and more importantly for the purpose of this litigation, Visa and MasterCard ran a number of marketing campaigns that highlighted American Express’s perceived and actual competitive disadvantages in the marketplace — specifically, Amex’s smaller merchant acceptance network, consumers’ resulting perceptions of the utility and value of Amex’s card products, and the network’s significantly higher discount rates to merchants. (See id. at 3372:2-3373:12 (Morgan/Visa); PX0132 at '930.) Visa, for example, sought to encourage consumer preference for its credit cards and steer transactions away from its competitors through several advertising campaigns, including the “It’s Everywhere You Want To Be” and “We Prefer Visa” initiatives. (Tr. at 3306:4-3307:11, ‘ 3321:21-3324:17, 3409:15-23 (Morgan/Visa); PX0082; PX0133 at '985-86; see also Tr. at 3318:16-3320:24 (Morgan/Visa).) These efforts were remarkably effective. The “We Prefer Visa” campaign, for example, appears to have contributed to a 25-45% shift in card volume from American Express to Visa (see PX0133 at '986; see also Tr. at 4351:3-6 (Chenault/Amex)), and Amex’s overall share of GPCC charge volume dipped to approximately 20% by 1995. (Tr. at 5154:7-15 (Gilbert), 6305:18-6306:6 (Bernheim); DX7828 at 50.)

American Express responded to its competitors’ efforts to induce merchants to steer volume away from its network by tightening the contractual restraints at issue in this litigation, its so-called NonDiscrimination Provisions (“NDPs”). Formulated to control the manner in which merchants treat Amex cardholders at the point of sale, limitations on merchant steering have existed in Amex’s card acceptance agreements in one form or another since the 1950s. (See PX1389 at 3 (1959 Agreement); DX0020 at '696 (1977 Agreement); Tr. at 4328:7-10 (Chenault/Amex).) In the late 1980s and early 1990s, however, Amex bolstered its NDPs to ensure that merchants could not state a preference for any GPCC card network other than American Express, and simultaneously intensified its efforts to enforce these provisions when it detected merchant steering. (Compare PX1389 at '189 (sample 1992 agreement), '293 (sample 1998 agreement), with PX1389 at '155 (sample 1989 agreement containing less restrictive NDPs); see also PX1103 at '353, '396-97 (discussing Amex’s response to ‘We Prefer Visa” campaign); Tr. at 4490:13-4491:18 (Che-nault/Amex).) Indeed, American Ex *162 press’s CEO acknowledged at trial that the NDPs were revised to preclude the use of preference language favoring other issuers or networks "after the company’s experience during the “We Prefer Visa” campaign. (Tr. 4492:16^1493:14, 4531:17-4532:11 (Chenault/Amex).)

American Express’s response is hardly surprising. As a number of American Express executives testified, a cardholder’s experience at the point of sale when using an Amex card is a critical point of contact between American Express and the cardholder. (See Tr. at 3066:4-3067:13 (Poje-ro/Amex), 4953:8-23 (Hayes/Amex); see also id. at 884:11-20 (Hochschild/Discover), 6357:20-24 (Bernheim) (noting this is a critical touchpoint for the network “that affects consumers’ perceptions of Amex and Amex isn’t there to control that at all, the merchant is in charge of that”).) Since the entire purpose of carrying a payment card is to enable the consumer to consummate transactions with merchants, the consumer’s decision to pull an American Express card from his wallet at the point of sale represents a critical “moment of truth” for the company. (Tr. at 3066:4-3067:13 (Pojero/Amex), 3573:11-15 (Silver-man/Amex) (“[TJhere’s effectively two moments of truth for [Amex] customers ... [o]ne is to get them to buy the card ... [t]he second is every time they make a purchase, to get them to use the card.”).) Because the NDPs represent the Defendants’ attempt to control as much of that experience as possible, purportedly to ensure its cardholders enjoy what the network calls “welcome acceptance,” the network’s decision to tighten its restraints in response to the “We Prefer Visa” campaign and similar initiatives is not tremendously surprising. (See DX0319 at '002; Tr. at 4372:8-4373:1 (Chenault/Amex).) In Amex’s view, merchant steering to less expensive card networks — or “suppression,” as it is referred to within American Express — endangers the cardholder’s purchasing experience and therefore endangers the network itself. (See Tr. at 4477:12-20 (Chenault/Amex).) Yet, as discussed in the remainder of this Decision, Amex’s efforts to ensure welcome acceptance go too far in the view of the Sherman Act — the NDPs unreasonably and unjustifiably suppress a critical avenue of interbrand competition in the relevant market.

2. The Challenged Restraints

The vast majority of American Express’s 6.4 million merchant locations are bound by the company’s standard card acceptance agreement, and consequently, by its standard NDPs. (Tr. at 642:18-648:3 (Quagliata/Amex).) Unless a merchant has a customized or negotiated acceptance agreement with American Express — and, notably, fewer than 1,000 merchants are in this position — the terms and conditions of merchant acceptance of Amex’s credit and charge products are set forth in a form card acceptance agreement with the network. (Tr. at 636:2-639:13 (Quaglia-ta/Amex), 2831:17-25 (Funda/Amex) (estimating Amex has fewer than 1,000 custom contracts); PX0003.) These form contracts incorporate by reference the company’s Merchant Regulations and require Amex-accepting merchants to adhere to the policies and procedures found therein. (Tr. at 642:15-643:5 (Quagliata/Amex); PX0003 at 13 (section l.b.i).) American Express’s standard NDPs are located in section 3.2 of Amex’s Merchant Regulations (PX0003 at 13 (section l.b.i)), and provide that a merchant who accepts American Express credit or charge products may not:

• indicate or imply that [it] preferfs], directly or indirectly, any Other Payment Products over [Amex’s] Card,

*163 • try to dissuade Cardmembers from using the Card,

• criticize or mischaracterize the Card or any of our services or programs,

• try to persuade or prompt Cardmem-bers to use any Other Payment Products or any other method of payment (e.g., payment by check),

• impose any restrictions, conditions, disadvantages or fees when the Card is accepted that are not imposed equally on all Other Payment Products, except for electronic funds transfer, or cash and check,

• engage in activities that harm [Amex’s] business or the American Express Brand (or both), or

• promote any Other Payment Products (except [the merchant’s] own private label card that [it] issue[s] for use solely at [the merchant’s] Establishments) more actively than [it] promote[s] our Card.

(PX0002 at 16.)

Critically, section 3.2 includes two types of prohibitions that Plaintiffs expressly do not challenge under the Sherman Act, which are therefore unaffected by the court’s resolution of this case. First, Plaintiffs do not challenge section 3.2 insofar as it prohibits merchants from imposing “fees” when accepting American Express cards that are not “imposed equally on all Other Payment Products,” except for ACH, cash, or check. (PX0002 at 16.) Thus, the Government is expressly not seeking to allow merchants to differentially surcharge American Express cards visa-vis its competitors’ cards (i.e., charge a premium to consumers for using an Amex card), though such steering is at issue in the multi-district litigation action against American Express that is also before this court. (See Am. Compl. (Dkt. 57) ¶ 28; see also Tr. at 5828:8-5829:14 (Gilligan/Amex); PX2754 (demonstrative) (highlighting language in the NDPs not challenged in this case).) See also In re Am. Express Anti-Steering Rules Antitrust Litig. (No. II), No. 11-MD-2221 (NGGXRER) (E.D.N.Y.). Second, Plaintiffs are not challenging the NDPs to the extent they prohibit merchants from “mischaracteriz[ing]” the Card or “engaging] in activities that harm [Amex’s] business or the American Express brand (or both).” (See Am. Compl. ¶ 28; see also Tr. at 5828:8-5829:14 (Gilligan/Amex); PX2754 (demonstrative).) These two carve-outs from Plaintiffs’ case are discussed in greater detail in connection with the court’s analysis of Amex’s proposed pro-competitive justifications for the restraints. See infra Part VI.A. For the sake of simplicity, any reference in this Decision to the NDPs or “challenged restraints” refer only to those aspects of section 3.2, or parallel provisions in Amex’s customized agreements, that Plaintiffs challenge as violations of the antitrust laws, unless otherwise noted.

As suggested above, American Express does negotiate its card acceptance agreements with certain large merchants. (See, e.g., Tr. at 684:12-16, 685:5-686:5 (Quaglia-ta/Amex), 2831:17-2832:2 (Funda/Amex).) However, the anti-steering provisions underlying this action, which are intended to dictate merchants’ treatment of Defendants’ cards, are only rarely subject to negotiation. In fact, Amex identified only 139 merchants with agreements that contained non-standard NDPs. (See Stip. Regarding Non-Standard Card Acceptance Agreements (“Schmitt Stip.”) (Dkt. 590) ¶ 1.) And even where a merchant has negotiated non-standard NDPs into its contract with American Express, the rules still restrict nearly all forms of point-of-sale steering, including merchants’ ability to express a preference for a particular card brand. Although in the course of negotiations many of these larger merchants have *164 requested that Amex remove its NDPs from their agreements entirely (see, e.g., Tr. at 1613:2-6 (Brennan/Hilton), 1257:25-1258:19 (Kimmet/Home Depot), 1697:13-1698:13 (Dale/Sprint)), Defendants generally grant merchants limited exceptions to the NDPs in only two contexts.

First, certain merchants, such as Sears, Crate & Barrel, Home Depot, and Hilton Hotels & Resorts, have negotiated the right to steer toward their private label or co-brand cards. (See, e.g., PX1270 at '152-53 (Crate & Barrel); PX1915 at '805-06 (Home Depot); DX7530 at '649 (Hilton); Tr. at 1327:3-18 (Kimmet/Home Depot), 1653:18-1655:12 (Brennan/Hilton), 2338:18-2339:22 (Bruno/Crate & Barrel).) Under its custom card acceptance agreement and non — standard NDPs, for example, Sears is permitted to steer customers to its private label card or to its co-brand card with MasterCard by having its cashiers ask every customer as they approach the point of sale if they “could put [their purchase] on their Sears card.” (Tr. at 577:17-578:9 (Bouchard/Sears).) Southwest Airlines is similarly able to steer customers to its Rapid Rewards co-brand card with Visa by offering “$50 off, $100 off on the first purchase” or by offering “up to 50,000 rewards points.” (PX0332 at '750-51; Tr. at 2426:25-2427:11 (Priebe/Southwest).) While this type of steering is effective at shifting share to the . merchants’ private label or co-brand cards (see, e.g., Tr. at 578:20-22, 2427:9-11 (Bou-chard/Sears)), those merchants who have negotiated this exception nonetheless remain subject to significant restrictions on whether and how they can influence the customer’s payment choice as it relates to standard GPCC cards. Hilton, for example, is permitted under its card acceptance agreement to steer toward its co-branded cards, but it still may not disclose to customers truthful information about how its co-brand cards compare to Amex’s credit and charge products. (Id. at 1613:12-19 (Brennan/Hilton), 2426:1-3, 2426:16-24 (Priebe/Southwest).)

Second, American Express occasionally has granted certain large merchants an exception to the NDPs permitting them to engage in limited, short-term promotions with other credit card issuers or networks. (See, e.g., DX2770 at '009 (Dell); PX0612 at '403-04 (Sprint); Tr. at 1699:5-19 (Dale/Sprint); PX0650 at '229-30 (Enterprise); Tr. at 525:9-13, 527:12-19 (Satkowski/En-terprise).) While this exception, when granted, allows merchants to incentivize customers to shift their transactions to a less expensive network for a limited time period — such clauses typically limit promotions to three or six months in duration — certain modes of steering remain blocked, including merchants’ ability to express a preference for any brand other than American Express. (See DX2770 at '009 (Dell); PX0612 at '403-04 (Sprint).) For example, Sprint has been permitted to conduct a number of short-term promotions with Visa and MasterCard where- by it offers customers a statement credit if they sign up for Sprint’s recurring billing program with a particular card brand; however, Sprint remains unable to tell its customers “Sprint prefers Visa” or to offer them discounts, incentives, or other benefits for paying their bill with a non-Amex card. (Tr. at 1699:17-1702:6, 1703:18-1704:5, 1705:6-9 (Dale/Sprint).) Further, a number of merchants whose card agreements contain this short-term promotion exception dispute the efficacy of such programs, given the strict time limitations imposed by American Express. (See Tr. at 579:15-580:3 (Bouchard/Sears) (testifying that the three-month limitation in Sears’s contract affects the company’s willingness to engage in such promotions as “short term promotions generally change behavior for that period, and then [it] goes *165 back to normal”); see also id. at 405:16-24 (Robinson/Ikea), 1702:25-1703:11 (Dale/ Sprint) (testifying to difference in effectiveness of long-term and short-term promotions).)

In practice, the NDPs operate to block Amex-aceepting merchants from encouraging their customers to use any credit or charge card other than an American Express card, even where that card is less expensive for the merchant to accept. Steering among the various card brands could be accomplished by offering discounts or other monetary incentives to customers who pay with a particular type of card, offering non-monetary benefits for using a lower-cost card, displaying the logo of one brand more prominently than others, expressing the merchants’ preference as to which type of card it would rather accept, or posting each card’s cost of acceptance and letting customers make their own decisions as to which mode of payment they prefer. Under Defendants’ standard NDPs, however, a merchant can do none of these things. The NDPs disable merchants from attempting to influence their customers’ card choices by, among other things:

• Offering a 10% discount off the posted purchase price, free shipping, free checked bags, gift cards, or any other monetary incentive for using their Discover card;

• Providing customers a designated checkout lane, priority boarding on an airline, or any other non-monetary incentive if using a MasterCard;

• Posting a sign saying “We Prefer Discover” at the point of sale, or otherwise signaling a preference for a non-Amex payment card;

• Answering the phone by saying “Thank you for calling us, we proudly accept the Discover card” or posting a sign that says “Thank You For Using Discover”;

• Posting a sign that discloses the merchant’s actual cost of accepting each network’s cards or that compares the relative costs of acceptance across card brands, even if such information is accurate and truthful;

•Asking customers to “please keep in mind that credit and charge expenses are some of our highest costs”;

• Informing customers that it costs more for the merchant to accept American Express than it does other card brands, even if the statement is true; or

• Inviting customers to inquire or answering a customer’s inquiry into its credit card costs, or in any way signaling that the merchant’s retail prices might be lower if it were better able to control its credit card costs.

(See Tr. at 648:24-658:9, 667:17-691:15, 785:11-19, 792:2-796:19 (Quagliata/Amex); PX2620-2681 (demonstrative exhibits showing signage that would be prohibited by NDPs).) Importantly, the NDPs inhibit steering even when American Express is not mentioned, resulting in the restraints’ effects being inflicted across the GPCC industry. For instance, a merchant may not post a sign saying “Please Use Your Discover Card, Visa Is More Expensive To Accept” or offer a discount to MasterCard cardholders if they use a Visa card instead. (Tr. at 671:7-672:21, 792:2-5 (Quagliata/Amex); PX2626; PX2627.)

American Express’s NDPs do not, however, restrict merchants from steering customers to cash, check, or ACH transfers. (PX0002 at 16.) For example, gas stations are able to offer customers a lower price per gallon of gasoline if the customer pays in cash as opposed to using a credit or charge card. Merchants may also steer their customers to debit cards to an extent. *166 This freedom is a product of the Durbin Amendment to the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010, Pub. L. No. 111-203, § 1075 , 124 Stat. 1376 , 2068 (codified in relevant part at 15 U.S.C. § 1693o-2), and its enabling regulations, 12 C.F.R. ch. 235, which provide that merchants are legally entitled to offer discounts or other in-kind incentives to encourage their customers to use a debit card, provided that the merchant does not differentiate between card issuers or the various debit networks. See 15 U.S.C. § 1693o-2(b). Such steering has been referred to as “untargeted” in the course of this litigation, and will be revisited in greater detail in connection with the parties’ arguments concerning market definition and the efficacy of merchant steering generally. (See Tr. at 3866:1-23 (Katz).)

American Express actively monitors for non-compliance with the NDPs and vigorously enforces the restraints where steering or “suppression” is found to have occurred. Among its large merchants, such monitoring is accomplished through the oversight of the merchant’s client manager at American Express, random on-site visits, and reports from cardholders. (Tr. at 4786:11-4787:1 (Glenn/Amex).) Similarly, Amex monitors smaller, unmanaged merchants’ compliance with the NDPs through cardholder complaints and by monitoring the merchants’ charge volume. (Id. at 4789:1-16 (Glenn/Amex) (noting that when a small merchant’s volume falls precipitously, the company believes the merchant has gone out of business, has stopped accepting Amex, or is suppressing its card).) When the company identifies a situation in which a merchant is believed to be steering, it will raise the issue through the merchant’s assigned client manager or through its small merchant team, and, if the merchant does not voluntarily agree to cease encouraging customers to pay with a product other than American Express, the company will take remedial action up to and including termination of the merchant’s card acceptance agreement with the network. (Id. at 4787:2-11, 4789:17-4790:5 (Glenn/Amex), 4491:6-16, 4514:14-19 (Chenault/Amex) (confirming that Amex terminated merchants for steering under NDPs); see also PX1103 at '398-412 (guidance document concerning official responses to steering).)

For example, in the early 2000s, Travel-ocity entered into a promotion agreement with MasterCard whereby in exchange for significant financial remuneration from the network, the online travel agency agreed to communicate to customers on its website that MasterCard was its preferred form of payment. (See Tr. at 3245:14-3246:4 (Biornstad/MasterCard).) When American Express learned of this preference relationship in or about June 2003, the company immediately sought to enforce the NDPs and compel Travelocity to remove the offending preference language, going so far as to send Travelocity a notice that it intended to terminate the travel agency’s ability to accept American Express cards in December 2003. (See id. at 2887:4-12, 2891:8-2900:24 (Pojero/Amex); see also PX1085; PX0466.) Amex also tried to enforce its restraints against MasterCard; the company’s Chief Litigation Counsel sent a letter to MasterCard stating that Travelocity’s use of preference language pursuant to its promotion agreement with MasterCard violated American Express’s card acceptance agreements and “demanding] that MasterCard immediately cease and desist all such advertising and activities.” (PX0385; Tr. at 2897:1-10 (Pojero/Amex).) Travel-ocity ultimately capitulated, agreeing to change its website to indicate that MasterCard was the “official card” of Travelocity, rather than the preferred card. (PX0449; *167 Tr. at 3246:16-3247:20 (Biornstad/Master-Card).) Defendants have enforced their NDPs in a similar manner at a number of other merchants to end the merchants’ use of preference language favoring Amex’s competitors. 6

II. LEGAL STANDARD

Plaintiffs challenge the legality of American Express’s NDPs under Section 1 of the Sherman Act, which prohibits “every contract ... in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States.” 15 U.S.C. § 1 . While this statutory text might be read literally to staggeringly broad effect, as nearly every contract restrains some type of trade to some degree, the Supreme Court has repeatedly held that Section 1 is intended to “outlaw only unreasonable restraints.” State Oil Co. v. Khan, 522 U.S. 3, 10 , 118 S.Ct. 275 , 139 L.Ed.2d 199 (1997); see also Leegin Creative Leather Prods., Inc. v. PSKS, Inc., 551 U.S. 877, 885 , 127 S.Ct. 2705 , 168 L.Ed.2d 623 (2007). As the NDPs are contained in American Express’s card acceptance agreements with its merchants— satisfying the “concerted action” element of a Section 1 violation — the court is left to determine whether the challenged contractual provisions qualify as unreasonable restraints on competition. See Geneva Pharm. Tech. Corp. v. Barr Labs. Inc., 386 F.3d 485 , 506 (2d Cir.2004) (“To prove a § 1 violation, a plaintiff must demonstrate: (1) a combination or some form of concerted action between at least two legally distinct economic entities that (2) unreasonably restrains trade.”).

As non-price vertical restraints between firms at different levels of production— namely, between the network and its merchant-consumers — American Express’s NDPs are properly analyzed under the rule of reason. 7 See Continental T.V., Inc. *168 v. GTE Sylvania Inc., 433 U.S. 36, 57-59 , 97 S.Ct. 2549 , 53 L.Ed.2d 568 (1977); see also Leegin, 551 U.S. at 885-86 , 127 S.Ct. 2705 . Yet, as Plaintiffs correctly note, the challenged restraints do not fit neatly into the standard taxonomy of federal antitrust law. Unlike most vertical distribution agreements between manufacturers/suppliers or dealers/distributors, the NDPs do not purport to restrain intrabrand competition in favor of greater interbrand competition. See, e.g., Leegin, 551 U.S. at 890-91 , 127 S.Ct. 2705 ; GTE Sylvania, 433 U.S. at 54 , 97 S.Ct. 2549 . See also infra Part VI.A. Rather, more akin to exclusive dealing or tying arrangements 8 —though the NDPs cannot be fairly characterized as either^ — Amex’s anti-steering rules admittedly have the primary effect of restraining one form of interbrand competition among the GPCC card networks in favor of alternative forms of interbrand competition. This effect is limited to horizontal competition at the network level, however, as the NDPs do not purport to affect competition among the millions of Amex-accepting merchants. Given the nature of the NDPs’ effects op competition, and recognizing that “the primary purpose of the antitrust laws is to protect inter-brand competition,” State Oil, 522 U.S. at 15 , 118 S.Ct. 275 , the court accordingly approaches its rule of reason analysis in this case with due caution and care.

The rule of reason, which is the most searching form of antitrust analysis, requires the court in its capacity as factfinder to “weigh[ ] all of the circumstances of a case in deciding whether a restrictive practice should be prohibited as imposing an unreasonable restraint on competition.” See GTE Sylvania, 433 U.S. at 49 , 97 S.Ct. 2549 ; see also Major League Baseball Props., Inc. v. Salvino, Inc., 542 F.3d 290, 316-17 (2d Cir.2008). This context-specific inquiry enables the court to “form a judgment about the competitive significance of the restraint,” i.e., to determine “whether the challenged agreement is one that promotes competition or one that suppresses competition” on the whole. Nat’l Soc’y of Prof'l Eng’rs v. United States, 435 U.S. 679, 691-92 , 98 S.Ct. 1355 , 55 L.Ed.2d 637 (1978) (“ ‘The true test of legality is whether the restraint imposed is such as merely regulates and perhaps thereby promotes competition or whether it is such as may suppress or even destroy competition.’” (quoting Chi. Bd. of Trade v. United States, 246 U.S. 231, 238 , 38 S.Ct. 242 , 62 L.Ed. 683 (1918))); see Leegin, 551 U.S. at 886 , 127 S.Ct. 2705 (“In its design and function the rule [of reason] distinguishes between restraints with anticompetitive effect that are harmful to the consumer and restraints stimulating competition that are in the consumer’s best interest.”); Major League, 542 F.3d at 316-17 . Factors appropriate for consideration in the course of such analysis include “specific information about the relevant business, its condition before and after the restraint was imposed, and the restraint’s history, nature, and effect.” State Oil, 522 U.S. at 10 , 118 S.Ct. 275 ; see also Leegin, 551 U.S. at 885 , 127 S.Ct. 2705 .

In applying a rule of reason analysis, the court utilizes a three-step burden shifting framework. Plaintiffs bear an initial burden of demonstrating that the challenged restraints have had an “adverse effect on competition as a whole in the relevant market.” Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 506-07 (emphasis removed); United States v. Am. Express Co., 21 F.Supp.3d 187 (E.D.N.Y.2014) (“Amex I”). *169 Two independent avenues exist by which this burden may be discharged: directly, by “showing] an actual adverse effect on competition” caused by the restraint in the relevant market, such as increased prices or a reduction in output; or indirectly, by “establishing that [the defendant] had sufficient market power to cause an adverse effect on competition,” Tops Mkts., Inc. v. Quality Mkts., Inc., 142 F.3d 90 , 96 (1998), and that there are “other grounds to believe that the defendant’s behavior will harm competition market-wide,” K.M.B. Warehouse Distribs., Inc. v. Walker Mfg. Co., 61 F.3d 123 , 129 (2d Cir.1995) (“This court has not made a showing of market power a prerequisite for recovery in all § 1 cases.”). See also F.T.C. v. Ind. Fed’n of Dentists, 476 U.S. 447, 460-61 , 106 S.Ct. 2009 , 90 L.Ed.2d 445 (1986); Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 509 (“If plaintiff can demonstrate an actual adverse effect on competition, such as reduced output, ... there is no need to show market power in addition.” (citations omitted)); Todd v. Exxon Corp., 275 F.3d 191, 206-07 (2d Cir.2001); Amex I, 21 F.Supp.3d at 195-97 . Yet the Second Circuit has also recognized that, in many ways, these dual paths are two sides of the same coin. Just as an indirect market analysis represents a court’s effort to discern whether a defendant firm has the capacity to harm competition and, relatedly, whether the challenged restraint is likely to have anti-competitive effect in the relevant market, see K.M.B. Warehouse, 61 F.3d at 128-30; Tops Mkts., 142 F.3d at 96 (“Market power is but a ‘surrogate for detrimental effects.’ ” (citation omitted)), proof of actual adverse effects on competition is compelling evidence that the defendant firm does, in fact, possess sufficient power to profitably restrain competition in the relevant market, see Todd, 275 F.3d at 206 (then-judge Sotomayor observing that actual detrimental effect “arguably is more direct evidence of market power than calculations of elusive market share figures,” and that “[i]f a plaintiff can show that a defendant’s conduct exerted an actual adverse effect on competition, this is a strong indicator of market power”); Tops Mkts., 142 F.3d at 98. 9

In the event Plaintiffs are able to discharge their initial burden, the burden then shifts to Defendants “to offer evidence of the pro-competitive effects of their agreement.” See Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 507; Capital Imaging Assocs., P.C. v. Mohawk Valley Med. Assocs., Inc., 996 F.2d 537, 543 (2d Cir.1993) (noting defendant must “offer evidence of the pro-competitive ‘redeeming virtues’ ” of the challenged conduct). If Defendants are able to demonstrate such justification, the burden ultimately shifts back to Plaintiffs to prove that any “legitimate competitive benefits” proffered by Defendants could have been achieved through less restrictive means. Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 507.

*170 III. MARKET DEFINITION

In order to determine whether Amex’s NDPs violate the Sherman Act, the court first must determine the contours of the relevant antitrust market and thereby define an appropriate context for the remainder of its analysis. See Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 496 (noting market definition is relevant regardless of whether a plaintiff intends to prove actual adverse effect or market power); Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 334-35 ; Carell v. Shubert Org., Inc., 104 F.Supp.2d 236, 264 (S.D.N.Y.2000). Antitrust markets are defined by reference to both a “product market” and a “geographic market.” AD/ SAT, Div. of Skylight, Inc. v. Associated Press, 181 F.3d 216 , 226 (2d Cir.1999). Here, as the parties have agreed that the relevant geographic market is the territorial United States (see Tr. at 3859:1-6 (Katz)), the court need only determine the relevant product market.

Under the federal antitrust laws, a product market is “composed of products that have reasonable interchangeability” from the perspective of the relevant consumer with the product sold by the defendant firm. See United States v. E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., 351 U.S. 377, 404 , 76 S.Ct. 994 , 100 L.Ed. 1264 (1956); Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 496 (“The relevant market is defined as all products ‘reasonably interchangeable by consumers for the same purposes,’ because the ability of consumers to switch to a substitute restrains a firm’s ability to raise prices above the competitive level.” (citation omitted)); Xerox Corp. v. Media Scis., Inc., 660 F.Supp.2d 535, 543 (S.D.N.Y.2009) (“[Pjroducts constitute part of a single product market if they are ‘reasonably interchangeable by consumers for the same purposes,’ such that there is high cross-elasticity of demand for the products.” (citation omitted)). This factual determination requires the court to be cognizant of the “commercial realities” faced by a defendant’s consumers, see Eastman Kodak Co. v. Image Technical Servs., Inc., 504 U.S. 451, 482 , 112 S.Ct. 2072 , 119 L.Ed.2d 265 (1992); Brown Shoe Co. v. United States, 370 U.S. 294, 336 , 82 S.Ct. 1502 , 8 L.Ed.2d 510 (1962), and to consider the various factors that might influence consumers’ choice to switch to a substitute product, including functional interchangeability, price, and quality, see E.I. du Pont de Nemours, 351 U.S. at 401-04 , 76 S.Ct. 994 ; Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 335 . By identifying the range of reasonably interchangeable substitute products, the court is able to “identify the market participants and competitive pressures that restrain an individual firm’s ability to raise prices or restrict output” and better assess the competitive dynamics in which the defendant firm and challenged restraint' operate. Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 496; Balaklaw v. Lovell, 14 F.3d 793, 799 (2d Cir.1994) (“The basic principle is that the relevant market definition must encompass the realities of competition.” (internal citation and quotation marks omitted)).

For the reasons set forth below, the court adopts the general market definition advanced by Plaintiffs’ economics expert, Dr. Michael Katz, and accordingly finds that the relevant market for the purpose of the court’s antitrust analysis in this case is the market for general purpose credit and charge card network services. Importantly, notwithstanding Defendants’ vigorous arguments to the contrary, the court declines to conclude that debit network services should be included in the relevant market. However, the court agrees with American Express that Plaintiffs have not adequately proven the existence of a cognizable submarket for GPCC card network services provided to merchants in T & E industries.

*171 A. GPCC Card Network Services Market

Plaintiffs propose a relevant product market limited to general purpose credit and charge card network services. (See Am. Compl. ¶ 33; Tr. at 3858:14-25 (Katz).) These services include the core enabling functions provided by networks, which allow merchants to capture, authorize, and settle transactions for customers who elect to pay with their credit or charge card. American Express disputes this definition, arguing alternatively (1) that the market should be defined by reference to “transactions” so as to account for both sides of the credit card platform, and/or (2) that debit services are a reasonably interchangeable substitute for general purpose credit and charge card services and therefore should be included in the market definition. Each argument is considered, and ultimately rejected, in turn. The court finds that Plaintiffs have appropriately accounted for the two-sided features and competitive realities that affect the four major firms operating in the GPCC card network services market — as distinguished from the card issuance market — and that a practical and nuanced application of the standard tools for defining product markets establishes that Plaintiffs’ proposed definition is an appropriate underpinning for the court’s analysis in this case.

1. The Relevant Product Is Network Services

This court is not the first to have been called upon to conduct a market analysis in the credit and charge card industry, and the court does not expect that it will be the last. Nor have the two-sided features of the GPCC industry escaped judicial inquiry in prior decisions. See Visa II, 344 F.3d at 238-40 . Yet, as American Express correctly notes, product markets must be defined by reference to current competitive realities. See Eastman Kodak, 504 U.S. at 482 , 112 S.Ct. 2072 (“[M]arket definition ... can be determined only after a factual inquiry into the ‘commercial realities’ faced by consumers.” (citation-omitted)); Todd, 275 F.3d at 199 (stating “market definition is a deeply fact-intensive inquiry”). Thus, while prior judicial experience in this industry necessarily informs the court’s market definition analysis, it must nonetheless remain sensitive to the fact that market conditions may well have shifted during the intervening years.

In United States v. Visa, the Department of Justice brought an antitrust enforcement action against Visa and MasterCard, alleging that the bank associations’ so-called “exclusionary rules,” pursuant to which member banks were prohibited from issuing credit cards on either the American Express or Discover networks, violated federal antitrust laws. Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 327-30 . 10 - En route to concluding that the exclusionary rules did, in fact, violate Section 1, the district court adopted the market definitions proposed by the Government’s expert economist, Dr. Michael Katz — the same expert who testified on Plaintiffs’ behalf in this case — and determined that the GPCC card industry included two separate yet complementary product markets: (1) a “general purpose card network services market” in which Visa, MasterCard, American Express, and Discover competed to sell network services to merchants, and in the associations’ case, to issuing banks; and (2) a “general pur *172 pose card market” that covered the issuance of card products by issuing banks, as well as American Express and Discover, to cardholders. Id. at 331, 334-39 . With regard to the network services market, which is effectively the same product market proposed by Plaintiffs here, 11 the court determined that “general purpose card network services ... constitute a product market because merchant consumers exhibit little price sensitivity and the networks provide core services that cannot reasonably be replaced by other sources.” Id. at 338-39 . The Second Circuit agreed, confirming that the GPCC platform encompassed “two interrelated, but separate product markets” — namely, a card issuance market and a network services market. Visa II, 344 F.3d at 238-40 (affirming the district court’s determination that “there are no products reasonably interchangeable ... with the network services provided by the four major brands”).

At trial in this case, American Express urged the court to depart from the decisions in Visa and to define the relevant product market in terms of “transactions,” rather than network services. (See Tr. at 5015:7-5016:16 (Gilbert), 6211:12-6216:25 (Bernheim).) As explained by Dr. Richard Gilbert, one of Defendants’ expert witnesses, a transactions-based market effectively would collapse all services provided to merchants and cardholders in the context of the GPCC card platform into a single antitrust market. (Id. at 5015:7-5016:16 (noting a market defined in terms of transactions would capture “the flow around this whole loop between consumers and merchants”).) But this takes the concept of two-sidedness too far. The goal in defining a relevant product market is not to obfuscate or confuse market realities, but rather to “recognize competition where, in fact, competition exists.” United States v. Cont’l Can Co., 378 U.S. 441, 452 , 84 S.Ct. 1738 , 12 L.Ed.2d 953 (1964) (internal quotation marks omitted); Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 496. Competition in the GPCC card industry occurs on at least two distinct yet interrelated levels: (1) at the card' issuance level, where American Express and Discover compete against each other and against the thousands of Visa- and MasterCard-issuing banks; and (2) at the network services level, where *173 Visa, MasterCard, American Express, and Discover compete. 12 Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 333 ; see also Visa II, 344 F.3d at 237, 239 . American Express itself recognizes this reality. As one executive explained at trial, Amex competes in “three businesses: we’re an issuing bank, we’re a merchant acquirer, and we’re a network.” (Tr. at 3791:8-15 (Silverman/Amex).) To conflate these separate avenues of competition into a single product market for “transactions” that is coextensive with the platform itself, as Defendants encourage, would impermis-sibly and unnecessarily frustrate the court’s analysis in this case. The court believes it is both necessary and appropriate to define separate product markets that reflect the competitive realities in the GPCC industry, although recognizing that these markets are inextricably linked with one another, and appreciating and accounting for the effects that flow from such a relationship. Defendants have provided the court with no reason to depart from the approach of the Second Circuit in Visa 11 , and the court declines to do so on its own accord by collapsing the issuance and network services markets into a single platform-wide market for transactions.

Nor is it necessary that the relevant product market be defined by reference to how American Express chooses to compete in the industry. (See Tr. at 2020:24-2021:15, 2022:5-23 (Gilbert) (noting Amex does not offer network services in isolation nor charge a “network fee”).) As previously noted, Defendants’ “closed-loop” model entails a significant degree of vertical integration into each level of competition comprising the GPCC card platform— card issuance, network services, and merchant acquisition. Yet each constituent product market in this industry is distinct, involving different sets of rivals and the sale of separate, though interrelated, products and services to separate groups of consumers. This is evident, for example, from the fact that Visa and MasterCard offer only network services but do not issue cards or acquire merchants, and from the function in this industry of Citibank and Bank of America, which act as card issuers but not networks. That American Express has elected to compete at each of these levels by partially integrating into the issuing and acquiring businesses does not compel the court to collapse these distinct markets into a single “transactions” market to more closely resemble Amex’s chosen business strategy. See, e.g., United States v. Eastman Kodak Co., 63 F.3d 95, 98-99, 104 (2d Cir.1995) (defining a product market for “amateur color negative photographic film,” but not considering the camera market in which Kodak also competed). Instead, the network services market is a distinct product *174 market for purposes of antitrust analysis, and a firm’s conduct therein may be separately scrutinized under the Sherman Act, provided the court recognizes and accounts for the fact that such conduct may indirectly affect competition at another level within the GPCC platform.

Additionally, the court is aware of no authority — and Defendants have supplied none — that requires the court to define the relevant product market to encompass the entire multi-sided platform. 13 See Times-Picayune Publ’g Co. v. United States, 345 U.S. 594, 610 , 73 S.Ct. 872 , 97 L.Ed. 1277 (1953) (recognizing “every newspaper is a dual trader in separate though interdependent' markets” for advertisers and readers, but defining the relevant market by reference only to advertisers and noting “[t]his case concerns solely one of these markets”); Visa II, 344 F.3d at 238-40 . Amex’s position that the relevant market should be defined in terms of “transactions,” rather than by reference to the various levels of competition occurring in the credit card industry, is plainly inconsistent with the Second Circuit’s holding in Visa II as well as subsequent case law in this district. See id.; see also In re Payment Card Interchange Fee & Merch. Disc. Antitrust Litig., 562 F.Supp.2d 392, 396-97 (E.D.N.Y.2008) (noting, in the course of denying a motion to dismiss, that “[t]he commodity in each product market is ‘Network Services’ ”); In re Visa Check/MasterMoney Antitrust Litig., No. 96-CV-5238 (JG), 2003 WL 1712568 , at *2 (E.D.N.Y.2003) (implicitly defining a product market around network services, rather than transactions, noting “[overwhelming evidence establishes that merchant demand for credit card services is distinct from merchant demand for debit card services”). Absent a compelling reason why the court in this case should depart from established precedent and instead endorse a single, unified market for “transactions” in the credit card industry, which Defendants have not provided, the court concludes that the relevant product market for purposes of its analysis of Amex’s NDPs is the market for general purpose credit and charge card network services.

Nonetheless, American Express is correct that the court must account for the two-sided features of the credit card industry in its market definition inquiry, as well as elsewhere in its antitrust analysis. As *175 previously noted, the purpose of defining a relevant market is to identify the competitive constraints on Defendants’ business behavior, i.e., the substitute products, competitors, or other market forces that could potentially limit the anticompetitive effect of the competitive practice at issue. In the present context, the functional reality of a multi-sided platform must be taken into account, since the antitrust significance of a restraint that nominally affects conduct on only one side of the platform cannot be assessed without considering its impact on the other side of the platform. For example, a price increase imposed by a firm on only one set of consumers in a two-sided platform may appear profitable when one considers only the direct effect of that practice on demand among the targeted consumers. Yet in reality, the suppression of demand on one side of the market may, by virtue of indirect network effects, trigger a response among consumers on the other side of the platform that, on the whole, renders the practice unprofitable. See generally ABA, Market Definition at 445-52; Evans & Schmalensee (2007) at 173-75; Evans & Noel (2005) at 696-700.

As a result, rote application of the standard mechanical market definition exercises — which were developed for single-sided markets — risks significantly overstating or understating the breadth of the relevant market. While these tools remain helpful to the court’s definitional analysis, they must be applied in a manner that carefully accounts for the competitive realities in multi-sided platforms. Notwithstanding the two-sidedness of the credit card industry, however, the court finds inadequate cause to depart from the approach of the Second Circuit in Visa and accordingly defines the relevant market by reference to network services, rather than transactions.

2. Debit Network Services Are Not Reasonably Interchangeable

The evidence presented at trial also established that the relevant product market includes only general purpose credit and charge card network services, and does not extend to debit card network services. Contrary to American Express’s position at trial, the significant rise in spending among U.S. consumers on debit cards over the past decade has not rendered obsolete the determination in Visa that debit cards and GPCC cards, as well as their associated acceptance services, belong to separate antitrust markets. See Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 335-39 ; Visa II, 344 F.3d at 239 (noting “there are no products reasonably interchangeable ... with the network services provided by the four major brands”). Exclusion of debit from the market is similarly consistent with American Express’s public statements and litigation positions prior to initiation of this lawsuit. 14

Together with the thorough and convincing price sensitivity analysis conducted by Dr. Katz, the record developed at trial regarding the competitive realities in this *176 marketplace — including the limited substi-tutability of credit and debit services from the merchant’s perspective, the various functional differences between the products, and empirical evidence suggesting low cross-elasticity of demand between the products — demonstrates that credit and debit have not become reasonably interchangeable in the decade since Visa . Both categories of evidence are discussed in turn below. Ultimately, there is no indication that merchants — the “relevant consumer” for defining the relevant product market in this case — historically have been or would be inclined to switch to debit network services (i.e., drop acceptance of credit cards) in response to rising prices in the GPCC card network services market, or that such substitution, if it did occur, would be sufficient to temper an exercise of market power therein,

a. Dr. Katz’s Price Sensitivity Analysis

In determining that the relevant market includes only general purpose credit and charge card network services, Dr. Katz applied the price sensitivity inquiry outlined in the Department of Justice and Federal Trade Commission Horizontal Merger Guidelines, which has been used routinely by courts in the Second Circuit as a means of applying the reasonable interchangeability standard. See U.S. Dep’t of Justice & Fed. Trade Comm’n, Horizontal Merger Guidelines § 4.11 (2010) (“Merger Guidelines”); see also Todd, 275 F.3d at 202 ; AD/SAT, 181 F.3d at 228-29; Emigra Grp., LLC v. Fragomen, Del Rey, Bernsen & Loewy, LLP, 612 F.Supp.2d 330, 352 (S.D.N.Y.2009) (recognizing the Merger Guidelines as a “tool used to define a relevant market”). Under this test, a relevant product market is properly defined if a hypothetical profit-maximizing monopolist that is the only seller of the product(s) included in the proposed market could profitably impose a small but significant and non-transitory price increase (“SSNIP”) — i.e., “without losing so many sales to other products that its price became unprofitable.” Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 335 ; see also Emigra Grp., 612 F.Supp.2d at 352 . By contrast, if buyers are able and inclined to switch away from the product(s) in numbers sufficient to render the SSNIP unprofitable, the proposed market definition likely needs to be expanded.

Recognizing that a substantial portion of the discount fees charged to merchants is passed through to card issuers in the form of interchange — or, in the case of American Express’s proprietary channel, to the issuing side of its business — Dr. Katz first tested the viability of his proposed network services market using a SSNIP applied to the network or “switch” fee. (Tr. at 3914:25-3915:11 (Katz); PX2702 at 56, 59.) The network fee, which is the price charged by the network for clearing a given transaction, may be thought of as a two-sided price; that is, by offsetting the discount fees collected from merchants (via acquirers) with the amount passed through to issuers (and ultimately to cardholders), an analyst may approximate the amount retained by the monopolist network as the price for intermediating each transaction. Using an analysis performed by American Express that compared its network business to those of Visa and MasterCard, Dr. Katz calculated that a 10% increase in the network fee charged by a monopolist with a 100% price-cost margin would have to experience a reduction in charge volume by over 9.1% in order to be unprofitable. (Tr. at 3915:12-3917:11, 3922:9-3923:23 (Katz); DX2702 at 59.) Both the size of the SSNIP and extreme margin assumed by Dr. Katz, which maximizes the “pain” to the network associated with merchant substitution away from GPCC network services, ensured a conservative applica *177 tion of this test. (Tr. at 3922:14-20 (Katz).)

Dr. Katz additionally considered the effect of a SSNIP on the average merchant discount rate, appreciating that merchants’ acceptance decisions are driven by the full price paid for accepting credit cards and not just the relatively small network component of that price. (Tr. at 3924:3-24 (Katz) (describing his “belt and suspenders approach” to market definition); PX2702 at 61.) Using the difference between Amex’s average discount rate and the pass-through rate it pays to third-party issuers as a conservative estimate for Amex’s gross margin, Dr. Katz calculated that a 5% SSNIP applied to the overall discount rate charged to merchants by a monopolist would be profitable unless such an increase resulted in a 23% decrease in credit and charge card volume across all merchant segments. (Tr. at 3924:3-24 (Katz).) As this inquiry focused on only the merchant side of the GPCC platform, Dr. Katz accounted for the two-sided features at play in this system by (1) assuming that the price charged to cardholders (or the rewards given) via the issuing bank remained unchanged and (2) allowing for the possibility that the SSNIP might result in cross-platform feedback effects. (Id. at 3904:2-10 (Katz) (noting his analysis is “sensitive to the fact that we’re dealing with two-sided platforms here”); see also id. at 5177:8-5178:12 (Gilbert) (testifying that one way to adapt the hypothetical monopolist test to the two-sided context is to raise price to one side and hold the price to the other side constant).)

The profitability of a price increase in the network services market is ultimately determined by how much charge volume would be lost to other payment systems in response. Though, as a general matter, merchants and their customers jointly make the decision of which method of payment is used for any given transaction, the customer neither sees nor pays the additional cost when networks increase the price of network services to merchants (other than in the form of higher retail prices, which are paid by all consumers); thus, the customer cannot be expected to initiate substitution in the first instance. Instead, the “relevant consumer” for purposes of assessing price sensitivity in the proposed market and for identifying reasonably interchangeable substitute products is the merchant. (Tr. at 3864:21-3865:6 (Katz).) The merchant has two choices when faced with an increase in the price of network services: (1) It can attempt to steer its customers to other forms of payment to the extent permissible by law, including untargeted discounting to debit cards under the Durbin Amendment; or, and more importantly with respect to the court’s market definition analysis in this case, (2) it can defect from the network and cease accepting credit cards entirely. (Tr. at 3864:21-3865:25 (Katz).)

The court concurs in Dr. Katz’s determination that it is implausible that merchants accounting for either 9.1% or 23% of all credit and charge card volume in the United States would cease to accept credit cards in the face of either a 3 basis point (10% SSNIP to the network fee) or 13 basis point (5% SSNIP to the average discount rate) increase in the total price charged by the network, respectively. (Id. at 3922:22-3924:24 (Katz); PX2702 at 60-61; see also Tr. at 3917:23-3919:15 (Katz).) Dr. Katz further determined, and the court agrees, that untargeted discounting to debit is unlikely to serve as a meaningful constraint on a monopolist’s prices. (Tr. at 3866:3-3867:22 (Katz) (noting untarget-ed discounting is unlikely to be a cost-effective response to increased prices for GPCC network services due to merchants’ inability to distinguish those customers who would have used debit without the *178 offered incentive).) However, because merchant demand for network services is derived from cardholders’ desire to pay with credit and charge products, the decision to stop accepting GPCC cards is strongly influenced by the payment preferences of the merchant’s customers, and their willingness to switch to other products. (See, e.g., id. at 3875:12-18 (Katz).)

In weighing whether to defect from credit and charge card acceptance in response to higher discount fees, each merchant will likely conduct its own cost-benefit analysis. A rational economic actor would be willing to drop credit card acceptance only if the incremental profit earned on transactions that could be successfully switched to other methods of payment (i.e., the cost difference between GPCC cards and the less expensive form of payment) would be greater than the losses associated with those customers who would shop elsewhere or spend less if they could not pay with a credit or charge card. (Tr. at 3867:23-3871:24 (Katz).) Because the merchant’s profit margin is likely to significantly exceed the price differential between credit and other forms of payment, however, the foregone profits associated with each transaction lost to a competitor because the merchant no longer accepts credit will significantly exceed the per transaction savings realized from successfully shifting a customer to a less expensive payment method. (Id. at 3870:23-3872:5 (Katz); see also PX2702 at 35 (demonstrative); PX0111 at '826 (Amex using similar logic in convincing merchants to accept its premium rates).) As a result, and as Dr. Katz noted in his testimony, a merchant would need to lose relatively little business associated with those customers who insist on using their credit cards in order to conclude that “the economically rational thing to d[o] is to keep accepting credit and charge cards.” (Tr. at 3871:20-24 (Katz).)

The merchant’s decision to switch away from GPCC network services, therefore, is largely driven by its estimate of its credit-insistent customers. (Id. at 3867:23-3871:24, 3875:143876:1, 3899:18-3901:19 (Katz); see also PX0111 at '826; Tr. at 3872:8-3874:12 (Katz) (Amex employs similar logic in negotiating with its merchants).) Based on American Express’s own estimates of insistence levels among its cardholder base — and the reasonable assumption that the percentage of credit-loyal customers would significantly exceed the percentage of Amex-loyal customers (see Tr. at 3896:10-3898:10 (Katz) (noting Amex cardholders may be prompted to use another GPCC card, which they likely carry given the ubiquity of Visa and MasterCard, but may not be as easily switched from GPCC cards to another form of payment entirely); PX1240 at '103; PX2702 at 48) — Dr. Katz concluded that it was extremely unlikely that merchant attrition would reach the thresholds necessary to render either SSNIP unprofitable (see Tr. at 3917:20-3919:15, 3922:22-3924:24 (Katz)). Similarly, data of individual customers’ spending patterns (correlated using loyalty card numbers) collected from five of the nation’s largest supermarkets and drugstores indicates that approximately 25% to 35% of customers shopping at these merchants exclusively use a GPCC card. (See DX7828 at 31; see also Tr. at 3893:2-3894:24 (Katz) (describing these customers as the “set of people that are loyal to credit, and that the merchant would be concerned about losing if it were to decide not to accept credit cards”).) This credit-insistent business would be put at risk by dropping acceptance of GPCC cards altogether. Moreover, the determination that merchant attrition is unlikely to reach levels necessary to render the SSNIPs unprofitable is confirmed by the quantitative evidence showing the re *179 sponse among merchants to the actual price increases imposed by American Express during its Value Recapture initiative, see infra Part IV.C.l, as well as the effect — or rather, lack thereof — on GPCC card network services prices following the decline of debit network prices under the Durbin Amendment, see infra Part III. A.2.b.

As in Visa , however, there is limited direct quantitative evidence in the record from which the court might make a definitive calculation of either merchants’ or cardholders’ sensitivity to pricing changes in the network services market. 15 Notwithstanding this difficulty, the court is persuaded by Dr. Katz’s logical and thorough analyses of likely merchant responses to a monopolist’s imposition of a SSNIP in thé proposed product market, and finds it highly unlikely that merchant attrition resulting from such a move would be sufficient to render it unprofitable, given the high rates of credit-insistent spend merchants would place at risk by switching away from credit card acceptance. See Emigra Grp., 612 F.Supp.2d at 352 (acknowledging that “[d]irect evidence of cross-elasticity of demand is rare,” and requiring courts instead “to look to a number of ‘criteria designed to focus, directly or indirectly, on cross-elasticity’ ” (citation omitted)). Yet the court’s determination that the applicable product market does not include debit network services is not premised solely on a formalistic implementation of the reasonable interchangeability standard, particularly in light of the complexities introduced into this analysis by the two-sided nature of the GPCC platform, and the varying levels of vertical integration that may tend to obscure market realities. See Evans & Noel (2005) at 696 (urging caution when defining antitrust markets in two-sided platforms, noting “mechanical market definition exercises are particularly likely to obscure market realities” given the complexity of such systems).

b. Competitive Realities in the Network Services Market

The “pragmatic, factual approach” to market definition advocated by American Express, which relies on evidence of the “actual dynamics of the market” rather than concrete data regarding cross-elasticity, confirms Dr. Katz’s analysis and provides further support for the court’s determination that debit cards and their related acceptance services are not reasonably interchangeable with credit and charge products. See Brown Shoe, 370 U.S. at 336 , 82 S.Ct. 1502 (noting courts should apply “a pragmatic, factual approach to the definition of the relevant market and not a formalistic, legalistic one”); Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 495-500 (noting that in defining product markets, “[t]he empha *180 sis always is on the actual dynamics of the market rather than rote application of any formula”).

In the decade since Visa , the payment systems market has undergone a significant evolution as consumers are increasingly using their debit cards to purchase goods and services at the point of sale. The number of households carrying debit cards has more than quadrupled since 1995, and today nearly as much purchase volume flows across debit networks as across GPCC networks. (Tr. at 6227:2-6228:10 (Bernheim); DX7828 at 10-11.) To American Express, debit’s dramatic growth over the past decade, together with new data that purport to show both an increased willingness among customers to use their debit and GPCC cards interchangeably and also greater alignment between cardholders’ perceptions of these two platforms, provides evidence that the product markets used in Visa are no longer viable and that debit must be included in the relevant product market in this case. But the market in this case cannot be defined solely by reference to cardholders’ views on substitutability between debit and GPCC cards at the point of sale, as customers’ preferences are relevant only insofar as they provide insight into how merchants might respond to a price increase as to credit and charge cards. Instead, the critical question for the court is whether debit card network services are reasonably interchangeable with GPCC network services from the merchant’s perspective such that they impose some form of competitive discipline on the suppliers of the latter, such as American Express, Visa, and MasterCard. 16 While merchants’ acceptance decisions are primarily driven by customer preferences, it is essential to recognize that other characteristics of credit and debit acceptance services are also material to that calculus, including training costs, speed of pay, and customer service. (See Tr. at 3831:22-3832:8 (Katz).) For the following reasons, the court finds that the actual dynamics in the marketplace for network services confirm that debit is properly excluded from the relevant product market in this case.

First, the record suggests a prevailing view among the GPCC card networks themselves that debit cards and acceptance services do not meaningfully affect the prices they charge to their merchants. See Brown Shoe, 370 U.S. at 325 , 82 S.Ct. 1502 (noting that among the *181 “practical indicia” of reasonable interchangeability are “industry or public recognition of the [proposed market or] sub-market as a separate economic entity” and whether “distinct prices” are charged); Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 496; Emigra Grp., 612 F.Supp.2d at 356 (“ ‘[EJvidence of industry or public recognition of [a proposed market or] sub-market as a separate economic unit’ is important in determining its relevance for antitrust purposes ‘because we assume that economic actors usually have accurate perceptions of economic realities.’” (internal citation and quotation marks omitted) (alterations in original)). American Express, for example, sets its pricing tables for each merchant segment by reference to Visa’s and MasterCard’s all-in credit card rates, not their debit card rates or blended credit/debit rates. (Tr. at 2562:16-2563:3, 2564:17-2565:4 (Fun-da/Amex); PX1240 at '091 (illustrative pricing methodology).) As explained by the American Express executive responsible for global merchant pricing, the company’s pricing methodology compares Amex’s discount rates to the all-in credit rates for Visa and MasterCard, rather than their blended credit/debit rates, because credit possesses “a sufficiently different feature set” when compared to debit and “a sufficiently different cost structure ... [such] that it should be priced on its own merits and not combined with debit.” (Tr. 2730:17-23 (Fun-da/Amex).) Indeed, there is very little indication in the record that American Express views its merchant pricing as being constrained by debit rates. Discover, which offers both debit and credit products, similarly does not consider the price of debit services when setting merchant pricing for its credit card network services. (See id. at 818:16-23 (Ho-ehschild/Discover).) American Express additionally rebuffs attempts by merchants to compare its higher discount rates to blended credit/debit rates charged by Visa and MasterCard, and instead recommends that merchants compare Amex’s pricing against its competitors only “on a credit to credit basis.” (See PX0010 (“[Amex] made it clear we do not compete with debit so we didn’t include it in [the rate] analysis.”); PX1110 at '311 (recommending that merchants consider Amex’s pricing premium only against what they “pay for similar Visa/MasterCard credit cards”); see also PX0068 at '514 (in a meeting with one large retailer, Amex representatives explained that comparing Amex to Visa and MasterCard “on a credit to credit basis” is “a more accurate comparison” than a comparison including debit).)

Second, with regard to the cardholder side of the platform, product substitution at the point of sale is limited by the core functional differences between debit and GPCC cards. See Brown Shoe, 370 U.S. at 325 , 82 S.Ct. 1502 (considering indicia such as the “product’s peculiar characteristics and uses” and where the products have “distinct customers”). Debit cards are “pay now” products, allowing cardholders to make purchases using the funds deposited in their linked demand deposit accounts. (See PX1408 at 22 (Amex 2009 Form 10-K).) Credit cards, by contrast, are “pay later” products by virtue of the attached credit facility; cardholders may pay for their purchases in the future and carry a balance beyond the month in which a purchase was made. Similarly, charge cards enable customers to defer payment by virtue of the float, and increasingly allow cardholders to carry a balance forward to the next billing cycle. See supra Part I.A. Put simply, debit cards enable consumers to deduct from their existing funds — similar to checks — while spending on credit and charge cards results in an *182 accruing balance that can be paid in the future. GPCC cards also offer an array of ancillary benefits to cardholders that typically are not offered on debit cards, including robust rewards programs. (Tr. at 3880:19-3883:6 (Katz).)

While debit and GPCC network services need not be perfect substitutes to be included in the same product market, see AD/SAT, 181 F.3d at 227-28, American Express has itself acknowledged that the functional differences between these two payment systems limit their interchangeability at the point of sale 17 and affect customers’ spending behaviors. For example, mány consumers compartmentalize or tailor their spending to some degree on their GPCC or debit cards depending on the type or size of a transaction. (Tr. at 754:9-24 (Quagliata/Amex) (recognizing that “many people compartmentalize their spend ... us[ing] different products for different reasons”), 3701:1-3703:5, 3744:7-3745:5 (Silverman/Amex); see also id. at 819:17-820:5 (Hoehschild/Discover) (testifying to the compartmentalization phenomenon in the payment card industry).) According to one study performed by American Express, consumers tend to use their debit cards “when a purchase feels mundane or ‘everyday’ ” or when a “purchase falls below a personal threshold (anywhere from $20-$200).” (See PX2543 at '624, '634, '643 (indicating approximately 40% of Amex cardholders compartmentalize between credit and debit to some degree); see also Tr. at 3885:19-3889:10 (Katz) (tailoring is affected by the characteristics of both the consumer and the transaction); PX2702 at .42-47; Tr. at 6122:10-15, 6151:23-6152:6 (Mitchell/Official Payments) (noting Official Payments’s customers tend to use debit on purchases below $300, and credit or charge on purchases above that amount); DX7828 at 30 (median transaction size on debit is approximately 25% lower than on GPCC cards).) Conversely, cardholders are more likely to put luxury or big-ticket purchases on their credit or charge cards. (See, e.g., Tr. at 563:22-564:24 (Bou-chard/Sears), 1231:25-1232:12 (Kim-met/Home Depot); PX2702 at 43.) Business travelers likewise tend to use GPCC products when making purchases at T & E merchants in order to benefit from the deferred payment options while awaiting reimbursement by their employers. (See id. at 251:10-22 (Thiel/Alaska Airlines), 5908:2-18 (Flueck/Starwood Hotels).)

Though consumers in the United States are undeniably turning to debit cards with greater frequency than in the past — which, in the court’s view, may be attributable in part to shifting attitudes toward credit in the wake of the Great Recession — the functional differences between debit and credit cards have not changed since the decisions in Visa . Merchants recognize that these qualitative differences influence customer payment behavior, and that the resulting spending patterns limit their ability to switch away from GPCC acceptance. (See, e.g., Tr. at 387:8-388:7 (Robinson/Ikea) (recognizing that Ikea’s “experience has shown us different customers[ ] have different payment preferences, and we have to offer those choices,” and discussing various rationales customers might use when compartmentalizing spend), *183 564:13-565:9 (Bouchard/Sears) (testifying that Sears would be at a competitive disadvantage if it shifted to debit-only acceptance given customer payment preferences), 1232:13-24 (Kimmet/Home Depot), 1525:9-21 (O’Malley/Best Buy), 2402:10-18, 2404:7-16 (Priebe/Southwest); see also id. at 5908:15-18 (Flueck/Starwood Hotels) (Starwood must continue to accept credit cards or risk losing business travelers).)

Third, the evidence adduced at trial indicates that merchants do not view debit and GPCC acceptance services as reasonably interchangeable. Even if debit’s increasing market share and shifting consumer perceptions as compared to GPCC products were taken to signal a greater inclination toward substitutability among cardholders, American Express has presented no evidence to suggest that merchants — the relevant consumers in this analysis — are willing to switch away from GPCC cards in favor of debit. To the contrary, the testimony elicited at trial suggests that merchants are sensitive to the spending preferences and credit-insistence of their customer base and, as a result, do not view debit network services as an economically viable substitute for GPCC networks services given the revenue that presumably would be lost to their credit-accepting competitors. 18 Other merchants strongly prefer payment by credit and charge cards for reasons independent of cardholder demand, particularly when the merchant requires some form of security for a purchase. (See Tr. at 482:5-484:8, 485:7-23) (Satkowski/En-terprise) (Enterprise strongly prefers customers use credit because such cards provide superior identity verification and security for car rentals), 1610:2-1611:21 (Brennan/Hilton) (Hilton would actively discourage guests from using a debit card at check-in because the hotel must take an “overage” out of the linked checking account to ensure there are sufficient funds to cover incidental charges, and it may take up to six weeks for the funds to be refunded), 5906:17-5907:20 (Flueck/Starwood Hotels). American Express’s effort to undercut the merchant testimony presented at trial by pointing to the fact that some merchants use its blended debit/credit rate, which would be lower than a credit-only rate, in attempting to negotiate a lower discount rate with Amex is unpersuasive. 19 (See, e.g., *184 id. at 2284:11-23 (Berry/Amex).) Such use is, in the court’s view, more reasonably understood as a negotiating tactic employed by merchants in the hopes of negotiating a lower effective rate.

Fourth, and finally, the reaction — or, more accurately, the lack thereof — among merchants and the credit card networks to the significant decline in debit interchange rates that occurred as a result of the Dur-bin Amendment is further evidence that debit does not constrain credit card network pricing and thus does not belong in the relevant market. See Brown Shoe, 370 U.S. at 325 , 82 S.Ct. 1502 (advising courts to consider evidence of “sensitivity to price changes”). The Durbin Amendment authorized the Federal Reserve to regulate interchange rates on debit cards issued by certain financial institutions, see Dodd-Frank Act § 1075, 15 U.S.C. § 1693o-2, which was accomplished by regulation in October 2011, see Regulation II, Debit Card Interchange Fees and Routing, 12 C.F.R. § 235.3 . According to data from the Federal Reserve, following implementation of the Durbin Amendment the average debit interchange rate in the United States fell by 37% (see Tr. at 3926:10-24 (Katz); PX2702 at 63 (showing decline in the debit interchange rate from 1.24% to 0.78% in the three months following implementation)), and Dr. Katz calculated that all-in debit rates actually paid by merchants (including interchange, network, and acquirer rates) fell nearly 30% (Tr. at 3927:4-3928:10 (Katz); see also id. at 3929:5-25 (Katz) (noting two-sided price declined as well)). 20 Were debit in the relevant market, the court would expect to have seen the falling debit rates place downward pressure on GPCC prices as merchants switched away from credit network services to debit, given the increased price differential between the two forms of payment. (Id. at 3925:1-3926:3 (Katz).)

Yet the market’s reaction was quite different. Following implementation of the Durbin Amendment in 2011, there was no significant merchant attrition from the major credit card networks in favor of debit services, notwithstanding the increased savings that could be recognized by switching consumers from credit to debit cards. 21 (See id. at 819:14-16 (Ho- *185 chschild/Diseover), 2723:2-19 (Fun-da/Amex), 3931:3-3932:21 (Katz) (noting “merchants did not respond by dropping credit cards en masse,” and that in fact, merchant acceptance grew during this period).) And, relatedly, lower debit rates did not result in any appreciable decrease in the price of credit card network services charged to merchants by American Express and its fellow GPCC networks. (See id. at 820:6-8 (Hoehschild/Diseover) (Discover did not reduce rates in response to Durbin), 3930:1-7 (Katz) (noting “very little, if anything” happened to GPCC prices); see also PX0920 (expressing concern about potential • merchant responses to falling debit rates, but noting “fact [is] that debit and credit are not substitutes in the consumer’s (or Durbin’s) mind”); PX0089 at '343 (Amex analysis of likelihood merchants would switch to debit in response to the Durbin Amendment).) Thus, the natural experiment afforded by implementation of the Durbin Amendment for observing the degree of cross-elasticity between GPCC and debit acceptance services, or, for that matter, the degree to which debit fees constrain pricing by and the business behavior of GPCC card networks, provides additional support for excluding debit from the relevant market. 22

B. Plaintiffs’ Proposed T & E Sub-market

Within the boundaries of the broader network services market, Plaintiffs additionally propose that the court recognize a submarket consisting of GPCC card network services provided to T & E merchants. (See Tr. at 3912:15-19, 6645:16-19 (Katz); Pls. Post-Trial Br. (Dkt. 606) at 34-35.) See also Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 496 (“Reasonable interchangeability sketches the boundaries of a market, but there may also be cognizable submarkets which themselves constitute the appropriate market for antitrust analysis.” (citing Brown Shoe, 370 U.S. at 325 , 82 S.Ct. 1502 )). Relying primarily on American Express’s practice of segmenting its merchant base by industry, and setting different pricing tables for each merchant segment, Plaintiffs attempt to establish the existence of their submarket by proving a hypothetical monopolist would similarly be able to segment and target T & E merchants for higher discount rates. (See Tr. at 3906:20-3912:19, 6645:16-6646:16 (Katz).) See also Merger Guidelines § 4.1.4 (recognizing that markets may be defined around “targeted consumers” in limited circumstances). Courts have recognized that these so-called “price discrimination markets” may be defined around a set of consumers that are particularly vulnerable to such practices. See, e.g., E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. v. Kolon Indus., Inc., 637 F.3d 435, 448 (4th Cir.2011); Spirit Airlines, Inc. v. Nw. Airlines, Inc., 431 F.3d 917, 935 (6th Cir.2005); see also 2B Phillip E. Areeda, Herbert Hovenkamp & John L. Solow, Antitrust Law ¶ 534d(1), at 269 (3d ed.2007) [hereinafter Areeda & Hovenkamp] (“Successful price discrimination means that the disfavored geographic or product class is insulated from the favored class and, if the discrimination is of sufficient magnitude, should be counted as a separate relevant market.”). (See also Tr. at 3911:2-7 (Katz), 6296:25-6297:10 (Bernheim).)

*186 Here, however, Plaintiffs have failed to establish that a hypothetical monopolist’s ability to charge a higher price in T & E industries constitutes price discrimination such that it would be appropriate to define a submarket around these “targeted customers.” See Merger Guidelines §§ 3, 4.1.4. All four GPCC networks pursue pricing strategies that require the ability to segment their merchant bases by industry and to charge different rates to different segments. (See Tr. at 733:14-22 (Quagliata/Amex) (describing industry segmentation as the “guiding criteria” for Amex’s pricing strategy), 3906:20-3907:23, 3909:18-3910:7 (Katz).) But differential pricing is discriminatory, and thus relevant to the definition of the T & E submarket, only if the different prices being charged do not reflect actual differences in the network’s costs of providing services to the different merchant segments. (Tr. at 4093:10-14 (Katz) (agreeing that “price discrimination is a supplier’s charging different prices to two customers after accounting for differences in the supplier’s incremental costs of serving those two customers”).) See also Eastman Kodak, 63 F.3d at 106-07 (“[Ejvidenee that Kodak film sells for different prices in different parts of the world is insufficient to establish price discrimination without proof that Kodak’s costs are uniform throughout the world.” (emphasis in original)); 2B Areeda & Hovenkamp § 517, at 150-55.

Looking, as Plaintiffs do, to evidence of American Express’s pricing practices in T & E industries, the court finds insufficient evidence in the record to conclude that the higher prices charged therein are discriminatory. (See Tr. at 6297:19-6301:9 (Bern-heim).) In attempting to show that Defendants’ higher discount rates in T & E industries are not driven by higher costs, and are therefore discriminatory, Dr. Katz’s analysis compared two proposed measures of American Express’s price-cost margin on network services across multiple merchant segments. Each measure, however, is flawed. Dr. Katz first used internal data from American Express concerning the company’s “contribution margin” across various industries, which is a measure of Amex’s revenue less its variable costs on each dollar of charge volume. (Tr. at 3984:1-20 (Katz); PX2702 at 87.) Not only does contribution margin fail to account for the network’s fixed costs, resulting in an inexact measure of margin depending on how those costs are allocated by industry, but the internal database from which these figures were drawn also does not distinguish between Amex’s various business lines. As a result, the margin calculations include revenues and costs associated with Defendants’ issuing business, not just the network services business. (Tr. at 4102:10-4103:20 (Katz).)

Altérnatively, Dr. Katz attempted to approximate American Express’s margins by beginning with the network’s average discount rate in each industry, and then subtracting Defendants’ third-party “issuer rate,” which is analogous to the interchange rates charged on Visa’s and MasterCard’s systems. (Id. at 3982:11-3983:23; PX2702 at 86.) The portions of the discount rate retained by Amex vary significantly by industry segment, and, according to Dr. Katz, “are larger than any plausible ... cost differences” that may exist in servicing each set of customers. (Tr. at 3983:13-17 (Katz).) Yet this approach also fails to disaggregate Amex’s various lines of business and provides, at best, only an indirect approximation of Amex’s margins on network services in each industry. Similarly, the court lacks data regarding the other networks’ costs of providing network services in the proposed T & E submarket.

Accordingly, Plaintiffs have not established that American Express, or any of its *187 competitors, are able to charge discriminatory prices in the industries that would appear to comprise Plaintiffs’ proposed T & E submarket. Though a hypothetical monopolist likely would be able to isolate and impose higher prices in such industries, the court lacks a reliable basis for inferring that those prices would not be driven by cost differences associated with serving T & E merchants. (See id. at 6347:19-6348:8 (Bernheim).) Additionally, Plaintiffs have not clearly defined the contours of their proposed submarket. It is not apparent which merchant industries would be included in a “travel and entertainment” submarket and which would not, and Plaintiffs have not provided the court with adequate grounds for making those determinations itself. For these reasons, the court finds that Plaintiffs have failed to establish a cognizable price discrimination market around merchants in T & E industries.

As a result, the court concludes that Plaintiffs have established that the relevant market for the court’s antitrust analysis in this case is the market for general purpose credit and charge card network services in the United States. Plaintiffs have not proven the existence of a cognizable submarket for network services sold to T & E merchants. That Plaintiffs have failed to establish a T & E submarket is ultimately of no consequence, however, as the discussion below holds that Plaintiffs have successfully demonstrated that Defendants possess market power in the GPCC card network services market.

IV. MARKET POWER

As explained in Parts TV and V of this Decision, the court concludes that Plaintiffs have successfully discharged their initial burden under the rule of reason using both the direct and indirect methods of proof: Amex’s NDPs have adversely affected competition in the network services market, and American Express possesses sufficient market power to cause such effects. In the interests of continuity and clarity, the court begins by completing the market analysis begun in the prior section before considering Plaintiffs’ efforts to prove that the NDPs have caused actual detrimental effects on competition.

To prevail on a market power theory of liability, Plaintiffs must prove that American Express possesses market power in the GPCC card network services market and that there are “other grounds to believe that the defendant’s behavior will harm competition market-wide.” K.M.B. Warehouse, 61 F.3d at 129. Defined by the Supreme Court as the “power to control prices or exclude competition,” E.I. du Pont, 351 U.S. at 391 , 76 S.Ct. 994 ; Kodak, 504 U.S. at 481 , 112 S.Ct. 2072 (“the ability of a single seller to raise price and restrict output”); see also K.M.B. Warehouse, 61 F.3d at 129 (market power is “the ability to raise price significantly above the competitive level without losing all of one’s business”), market power may be proven directly through evidence of “specific conduct indicating the defendant’s power to control prices or exclude competition,” or it may be inferred based on the defendant firm’s large share of the relevant market when viewed in the context of the competitive dynamics therein, see Kodak, 504 U.S. at 464 , 112 S.Ct. 2072 ; K.M.B. Warehouse, 61 F.3d at 129; Todd, 275 F.3d at 206 ; Commercial Data Servers, Inc. v. Int’l Bus. Machs. Corp., 262 F.Supp.2d 50, 73 (S.D.N.Y.2003). The Government presents evidence on both points. Although an assessment of whether American Express possesses antitrust market power is a question of fact to be decided on the basis of the record developed at trial, the Visa decisions nonethe *188 less provide a helpful roadmap for the court’s analysis in this case. Both the district court and Second Circuit in Visa relied on three categories of evidence in finding that. Visa and MasterCard, both jointly and separately, possessed market power in the GPCC card network services market: (1) defendants’ market shares and the structural characteristics of the market; (2) cardholder insistence; and (3) the networks’ pricing practices and merchants’ continued acceptance despite price increases. See Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 340-42 ; Visa II, 344 F.3d at 239-40 .

Considering many of the same types of evidence introduced into the factual record in this case, and for the additional reasons outlined below, the court concludes that American Express does possess antitrust market power in the GPCC card network services market sufficient to cause an adverse effect on competition. Specifically, the court finds that Defendants enjoy significant market share in a highly concentrated market with high barriers to entry, and are able to exercise uncommon leverage over their merchant-consumers due to the amplifying effect of cardholder insistence and derived demand. In addition, American Express’s ability to impose significant price increases during its Value Recapture initiatives between 2005 and 2010 without any meaningful merchant attrition is compelling evidence of Defendants’ power in the network service market. Plaintiffs’ other pricing arguments are less persuasive, and are ultimately unnecessary to the court’s finding that American Express possesses market power.

A. Market Share, Concentration, and Barriers to Entry

American Express’s percentage share of the network services market is compelling evidence of market power. In reaching this determination, the court remains mindful that data regarding a firm’s raw share of the relevant market is probative of market power only after “full consideration of the relationship between market share and other relevant market characteristics,” including the “strength of the competition, the probable development of the industry, the barriers to entry, the nature of the anticompetitive conduet[,] and the elasticity of consumer demand” that characterize this particular market. Tops Mkts., 142 F.3d at 98; see also In re Payment Card, 562 F.Supp.2d at 402 . In Visa , the court inferred market power on the part of Visa and MasterCard — which at the time accounted for 47% and 26% of total general purpose credit card spending, respectively — based upon their “large market shares in a highly concentrated network market with only four significant competitors.” Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 341-42 ; Visa II, 344 F.3d at 240 . Few of the structural elements of the network services market noted in Visa have changed in the intervening years.

Today, American Express is the second largest GPCC card network when measured by charge volume. As of 2013, Amex accounted for 26.4% of general purpose credit and charge card purchase volume in the United States. (Jt. Stmt. ¶ 20.) It trails only Visa’s 45% market share, and is larger than both MasterCard (23.3%) and Discover (5.3%). (Id.) Despite Amex’s protestations to the contrary, the proper metric for assigning market shares among the four GPCC networks is the dollar value of the transactions facilitated on those networks. See Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 341 ; Visa II, 344 F.3d at 240 ; In re Payment Card, 562 F.Supp.2d at 400 ; see also Merger Guidelines § 5.2 (“In most contexts, the Agencies measure each firm’s market share based on its ... revenues in the relevant market.”). Although other *189 measures of a network’s size, such as the number of cards in circulation, the breadth of its merchant acceptance network (whether actual or perceived), and the total number of transactions, will affect that firm’s ability to compete in a market characterized by network effects, charge volume is the most direct measure of output in this particular market, and is also the primary determinant of the remuneration networks receive from merchants in exchange for network services. See Merger Guidelines § 5.2 (“In most contexts, each firm’s market share is based on its actual or projected revenues from the targeted customers.”). As a result, in terms of raw percentage share of the relevant market, American Express is larger today than MasterCard was at the time of the Visa litigation, when the Second Circuit held that MasterCard possessed market power. 23

Furthermore, the network services market remains highly concentrated and constrained by high barriers to entry, just as it was in Visa . American Express is one of only four major suppliers of GPCC card network services, and three of the competitors in this market (Visa, American Express, and MasterCard) are significantly larger than the fourth (Discover). (Tr. at 3826:9-3827:9 (Katz); see also id. at 3939:5-3941:22 (Katz) (finding the Herfindahl-Hirschman Index for GPCC card network services is “well above” the “threshold for being highly concentrated”).) The structural susceptibility of this market to an exercise of market power is exacerbated by its inherently high barriers to entry, which further reduce the likelihood that an attempt at anticompetitive conduct would be defeated by new suppliers entering the market. See Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 342 (“The higher the barriers to entry, and the longer the lags before new entry, the less likely it is that potential entrants would be able to enter the market in a timely, likely, and sufficient scale to deter or counteract any anticompetitive restraints.” (citing Merger Guidelines § 3.0)); see also In re Payment Card, 562 F.Supp.2d at 402 (noting that “whereas a seller in a market with low entry barriers could not raise its *190 prices without the risk that a new seller would enter the market and offer the same product for a lower price, a competitor in a market with high entry barriers could raise its prices unfettered by the prospect of a new entrant into the market who would undercut prices”). In addition to the sizable setup costs associated with developing the infrastructure and branding necessary to compete in the network services market, any new entrant would also need to overcome what executives from Amex and Discover have termed the “chicken and the egg problem.” That is, due to the aforementioned network effects inherent in this platform, a firm attempting entry into the GPCC network market would struggle to convince merchants to join a network without a significant population of cardholders and, in turn, would also struggle to convince cardholders to carry a card associated with a network that is accepted at few merchants. (Tr. at 820:23-821:16 (Hochschild/Discover), 3942:16-3943:2 (Katz), 4296:12-24 (Che-nault/Amex).) See also Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 341-42 . Accordingly, the network services market, is not only highly concentrated, it is also remarkably static; no firm has entered the GPCC card network services market in the United States since Discover launched its network in 1985. 24

The rise of new digital payment options like PayPal, Square, and Google Wallet do not pose an entry threat to American Express or the other GPCC card networks at this time. Rather than establish their own payment networks, these services piggyback on existing methods of payment— including credit and charge, debit, and ACH — in order to facilitate their use at both online and brick-and-mortar merchants. (See Tr. at 3714:6-18 (Silver-man/Amex), 3945:63946:13 (Katz).) PayPal, for example, functions as an electronic wallet, enabling consumers to load multiple payment methods into a single online account and then choose which payment option to use at the moment of purchase. (See id. at 1271:16-1272:9 (Kimmet/Home Depot), 2428:8-15 (Priebe/Southwest).) These companies are viewed by American Express and its network rivals as GPCC-accepting merchants, not as competitors in the network services market. (See id. at 823:19-23 (Hochschild/Discover), 3714:5-3715:1 (Silverman/Amex).) Although electronic wallets like PayPal and Square are recognized by American Express to present unique competitive challenges to its business, these difficulties are traceable to the fact that their services have proven effective at steering customers to debit and ACH and that they interrupt the typically direct relationship between Amex and its cardholders. (Id. at 3711:20-3713:23, 3715:2-14 (Silverman/Amex); DX7524; see also Tr. at 1270:3-18 (Kimmet/Home Depot).)

Consequently, American Express’s 26.4% share of a highly concentrated market with significant barriers to entry suggests that the firm possesses market power. See, e.g., Visa II, 344 F.3d at 239-40 ; see also Toys “R” Us, Inc. v. F.T.C., 221 F.3d 928, 937 (7th Cir.2000) (finding firm *191 exercised market power notwithstanding only 20% share of national wholesale market). Yet, Amex’s market share alone likely would not suffice to prove market power by a preponderance of the evidence were it not for the amplifying effect of cardholder insistence.

B. Cardholder Insistence

American Express’s highly insistent or loyal cardholder base is critical to the court’s finding of market power in this case. The ability of merchants to resist potential anticompetitive behavior by Amex, including significant price increases, by shifting customers to less expensive credit card networks or other forms of payment is severely impeded by the segment of Amex’s cardholder base who insist on paying with their Amex cards and who would shop elsewhere or spend less if unable to use their cards of choice. In Visa , both the district court and Second Circuit recognized the amplifying effect of cardholder. loyalty on Visa’s and MasterCard’s positions in the market, noting that insistence effectively precluded merchants from dropping acceptance of either Visa or MasterCard credit cards and supported a finding of market power as to both networks. See Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 340-41 (noting merchants “cannot refuse to accept Visa and MasterCard even in the face of significant price increases because the cards are such preferred payment methods that customers would choose not to shop at merchants who do not accept them”); Visa II, 344 F.3d at 240 . Here, the record developed at trial illustrates a similar dynamic among Defendants’ cardholders and merchants, supported not only by merchant testimony on the effect of cardholder insistence, but also by American Express itself, which expressly recognizes, quantifies, and leverages the loyalty of its cardholders in its business dealings with merchants.

Cardholder insistence is derived from a variety of sources. First, and perhaps most importantly, cardholders are incen-tivized to use their Amex cards by the robust rewards programs offered by the network. 25 Enrollees in American Express’s Membership Rewards program, for example, receive points for purchases made with their Amex cards, and may then redeem those points with Amex or one of its redemption partners for merchandise, gift cards, frequent flyer miles, statement credits, or other goods and services. (Tr. at 3548:13-3549:22 (Silverman/Amex), 4298:20-4300:13 (Chenault/Amex).) Cardholders who value the ability to earn points, miles, or cash rebates often centralize their spending on their Amex cards to maximize these benefits. (See PX0426 at '649.) Similar “single-homing” behavior is also observed among the approximately 10-20% of Amex cardholders who own or regularly carry only their Amex cards (PX0815 at '290; DX7249 at '207; DX7828 at 85-86), as well as among those cardholders who consolidate their credit card spending on their American Express cards for other reasons. Amex’s industry-leading corporate card program, for instance, drives a significant degree of insistent spending, particularly at those T & E mer *192 chants that cater to the needs of business travelers. (Tr. at 2569:13-2570:9 (Fun-da/Amex), 3962:3-3964:19 (Katz), 6378:16-6379:20 (Bernheim); PX2486 at '053 (stating Amex captured 64.3% of corporate card spend in first half of 2013).) Indeed, according to one study by American Express, approximately 70% of Corporate Card consumers are subject to some form of “mandation” policy, by which employers require the employee-cardholders to use Amex cards for business expenses. (PX0634 at '112.)

As in Visa , Plaintiffs also have presented merchant testimony illustrating the manner in which cardholder insistence effectively prevents merchants from dropping American Express. While a number of merchant witnesses testified that their companies had never considered terminating acceptance of Amex due to the network’s share of the merchants’ receipts or a generalized concern that their customers would shop elsewhere if unable to use their American Express cards, 26 others have analyzed the issue in detail and arrived at the same conclusion: The foregone profits associated with losing Amex-insistent customers rendered dropping Amex commercially impractical. 27 Though American Express may be fairly characterized as a discretionary card for consumers when compared to the ubiquity enjoyed by Visa and MasterCard (see Tr. at 4312:10-22 (Chenault/Amex)), the degree to which its cardholders insist on using their Amex cards affords the network significant power over merchants, particularly in a market in which merchants’ primary recourse when faced with a price increase or similar conduct is an “all-or-nothing” acceptance decision. (See id. at 3974:18-3976:12 (Katz).) Defendants’ efforts to minimize the significance of cardholder insistence by recasting it as mere “brand loyalty” are unavailing. Amex I, 21 F.Supp.3d at 200-01 (finding Defendants’ brand loyalty argument unconvincing).

Nor may insistence be dismissed as a mere marketing ploy. American Express itself uses insistence-based calculations to inform its pricing strategy and to persuade merchants of the importance of accepting *193 its cards. When evaluating its industry-specific rate tables, for example, Amex’s pricing team begins with a baseline rate equal to the Visa/MasterCard all-in credit card rate (i.e., the average rate charged across Visa’s and MasterCard’s various card offerings) and then adds the value of “the incremental business that [Amex] bring[s] to [its] merchants,” which the company equates with the amount of spend attributable to its insistent cardholders. (Tr. at 2568:5-22 (Funda/Améx) (acknowledging that “[t]he metric that we use to back into how much incremental volume we bring to our merchants is an insistence-based metric”).) The company tracks and applies three measures of insistence for this purpose: (1) “walk away” insistence, which captures those cardholders who would shop elsewhere if unable to use their Amex cards, (2) “spend less” insistence, which captures those cardholders who would shop less frequently at a merchant or spend less per visit, and (3) corporate insistence, which captures the effect of employer mandation policies among Amex’s corporate cardholders. (Id. at 2567:23-2570:9 (Funda/Amex); see also 2571:9-2573:15 (Funda/Amex); PX1240 at '091, 102-03 (Amex calculations of “total insistence” for use in its pricing strategy).) Amex regularly surveys its cardholders to estimate the degree of insistence in each industry segment to ensure its calculations reflect actual market realities. (Tr. at 2570:10-2571:11 (Funda/Amex).) Defendants use these figures to approximate the amount of charge volume and associated profit realized by participants in each industry segment that it believes is traceable to insistent spend — i.e., the incremental value of Amex acceptance or, alternatively, the business put at risk by defecting from the network — and, in turn, to inform its decision-making when identifying opportunities to raise merchant prices relative to the value it believes it delivers. 28 (Id. at 2639:14-22, 2819:19-2820:16 (Fun-da/Amex); PX1240 at '104; see also Tr. at 3957:20-3961:16 (Katz) (testifying that, based on his review of Amex’s pricing methodology, Defendants “recognize[] insistence is one of the things that gives them the ability to charge merchants higher prices”).)

When negotiating with merchants, Defendants also rely on the restraining effects of cardholder insistence to explain why ceasing to accept American Express cards would be unprofitable. In 2008, for example, when justifying a price increase imposed as part of a repricing initiative termed “Value Recapture,” see infra Part IV.C.l, American Express reminded merchants in the airlines group that the network’s “highly insistent cardholders” or “loyalists” were responsible for hundreds of millions in charge volume that would be put “at risk” by not accepting the price increase, rendering it “essential [for the airlines] to accept American Express.” (See, e.g., PX0111 at '806, '814 (Alaska Airlines); PX1601 at '263, '271 (Southwest); PX0517 at '026 (American Airlines).) Similarly, in a standardized presentation used by Amex client managers when justifying a series of Value Recapture price increases to restaurants in 2010, Amex paired its standard value proposition to merchants with a warning that, accord *194 ing to its data, nearly 50% of Amex cardholders “[w]ould no longer dine, [w]ould dine less often or would spend less” if the restaurants chose not to accept American Express. (PX0957 at '900, '914, '916-17, '921, '923-24.)

The existence and practical effect of cardholder insistence on merchant choice are not merely theoretical, as demonstrated by the various “real world” examples cited by Plaintiffs. For example, when Murphy Oil, a chain of gas stations located primarily in Wal-Mart parking lots, terminated its acceptance of American Express cards during the Great Recession in 2008, the network tracked the response among its cardholders and found that the actual insistence rate it observed among Murphy Oil’s customers was twice what the company’s research had previously estimated. (See PX0031 at '668, '671.) As noted by Jack Funda, the head of Amex’s pricing unit, in an email to his colleagues, the data illustrated that Murphy Oil’s decision to terminate was “irrational” and that “this case example suggests that [cardholder] insistence in Oil is real and strong — we should be able to make use of this data in our merchant negotiations.” (Id. at '668.) Murphy Oil eventually resumed its acceptance of American Express. (Tr. at 2703:23-25 (Funda/Amex).)

Even the nation’s largest merchants are not immune to the effects of cardholder insistence. Walgreen, which was at the time the ninth largest retailer in the United States, was forced to retreat from a 2004 decision to terminate acceptance of American Express in the face of public outcry from its customers, who told the drugstore that they would take their business to a competitor if unable to use their Amex cards. (See id. at 1343:2-4, 1352:1-1399:7 (Rein/Walgreen).) Like Murphy Oil, Walgreen ultimately “capitulated” to American Express and agreed to a new acceptance agreement containing the pricing terms that were substantially similar to those the retailer had previously deemed unacceptable and which had led to its decision to drop Amex. (Id. at 1363:11— 1365:19, 1398:18-1399:4, 1517:2-11 (Rein/Walgreen) (testifying that Walgreen believed Amex’s offer of a 10 basis point decrease to its discount rate was unacceptable given the magnitude of American Express’s premium over competitor rates, but that Walgreen ultimately agreed to a similar decrease — albeit on a different time-line); PX1966; PX1969 at '367; PX1965; DX2143 at '943 (noting Amex’s proposal left it with a 50 basis point premium over Visa/MasterCard).)

This is not to suggest, however, that merchant defection is something Amex takes lightly; losing a merchant hurts the network’s bottom line as the merchant presumably also has loyal customers and, perhaps more importantly, risks spillover effects at other acceptance locations. (See Tr. at 5958:3-5959:5 (McNeal/Amex); see also id. at 1626:18-1628:6 (Brennan/Hilton).) Nonetheless, the experiences of Murphy Oil and Walgreen, together with the other “natural experiments” cited by Plaintiffs, illustrate the manner in which cardholder loyalty, and the prospect of losing insistent charge volume by terminating acceptance, constrains merchants’ ability to resist anticompetitive- behavior by American Express. (See PX0031 at '671 (noting cost to Murphy Oil of defection far exceeded the cost to Amex).)

Finally, the court is unconvinced by Defendants’ argument that cardholder insistence cannot be a source of durable market power. (See Defs. Posh-Trial Br. (Dkt. 605) at 44-45; see also Tr. at 5067:6-5068:9 (Gilbert), 6350:6-6351:25 (Bern-heim).) Though Defendants are correct that transitory market power is not of particular concern under the federal anti *195 trust laws, the requirement that market power be “durable” speaks to whether a new entrant or other market forces could quickly bring the defendant’s exercise of power to an end. See Geneva Pharm., 386 F.3d at 509 (“[A] transitory advantage does not significantly harm competition and therefore should not violate § 1.... ”); AD/SAT, 181 F.3d at 229; see also 2B Areeda & Hovenkamp ¶ 510, at 110 (“[T]ransitory power may safely be ignored by antitrust law. The social costs of antitrust intervention (including its error potential) are likely to exceed the gains when market forces themselves would bring the defendant’s power to an end fairly quickly.”). The court is aware of no authority that supports Defendants’ position that market power is not durable if its maintenance requires continual and replicable investment by the defendant firm. Put simply, American Express cannot avert a finding of market power premised on cardholder insistence merely because that loyalty and its current market share would dissipate if the company were to stop investing in those programs that make its product valuable to cardholders. Of course it would, as would the share of any company that abandoned a core element of a successful business model. Here, the durability of Defendants’ power is ensured by the sustained high barriers to entry in the network services market, see supra Part IV.A, as evidenced by the lack of any meaningful entry into the market since 1985, and the decades-long persistence of the restraints at issue in this case. See United States v. Microsoft, 253 F.3d 34, 82 (D.C.Cir.2001); Colo. Interstate Gas Co. v. Natural Gas Pipeline Co. of Am., 885 F.2d 683 , 695 n. 21 (10th Cir.1989).

C. Pricing Practices

Certain of Amex’s pricing practices provide direct evidence of the company’s market power in the network services market, albeit to varying degrees. As discussed below, the record shows that between 2005 and 2010, American Express repeatedly and profitably raised its discount rates to millions of merchants across the United States as part of its Value Recapture (“VR”) initiative without losing a single large merchant and losing relatively few small merchants as a result. Similar evidence of low defection rates among merchants following repeated network price increases was viewed by the district court in Visa as strong evidence of Visa and MasterCard’s market power. See Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 340 (in finding defendants possessed market power, noting “both Visa and MasterCard have recently raised interchange rates charged to merchants a number of times, without losing a single merchant customer as a result”). The court finds the same is true here.

In addition, Plaintiffs aver that American Express’s ability to price discriminate between various industry segments, and its stated policy of maintaining a pricing premium over the mix-adjusted rates of Visa and MasterCard, are additional evidence of market power. While probative of Amex’s ability to control prices in the network services market, this evidence is less persuasive than that regarding Value Recapture and, in the court’s view, is not necessary to its finding that American Express possesses market power.

1. Value Recapture

Faced with a declining premium over the all-in rates charged by Visa and MasterCard in the early 2000s, see infra at Part IV.C.3, American Express executed a series of targeted price increases in certain industry segments between 2005 and 2010, with the stated purpose of better aligning its prices with the value it perceived as being delivered to both. cardholders and *196 merchants. (Tr. at 1983:2-15 (Berry/Amex), 4399:3^400:2 (Chenault/Amex), 6038:23-6039:7 (McNeal/Amex).) Because these Value Recapture initiatives were not paired with offsetting adjustments on the cardholder side of the platform, the resulting increases in merchant pricing are properly viewed as changes to the net price charged across Amex’s integrated platform. (Tr. at 3985:5-24 (Katz) (noting that without “offsetting changes on the cardholders’ side, ... the two-sided price [across Amex’s platform], increased”).) Given the low rates of merchant defection observed in response to this initiative, which increased prices that were already at or above the competitive level, Value Recapture illustrates Amex’s “successful exercise of market power.” (Id. at 3985:3-24, 3989:13-3991:15 (Katz) (noting “American Express was starting from prices that were not below competitive levels” and that these “two-sided price increases were profitable .... [as] [t]hey both raised revenues and they raised profits”).)

Taken as a whole, Amex’s Value Recapture initiatives comprised at least twenty separate price increases accomplished through a combination of increased discount rates, new or increased per transaction fees, and reduced side payments to merchants. (PX0121 at '459.) The increases were imposed on an industry-specific basis, with several merchant segments — typically those with relatively high rates of cardholder insistence — targeted for multiple rounds of price hikes. (PX1240 at '100-04 (overview of VR as of 2010); see, e.g., PX0056-A at '237-38 (VR in airlines industry); PX0778 (VR in lodging).) For example, between 2007 and 2010, American Express moved its airline merchants to a higher discount rate table, resulting in the headline discount rates for many airlines rising between 7% and 15% over the four year period, and driving over $90 million in additional pre-tax income to the network. (PX0056-A at '237.) The restaurant industry was also subject to three separate rounds of Value Recapture increases between 2007 and 2010, with individual merchants subject to some combination of the following pricing “levers”: a 5-15 basis point increase in the discount rate, a new 30 basis point “Card Not Present Fee,” and/or a $0.05 fixed fee per transaction, as well as subsequent expansions of the same. (PX0062 at '392-93, '395-96.) In whole, the Value Recapture programs targeting restaurants increased prices for at least 280,000 restaurants in the United States. (Tr. at 717:22-24 (Quagliata/Amex); PX0062 at '393, '395.) In 2009 alone, Amex aimed to increase prices for over one million small merchants and more than 3,000 larger, managed merchants in the United States. (PX0121 at '461.) Value Recapture was not limited to T & E industries; Amex also targeted so-called “everyday spend” merchants like supermarkets and retailers. (See, e.g., PX1201 (Giant Eagle); PX0121 at '461-62.) On the whole, these price increases affected a “substantial portion” of Amex’s acceptance network, with merchants accounting for 65% of American Express’s annual charge volume paying higher prices for its network services as a result of Value Recapture. (PX1240 at '100; see also PX0121 at '459; PX1240 at '088 (estimating Value Recapture raised Amex’s average discount rate in the United States by nearly 9 basis points).)

Although American Express’s decision to adjust its pricing in response to perceived increases in its costs on either side of its integrated platform is not itself evidence of market power (see Tr. at 6337:9-17 (Bernheim)), the company’s ability to profitably impose such price increases across a broad swath of its merchant base with little or no meaningful buyer attrition is compelling proof of such power (see id. *197 at 3985:3-3990:12 (Katz)). Notwithstanding the breadth of the Value Recapture program, the court is unaware of any large merchant in the United States that elected to cancel its acceptance of Amex cards in response to the Value Recapture price increases. (Tr. at 2079:6-2080:10 (Berry/Amex), 2675:23-2676:4 (Funda/Amex); PX1099 at '555 (noting 100% retention among largest global merchants); see also id. at 4739:25-4740:3 (Glenn/Amex) (testifying that “no large merchants canceled”).) Similarly, in Amex’s Regional Client Group (or its organizational predecessor), which was responsible for managing the accounts of the approximately 9,000 merchants with annual Amex charge volume between $3 million and $100 million, the network was able to retain over 99.9% of merchants following Value Recapture increases in both 2009 and 2010. (See PX0706 at '676, '685; PX1000 at '929; Tr. at 622:24-625:5 (Quagliata/Amex).) In 2010, for example, only three merchants in this group voluntarily stopped accepting Amex, and it is not clear whether those decisions were related to Value Recapture. (Tr. at 742:22-746:1.) Finally, among the millions of small merchants without designated Amex client managers, American Express appears to have concluded that Value Recapture was profitable on the whole, even though the network observed higher rates of cancellation and card suppression among this population when compared to its larger merchants. (PX1753-A at '033; Tr. at 2677:18-2679:20 (Funda/Amex).)

American Express, for its part, contests the Government’s assertion that Value Recapture may be viewed as a profitable endeavor. It asserts that the price increases were the result of hotly contested negotiations, and notes that the increases were at least partly offset by significant concessions the network was forced to make to certain large merchants to ensure their continued acceptance of American Express cards, such as deferrals of the rate increases, additional marketing funds, and similar financial consideration. (Tr. at 4401:16-23 (ChenaulVAmex), 4740:4-4741:12 (Glenn/Amex); see also PX0121 at '463 (noting usage of such “relief valves” was below projections).) Yet the record concerning the profitability of Value Recapture is clear. Internal Amex documents show that the Value Recapture initiatives resulted in $1.3 billion in incremental pre-tax income for Amex over the five-year period from 2006 to 2010, and nearly a 9 basis point improvement to Amex’s weighted average discount rate in the United States. (PX0357 at '949.) Even after accounting for the concessions Amex paid to retain certain merchant accounts and the forgone profits associated with the minimal merchant cancellations that did occur during the period — whether or not those cancellations are traceable to the price increase — the evidence plainly shows that Value Recapture was profitable on a return-on-investment basis. (PX1753-A at '032-33; PX0008 at '487-89; Tr. at 2688:12-2689:11 (Funda/Amex) (VR for small merchants was profitable when considering merchant attrition, though that determination did not include intangible effects like changing perceptions of coverage among cardholders).) While the court recognizes that Value Recapture likely had certain secondary effects, including implications for the network’s ability to acquire new merchants and cardholders’ perception of coverage, Defendants have not shown that these “speculative” or intangible costs rendered the increases unprofitable on the whole. (Tr. at 2683:3-21 (Funda/Amex).) 29

*198 Value Recapture was ultimately ended in 2010 by American Express due to merchant dissatisfaction with the price increases given the economic climate at the time and not, it would appear, due to any competitive pressures imposed by Amex’s competitors in the GPCC network services market. (See Tr. at 2690:1-24 (Fun-da/Amex), 5717:11-5718:2 (Gilligan/Amex) (VR ended because “the pain that it was causing to many of our relationships with merchants was not worth the gain”).)

2. Price Discrimination

Next, Plaintiffs rely on Amex’s ability to price discriminate between various industry groups as evidence of the network’s market power. See Visa I, 163 F.Supp.2d at 340-41 (noting Visa and MasterCard’s ability to “charge differing interchange fees based, in part, on the degree to which a given merchant category needs to accept general purpose cards,” in other words, cardholders’ credit-insistence, “illustrates their market power”). Yet the court finds such evidence to be of limited probative value in this case.

While it is beyond dispute that American Express sets different prices for merchants depending on the industry segment to which they belong, this fact alone does not prove its market power. As the court previously discussed in connection with Plaintiffs proposed T & E submarket, American Express’s practice of charging different prices to different merchant groups is discriminatory only if those prices are unrelated to differences in the. costs associated with providing network services to each group.' See supra Part III.B. Yet Plaintiffs have not provided a reliable measure of American Express’s per transaction margins across its industry groups,' and the court accordingly determines there to be inadequate grounds to find price discrimination sufficient to establish antitrust market power. (Tr. at 6347:19-6348:3 (Bernheim).)

Nonetheless, like the district court in Visa I, this court does take note of the ease with which American Express is able to identify and target merchant segments for differential pricing based on its esti *199 mates of merchant demand in each industry — demand which, as previously discussed, and as recognized in Visa , is largely a reflection of the degree to which Amex cardholders insist on using their cards.

3. Merchant Pricing Premium,

Defendants’ express pricing strategy of charging merchants a premium over its competitors’ rates presents similar difficulties to the court when proffered as evidence of ma

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