Joseph Thomas v. Phil Bryant

IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS

FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT

United States Court of Appeals

Fifth Circuit

FILED

No. 19-60133 September 3, 2019

Lyle W. Cayce

JOSEPH THOMAS; VERNON AYERS; MELVIN LAWSON, Clerk

Plaintiffs–Appellees

v.

PHIL BRYANT, Governor of the State of Mississippi, all in the official

capacities of their own offices and in their official capacities as members of

the State Board of Election Commissioners; DELBERT HOSEMANN,

Secretary of State of the State of Mississippi, all in the official capacities of

their own offices and in their official capacities as members of the State

Board of Election Commissioners,

Defendants–Appellants.

Appeal from the United States District Court

for the Southern District of Mississippi

Before DAVIS, HIGGINSON, and WILLETT, Circuit Judges.

W. EUGENE DAVIS, Circuit Judge:

Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, as amended in 1982, prohibits

state and political subdivisions from redistricting “in a manner which results”

in members of a protected class of racial and language minorities “hav[ing] less

opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate in the political

process and to elect representatives of their choice.” 1 Plaintiffs challenged the

legislative boundaries for Mississippi State Senate District 22, arguing that

1 52 U.S.C. § 10301(b).

No. 19-60133

the district, as drawn in 2012, diluted African-American voting strength.

Following a two-day bench trial, the district court concluded that the evidence

established a § 2 violation under the standards set forth in Thornburg v.

Gingles. 2 We AFFIRM the district court’s judgment declaring District 22

violative of § 2 of the Voting Rights Act. The State’s appeal of the district

court’s judgment granting injunctive relief is DISMISSED AS MOOT.

I.

A.

At least once every decade, the State of Mississippi redraws its

legislative boundaries based in part on the decennial census. In 2012, the

Mississippi Legislature realigned the contours of Senate District 22 to stretch

over 100 miles, from north to south. The district then consisted of all or part

of five counties in the Mississippi Delta—Bolivar, Humphreys, Sharkey,

Washington, and Yazoo—as well as parts of one non-Delta county, Madison. 3

Since early times, concentrations of African Americans have occupied the Delta

area, which has a unique history and character. 4

District 22 contains some very poor areas predominantly populated by

African Americans. Based on the 2012 redistricting plan, the black voting age

population (BVAP) in District 22 was 50.8%. In this district, almost 41.2% of

African Americans lived in poverty; their median household income was

$23,741. But the district also contained some very wealthy areas, mainly in

the southern portion of Madison County, inhabited primarily by white

residents. The poverty rate for white residents in District 22 was

approximately 8.8%; their median household income was $66,736.

2 478 U.S. 30 (1986).

3 See APPENDIX for a depiction of Mississippi Senate District 22.

4 The uniqueness of the Delta has been described in detail by our court and the district

court. See Thomas v. Bryant, 919 F.3d 298, 301 (5th Cir. 2019); Thomas v. Bryant, 366 F.

Supp. 3d 786, 790–91 (S.D. Miss. 2019).

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Since 2003, Senate District 22 has been represented by Eugene Clark,

who is white. The candidate, whether African-American or not, preferred by

African-American voters has not occupied this office in that time. 5

B.

On July 9, 2018, three African-American voters of District 22, Joseph

Thomas, Melvin Lawson, and Vernon Ayers, filed a complaint under § 2 of the

Voting Rights Act (VRA) against Mississippi Governor Phil Bryant, Secretary

of State Delbert Hosemann, and Attorney General Jim Hood, who constitute

the State Board of Election Commissioners (collectively, the “State”). Plaintiffs

alleged that the boundary lines of District 22, as drawn under the 2012

legislative redistricting plan, diluted African-American voting strength and

deprived African-American voters of an equal opportunity to elect candidates

of their choice. According to Plaintiffs, the Mississippi Legislature’s “addition

of th[e] predominantly white areas from Madison County . . . limit[ed] the

district’s black voting age population to the present level of 50.8%, which

combine[d] with white bloc voting and lower African-American turnout . . .

dilute[d] African-American voting strength in the district.” Plaintiffs

contended that “[p]ast elections in Mississippi, particularly in District 22 and

its surrounding area, have been marked by a clear pattern of racially polarized

voting.” Consequently, as Plaintiffs averred, no African-American or African-

American-preferred candidate has represented District 22 in its current or

previous form, including in 2015, when Plaintiff Thomas ran for the seat but

lost, despite garnering a vast majority of African-American votes.

In their complaint, Plaintiffs pointed out that while the State of

Mississippi is at least 35% African-American in voting age population, only

5 The record does not contain evidence of the district lines or the election results for

any election earlier than 2003.

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25% of the members of the Mississippi Senate are African-American. They

maintained that though African Americans made up a majority of the voting

age population in District 22, that majority lacked “real electoral opportunity”

under Supreme Court precedent interpreting § 2 of the VRA. Plaintiffs

contended that District 22 could be redrawn to cure the § 2 violation with

changes to only one or two adjacent districts; that the resulting districts would

be more compact than in the 2012 plan; and that the alteration would not

create Voting Rights Act violations in any other districts. Plaintiffs therefore

asked the district court to declare that the 2012 districting plan violated § 2 of

the VRA and enjoin the State from conducting any future elections in District

22—including the upcoming November 2019 election—under that plan.

C.

The district court conducted a bench trial from February 6–7, 2019.

Under 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a), the State had requested a district court of three

judges to hear the case, 6 but the court found that provision inapplicable to a

standalone § 2 statutory claim.

At trial, Plaintiffs provided demographic analyses and results from

elections in 2003, 2007, 2011, and 2015, which showed that Clark (and white-

preferred candidates for statewide offices, e.g., Governor and Secretary of

State) consistently beat out candidates preferred by African Americans in

District 22. Utilizing ecological inference (EI), Plaintiffs’ expert, Dr. Maxwell

Palmer, 7 highlighted consistent patterns of bloc voting by white residents and

lower election turnout of African Americans. Plaintiffs further proffered

6 The State first raised this argument in late January 2019, on the eve of trial. The

State’s answer, filed in August 2018, had acknowledged that the district court had subject-

matter jurisdiction. The State’s motion for summary judgment, filed in September 2018, did

not discuss jurisdiction.

7 Dr. Palmer, a political science professor at Boston University, was qualified by the

district court as an expert in data analysis pertaining to redistricting.

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No. 19-60133

evidence about the bleak socioeconomic realities of African Americans in

District 22. Plaintiff Thomas, who ran for state senate in 2015, and Plaintiff

Lawson also testified about the lack of transportation options to assist African-

American voters in traveling to the polls to vote during odd-year elections.

Plaintiffs’ other expert, William Cooper, 8 presented the district court with

three plans that would, in his opinion, increase the BVAP of District 22 while

honoring traditional redistricting criteria.

On the other hand, the State’s expert, Dr. Peter Morrison, testified that

African Americans have performed well in county and municipal races within

District 22 and that African-American voters statewide have higher election

turnout than white voters. 9 The State argued that District 22, as then drawn,

was already a majority-minority district, so no relief was warranted.

Applying the familiar test set forth in Gingles, the district court

determined that District 22, as drawn in 2012, did in fact violate § 2 of the

VRA. On February 13, 2019, the district court issued an order preliminarily

advising the Mississippi Legislature of its conclusion that District 22 did not

afford African Americans “an equal opportunity to participate in the political

processes and to elect candidates of their choice.” The district court noted that

Plaintiffs had presented three different plans for redrawing District 22 that

would remedy the § 2 violation, but the court acknowledged that the

Mississippi Legislature was entitled to the first opportunity to redraw the

district.

On February 16, 2019, the district court issued a lengthy opinion,

denying the State’s laches defense and concluding that Plaintiffs had proven

8 Mr. Cooper is a geographic information system (GIS) consultant who conducts

computer mapping for redistricting plans; he was qualified as an expert in that field.

9 Dr. Morrison, an applied demographer retired from the Rand Corporation, was

qualified by the district court as an expert in that field.

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by a preponderance of the evidence that the boundaries of Mississippi Senate

District 22 violated § 2. 10 The court, however, declined to order any specific

relief “while the Mississippi Legislature consider[ed] whether to redraw the

District and extend the qualification deadline.” 11

The State thereafter appealed the district court’s order and filed a

motion for stay pending appeal in this court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1292(a)(1),

which provides appellate jurisdiction over a district court’s interlocutory order

granting an injunction.

On February 21, 2019, the district court conducted a teleconference,

joined by Secretary of State Hosemann; the parties “convinced the Court that

no further hearings were necessary” regarding remedies. 12 On February 26,

2019, the State further informed the district court that the Mississippi

Legislature “would take up the Court’s suggestion to redraw District 22 only if

the motions for stay were denied [at the district court] and in the Fifth

Circuit.” 13 On that same day, however, noting that the Mississippi Legislature

had not redrawn the boundaries of District 22, the district court granted

Plaintiffs’ motion to extend the qualification deadline from March 1, 2019 to

March 15, 2019. The district court also redrew the boundaries of District 22.

Specifically, the district court adopted Plaintiffs’ “Illustrative Plan 1,” which

affected the boundaries of Districts 22 and 23. Finally, the district court issued

a final judgment “resolv[ing] all of the claims and defenses in th[e] case” and

rendering judgment in favor of Plaintiffs and against the State. 14

10 Thomas, 366 F. Supp. 3d at 810.

11 Id.

12 ECF Dkt. No. 85 at 2.

13 Id.

14 Because the district court’s final judgment on February 26, 2019 varied from its

interlocutory order, we dismissed the appeal of the interlocutory order as moot. Thomas v.

Bryant, 755 F. App’x 421 (5th Cir. 2019).

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D.

On February 27, 2019, the State filed a notice of appeal of the district

court’s final judgment. 15 On March 8, 2019, the State filed in this court an

emergency motion for stay of judgment. On March 15, 2019, a divided motions

panel of this court granted in part and denied in part the State’s motion and

issued an opinion one week later providing its reasoning. 16 The panel first

determined that the State did not have a strong likelihood of overturning the

district court’s judgment. Nevertheless, noting that the Mississippi

Legislature should be afforded an additional opportunity to redraw District 22

and comply with the Voting Rights Act, the panel issued a temporary stay of

the district court’s judgment until April 3, 2019, and extended the candidate

filing deadline for any affected districts until April 12, 2019.

E.

On March 26, 2019, the Mississippi Senate exercised its prerogative and

redrew the legislative map, which the Mississippi House of Representatives

approved the next day. The resulting legislation adopted new district

boundaries—different from those of the court-mandated plan—affecting

Senate Districts 22 and 13. The legislation provides:

[T]his resolution shall take effect and be in force from and after its

passage; however, in the event that the appellants prevail in the

appeal of the case of Joseph Thomas, et al. v. Phil Bryant, et al.,

No. 19-60133 (5th Cir. Mar. 15, 2019), this resolution shall be

repealed and the districts as originally configured in Chapter 2234,

Laws of 2012, shall take effect. 17

15 Attorney General Jim Hood did not appeal the district court’s judgment and

consequently is not a party to this appeal.

16 See Thomas, 919 F.3d at 298.

17 MISS. LEGIS., J.R. 202 (2019).

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On April 4, 2019, Plaintiffs informed the district court that they would

not challenge the State’s newly drawn plan; thus, this is the operative plan for

the 2019 state senate elections.

F.

We held oral argument in this matter on June 11, 2019. On August 1,

2019, we announced our holding, noting that detailed opinions would follow.

Because we affirmed the district court’s judgment, the Legislature’s plan was

used in the primary election on August 6, 2019. The general election is

scheduled for November 5, 2019.

II.

Before addressing the merits of Plaintiffs’ § 2 claim, we must examine de

novo whether we have jurisdiction on appeal and whether the district court

had jurisdiction to hear this case with a single judge notwithstanding the

three-judge provision contained in 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a). We discuss each in

turn.

A.

Article III, section 2 of the Constitution confines federal courts to the

decision of “Cases” or “Controversies.” 18 “[A]n actual controversy must be

extant at all stages of review, not merely at the time the complaint is filed.” 19

A case becomes moot “if an event occurs while a case is pending on appeal that

makes it impossible for the court to grant ‘any effectual relief what[so]ever’ to

a prevailing party.” 20 A legislative remedy to a challenged law may moot a

case pending appeal because courts can no longer enjoin the enforcement of a

18U.S. CONST. art. III, § 2.

19Arizonans for Official English v. Arizona, 520 U.S. 43, 67 (1997) (quoting Preiser v.

Newkirk, 422 U.S. 395, 401 (1975)).

20 Church of Scientology of Cal. v. United States, 506 U.S. 9, 12 (1992) (quoting Mills

v. Green, 159 U.S. 651, 653 (1895)).

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repealed law that has no effect. 21 A case is moot when “(1) it can be said with

assurance that there is no reasonable expectation that the alleged violation

will recur, and (2) interim relief or events have completely and irrevocably

eradicated the effects of the alleged violation.” 22

Prompted by our request for supplemental briefing on mootness,

Plaintiffs assert that the State’s appeal is moot because the Mississippi

Legislature exercised its prerogative and adopted new boundaries for District

22—different from the district court’s mandated electoral plan—to be used for

the upcoming election. Plaintiffs do not challenge the Legislature’s newly

reconfigured boundaries for District 22. So, according to Plaintiffs, the

Legislature’s amendment to the 2012 redistricting plan mooted this case while

our review was pending. We disagree.

We find that the Legislature’s revised boundaries for District 22 did not

moot the State’s appeal because the State asserts that it will restore the

challenged boundaries if it “prevails” and we reverse the district court’s

judgment. We have previously declined to find that a legislature’s responsive

fix to an election statute mooted the appeal of the district court ruling that

triggered the fix. 23 When the Mississippi Legislature redrew its district

boundaries in March 2019, it specifically provided in the legislation that the

amendments for Districts 22 and 13 “shall be repealed and the districts as

originally configured” shall be used if the State prevails on this appeal. 24 So

21 See Fantasy Ranch Inc. v. City of Arlington, 459 F.3d 546, 564 (5th Cir. 2006)

(citation omitted) (“[S]tatutory changes that discontinue a challenged practice are ‘usually

enough to render a case moot, even if the legislature possesses the power to reenact the

statute after the lawsuit is dismissed.’”) (quoting Valero Terrestrial Corp. v. Paige, 211 F.3d

112, 116 (4th Cir. 2000)).

22 Los Angeles Cty. v. Davis, 440 U.S. 625, 631 (1979) (internal quotation marks

omitted) (citations omitted).

23 See, e.g., Veasey v. Abbott, 888 F.3d 792, 799 (5th Cir. 2018); Miss. State Chapter,

Operation Push v. Mabus, 932 F.2d 400, 404, 409 (5th Cir. 1991).

24 MISS. LEGIS., J.R. 202.

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even though the primary election has passed, the State maintains that, if it

prevails on appeal, it could then revert to using its original map and conduct

special elections for Senate Districts 22 and 13. Because the State could gain

effectual relief as a result of this appeal, we hold that this case is not moot with

respect to the district court’s declaratory judgment; 25 appellate jurisdiction

therefore exists.

B.

1.

We next determine whether 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a), as amended in 1976,

required the district court to convene a three-judge panel to decide the merits

of this case. 26 “When the plain language of a statute is unambiguous and does

not ‘lead[] to an absurd result,’ ‘our inquiry begins and ends with the plain

meaning of that language.’” 27

Section 2284(a) provides: “A district court of three judges shall be

convened when otherwise required by Act of Congress, or when an action is

filed challenging the constitutionality of the apportionment of congressional

districts or the apportionment of any statewide legislative body.” 28 The

question presented is whether “constitutionality of” modifies only “the

apportionment of congressional districts” (as the State argues) or whether it

also modifies “the apportionment of any statewide legislative body” (as

Plaintiffs assert). In other words, pertinent here, the question is whether

25 As explained infra at SECTION V, the State’s appeal is moot with respect to the

district court’s order selecting and adopting a remedial plan because the Legislature’s

enactment of a new plan superseded the district court’s order.

26 See 21st Mortg. Corp. v. Glenn (In re Glenn), 900 F.3d 187, 189 (5th Cir. 2018)

(holding questions of statutory interpretation are reviewed de novo).

27 Sealed Appellee 1 v. Sealed Appellant 1, 767 F.3d 418, 421 (5th Cir. 2013) (alteration

in original) (quoting United States v. Dison, 573 F.3d 204, 207 (5th Cir. 2009)); Duncan v.

Walker, 533 U.S. 167, 172 (2001).

28 28 U.S.C. § 2284(a).

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§ 2284(a) requires a “district court of three judges” only when a plaintiff brings

a constitutional—as opposed to a statutory—challenge to state legislative

apportionment.

The text of § 2284(a) is clear, so we apply the statute as written. 29 We

read § 2284(a) to require a district court to convene as a three-judge district

court “in cases challenging the constitutionality of state or federal legislative

apportionment.” 30 Leading civil procedure scholars share this view. 31 Indeed,

for decades, district courts nationwide have routinely handled § 2 challenges

to state legislative maps as single-judge matters—and circuit courts have

reviewed their work without a hint of jurisdictional doubt. 32 This reflects the

settled understanding of § 2284(a) that has prevailed since its enactment. 33

Moreover, in Harris v. Arizona Independent Redistricting Commission, a

29 Cf. Lamie v. U.S. Tr., 540 U.S. 526, 534 (2004) (“The statute is awkward, and even

ungrammatical; but that does not make it ambiguous . . . .”).

30 22 JAMES WM. MOORE ET AL., MOORE’S FEDERAL PRACTICE § 404.02[1] (3d ed. 1997)

(emphasis added).

31 See id.; 17 CHARLES ALAN WRIGHT ET AL., FEDERAL PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE

§ 4235 (3d ed. 2007) (“[A] three-judge court for reapportionment cases . . . [is convened for]

all federal constitutional challenges that could result in a reapportionment.” (emphasis

added)).

32 See, e.g., Bone Shirt v. Hazeltine, 336 F. Supp. 2d 976 (D.S.D. 2004), aff’d, 461 F.3d

1011 (8th Cir. 2006) (South Dakota House and Senate); Metts v. Almond, 217 F. Supp. 2d 252

(D.R.I. 2002), rev’d en banc sub nom. Metts v. Murphy, 363 F.3d 8 (1st Cir. 2004) (Rhode

Island Senate); Old Person v. Brown, 182 F. Supp. 2d 1002 (D. Mont. 2002), aff’d, 312 F.3d

1036 (9th Cir. 2002) (Montana House and Senate); Rural W. Tenn. African Am. Affairs

Council v. Sundquist, 29 F. Supp. 2d 448 (W.D. Tenn. 1998), aff’d, 209 F.3d 835 (6th Cir.

2000) (Tennessee House); Sanchez v. Colo., 861 F. Supp. 1516 (D. Colo. 1994), rev’d, 97 F.3d

1303 (10th Cir. 1996) (Colorado House); Dickinson v. Ind. State Election Bd., 740 F. Supp.

1376 (S.D. Ind. 1990), rev’d in part, vacated in part, 933 F.2d 497 (7th Cir. 1991) (Indiana

House); Mirrione v. Anderson, 717 F.2d 743 (2d Cir. 1983) (New York Assembly).

33 See, e.g., Cavanagh v. Brock, 577 F. Supp. 176, 180 n.3 (E.D.N.C. 1983) (three-judge

court) (“A three-judge court is mandated pursuant to § 2284 when an action challenges the

apportionment of a statewide legislative body on substantial federal constitutional grounds.”

(emphasis added)); Sullivan v. Crowell, 444 F. Supp. 606, 615 n.6 (W.D. Tenn. 1978) (three-

judge court) (“Congress did not intend to require a three-judge court in the state legislative

apportionment context except where a constitutional challenge is made to a statute involving

‘the apportionment of (a) statewide legislative body.’” (emphasis added)).

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unanimous Supreme Court noted in a parenthetical explanation that § 2284(a)

“provid[es] for the convention of [a three-judge district court] whenever an

action is filed challenging the constitutionality of apportionment of legislative

districts.” 34 Both courts and preeminent treatises support this longstanding

understanding of § 2284(a). The State identifies no caselaw or commentary to

the contrary. 35

Furthermore, the “series modifier” canon of construction, even if

applicable, confirms our reading of § 2284(a). A modifier ordinarily applies to

an entire series of parallel terms. 36 So naturally, here, “constitutionality of”

applies to both “the apportionment of congressional districts” and “the

apportionment of any statewide legislative body.” The State, supported by an

amicus brief, argues the “the” coming before “apportionment of any statewide

34 136 S. Ct. 1301, 1306 (2016) (emphasis added). The Supreme Court offered this

parenthetical explanation in the context of a constitutional challenge to a state legislative

map, in the course of summarizing the case’s procedural history. See id. A three-judge court

had been convened because the case involved a Fourteenth Amendment challenge to

Arizona’s legislative districts. Id. Though this parenthetical explanation is dicta, the

Supreme Court’s view confirms our conclusion that a straightforward reading of § 2284(a)

requires a three-judge district court only in constitutional challenges to the apportionment

of a state legislative district.

35 Page v. Bartels, 248 F.3d 175 (3d Cir. 2001), though cited by the State, hurts its

argument. In Page, a case involving both constitutional and § 2 challenges to the New Jersey

legislature’s apportionment, the Third Circuit considered whether a single district judge

erred by ruling on a request for preliminary relief on the statutory claim before convening

the three-judge court. Id. at 181–82. After careful analysis of the “inextricably intertwined”

statutory and constitutional claims, the court concluded that the single judge should have

left the matter of preliminary relief to the three-judge court. Id. at 190. This careful analysis

was necessary, however, only because the Third Circuit viewed the § 2 claim as outside the

scope of § 2284(a). Id. at 181 (describing § 2284 as “a special procedural mechanism for

constitutional challenges to statewide legislative apportionment schemes” (emphasis added)).

If the § 2 claim were within the scope of § 2284(a) and required a three-judge district court,

the question would have been easy for the Third Circuit; the single judge’s action on

preliminary relief would have been clearly wrong.

36 See ANTONIN SCALIA & BRYAN GARNER, READING LAW: THE INTERPRETATION OF

LEGAL TEXTS 147 (2012).

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legislative body” interrupts the series modifier. 37 It asserts that this

“determiner”—the “the” in § 2284(a)—breaks off the modifier to the

“apportionment of any statewide legislative body.” So the State concludes that

a district court of three judges is required for all claims challenging state

legislative seats. We disagree. The modifying clause in § 2284(a) “is applicable

as much to the first . . . as [it is] to the last.” 38 As a leading statutory

interpretation guide recognizes, “[p]erhaps more than most of the other canons,

[the series modifier canon] is highly sensitive to context.” 39 It makes little

sense to say that three judges are required to hear statutory claims challenging

state legislative redistricting but not statutory claims challenging

congressional redistricting. 40 The text of § 2284(a) gives no indication that

Congress was “hid[ing] elephants in mouseholes.” 41 Accordingly, we hold that

the natural reading of § 2284(a) requires that “constitutionality of” be applied

to both “the apportionment of congressional districts” and “the apportionment

of any statewide legislative body.” 42

37Amicus Judicial Watch also argues that “the presence of a determiner before the

phrase ‘any statewide legislative body’ in § 2284(a) means that the earlier phrase ‘the

constitutionality of’ was not meant to modify that second phrase.”

38 See Paroline v. United States, 572 U.S. 434, 447 (2014) (quoting Porto Rico Railway,

Light & Power Co. v. Mor, 253 U.S. 345, 348 (1920)).

39 See SCALIA & GARNER, supra note 38, at 150.

40 To further illustrate, we note, as an example, that the judicial review section of the

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (BCRA) provides:

If any action is brought for declaratory or injunctive relief to challenge the

constitutionality of any provision of this Act or any amendment made by this

Act, the following rules shall apply: (1) The action shall be filed in the United

States District Court for the District of Columbia and shall be heard by a 3-

judge court convened pursuant to section 2284 of title 28, United States Code.

52 U.S.C. § 30110(a). Under the State’s interpretation and application of the “series modifier”

canon, a three-judge district court would be required for statutory claims challenging “any

amendment” to the BCRA, but not to “any provision” of the BCRA itself. Such a reading, and

application thereof, would be absurd.

41 Whitman v. Am. Trucking Ass’n, 531 U.S. 457, 468 (2001).

42 Because this statute is unambiguous, we need not address the State’s legislative

history argument. See United States v. Key, 599 F.3d 469, 480 (5th Cir. 2010) (noting

“repairing to legislative history would be unnecessary and improper” if statute is clear).

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2.

In the alternative, the State argues that a § 2 challenge is a

constitutional one because Congress passed the VRA to enforce the Fifteenth

Amendment. 43 This argument is unavailing. As the Supreme Court noted in

Gingles, Congress amended the VRA in 1982 to reject the Court’s prior

determination in City of Mobile v. Bolden. 44 The Bolden Court held that the

prior version of § 2 “was intended to have an effect no different from that of the

Fifteenth Amendment itself,” such that proof of intentional discrimination was

required to prove a § 2 vote dilution claim. 45 But Congress disagreed—

amending the VRA to provide a scheme for plaintiffs to establish a § 2 case by

“showing discriminatory effect alone.” 46 Henceforth, constitutional challenges

under, inter alia, the Fifteenth Amendment and statutory challenges under § 2

adhere to different legal precedents and evidentiary standards. 47 Indeed, as

noted, courts have repeatedly treated § 2 claims as non-constitutional

challenges. 48

43 The Fifteenth Amendment provides:

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be

denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race,

color, or previous condition of servitude.

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by

appropriate legislation.

U.S. CONST. amend. XV.

44 478 U.S. at 35 (citing City of Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55 (1980)).

45 Bolden, 446 U.S. at 61–62.

46 Gingles, 478 U.S. at 47; accord Dickinson v. Ind. State Election Bd., 933 F.2d 497,

502 (7th Cir. 1991) (“[P]laintiffs here base their claim on [§ 2] alone, not on constitutional

principles, implying that the district court’s reliance on pre-1982 cases or those dealing with

constitutional challenges to apportionment schemes is less relevant.”).

47 See, e.g., City of Carrollton Branch of the NAACP v. Stallings, 829 F.2d 1547, 1553

(11th Cir. 1987) (“Proof that a contested electoral practice or mechanism was adopted or

maintained with the intent to discriminate against minority voters . . . is not required under

Section 2 of the Voting Rights Act.”); see also League of United Latin Am. Citizens v. Perry

(“LULAC”), 548 U.S. 399, 425, 442 (2006) (declining to apply First Amendment and equal

protection standards to a district because it had already been found to violate § 2).

48 See supra notes 32-33.

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The State’s theory has a more basic problem. Every valid congressional

enactment is based on some provision of the Constitution. Under the State’s

theory, federal criminal law and tax law—typically enacted via Congress’s

commerce, taxing, and necessary and proper powers—would all be

constitutional matters. We find no legal or logical support for the State’s

position.

Because § 2284(a) does not apply, and this suit only concerns a § 2

statutory challenge, we hold that the district court, sitting as a single judge,

had proper authority to decide this case. 49

III.

We now consider the State’s laches defense. The State contends that this

lawsuit comes too late—the challenged map was enacted in 2012, Plaintiff

Thomas ran and lost the state senate race for District 22 in 2015, and the three

plaintiffs here did not commence legal action until July 2018. The State

asserts that Plaintiffs inexcusably delayed the filing of this suit, and the State

contends that it suffered undue prejudice. It argues that the district court

therefore erred by not dismissing this case based on laches. We review the

district court’s ruling on laches for abuse of discretion and its findings of fact

underpinning that ruling for clear error. 50

Laches “is a defense developed by courts of equity,” 51 which applies

where a plaintiff “unreasonably delays in filing a suit and as a result harms

the defendant.” 52 To successfully establish a laches defense, the defendant

49 Plaintiffs argue that even if § 2284(a) applies, the State has waived it because the

State did not request a three-judge panel until two weeks before trial. The State, however,

asserts that § 2284(a) is jurisdictional and thus cannot be waived. Because we conclude that

§ 2284(a) does not apply in this case, we need not decide whether this statute poses a

jurisdictional rule.

50 Retractable Techs., Inc. v. Becton Dickinson & Co., 842 F.3d 883, 900 (5th Cir. 2016).

51 Petrella v. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Inc., 134 S. Ct. 1962, 1973 (2014).

52 Nat’l R.R. Passenger Corp. v. Morgan, 536 U.S. 101, 121 (2002).

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must prove “(1) a delay asserting a right or claim; (2) that the delay was

inexcusable; [and] (3) that undue prejudice resulted from the delay.” 53 As set

forth below, we hold that the district court did not abuse its discretion in

rejecting the State’s laches defense.

A.

We first consider whether Plaintiffs unreasonably and inexcusably

delayed in filing this suit. The State has proffered two different time periods

in which it alleges Plaintiffs should have commenced legal action. In the

district court, the State argued that Plaintiffs’ claim accrued in September

2012 when the U.S. Department of Justice granted preclearance to the State’s

redistricting plan under § 5 of the VRA. The State argued that Mississippi’s

general three-year “catch-all” statute of limitations 54 applied and thus barred

Plaintiffs’ action because they delayed this action by six years. But now, on

appeal, the State argues that Plaintiffs’ claim accrued with the November 2015

election in District 22, when, according to the State, “all of the necessary facts

were in place.” The State concedes that “[t]here is no question that if this suit

had been brought in 2015, when all the facts necessary to plaintiffs’ case were

known, orderly review and orderly deliberation could have taken place.”

As a threshold matter, “[t]he trial court cannot have erred as to matters

which were not presented to it.” 55 Because the State’s laches argument at

summary judgment identified September 2012 as the accrual date, we cannot

53 Retractable Techs., 842 F.3d at 899–900 (alteration in original) (quoting Elvis

Presley Enters., Inc. v. Capece, 141 F.3d 188, 205 (5th Cir. 1998)); see also City of El Paso v.

El Paso Entm’t, Inc., 382 F. App’x 361, 366 (5th Cir. 2010) (holding the party asserting a

laches defense bears the burden of proving it).

54 Mississippi’s “catch-all” statute of limitation provides: “All actions for which no

other period of limitation is prescribed shall be commenced within three (3) years next after

the cause of such action accrued, and not after.” MISS. CODE ANN. § 15-1-49(1).

55 Gabel v. Lynaugh, 835 F.2d 124, 125 (5th Cir. 1988).

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fault the district court for not ruling on “arguments not presented below.” 56

We agree, nonetheless, with the State’s argument on appeal that the Plaintiffs’

clock, for laches purposes, began to run after the November 2015 election.

“Although laches is an equitable defense, it is usually applied with

reference to the limitations period for the analogous action at law, which may

be state law if no federal limitation law exists.” 57 In the district court, the

State argued that because the VRA does not contain a limitations period, the

general three-year “catch-all” limitations period of Mississippi Code § 15-1-49

should bar Plaintiffs’ § 2 claim. We use the state statute of limitations here as

a reference point. 58 The first time Plaintiffs should have known of their claim

is in November 2015. Significantly, the 2015 election was the first time the

challenged map was implemented and used for District 22. To Plaintiffs,

Thomas’s loss confirmed their basis for an actionable § 2 claim; it bolstered

their case showing a Voting Rights Act violation. It follows that under

Mississippi’s three-year “catch-all” period, Plaintiffs’ suit—filed in July 2018—

would be considered timely. 59

Furthermore, we note that resolving a laches defense is a fact-specific

inquiry, and the State points to no evidence that Plaintiffs unreasonably

delayed in filing this suit given the three-year analogous prescriptive period.

For election cases, circuit courts have generally approved laches defenses only

in cases filed much closer in time to the general election than this case. 60

56 McDonald v. Bd. of Miss. Levee Comm’rs, 832 F.2d 901, 909 (5th Cir. 1987).

57 Retractable Techs., 842 F.3d at 900 (citation omitted).

58 The district court also used the three-year “catch-all” limitations period as

reference, which the State does not challenge on appeal.

59 Cf. Holman v. Gulf Ref. Co. of La., 76 F.2d 94, 99 (5th Cir. 1935) (“[L]aches is not a

mere matter of the lapse of time, but rather of neglect and delay that is hurtful to the other

party and to a fair trial, because of which the extraordinary powers of equity will remain

passive. It may exist though no statute of limitation bars.”).

60 See, e.g., Dickinson, 933 F.2d at 499–502 (suit filed eight months before general

election); Simkins v. Gressette, 631 F.2d 287, 289 (4th Cir. 1980) (suit filed two days before

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Moreover, one circuit court has rejected a laches defense to § 2 relief ordered

closer in time to the general election than the relief ordered here. 61 The State

cites no binding Supreme Court authority on laches. Its lone circuit authority

is White v. Daniel, a Fourth Circuit case in which plaintiffs challenged the map

for a Virginia county’s board of supervisors. 62 That case is easily

distinguishable. There, the map was drawn in 1971 and retained after the

1980 census. 63 The last election under the map before the 1990 census was in

1987. 64 The plaintiffs sued after that election, in September 1988. 65 The

plaintiffs’ suit thus came too late to affect any election under the map and

would have saddled the county with two redistricting processes in a short

period. 66

Here, by contrast, Plaintiffs filed their complaint well before the

elections: sixteen months before the general election and thirteen months

before the primary election. To our knowledge, no circuit court has disturbed

a district court’s denial of a laches defense in any case where the suit was filed

more than eight months before the election. Consequently, if we were to

reverse the district court based on the doctrine of laches, we would be the

circuit outlier. Accordingly, we find that the district court acted within its

discretion. 67

the start of the candidate-qualifying period and eight months before the general election);

Md. Citizens for a Representative Gen. Assembly v. Governor of Md., 429 F.3d 606, 609 (4th

Cir. 1970) (suit filed thirteen weeks before filing deadline, five months before primaries, and

seven months before general election).

61 See Garza v. Cty. of Los Angeles, 756 F. Supp. 1298, 1303 (C.D. Cal. 1990), aff’d in

relevant part, 918 F.2d 763, 772 (9th Cir. 1990) (rejecting laches in suit that went to trial six

months before general election and resulted in relief four months before election).

62 909 F.2d 99, 100–02 (4th Cir. 1990).

63 Id. at 101.

64 Id. at 103–04.

65 Id.

66 Id. at 104.

67 We understand that changes to upcoming elections will inevitably cause disruption.

Nonetheless, we do not find that the Legislature’s operative plan—adopted over seven

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B.

Laches is not a doctrine concerned solely with timing. A defendant must

also establish undue prejudice as an independent element of its defense. 68

“Measuring prejudice entails balancing equities.” 69 Plaintiffs understandably

consider their case of great importance, and it carries significant public

implications. The State, however, argues that Plaintiffs’ suit injects confusion

and uncertainty into the November 2019 election. It argues that candidates

do not know where to campaign or fundraise, and voters do not know their

electoral options. Moreover, the State complains of the tight deadline the

district court imposed for the Legislature to create a remedy.

months before the general election for two of fifty-two districts—is unduly late or disruptive.

For instance, in Reynolds v. Sims, the epochal decision establishing the “one-person, one-

vote” doctrine, the Supreme Court reviewed a district court decision issued in late-July 1962

that set a new map for use in Alabama’s elections later that year. 377 U.S. 533 (1964). The

Supreme Court endorsed that action as “an appropriate and well-considered exercise of

judicial power,” done “in a most proper and commendable manner.” Id. at 586–87. The

dissent approvingly cites Reynolds’s guidance on the timing of voting remedies without

acknowledging that the district court there revised a state’s entire legislative map four

months closer to the general election than the two-district change imposed here.

Purcell v. Gonzalez is an instructive contrast. 549 U.S. 1 (2006). There, the suit was

filed in May 2006 challenging an Arizona law governing voter registration and identification.

Id. at 2–3. In September 2006, the district court declined to issue a preliminary injunction

affecting the election that November. Id. at 3. A motions panel of the Ninth Circuit then

stayed the law without oral argument or explanation on October 5, affecting the election

starting a few weeks later. Id. The Supreme Court then stepped in on October 20 and lifted

the Ninth Circuit’s injunction, citing the need to avoid disrupting the looming election. Id.

at 4–5. The dissent’s favored cases on the timing of election remedies all featured comparably

truncated timetables. See Husted v. Ohio State Conf. of N.A.A.C.P., 573 U.S. 988 (2014)

(Mem.); North Carolina v. League of Women Voters of N.C., 135 S. Ct. 6 (2014) (Mem.); Veasey

v. Perry, 769 F.3d 890, 892 (5th Cir. 2014).

Admittedly not laches cases, Reynolds and Purcell nonetheless provide some useful

guidance to lower courts as we decide what actions to take with an election nearing: Late-

July relief was permissible in Reynolds; October relief was not in Purcell. This indicates, to

us, that the Legislature’s March relief, in response to the court’s order, is not unduly

disruptive.

68 Envtl. Def. Fund, Inc. v. Alexander, 614 F.2d 474, 479 (5th Cir. 1980) (treating

prejudice as “prerequisite” to laches, distinct from delay).

69 Id.

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For purposes of a laches defense, forms of prejudice generally cognizable

by courts in the election context include the burden of redistricting twice in a

short span of time—that is, when a court orders redistricting shortly before the

regular, decennial redistricting 70—or upsetting the results of an election

already conducted (e.g., a corresponding primary election). 71 The State

principally relies on the cases discussing these sources of prejudice, but neither

scenario applies. In this case, Plaintiffs filed their voting rights case sixteen

months before the general election and thirteen months before the primaries;

the parties had until January 18, 2019 (over six months) to conduct discovery;

the district court conducted a bench trial in February 2019, nine months before

the general election. Moreover, this suit was filed four years before 2022, the

Mississippi Legislature’s deadline to redistrict after the 2020 census. 72

We are satisfied that the district court did not clearly err in finding no

undue prejudice. 73 Following the trial and the district court’s judgment, the

70 See, e.g., White, 909 F.2d at 104; Fouts v. Harris, 88 F. Supp. 2d 1351, 1354–55 (S.D.

Fla. 1999).

71 See, e.g., Lopez v. Hale Cty., 797 F. Supp. 547, 550 (N.D. Tex. 1992) (three-judge

court) (addressing suit filed after primary elections had already occurred under challenged

plan).

72 See MISS. CONST. art. XIII, § 254; Miss. State Conf. of NAACP v. Barbour, 2011 WL

1870222, at *7 (S.D. Miss. May 16, 2011), aff’d, 565 U.S. 972 (2011).

73 The State makes the conclusory argument that the expedited timetable impaired

its ability to litigate effectively. But it points to no specific problem such as inadequate time

to conduct discovery or hire experts. Additionally, we have held that in making scheduling

decisions, a court’s “judgment range is exceedingly wide,” for it “must consider not only the

facts of the particular case but also all of the demands on counsel’s time and the court’s.” HC

Gun & Knife Shows, Inc. v. City of Houston, 201 F.3d 544, 549–50 (5th Cir. 2000).

Recognizing the upcoming election timeline, the district court did not abuse its discretion in

expediting its administration of this case. See id. (noting “[a] trial judge’s control of discovery

is granted great deference” and “[w]e will reverse a discovery ruling only if it is ‘arbitrary or

clearly unreasonable.’” (citations omitted)).

Even if this litigation timeline were relevant to laches, it is unpersuasive. The State

had sufficient time to prepare this case. As previously noted, this lawsuit was filed sixteen

months before the November 2019 election, and the district court conducted the bench trial

in February 2019. Here, both parties had enough time for discovery and filed numerous

motions. Plaintiffs’ experts, Dr. Palmer and Mr. Cooper, completed their reports on

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Legislature was able to redraw District 22. Under the state constitution, the

Mississippi Legislature meets no more than ninety days annually. 74 This

year’s legislative session started on January 8, 2019 and concluded on March

29, 2019. 75 On February 13, 2019, six days after the bench trial concluded, the

district court “advise[d] the Mississippi Legislature that the evidence supports

the plaintiffs’ allegations” and “[a]s [then] drawn, District 22 [did] not afford

the plaintiffs ‘an equal opportunity to participate in the political processes and

to elect candidates of their choice.’” At that point, the Legislature had fifty-

three days left of its regular session. When the district court issued its findings

of fact and conclusions of law on February 16, it invited the Legislature to

redraw District 22 if the State wished to do so. The district court correctly

recognized that a “legislative plan is unequivocally to be preferred over a court-

ordered plan.” 76

On February 21, 2019, the district court held a teleconference, personally

joined by Secretary of State Hosemann. In that meeting, based on the district

court record, the parties “convinced the Court that no further hearings were

necessary.” 77

December 10, 2018 and January 18, 2019, respectively. The State’s expert, Dr. Morrison,

also completed his report on January 18, 2019. The State had about two months to review

Dr. Palmer’s analysis and about three weeks to review Mr. Cooper’s findings. Though the

State complains that it only learned several days before trial that Dr. Palmer’s analysis did

not capture 2,000 voters who mistakenly voted outside the district in 2015, the State properly

cross-examined him about this point at trial. Based on our careful review of the record, this

was a well-tried case. The district court promptly decided this case and issued its findings of

fact and conclusions of law on February 16, 2019.

74 MISS. CONST. art. IV, § 36.

75 Under the Mississippi Constitution, the Legislature could have stayed in session

until April 7, 2019, without two-thirds approval from both legislative chambers. See id.

76 See Operation Push, 932 F.2d at 406 (citations omitted) (“In the reapportionment

cases, courts clearly defer to the legislature in the first instance to undertake remedies for

violations of § 2.”).

77 Given this teleconference, the dissent’s criticism of the district court for not

conducting a “sufficient” evidentiary hearing on remedies is unfounded. See Dissenting Op.

at 4. See SECTION V(B) for discussion on the district court’s remedial plan.

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Then, on February 26, 2019, the State informed the district court that

the Mississippi Legislature intended to redraw District 22 “should the stay

motions pending before [the district court] and the Fifth Circuit be denied.”

But recognizing the fast-approaching election qualification deadline of March

1, the district court implemented a remedial plan for District 22 on February

26, 2019, and extended the qualification deadline to March 15, 2019. A motions

panel of this Court later stayed the court-mandated plan until April 3, 2019,

and provided the Legislature with another opportunity to redraw the

boundaries for District 22. The Legislature then acted, and created new lines

for Districts 22 and 13 on March 27, 2019, which Plaintiffs do not challenge.

In short, the Legislature was able to redistrict District 22. It was

unnecessary for the State, for instance, to extend the legislative calendar or

call a special session to accomplish this task. This suit was about one district

out of fifty-two in the Senate, and only one other district had to be changed in

producing the new map. At base, just eight precincts were shifted. We find

unpersuasive the State’s claim of clear error as to undue prejudice here.

Finally, we consider any prejudice to the candidates and voters.

According to Plaintiffs, 78 the Legislature’s new plan moves only five Bolivar

County precincts previously in Senate District 22 to Senate District 13 and

shifts three Sunflower County precincts from Senate District 13 to Senate

District 22. The vast majority of District 22 remains unaffected: The newly

drawn map shifts eight precincts. The Legislature’s plan makes District 22

much more compact and reduces its geographic size, from over 100 miles to 87

miles from north to south. Candidates have time to continue fundraising and

78 The following description of the Legislature’s plan is taken from the uncontroverted

affidavits of Plaintiffs’ experts filed in the district court record after the Legislature’s plan

was adopted.

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campaigning; voters still go to the same polls. We see no clear error by the

district court as to undue prejudice here. 79

The dissent relies on one pending district court case, Chestnut v.

Merrill, 80 for support that laches should bar Plaintiffs’ request for injunctive

relief. 81 Yet Chestnut is distinguishable: The delay and prejudice in that case

were great. In Chestnut, the plaintiffs asked the court to redraw a majority of

the congressional districts in Alabama—four out of seven. 82 Three elections

(in 2012, 2014, and 2016) had already taken place under the challenged

congressional district boundaries. In contrast, the instant case involves only

one of fifty-two state senate districts, and the remedy affected just one other.

And no election took place with the challenged Mississippi senate map until

2015. In sum, Chestnut is not helpful to the State and does not support the

dissent’s position. 83

Accordingly, we conclude that the district court did not abuse its

discretion in denying the State’s laches defense. The State did not meet its

ultimate burden.

79 To the extent the State is arguing that Plaintiffs injected uncertainty into the

November 2019 election, we note that such confusion, if any, is compounded by the

Legislature’s resolution conditioning the effect of its newly drawn district lines on the instant

appeal.

80 377 F. Supp. 3d 1308 (N.D. Ala. 2019).

81 Dissenting Op. at 9–10.

82 Chestnut, 377 F. Supp. 3d at 1311.

83 Even if Chestnut did help the State, it would not end this litigation. Though the

district court denied injunctive relief, it allowed the plaintiffs to pursue declaratory relief.

Chestnut, 377 F. Supp. 3d at 1317–18 (“[W]hile the defendant may be prejudiced by the

plaintiff’s delay in bringing a voting rights claim for injunctive relief, the same prejudice does

not apply to a claim for declaratory relief. . . . Even if the court were to find that Defendant

would be prejudiced as to injunctive relief, declaratory relief would still be available to

Plaintiffs.”) (citing Sanders v. Dooly Cty., 245 F.3d 1289, 1291–92 (11th Cir. 2001)); see also

Dickinson, 933 F.2d at 503 (Seventh Circuit decision taking same approach).

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IV.

Turning to the merits, Plaintiffs asserted that the redistricting plan

adopted by the Mississippi Legislature in 2012 violated § 2 of the VRA in that

the boundary lines of District 22 diluted African-American voting strength and

deprived African-American voters of an equal opportunity to elect candidates

of their choice. They maintained that though African Americans made up a

majority of the voting age population in District 22, that majority lacked “real

electoral opportunity” under Supreme Court precedent interpreting § 2 of the

VRA. Plaintiffs contended that District 22 could be redrawn to cure the § 2

violation with changes to only one or two adjacent districts; that the resulting

districts would be more compact than in the 2012 plan; and that the alteration

would not create Voting Rights Act violations in any other districts. After

conducting a two-day bench trial, the district court determined that Plaintiffs

met their burden of proof as to their § 2 vote-dilution claim and rendered

judgment in their favor.

A.

Before we address the State’s appellate challenges to the district court’s

decision, we set forth the law applicable to a § 2 vote-dilution claim and our

standard of review. Subsection 2(a) of the VRA prohibits all states and political

subdivisions from imposing “any standards, practices, or procedures which

result in the denial or abridgement of the right to vote of any citizen who is a

member of a protected class of racial and language minorities.” 84 Subsection

2(b) provides that a violation of § 2(a) is established if:

[B]ased on the totality of circumstances, it is shown that the

political processes leading to nomination or election in the State or

political subdivision are not equally open to participation by

members of a [protected] class . . . in that its members have less

84 Gingles, 478 U.S. at 43 (citing 42 U.S.C. § 1973(a) (current version at 52 U.S.C.

§ 10301(a))).

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opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate in

the political process and to elect representatives of their choice. 85

Subsection 2(b) specifically provides that “one circumstance” which may be

considered in determining whether § 2(a) has been violated is “[t]he extent to

which members of a protected class have been elected to office in the State or

political subdivision.” However, it cautions “[t]hat nothing in [§ 2] establishes

a right to have members of a protected class elected in numbers equal to their

proportion in the population.” 86

In Thornburg v. Gingles, the seminal vote-dilution case, the Supreme

Court explained that “[t]he essence of a § 2 claim is that a certain electoral law,

practice, or structure interacts with social and historical conditions to cause an

inequality in the opportunities enjoyed by black and white voters to elect their

preferred representatives.” 87 The Court further explained that Congress

amended § 2 of the VRA in 1982 to “make clear that a [§ 2] violation could be

proved by showing discriminatory effect alone” and that proof of discriminatory

intent was not required. 88 The Court additionally noted that “[t]he Senate

Judiciary Committee majority Report accompanying the bill that amended § 2

85 52 U.S.C. § 10301(b).

86 Id. While the dissent emphasizes this cautionary provision, it ignores the preceding

sentence specifically stating that the district court may consider, as “one circumstance” in

the totality of the circumstances establishing a violation of § 2(a), “[t]he extent to which

members of a protected class have been elected to office in the State or political subdivision.”

Here, the district court properly applied the entirety of § 2(b) in its analysis. It noted the

Supreme Court precedent “instruct[ing] district courts to be cautious about finding a § 2

violation where the ‘districting scheme’ features ‘majority-minority districts in substantial

proportion to the minority’s share of voting age population.’” Thomas, 366 F. Supp. 3d at 809

(quoting Johnson v. DeGrandy, 512 U.S. 997, 1013 (1994)). But then determined that such

caution was not warranted in this case because the number of majority-minority districts in

substantial proportion to the minority’s share of voting age population would be 21, and the

number under the 2012 redistricting plan was only 15. Id.

87 478 U.S. at 47.

88 Id. at 35.

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elaborate[d] on the circumstances that might be probative of a § 2 violation.” 89

Those circumstances are frequently referred to as the “Senate factors” and

include the following:

(1) the history of voting-related discrimination in the State or

political subdivision;

(2) the extent to which voting in the elections of the State or

political subdivision is racially polarized;

(3) the extent to which the State or political subdivision has

used voting practices or procedures that tend to enhance the

opportunity for discrimination against the minority group,

such as unusually large election districts, majority vote

requirements, and prohibitions against bullet voting;

(4) the exclusion of members of the minority group from

candidate slating processes;

(5) the extent to which minority group members bear the effects

of past discrimination in areas such as education,

employment, and health, which hinder their ability to

participate effectively in the political process;

(6) the use of overt or subtle racial appeals in political

campaigns; and

(7) the extent to which members of the minority group have

been elected to public office in the jurisdiction. 90

The Senate Report stressed that the above list of factors was “neither

comprehensive nor exclusive” and that there was “no requirement that any

particular number of factors be proved, or that a majority of them point one

way or the other.” 91

89 Id. at 36.

90 Id. at 44–45.

91 Id. at 45 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted).

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The Gingles Court held that prior to establishing the Senate factors,

minority voters asserting a § 2 vote-dilution claim must first prove three

“necessary preconditions.” 92 First, the minority group must show “that it is

sufficiently large and geographically compact to constitute a majority in a

single-member district.” 93 Second, the minority group must demonstrate “that

it is politically cohesive.” 94 And third, the minority group must establish “that

the white majority votes sufficiently as a bloc to enable it—in the absence of

special circumstances, such as the minority candidate running unopposed—

usually to defeat the minority’s preferred candidate.” 95

Finally, the Court “reaffirm[ed] its view that the clearly-erroneous test

of Rule 52(a) is the appropriate standard for appellate review of a finding of

vote dilution.” 96 In reaffirming the proper standard of review, the Court noted

that a district court’s finding of vote dilution is “peculiarly dependent upon the

facts of each case” and “requires an intensely local appraisal of the design and

impact of the contested electoral mechanisms.” 97 The Court additionally

observed that the clearly-erroneous standard of “Rule 52(a) does not inhibit an

appellate court’s power to correct errors of law . . . or a finding of fact that is

predicated on a misunderstanding of the governing rule of law.” 98 Rather,

“application of the clearly-erroneous standard to ultimate findings of vote

92 Id. at 50–51.

93 Id. at 50.

94 Id. at 51.

95 Id. (citations omitted). The dissent contends that the Gingles factors do not

constitute the test for a vote-dilution claim, and that the “totality of the circumstances” is not

“the entirety” of the statute’s text. Dissenting Op. at 14. In its apparent attempt to disavow

Supreme Court jurisprudence interpreting § 2, the dissent does not favor us with the proper

standard to be applied when reviewing the district court’s declaratory judgment, which is the

only matter reviewable in this appeal. Instead, the dissent focuses mostly on issues not

before us.

96 Id. at 79.

97 Id. (internal quotation marks and citations omitted).

98 Id. (internal quotation marks and citations omitted).

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dilution preserves the benefit of the trial court’s particular familiarity with the

indigenous political reality without endangering the rule of law.” 99

B.

The State first asserts that, as a matter of law, Plaintiffs were not

entitled to assert a § 2 challenge to District 22 as drawn by the 2012

redistricting plan because African Americans already made up a majority of

the voting age population (50.8%) in the district. The State contends that its

argument is supported by Supreme Court precedent. We disagree.

“Unimpeachable authority from our circuit has rejected any per se rule

that a racial minority that is a majority in a political subdivision cannot

experience vote dilution.” 100 Other circuits have also rejected such a rule. 101

As interpreted by the Supreme Court in Gingles, § 2 of the Voting Rights Act

protects the voting rights of “member[s] of a protected class of racial and

language minorities.” 102 We have held that § 2 “is concerned with protecting

the minority in its capacity as a national racial or language group,” and not

with protecting “a numerical minority of voters in the jurisdiction at issue.” 103

Importantly, the Supreme Court has specifically stated that “it may be possible

for a citizen voting-age majority to lack real electoral opportunity,” and thereby

require the protection of § 2. 104

In asserting that Plaintiffs’ § 2 claim is not legally cognizable at all

because they represent a BVAP majority in District 22, the State relies on a

99 Id.

100 Monroe v. City of Woodville, 881 F.2d 1327, 1333 (5th Cir. 1989) (citation omitted).

101 See Mo. St. Conf. of the NAACP v. Ferguson-Florissant Sch. Dist., 894 F.3d 924,

934 (8th Cir. 2018) (holding that “minority voters do not lose VRA protection simply because

they represent a bare numerical majority within that district” and collecting cases from the

Second, Fifth, Eleventh, and D.C. Circuits holding same).

102 478 U.S. at 43.

103 Salas v. Sw. Tex. Jr. Coll. Dist., 964 F.2d 1542, 1547–48 (5th Cir. 1992) (providing

thorough discussion of the “kind of ‘minority’ the [VRA] protects”).

104 LULAC, 548 U.S. at 428.

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Supreme Court case, Bartlett v. Strickland, 105 that involved a fundamentally

different issue: crossover districts. The plaintiffs in Bartlett were county

officials who contended that state officials had violated a provision of the state

constitution prohibiting the partition of counties between legislative

districts. 106 The defendants responded that § 2 of the VRA required them to

preserve a district in which African-American voters consistently elected their

preferred candidate with “crossover” voters from the white majority, which

necessitated splitting the plaintiffs’ county. 107 The Court rejected the

defendants’ argument, holding that “[n]othing in § 2 grants special protection

to a minority group’s right to form political coalitions.” 108 The Court further

observed: “There is a difference between a racial minority group’s ‘own choice’

and the choice made by a coalition.” 109

In rendering its holding, the Court clarified the meaning of the first

Gingles precondition: A party asserting a § 2 claim must show by a

preponderance of the evidence that the voting-age minority population in the

potential election district is greater than 50%. 110 The Court did not hold, as

the State incorrectly suggests, that if the district being challenged already

contains a majority-minority population, then a § 2 claim is precluded. That

situation did not arise in Bartlett, so the Court’s holding did not address it. As

observed by the Second Circuit, while the “creation of [majority-minority

districts] with simple majority representation does not necessarily close the

gate to a potential finding of vote dilution, plaintiffs need not show more than

105 556 U.S. 1, 13 (2009).

106 Id. at 7.

107 Id. at 7–9.

108 Id. at 14–15.

109 Id. at 15.

110 Id. at 19–20.

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a simple majority at the first step of the Gingles analysis to open the gate to

further Section 2 inquiry.” 111

If anything, a close reading of Bartlett shows that it supports Plaintiffs’

assertion of a § 2 claim here. The Court began its opinion in Bartlett by

“review[ing] the terminology often used to describe various features of election

districts in relation to the requirements of the [VRA].” 112 The Court then

stated: “In majority-minority districts, a minority group composes a

numerical, working majority of the voting-age population. Under present

doctrine, § 2 can require the creation of these districts.” 113 Here, although

African Americans composed a bare numerical voting-age majority in District

22 under the 2012 plan, Plaintiffs alleged (and ultimately proved) that African

Americans were not a working majority and that § 2 required creation of a

working majority-minority district. The State’s reliance on Bartlett, thus, is

misplaced.

Contrary to the State’s contentions, the fact that Plaintiffs’ § 2 challenge

involves a single-member district, and not an at-large electoral district, does

not render the above principles inapplicable. The Supreme Court has held that

the Gingles framework is applicable in § 2 challenges to single-member

districts. 114 And, in the Court’s decision in LULAC v. Perry, the Court applied

111 Pope v. Cty. of Albany, 687 F.3d 565, 575 n.8 (2d Cir. 2012). Although the State

relies on a decision from the Eastern District of Arkansas, Jeffers v. Beebe, 895 F. Supp. 2d

920 (E.D. Ark. 2012), which applied Bartlett to preclude a plaintiff from asserting a § 2

challenge to a majority-minority district, that decision was overruled by the Eighth Circuit’s

contrary holding in Ferguson-Florissant. See 894 F.3d at 934.

112 Bartlett, 556 U.S. at 13.

113 Id. (emphasis added) (citations omitted). In the recent case, Abbott v. Perez, the

Court reaffirmed these principles: “In a series of cases tracing back to Thornburg v. Gingles,

[] we have interpreted [§ 2’s] standard to mean that, under certain circumstances, States

must draw ‘opportunity’ districts in which minority groups form ‘effective majorit[ies].’” 138

S. Ct. 2305, 2315 (2018) (citations omitted).

114 Growe v. Emison, 507 U.S. 25, 40–41 (1993) (holding that although Gingles involved

multimember districts, the Gingles threshold requirements should be applied in § 2 vote-

dilution challenges to single-member districts).

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the Gingles framework and the above principles when considering a § 2

challenge to a single-member congressional district in Texas. 115 Specifically,

the Court determined that although Latinos were a “bare majority of the

voting-age population” in the challenged district, that majority was a “hollow”

one, and plaintiffs had established that they “could have had an opportunity

district in [the challenged single-member district] had its lines not been

altered.” 116 The Court ultimately determined that the plaintiffs were entitled

to § 2 relief. 117 The State’s argument in this case that Plaintiffs’ § 2 claim is

not legally cognizable because it challenges a majority-minority, single-

member district has no merit. 118

Finally, we disagree with the State’s assertion, which was never raised

to the district court, that Plaintiffs’ § 2 claim is “novel” because Plaintiffs’

allegations did not contain the terms “cracking” (fragmentation of minority

group among various districts so that it is a majority in none) or “packing”

(concentration of minority group in a few number of districts where it

constitutes an excessive majority). We find no statute or caselaw mandating

115 548 U.S. at 425–43.

116 Id. at 429.

117 Id. at 442.

118 The dissent acknowledges these legal principles but insists that no court has ever

found that a majority-minority district violated § 2. That is wrong. Some claims, of course,

involve districts where the protected class is needlessly far above a majority. See, e.g., Bone

Shirt v. Hazeltine, 336 F. Supp. 2d 976, 980 (D.S.D. 2004), aff’d, 461 F.3d 1011 (8th Cir. 2006)

(finding a district with a 90-percent Native American supermajority violated §2). Courts

have also found violations where the protected class’s voting strength was too weak in a

district despite being a numerical majority. LULAC was such a case. See also Perez v. Abbott,

253 F. Supp. 3d 864, 879–90 (W.D. Tex. 2017) (three-judge court) (finding, in a ruling that

state defendants did not appeal, that the 2011 version of Texas Congressional District 23

violated § 2 in both intent and effect despite having a Hispanic citizen voting-age majority of

58.5%); Baldus v. Members of Wis. Gov’t Accountability Bd., 849 F. Supp. 2d 840, 854–58

(E.D. Wis. 2012) (finding that two state assembly districts diluted Latino voting strength

despite having 54% and 61% Latino voting-age population).

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that a plaintiff’s allegations under § 2 include those terms. 119 Moreover, we

note that specific allegations of “cracking” or “packing” were not made in

LULAC v. Perry, yet the Court still determined that the plaintiffs were entitled

to relief because the legislature’s redrawing of a single-member district

violated § 2. 120

Based on the foregoing, the district court did not err in determining that

Plaintiffs’ § 2 challenge to a majority-minority, single-member district was

legally cognizable.

C.

Under the guidance of Gingles, this court uses a two-part framework for

analyzing § 2 claims. First, plaintiffs must satisfy the three Gingles

preconditions; “[f]ailure to establish all three elements defeats a § 2 claim.” 121

Second, if the three preconditions are proved, plaintiffs must then show that

based on the “totality of the circumstances” (as informed by the Senate factors),

the challenged practice or structure results in plaintiffs’ having “less

opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate in the political

119 Allegations of “cracking” or “packing” can figure prominently in racial

gerrymandering cases, in which evidence that a legislature moved large numbers of one race

in or out of a district may be strong circumstantial evidence that “racial considerations

predominated” in the legislature’s decisions. See Cooper v. Harris, 137 S. Ct. 1455, 1472–78

(2017). But this case is governed by § 2’s results test, not racial gerrymandering caselaw, so

it does not entail that potentially sensitive inquiry into the Mississippi Legislature’s intent.

Cf. Veasey v. Abbott, 830 F.3d 216, 280–81 (5th Cir. 2016) (en banc) (Jones, J., concurring in

part and dissenting in part). This difference between racial gerrymandering claims, which

focus on intentional discrimination under the Equal Protection Clause, and vote-dilution

claims, which focus on discriminatory effect under § 2 of the VRA, was explained by the Court

in Abbott v. Perez, 138 S. Ct. 2305, 2314-15, 2330-35 (2018). See discussion infra. p. 45. In

any event, Plaintiffs’ theory—that District 22 lacked adequate African-American voting

strength, remediable by adding precincts with African-American voters from adjoining

districts—is functionally equivalent to asserting “cracking.”

120 548 U.S. at 423–43, 447.

121 Teague v. Attala Cty., 92 F.3d 283, 287 (5th Cir. 1996).

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process and to elect representatives of their choice.” 122 We have noted that “it

will be only the very unusual case in which the plaintiffs can establish the

existence of the three Gingles factors but still have failed to establish a

violation of § 2 under the totality of the circumstances.” 123

The State asserts that even if Plaintiffs can assert a legally cognizable

§ 2 challenge to a majority-minority, single-member district, they failed to

prove the first Gingles precondition—that the minority group is sufficiently

large and geographically compact to constitute a voting age majority in a

single-member district—because District 22 already contained a majority-

minority voting age population. It is an incontestable fact that African

Americans can constitute a majority of the district; they already do, if only

barely. The State’s argument is simply a reassertion of its argument

(discussed above) that Plaintiffs’ § 2 claim is not legally cognizable. The State’s

attempt to reframe its argument in the context of the Gingles preconditions is

unavailing. For the reasons previously stated, the State’s argument

challenging the first precondition has no merit.

Regarding the second Gingles precondition—that the minority group is

“politically cohesive”—the State does not directly challenge the district court’s

factual finding of this precondition as clearly erroneous. In fact, the State

never disputed Plaintiffs’ proof of the second Gingles precondition in the

district court. 124

122 Clark v. Calhoun Cty., 21 F.3d 92, 94 (5th Cir. 1994) (citing 42 U.S.C. § 1973(b)

(current version at 52 U.S.C. § 10301(a))).

123 Id. at 97 (internal quotation marks and citation omitted).

124 See Thomas, 366 F. Supp. 3d at 805 (“It is undisputed that African-American voters

in District 22 are politically cohesive.”). To the extent the State now attempts to dispute

political cohesiveness, we find the issue waived based on the State’s failure to brief. See

Yohey v. Collins, 985 F.2d 222, 225 (5th Cir. 1993) (“[A]rguments must be briefed to be

preserved.”).

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As to the third Gingles precondition—whether white bloc voting usually

defeats the African-American community’s preferred candidate—the State

asserts primarily that Plaintiffs’ evidence was flawed because it was based in

part on the results of the 2015 senate election in District 22, which was not

“properly conducted.” Plaintiffs explain that the State is referring to an

election error that occurred in Bolivar County during the 2015 senate election

when most voters in two of District 22’s fifty-two precincts were given ballots

that did not include the District 22 election.

The district court specifically addressed this issue in its decision. The

district court noted that in the 2015 state senate election for District 22,

“approximately 1,500 voters in Bolivar County received ballots for the wrong

Senate race.” 125 Plaintiffs’ expert, Dr. Palmer, agreed that this was a

“significant election administration error,” which was why he decided to

exclude those precincts in that race from his ecological inference analysis. 126

Dr. Palmer explained that his analysis “remain[ed] valid because EI identifies

the pattern of behavior running through a series of elections over time.” 127 The

2015 election in District 22 still furnished fifty precincts from which to infer

voter behavior, and other elections also furnished usable data. Furthermore,

the State “presented no evidence indicating that Dr. Palmer’s approach was in

error or would cast any shadow on his conclusions.” 128

Dr. Palmer testified that EI “is the process of extracting clues about

individual behavior from information reported at the group or aggregate level.”

125 Thomas, 366 F. Supp. 3d at 806.

126 As noted by the district court, EI analysis is widely recognized and accepted in

voting cases. See, e.g., Terrebonne Par. Branch NAACP v. Jindal, 274 F. Supp. 3d 395, 433–

34 (M.D. La. 2017); Jamison v. Tupelo, Miss., 471 F. Supp. 2d 706, 710 (N.D. Miss. 2007);

Houston v. Lafayette Cty., 20 F. Supp. 2d 996, 1002 n.4 (N.D. Miss. 1998).

127 Thomas, 366 F. Supp. 3d at 806.

128 Id.

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He contended it is useful in voting cases because “the secret ballot hinders the

[research] process and surveys in racially polarized contexts are known to be

of little value.” Dr. Palmer further explained that EI “estimates the underlying

propensity of each group to turn out for an election and to vote for a particular

candidate using the estimation technique of maximum likelihood.” Dr. Palmer

believed that EI was a superior statistical method to use in this case because

it allowed him to run 100,000 simulations of each election in the sample, and

provided valuable statistical checks, such as confidence intervals, on the

results.

Dr. Palmer also testified that he used precinct-level voting and census

data to analyze ten elections in District 22. The elections consisted of three

“endogenous” elections—the 2003, 2007, and 2015 Senate District 22 elections,

and seven “exogenous” elections—the 2003 Lieutenant Governor and

Treasurer elections, the 2007 Insurance Commissioner election, the 2011

Governor election, and the 2015 Governor, Secretary of State, and Agriculture

Commissioner elections. The goal of the endogenous and exogenous

comparisons was to see if findings were consistent between the Senate races

and statewide races also held in odd years in District 22. All ten elections

featured contests between white and African-American candidates. In all ten

elections, the candidate preferred by African-American voters lost. Based on

his analysis, Dr. Palmer appropriately concluded that white bloc voting usually

defeats the African-American community’s preferred candidate in District 22.

The district court found “Dr. Palmer’s thorough and largely unrebutted

analysis to be persuasive.” 129

By contrast, the State’s expert, Dr. Morrison, did not analyze any

District 22 elections or the results of statewide elections among the voters of

129 Id. at 807.

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District 22. He looked only at county and municipal elections within District

22’s territory, without attending to the demographic differences between those

smaller jurisdictions and District 22. Basic errors also infected the data that

he analyzed. 130 Moreover, Dr. Morrison offered no opinion, critical or

otherwise, on Dr. Palmer’s analysis. Dr. Morrison’s testimony thus did not

rebut Dr. Palmer’s report in any meaningful respect.

On appeal, the State simply highlights the election administration error

that occurred in the 2015 senate election for District 22. The State does not

explain why Dr. Palmer’s method of accounting for the error—deleting the

affected precincts from his analysis—was incorrect or undermined his analysis

in any way. The State fails to show any clear error in the district court’s finding

that District 22’s white majority votes sufficiently as a bloc to enable it usually

to defeat the African-American preferred candidate.

Based on the foregoing, the district court did not clearly err in

determining that Plaintiffs met their burden of proving the three Gingles

preconditions.

D.

We next address the Senate factors, which are probative of the “totality

of the circumstances” demonstrating a vote-dilution claim under § 2. The

district court found persuasive the Plaintiffs’ evidence regarding Senate

factors one (the history of voting-related discrimination in the State or political

subdivision), two (the extent to which voting in the elections of the State or

political subdivision is racially polarized), five (the extent to which minority

group members bear the effects of past discrimination in areas such as

education, employment, and health, which hinder their ability to participate

130 See id. at 805.

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effectively in the political process), and seven (the extent to which members of

the minority group have been elected to public office in the jurisdiction). 131

As to factor one, the district court noted that “Mississippi plainly has a

long history of official discrimination against African-Americans seeking to

vote.” The district court credited the State for acknowledging this fact. As to

factor two, the district court noted that Plaintiffs presented evidence, through

Dr. Palmer’s testimony, that voting in District 22 features a “high level of racial

polarization.” The district court further noted that the State’s expert also did

not dispute this evidence. 132

The fifth Senate factor focuses on the extent to which minority group

members bear the effects of past discrimination in areas such as education,

employment, and health, which hinder their ability to participate effectively in

the political process. As described above, the socioeconomic disparities

between the white and African-American residents in District 22 are stark.

They differ markedly by poverty rate, household income, educational

attainment, and other measures of privation and status. Considering the

unique history of the Delta, there can be no question that these disparities

reflect the effects of slavery and segregation.

The State argues that although Plaintiffs presented evidence that

African Americans in District 22 trail white residents in socioeconomic

131 The district court determined that factor three (voting practices or procedures that

tend to enhance the opportunity for discrimination against the minority group) and factor

four (the exclusion of members of the minority group from candidate slating processes) were

not relevant as neither side presented any evidence regarding those factors. Regarding factor

six (the use of overt or subtle racial appeals in political campaigns), the district court noted

that the Plaintiffs did not present evidence of any recent racial appeals or of any racial

appeals that would have had an effect on any District 22 election within the timeframe of the

Plaintiffs’ case.

132 It is unclear whether the State disputes these factors on appeal. However, to the

extent the State now attempts to dispute the first and second Senate factors, we find those

issues waived based on the State’s failure to brief. See Yohey, 985 F.2d at 225.

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categories, Plaintiffs “offered no proof to connect that fact to past

discrimination.” The State further asserts that Plaintiffs did not prove that

the socioeconomic circumstances of African Americans in District 22 “hinder

their ability to participate effectively in the political process.” As the district

court observed, however, we have held that where socioeconomic disparities

are shown and where the level of African-American political participation is

depressed, § 2 plaintiffs “need not prove any further causal nexus between

their disparate socioeconomic status and the depressed level of political

participation.” 133 At trial, the State acknowledged this law, both when moving

for judgment at the close of Plaintiffs’ case and in closing arguments. The point

the State now makes, that Plaintiffs did not offer evidence linking

discrimination to depressed participation, thus is new on appeal, legally

insignificant, and––in any event––belied by the record.

In this case, Plaintiffs went beyond the requirements of our law and were

able to show a causal nexus between the disparate socioeconomic

circumstances of African Americans in District 22 and their depressed level of

political participation. Specifically, Plaintiff Lawson testified that in the Delta,

many African-American voters are uneducated, reside in the rural areas, and

have no transportation to travel to the polls. The district court noted that this

evidence “is consistent with the Supreme Court’s recognition ‘that political

participation by minorities tends to be depressed where minority group

members suffer effects of prior discrimination such as inferior education, poor

employment opportunities, and low incomes.’” 134

The State acknowledges that Plaintiffs’ expert, Dr. Palmer, presented a

statistical estimate that African-American voter turnout in the 2015 Senate

133 Teague, 92 F.3d at 294 (quoting League of United Latin Am. Citizens, Council No.

4434 v. Clements, 999 F.2d 831, 867 (5th Cir. 1993) (en banc)).

134 Thomas, 366 F. Supp. 3d at 808 (quoting Gingles, 478 U.S. at 69).

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election was 29.6%, while the white turnout was 36.9%. But the State asserts

that the estimate was inaccurate because Dr. Palmer admitted that he had

excluded from his analysis the precincts in Bolivar County in which voters

were given the wrong ballots. This is the same challenge to Dr. Palmer’s

analysis raised in the State’s challenge to the third Gingles precondition. As

discussed above, the State presented no evidence indicating that Dr. Palmer’s

approach was erroneous or would have cast any doubt on his conclusions. But

in the context of voter turnout, the State argues that exclusion of the precincts

was significant because the precincts included Delta State University, a

predominantly white institution, and that college students are part of the

voting age population in the census but notoriously unlikely to register and

vote. The State submits that had those non-voting white students been

considered in the turnout estimates, then white participation throughout

District 22 would have fallen, making the difference between the percentage

levels of white and African-American voter turnout not as great. But here

again, the State can point to no evidence in the record supporting its

supposition or in any other respect its challenge to Dr. Palmer’s conclusion of

depressed African-American voter turnout. 135

The State additionally asserts that Census Bureau statistics show that

the statewide African-American voter turnout has exceeded white voter

turnout by one to ten percent in even-numbered years since at least 2004.

Based largely on this information, the State’s expert, Dr. Morrison, opined that

the existing socioeconomic differences no longer diminish African-American

Of course, attorney argument is not itself evidence. See Foradori v. Harris, 523

135

F.3d 477, 513 (5th Cir. 2008); United States v. Garza, 608 F.2d 659, 662–63 (5th Cir. 1979).

The State asserts that it requested the district court to take judicial notice of the information

on Delta State University, but the record shows the State never clearly did so. We thus need

not conclusively resolve our doubt that the imputation of extra-record data into a complex

quantitative analysis would be an appropriate exercise of judicial notice.

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participation in the political process as they did in the past. However, the data

used by Dr. Morrison had serious problems. It was self-reported, rather than

based on official state records. It came from statewide elections, as opposed to

District 22 elections, and from even-numbered years for federal elections

(including presidential election years), as opposed to odd-numbered years for

state elections. Accordingly, the district court, assessing this trial testimony

in the first instance, held that Dr. Morrison’s “data points fail to persuade”

because “[t]hey look at the wrong jurisdiction, the wrong election years, and

rely upon known issues with self-reported voting surveys—issues that

[ecological inference], in contrast, seeks to overcome.”

The district court’s conclusion that Dr. Palmer’s analysis of voter turnout

held more probative value than the data used by Dr. Morrison is consistent

with our previous direction. 136 It is also consistent with the Supreme Court’s

pronouncements in Gingles that § 2 vote dilution determinations “require[] an

intensely local appraisal of the design and impact of the contested electoral

mechanisms.” 137

Finally, the seventh Senate factor—the extent to which members of the

minority group have been elected to public office in the jurisdiction—strongly

favors Plaintiffs. No African American has been elected to the Mississippi

Senate from District 22 in its previous or current form.

We find that the district court did not clearly err in finding that Senate

factors one, two, five, and seven demonstrated that District 22, as drawn in the

2012 legislative redistricting plan, resulted in African Americans’ having less

136 See Operation Push, 932 F.2d at 412 (affirming district court’s decision to favor

expert analysis of voter registration rates, based on official state records, over Census Bureau

figures, due to unreliability of “uncorroborated self-reporting” and to “evidence

demonstrating that black respondents to the [census] questionnaire overreported voter

registration at a higher rate than white respondents”).

137 Gingles, 478 U.S. at 79 (internal quotations omitted).

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opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate in the political

process and to elect representatives of their choice. Plaintiffs proved the

Gingles preconditions and presented persuasive evidence regarding several of

the Senate factors, while the State scarcely entered any evidence to the

contrary.

The dissent acknowledges that § 2 of the VRA requires relief when a

protected class has less opportunity to participate in the political process. Yet

it turns a blind eye to the evidence produced by Plaintiffs showing the stark

socioeconomic circumstances of African Americans in District 22 and how those

circumstances have resulted in depressed voter turnout. Moreover, though the

dissent states that “there are major disconnects among the district court’s

findings,” and provides as an example “the minority turnout figures as well as

minority electoral success in other races throughout the district,” the dissent

provides no explanation for its vague contention. Instead, the dissent

challenges the district court’s judgment in generalities and provides no

analysis of the district court’s extensive factual findings and legal analysis

supporting its judgment declaring District 22 violative of § 2. 138

Accordingly, we hold that the district court did not clearly err in its

ultimate finding of vote dilution. We further hold that the district court’s

138 The dissent raises a similarly hazy contention about the district court considering

District 22 “in a vacuum.” The nature of the criticism is unclear, partly because the dissent

cites no caselaw that might identify a requirement the district court failed to meet. In any

event, the trial record shows extensive testimony on District 23, the adjoining district from

which Plaintiffs’ illustrative plans and the district court’s remedial plan drew voters. Indeed,

all three experts testified about the effects on District 23 of changing District 22. The district

court also followed the Supreme Court’s guidance that the existence of majority-minority

districts “in substantial proportion to the minority’s share of voting age-population” should

caution courts against creating more majority-minority districts. Thomas, 366 F. Supp. 3d

at 808–09 (quoting Johnson v. DeGrandy, 512 U.S. 997, 1013 (1994)). The district court

properly considered how changes to District 22 would affect Mississippi’s senate map as a

whole.

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conclusion that Plaintiffs were entitled to § 2 relief is fully supported by the

record and not clearly erroneous.

V.

A.

The State argues that the district court erred in adopting Plaintiffs’

Illustrative Plan 1 to remedy the § 2 violation and requests that we vacate the

district court’s injunction mandating its use. Plaintiffs contend that the State’s

appeal as to this claim of error is moot. We agree. The unlawful 2012

legislative plan, which necessitated the district court’s injunctive relief, was

repealed by the Legislature in March 2019. Plaintiffs do not challenge the new

plan. Although there is no question that the new plan governs the upcoming

election, the State asserts that the district court’s injunction should be vacated

because, if not, the State could be forced to operate under the court-ordered

plan. That is simply inaccurate. The Mississippi Legislature fashioned the

2019 plan in such a way that the only other redistricting plan that could

possibly ever become effective is the original 2012 redistricting plan. In other

words, no matter the resolution of the State’s appeal, the court-ordered plan

will never become operative. The State’s request for relief from the district

court’s injunction is therefore moot.

B.

Even though the district court’s remedial plan will not be used in any

election because it has been replaced by the Legislature’s plan, the dissent

objects to the court’s plan at length. 139 The dissent is particularly “alarmed”

that the district court did not conduct an evidentiary hearing before adopting

Plan 1. These concerns are moot, because the Legislature’s plan is in place. 140

139See Dissenting Op. at 4, 15–16, 19–20.

140At most, these criticisms would get the State a more thorough remedial process or

an opportunity to craft its own map. The State eventually obtained this relief anyway after

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We nevertheless clarify that there is nothing alarming or unprecedented about

what the district court did.

1.

We must set the facts straight—they bear repeating. In its February 16,

2019 opinion following the bench trial, the district court unequivocally

“decline[d] to order any specific relief while the Mississippi Legislature

considers whether to redraw the District and extend the candidate

qualification deadline.” 141 The court added: “A hearing will be set for the near

future.” 142 Later, as the record shows, at the February 21 teleconference, the

district court asked “whether the parties sought additional hearings and

whether the defendants would be submitting their own Plan.” 143 In response,

“[t]he parties convinced the Court that no further hearings were necessary.” 144

And the “defendants said they would confer to be sure, then made no request

at all.” 145 So the dissent’s focus on this moot point is incorrect: The State did

not want another hearing.

Furthermore, the bench trial in this case in fact involved both the merits

and remedies. The State “had ample opportunity to present evidence at the

remed[ies]” portion of the trial. 146 The State extensively cross-examined

Plaintiffs’ expert, William Cooper, about his proposed plans during discovery

and at trial. In fact, Cooper incorporated the State’s concerns and arguments

after discovery by proposing two additional plans. 147 In Cooper’s opinion,

the stay panel of our court gave the State another chance to redistrict. On this issue, it is not

possible to grant the State “any effectual relief” beyond what it has already received. See

Church of Scientology, 506 U.S. at 12.

141 Thomas, 366 F. Supp. 3d at 810.

142 Id. (emphasis added).

143 ECF Dkt. No. 85 at 1–2.

144 Id. at 2 (emphasis added).

145 Id.

146 Cf. Abrams v. Johnson, 521 U.S. 74, 94–95 (1997).

147 Thomas, 366 F. Supp. 3d at 795.

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“District 22’s boundaries could be reconfigured to increase the BVAP while

honoring traditional redistricting criteria and minimizing disruption to

adjacent Districts” and while “increas[ing] the BVAP by at least 10 additional

percentage points.” 148 As a result of the trial evidence, the district court

concluded that “[a]ll of Cooper’s illustrative plans satisfy traditional

redistricting criteria. They are contiguous, reasonably compact, reasonably

shaped, satisfy one-person one-vote, and do not dilute minority voting

strength.” 149 Moreover, the district court noted that the “incumbent Senator

in District 23 remains in the same District.” 150 Because the State later

declined the district court’s invitation for an additional hearing and had not

presented a remedial plan, the district court adopted Cooper’s Plan 1 as the

best plan presented.

In approving the district court’s course of conduct, we draw guidance

from Abrams v. Johnson. There, the Supreme Court upheld a district court’s

remedial plan, which resulted from a joint bench trial and remedial hearing,

against parties’ arguments that the district court should have held a further

hearing on the court-drawn plan’s compliance with § 2. 151 As the Court said

there, “neither our precedents nor the [Voting Rights] Act require the court to

hold a separate hearing on the adequacy under § 2 of a remedial plan.” 152

148 Id. at 794.

149 Id. at 796.

150 Id.

151 521 U.S. at 94–95. The remedial map at issue in Abrams was court-drawn,

following the Supreme Court’s invalidation of a Georgia congressional district as a racial

gerrymander. See Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900 (1995). On remand, the district court held

a bench trial to consider whether another district was a racial gerrymander as well, and it

also considered remedial plans submitted by the parties. See Abrams, 521 U.S. at 82–85.

The district court then created its own plan and declined to hold a hearing on its plan’s

compliance with § 2 when intervenors raised the issue. Id. at 84–85, 94–95.

152 Id. at 94–95. The dissent relies on dicta in Jones v. City of Lubbock, 727 F.2d 364

(5th Cir. 1984) for authority that a hearing is required. Dissenting Op. at 15–16. To the

extent that Jones stood for that proposition, we note that it predated the Supreme Court’s

Abrams decision. Regardless, we do not read Jones the same way. Rather, its principal

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In sum, the district court did not pull a remedial plan out of thin air. The

district court offered the Legislature the first opportunity to redraw District

22. Yet the Legislature waited until after our motion panel denied a stay before

it responded to the district court’s request for a remedial plan, which is now

the operative plan. Therefore, the court-ordered plan is moot—and so is the

State’s argument.

2.

Finally, the dissent suggests that a race-conscious remedy to a Voting

Rights Act violation infringes upon the Fourteenth Amendment’s Equal

Protection Clause. 153 The dissent, however, is once again asserting arguments

never raised by the State 154 and challenging the propriety of the district court’s

remedial plan, which is not before us. In any event, the Supreme Court in

Abbott v. Perez has explained the interplay between the Equal Protection

Clause and the Voting Rights Act as follows:

At the same time that the Equal Protection Clause restricts the

consideration of race in the districting process, compliance with

the Voting Rights Act pulls in the opposite direction: It often

insists that districts be created precisely because of race. . . . In an

effort to harmonize these conflicting demands, we have assumed

that compliance with the VRA may justify the consideration of race

in a way that would not otherwise be allowed. 155

concern was that the district court had imposed its own remedy before allowing the relevant

legislative body a chance. Id. at 387. Our subsequent citations of Jones bear this out. See

United States v. Brown, 561 F.3d 420, 435 (5th Cir. 2009); Rodriguez v. Bexar Cty., 385 F.3d

853, 870 (5th Cir. 2004). The district court and the stay panel of our court gave the

Mississippi Legislature that opportunity, which it took, so Jones poses no problem. Jones’s

secondary concern was that district courts produce adequate records to enable appellate

review. 727 F.2d at 387. As we explain, the district court saw to that here.

153 See Dissenting Op. at 5, 20–21.

154 Arguments not raised before the district court and in an appellant’s opening brief

are waived. Valle v. City of Houston, 613 F.3d 536, 544 (5th Cir. 2010); LeMaire v. La. Dep’t

of Transp. & Dev., 480 F.3d 383, 387 (5th Cir. 2007).

155 Abbott, 138 S. Ct. at 2314–15 (citations omitted).

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The Court further explains that in “technical terms,” it has assumed that

compliance with the VRA is a “compelling state interest.” 156 Therefore,

contrary to the dissent’s assertion, race can be considered for remedying a § 2

violation.

VI.

Based on the foregoing, the district court’s judgment declaring that the

redistricting plan adopted by the Mississippi Legislature in 2012 violates § 2

of the Voting Rights Act, in that the boundary lines of District 22 dilute

African-American voting strength and deprive African-American voters of an

equal opportunity to elect candidates of their choice, is AFFIRMED. The

State’s appeal of the district court’s judgment granting injunctive relief is

DISMISSED AS MOOT.

156 Id.

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STEPHEN A. HIGGINSON, Circuit Judge, joined by W. EUGENE DAVIS,

Circuit Judge, concurring:

I join fully in Judge Davis’s majority opinion. I write separately to

elaborate on the law governing plaintiffs’ causal burden when the protected

class they represent is a numerical majority in the challenged jurisdiction.

Some ambiguity seemed to me to exist in our law, stemming primarily from

our decision in Salas v. Southwest Texas Junior College District, 964 F.2d 1542

(5th Cir. 1992). 1

In Salas, our court placed a “difficult burden” on plaintiffs who represent

a protected class comprising a majority in their district to explain why, despite

their numbers, their preferred candidates lost elections and why the plaintiffs

still warranted relief under § 2. Id. at 1555. This enhanced burden varies from

longstanding § 2 caselaw, indeed, notably from our subsequent en banc

decision in LULAC, Council No. 4434 v. Clements, 999 F.2d 831, 866–67 (5th

Cir. 1993), which specifies a less demanding approach.

On further inspection, there is neither ambiguity nor tension, however.

Salas’s “difficult burden” discussion is limited to the problem that its facts

presented: “a registered voter majority” in the challenged jurisdiction. 964 F.2d

at 1555. A protected class that has navigated the practical obstacles of voter

registration in enough numbers to be a majority naturally has a harder time

explaining why it continues to lose elections. Here, however, it was not

established that Appellees represent such a majority, because registered-voter

data for Mississippi State Senate District 22 was not in the record.

1I offer this inquiry into Salas in a separate concurrence because Appellants clearly

and repeatedly urged our court’s settled § 2 framework to the district court; indeed, they

never briefed an argument on Salas to us and disclaimed its application at oral argument.

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***

The Voting Rights Act is an exercise of Congress’s power to enact

“appropriate legislation” enforcing the guarantees of the Fifteenth

Amendment. See Shelby County, Ala. v. Holder, 570 U.S. 529, 536 (2013); Lopez

v. Monterey County, 525 U.S. 266, 269 (1999); City of Rome v. United States,

446 U.S. 156, 173 (1980); Georgia v. United States, 411 U.S. 526, 535 (1973);

South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301, 327 (1966). Section 2 of the Voting

Rights Act prohibits any election practice or procedure “which results in a

denial or abridgment of the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on

account of race or color” or membership in a language minority group. 52

U.S.C. § 10301(a). Denial or abridgment occurs if the “totality of the

circumstances” shows that “the political processes leading to nomination or

election . . . are not equally open to participation by members of [a protected

class] in that its members have less opportunity than other members of the

electorate to participate in the political process and to elect representatives of

their choice.” Id. § 10301(b).

As explained in the majority opinion, Congress codified the § 2 results

test in 1982, abrogating a Supreme Court decision two years earlier requiring

a showing of discriminatory purpose. Thornburg v. Gingles, 478 U.S. 30, 35

(1986) (citing City of Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55 (1980)); see THE LAW OF

DEMOCRACY: LEGAL STRUCTURE OF THE POLITICAL PROCESS 603–54 (Samuel

Issacharoff et al. eds., 4th ed., 2012).

In Gingles, the Court supplied the framework for redistricting challenges

we still use today. There, it explained the “essence” of a § 2 claim: “that a

certain electoral law, practice, or structure interacts with social and historical

conditions to cause an inequality in the opportunities enjoyed by black and

white voters to elect their preferred representatives.” 478 U.S. at 47. As a guide

to this inquiry, the Court endorsed a non-exclusive set of factors listed in the

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Senate committee report to the 1982 amendments and found in an earlier

decision of this court. Id. at 36–37 & n.4 (citing Zimmer v. McKeithen, 485 F.2d

1297 (5th Cir. 1973) (en banc), aff’d sub nom. E. Carroll Parish Sch. Bd. v.

Marshall, 424 U.S. 636 (1976)).

The fifth of these factors is “the extent to which members of the minority

group in the state or political subdivision bear the effects of discrimination in

such areas as education, employment and health, which hinder their ability to

participate effectively in the political process.” Gingles, 478 U.S. at 37 (citing

S. Rep. No. 97-417, at 28–29 (1982), reprinted in 1982 U.S.C.C.A.N. at 206–

07). Following the Supreme Court’s guidance, we developed a framework for

plaintiffs to show the interaction between a challenged election practice, social

and historical conditions, and unequal political opportunity. Plaintiffs must

make three showings: past discrimination; socioeconomic disparities arising

therefrom; and depressed political participation. See LULAC, Council No. 4434

v. Clements, 999 F.2d 831, 866–67 (5th Cir. 1993) (en banc) (citing S. Rep. No.

97-417, at 29 n.114). Plaintiffs may show depressed political participation in

the form of reduced voter registration, lower turnout, or “any other factor

tending to show that past discrimination has affected [the protected class’s]

ability to participate in the political process.” Id. at 867. Once discrimination,

disparity, and depressed participation are shown, “plaintiffs need not prove

any further causal nexus between their disparate socio-economic status and

the depressed level of political participation.” Id. (quoting S. Rep. No. 97-417,

at 29 n.114).

We have used this framework consistently since then. See Veasey v.

Abbott, 830 F.3d 216, 258–61 (5th Cir. 2016) (en banc); N.A.A.C.P. v. Fordice,

252 F.3d 361, 367–68 (5th Cir. 2001); Teague v. Attala County, Miss., 92 F.3d

283, 293–94 (5th Cir. 1996); Clark v. Calhoun County, Miss., 88 F.3d 1393,

1399 (5th Cir. 1996). Under this framework, the fifth Senate factor does not

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favor plaintiffs when, for instance, the protected class’s voter turnout is no less

than white voter turnout, Fordice, 252 F.3d at 368, or when plaintiffs fail to

put on evidence of depressed political participation at all, LULAC, 999 F.2d at

867.

Appellants clearly and repeatedly urged this framework to the district

court. At the close of Appellees’ case, Appellants moved for judgment on partial

findings, challenging the sufficiency of Appellees’ evidence. 2 Responding to the

motion, counsel for Appellees cited the portion of Veasey v. Abbott explaining

the framework. 3 In rebuttal, counsel for Appellants concurred that the

framework governed and conceded two of its three parts:

The constitutional chain of events that must be proven in order for

Section 2 to be constitutionally applied is that the state did

something unconstitutional. And you have evidence before you

that the state has done a few unconstitutional things over the

years and that those things led to socioeconomic disadvantages for

black folks. And you have evidence before you that black folks do

suffer socioeconomic advantages in that case. And then what

Veasey says, I believe, is that if you have those two things proven,

then you may conclude that those things have caused the political

participation disparities that you see. You don’t have to have proof

of the causation; you may infer that causation.

Counsel then proceeded to the factual argument, reiterated to us on appeal,

that Appellees’ evidence did not adequately show depressed political

participation in the form of lower black turnout. At closing argument the next

day, counsel for Appellants urged the same framework to the district court,

again to set up an attack on Appellees’ evidence of depressed turnout. 4

2 See FED. R. CIV. P. 52(c).

3 “[T]he case of Veasey v. Abbott . . . is a Fifth Circuit . . . en banc decision that says: If

you have socioeconomic disparities and if you have lower African-American or lower minority

turnout, that factor of the Senate Report factors is counted in favor of the plaintiffs in

analyzing the proof of whether there is vote dilution.”

4 “They absolutely have to prove that black political participation in the relevant area

is depressed. And it’s certainly true that Veasey v. Abbott says that you may presume that a

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Our framework for establishing depressed political participation matters

here because it is a compelling way to explain why a protected class

constituting a bare majority in the challenged jurisdiction may nevertheless

win relief under § 2. The facts in evidence showed that District 22 had a black

voting-age majority just over 50% as of the 2010 Census, a turnout gap between

black and white voters of roughly 10%, and a consistent single-digit margin of

defeat for candidates preferred by black voters. Mississippi’s history of

discrimination, recognized by our court, 5 was conceded. The uncontroverted

record showed stark socioeconomic disparity between black and white

residents of District 22: five times the poverty rate; one-third the median

household income; three times the high school dropout rate; three times the

uninsured rate; and so on. Under both our law and common sense, and as the

district court concluded, that record suffices to explain why the lines making

up District 22 “interact[] with social and historical conditions to cause an

inequality in the opportunities enjoyed by black and white voters to elect their

preferred representatives.” Gingles, 478 U.S. at 47.

This conclusion comports with our longstanding recognition that a

protected class may constitute a numerical majority in the challenged

jurisdiction but nevertheless obtain relief under § 2. See Salas, 964 F.2d at

1547; Monroe v. City of Woodville, Miss., 881 F.2d 1327, 1333 (5th Cir. 1989);

Zimmer, 485 F.2d at 1303. Other circuit courts share that recognition. See, e.g.,

Mo. St. Conf. of NAACP v. Ferguson-Florissant Sch. Dist., 894 F.3d 924, 934

(8th Cir. 2018) (“[M]inority voters do not lose VRA protection simply because

depressed political participation derives from past unconstitutional behavior, but you have

to prove that political participation is presently depressed.” In keeping with the parties’

arguments, the district court appropriately applied this framework in its ruling on the merits.

See Thomas v. Bryant, 366 F. Supp. 3d 786, 807–08 (S.D. Miss. 2019) (citing Teague, 92 F.3d

at 294).

5 See, e.g., Fordice, 252 F.3d at 367; Teague, 92 F.3d at 293–94.

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they represent a bare numerical majority within the district.”); Pope v. County

of Albany, 687 F.3d 565, 575 n.8 (2nd Cir. 2012) (“[T]he law allows plaintiffs to

challenge legislatively created bare majority-minority districts on the ground

that they do not present the ‘real electoral opportunity’ protected by Section

2.”) (quoting LULAC v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399, 428 (2006)).

This conclusion comports also with LULAC v. Perry, in which the

Supreme Court recognized that “it may be possible for a citizen voting-age

majority to lack real electoral opportunity.” 548 U.S. at 428. Notably, the Court

found there that a Texas congressional district violated § 2 where Latinos were

“a bare majority of the voting-age population . . . but only in a hollow sense,”

owing to the legal restriction of voting rights to citizens. Id. at 429.

Finding a § 2 violation despite a bare majority is likewise consistent with

the Supreme Court’s admonition that we are to “take a ‘functional’ view of the

political process and conduct a searching and practical evaluation of reality.”

Gingles, 479 U.S. at 66 (quoting S. Rep. No. 97-417, at 30 n.119). In that vein,

when assessing how large a protected class must be to have equal political

opportunity, the Court has spoken variously of “effective majorities,” Abbott v.

Perez, 138 S. Ct. 2305, 2315 (2018) (quotation omitted); “a numerical, working

majority,” Bartlett v. Strickland, 556 U.S. 1, 13 (2009); and “an effective voting

majority,” Johnson v. DeGrandy, 512 U.S. 997, 1014 (1994). 6 Finding a § 2

violation despite a bare majority is consistent also with Abrams v. Johnson,

6 It is useful here to distinguish the present case from two situations previously

addressed by the Supreme Court: first, a protected class numerous enough to elect its

preferred candidate despite not being a majority; and second, a protected class so numerous

in one district that its voting strength in other districts is diluted. See Bartlett, 556 U.S. at

14 (describing the first); Voinovich v. Quilter, 507 U.S. 146, 153–54 (1993) (describing the

second). We are interested here in determining when a protected class becomes so numerous

that it can no longer claim it has inadequate voting strength in the challenged district.

Bartlett concerned the inverse––adequate voting strength despite low numbers. Voinovich

concerned effects on voting strength in other districts, rather than the challenged one.

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521 U.S. 74 (1997), in which the Court affirmed a district court’s remedial plan

setting a congressional district’s black voting-age population (BVAP) “as close

to 55% as possible” to ensure compliance with § 2 because, at 50% BVAP, black

voters’ preferred candidates were more likely than not to lose. Id. at 94. 7

New questions arise when registered-voter data enters the picture. In

previous cases, it has often been true that a protected class made up a smaller

share of registered voters than of voting-age population. See, e.g., Gingles, 478

U.S. at 39 (fourteen-point gap between black and white voter registration

rates); Teague, 92 F.3d at 294 (twenty-point gap). It cannot be assumed that a

protected class comprising a majority of voting-age population also comprises

a majority of registered voters. In the present case, as counsel for Appellants

conceded, no voter-registration data for District 22 was in the record. 8

But when voter-registration data is available, and it shows that the

protected class is a registered-voter majority in the challenged jurisdiction, it

becomes harder to contend that the protected class lacks political opportunity.

See Salas, 964 F.2d at 1544. Salas concerned a junior college that conducted

7 Similarly, decisions remedying § 2 violations regularly produce districts well above

the 50% threshold. See, e.g., Large v. Fremont County, Wyo., 2010 WL 11508507, at *14 (D.

Wyo. Aug. 10, 2010) (adopting remedial plan including district with 70% Native American

voting-age population), aff’d, 670 F.3d 1133 (10th Cir. 2012); Bone Shirt v. Hazeltine, 387 F.

Supp. 2d 1035, 1041 (D.S.D. 2005) (creating remedial districts with 66% and 74% Native

American voting-age population), aff’d, 461 F.3d 1011 (8th Cir. 2006); Jeffers v. Clinton, 756

F. Supp. 1195, 1198–1201 (E.D. Ark. 1990) (three-judge court) (creating remedial districts

with 64%, 63%, 58%, and 55% BVAP), aff’d, 498 U.S. 1019 (1991). The same is true when

courts remedy other districting violations and craft their remedial plans in view of § 2’s

requirements. See, e.g., Navajo Nation v. San Juan County, 2017 WL 6547635, at *13 (D.

Utah Dec. 21, 2017) (imposing remedial plan creating districts with Native American voting-

age populations of 63% and 64%, among others), aff’d, 929 F.3d 1270 (10th Cir. 2019);

Adamson v. Clayton County Elections & Registration Bd., 876 F. Supp. 2d 1347, 1357–58 &

n.7 (N.D. Ga. 2012) (drawing districts in remedial plan with BVAP’s from 59% to 77%).

8 Such data evidently is not publicly available in Mississippi. See Oral Argument at

8:10, Thomas v. Bryant (5th Cir. June 11, 2019) (No. 19-60133),

http://www.ca5.uscourts.gov/OralArgRecordings/19/19-60133_6-11-2019.mp3. The record

contained only self-reported statewide Census data of voter registration, collected in even

years, on which the district court appropriately did not rely, as the majority opinion explains.

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at-large elections for its governing board. Id. The Hispanic residents of the

district were 63% of the population and 57% of the voting-age population, and

the Spanish-surname voter-registration rate was 53%. Id. The parties

evidently agreed that “Hispanics constitute[d] a slight majority of the

registered voters in the District.” Id.

We said in Salas that an “inquiry into causation” underlies the Gingles

analysis. 964 F.2d at 1154. Is it the challenged district or election practice that

“explain[s] the lack of electoral success of voters within the protected class,” or

is it something else not cognizable under the Voting Rights Act? Id. This

question is easier for plaintiffs to answer when, for instance, the protected class

could be a working majority but is cracked apart. It is harder for them to

answer when they have managed to register enough voters to constitute a

majority and yet continue losing elections. The voter registration process

presents one cluster of obstacles to the political participation of a protected

class that bears the effects of discrimination. See Miss. State Chapter,

Operation Push, Inc. v. Mabus, 932 F.2d 400 (5th Cir. 1991). 9 How to explain

a lack of electoral success when a majority in the jurisdiction has managed to

clear those obstacles?

In Salas, we suggested ways that plaintiffs might prove that their

“registered voter majority is illusory”: evidence of inaccurate, or “soft,” voter

rolls; evidence of other “practical impediments to voting,” like migratory work

patterns at election time; or “low turnout at elections [that] was the result of

9 In Operation Push, a § 2 challenge to Mississippi voter-registration statutes enacted

in 1972, we noted Mississippi’s “long history of using voter qualifications and registration

procedures to impede black citizens’ participation in the political process.” 932 F.2d at 402.

We affirmed the district court’s finding of a twenty-five-point gap between black and white

voter-registration rates in the state, “[b]ecause a significant percentage of Mississippi’s black

citizens do not have (1) access to the transportation necessary to travel to the county

courthouse to register, or (2) the type of jobs that would allow them to leave work during

business hours to register to vote.” Id. at 403, 411–12.

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prior official discrimination.” Id. at 1555–56. We then refined the plaintiffs’

required causal showing: plaintiffs should show “evidence directly linking this

low turnout with past official discrimination.” Id. at 1556 (emphasis added).

This might seem to be in tension with our holdings in LULAC and other cases

that a causal nexus between discrimination, socioeconomic disparity, and

depressed participation can be inferred once those three phenomena are

shown. But reconciling Salas is simple. The protected class’s success at

navigating the voter-registration process calls the inference of a causal nexus

into question; hence, plaintiffs must produce more evidence to regain the

preponderance.

Counsel for Appellees suggested at oral argument that our en banc

decision in LULAC v. Clements overruled Salas. 10 We certainly did not do so

explicitly, and LULAC did not present the special problem of a registered-voter

majority, nor has any case in our court ever since. Neither does this one. As

noted, registered-voter data for District 22 was not in the record, so the

problem confronted by Salas did not arise here. Moreover, Appellants passed

on the many opportunities they had to argue that Salas should apply,

acknowledging, instead, that the Veasey and LULAC framework controls. 11

***

A suit under the Voting Rights Act is a complicated undertaking,

drawing together long and often painful local histories, tightly contested

stakes, intricate legal inquiries, and a deep desire for electoral fairness.

Whatever addition to that complexity might have come from the question of

Salas’s place in our law, I am hopeful this separate opinion may clarify it.

10Oral Argument at 29:00, Thomas v. Bryant (5th Cir. June 11, 2019).

11Appellants did not cite Salas in their briefing to us, and, when asked at oral

argument to explain that decision, counsel for Appellants said only that it “has good language

and bad language for both sides, which is why neither side brought it up.” Oral Argument at

49:21, Thomas v. Bryant (5th Cir. June 11, 2019).

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APPENDIX

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DON R. WILLETT, Circuit Judge, dissenting:

When President Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation,

declaring that slaves in rebel states “are, and henceforward shall be free,” 1 he

remarked, “If my name ever goes into history, it will be for this act, and my

whole soul is in it.” 2 The war over America’s original sin waged another two

years. The Great Emancipator lived to see the Union preserved, but just barely.

Appomattox was Palm Sunday, and Ford’s Theatre was Good Friday.

Earlier that week, President Lincoln had delivered a speech declaring

his plans for peace and reconstruction. And perhaps healing would have taken

hold under a second Lincoln term. But as it happened, the post-Lincoln

American South was appallingly inhospitable to African-Americans.

In 1870 the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified, commanding that “[t]he

right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by

the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous

condition of servitude,” and empowering Congress “to enforce this article by

appropriate legislation.” But Congress’s first century of enforcement “can only

be regarded as a failure” 3 as southern states erected barriers galore to

disenfranchise African-American citizens. The institution of slavery—

America’s foundational failing—had ended, but the legacy of slavery had

endured. For black Americans in the South, it seemed ineradicable, and racial

injustice inescapable.

1 The Emancipation Proclamation, NAT’L ARCHIVES,

https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/featured-documents/emancipation-proclamation.

2 See Ronald G. Shafer, Lincoln Moved to End Slavery on New Year’s Day 1863. It

Went On for Three More Years., WASH. POST (Jan. 1, 2019),

https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2019/01/01/lincoln-declared-an-end-slavery-new-

years-day-it-went-two-more-years/ (attributing this quotation to the moment before Lincoln

signed the Emancipation Proclamation).

3 Nw. Austin Mun. Util. Dist. No. One v. Holder, 557 U.S. 193, 197 (2009).

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Finally, in 1965, a full century after the Civil War ended, Congress

passed the Voting Rights Act to make good on the promise of the Fifteenth

Amendment by counteracting entrenched racial discrimination in voting. As

the Supreme Court explained in upholding the VRA the year after it was

enacted, Congress was aiming to combat “an insidious and pervasive evil which

had been perpetrated in certain parts of our country through unremitting and

ingenious defiance of the Constitution.” 4 Section 2 of the VRA imposes a

nationwide ban on voting discrimination, forbidding any “standard, practice,

or procedure” that “results in a denial or abridgement of the right of any citizen

of the United States to vote on account of race or color.” 5

Nondiscrimination in voting is thus enshrined in the Constitution and

laws of the United States. In my judgment, the Voting Rights Act is perhaps

the noblest, most transformative legislation in American history. 6 And it “has

proved immensely successful at redressing racial discrimination and

integrating the voting process.” 7

4 South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301, 309 (1966).

5 42 U.S.C. § 1973(a).

6 See Holder v. Hall, 512 U.S. 874, 895 (1994) (Thomas, J., concurring) (“The Act was

immediately and notably successful in removing barriers to registration and ensuring access

to the ballot. For example, in Mississippi, black registration levels skyrocketed from 6.7% to

59.8% in a mere two years; in Alabama the increase was from 19.3% to 51.6% in the same

time period. By the end of 1967, black voter registration had reached at least 50% in every

covered State.” (citations omitted)); see also Nw. Austin Mun. Util. Dist. No. One, 557 U.S. at

227 (Thomas, J., concurring) (“[A]nd in Mississippi, black voter registration actually exceeded

white voter registration by 1.5 percentage points.”).

7 Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. 529, 548 (2013); see also CHARLES S. BULLOCK III

& RONALD KEITH GADDIE, THE TRIUMPH OF VOTING RIGHTS IN THE SOUTH 323 (2009) (“The

consensus is that the [VRA] has been inordinately successful.”); SAMUEL ISSACHAROFF ET AL.,

THE LAW OF DEMOCRACY: LEGAL STRUCTURE OF THE POLITICAL PROCESS 514–16 (4th ed.

2012) (stating that “guarantees of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments were

essentially disregarded in many states” before the VRA, which “transformed American

politics in a variety of ways”).

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Also enshrined in American law is the broad power of States, “as

provided in the Tenth Amendment . . . to regulate elections,” 8 including the

power to shape congressional and state legislative districts. 9 Time and again,

the Supreme Court has reaffirmed that electoral map-drawing “is primarily

the duty and responsibility of the State through its legislature or other body,

rather than of a federal court.” 10 Why? Because drawing district lines is, to

quote the Supreme Court, “a most difficult subject,” 11 which is a G-rated way

of describing a quintessentially political thicket besmeared with partisan

point-scoring and one-upsmanship. Districting is the politics of politics. And

the Framers, well acquainted with electoral maneuvering, wisely entrusted

districting to political actors. Given the “complex interplay” of value-laden

political forces at work, the Supreme Court says “the States must have

discretion to exercise the political judgment necessary to balance competing

interests.” 12 This “allocation of powers in our federal system preserves the

integrity, dignity, and residual sovereignty of the States.” 13 States are

sovereign political entities in their own right, and when it comes to political

map-making, “[f]ederal-court review of districting legislation represents a

serious intrusion on the most vital of local functions.” 14 This is particularly

true when elections are fast approaching. In such cases, a wealth of election-

8 Gregory v. Ashcroft, 501 U.S. 452, 461–62 (1991).

9 See Fitzgerald v. Green, 134 U.S. 377, 380 (1890) (“Congress has never undertaken

to interfere with the manner of appointing [members of the electoral college], or, where

(according to the now general usage) the mode of appointment prescribed by the law of the

state is election by the people, to regulate the conduct of such election, or to punish any fraud

in voting for electors, but has left these matters to the control of the states.”).

10 Chapman v. Meier, 420 U.S. 1, 27 (1975); see also Thomas, 919 F.3d at 318–19

(Clement, J., dissenting).

11 Miller v. Johnson, 515 U.S. 900, 915 (1995).

12 Id. at 915–16.

13 Bond v. United Sates, 564 U.S. 211, 221 (2011).

14 Miller, 515 U.S. at 915.

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law precedent counsels that it is often wiser for courts to push pause instead

of fast-forward.

To be sure, state prerogatives cannot override legal imperatives. As the

Supreme Court recently recognized, “voting discrimination still exists; no one

doubts that.” 15 Maps must of course comply with both the Voting Rights Act

and the Constitution, and courts undeniably have room to act swiftly when

necessary. The issue in this case, though, is whether the district court’s order

transgressed settled principles of federal election law. To my mind, it did—

alarmingly so.

* * *

Respectfully, but fervently, I dissent—for four main reasons:

1. The Supreme Court disapproves meddling in imminent

elections.

2. The equitable defense of laches bars this suit.

3. The majority opinion’s novel § 2 theory contradicts Supreme

Court precedent, the VRA’s plain text, and quite possibly the

Fourteenth Amendment.

4. The jurisdictional issue may itself be dispositive, though that

argument, admittedly, is more confounding than convincing.

In sum, I believe it offends ordinary principles of election law for a single

federal district judge—with jarring haste, just days before the qualifying

deadline, and without conducting a sufficient evidentiary hearing—to order

redistricting after studying a majority-minority district, isolating its precise

Black Voting Age Population (50.8%), and ordering a State to take explicitly

race-conscious steps to increase that percentage (to 60.9%) . . . adding minority

15 Shelby County, 570 U.S. at 536.

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voters seemingly to ensure a minority winner and elevating outcome over

opportunity. And the district court did all this absent any evidence (or even an

allegation) of “cracking” or “packing” of the majority-minority population—the

usual, Supreme Court-dictated ways of showing vote dilution under § 2.

The Equal Protection Clause’s “central mandate is racial neutrality in

governmental decisionmaking,” including in the “drawing of [legislative]

districts.” 16 Thus, “race-based districting by our state legislatures demands

close judicial scrutiny.” 17 True, the Mississippi Legislature reconvened and

reconfigured the district. But make no mistake—it did so under the Damoclean

sword of a stay denial from a divided motions panel, all the while specifying,

repeatedly, that it would very much prefer its original map.

Respectfully, the majority opinion defies the High Court’s federalism-

based warnings in short-fuse election cases, endorses an inflated view of

judicial power, and flouts the Constitution’s demand for racial neutrality.

I

The Supreme Court has repeatedly warned against tinkering with

looming elections. In Miller, the Court described judicial review of legislative

line-drawing as “a serious intrusion on the most vital of local functions.” 18

Twenty years earlier in Chapman the Court stressed that “reapportionment is

primarily the duty and responsibility of the State through its legislature or

other body, rather than of a federal court.” 19 And about a decade before that,

the Court in Reynolds laid the foundation for short-runway election cases:

“[W]here an impending election is imminent and a State’s machinery is already

in progress, equitable considerations might justify a court in withholding the

16 Miller, 515 U.S. at 904–05.

17 Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630, 657 (1993).

18 Miller, 515 U.S. at 915.

19 Chapman, 420 U.S. at 27.

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granting of immediately effective relief in a legislative apportionment case,

even though the existing apportionment scheme was found invalid.” 20

We have heeded the Supreme Court’s admonition. In Veasey, we

underscored the need “to carefully consider the importance of preserving the

status quo on the eve of an election.” 21 Concurring, Judge Costa registered his

“extreme[] reluctan[ce] to have [the] election take place under a law that a

district court has found, and that our court may find, is discriminatory.” 22 But

even so, he continued, we “must follow the dictates of the Supreme Court.” 23

And “the only constant principle that can be discerned from the Supreme

Court’s recent decisions in this area is that its concern about confusion

resulting from court changes to election laws close in time to the election

should carry the day in the stay analysis.” 24

Indeed, last-minute changes to district boundaries may cause more voter

confusion than they cure. In vacating a Ninth Circuit injunction, the Supreme

Court observed, “Court orders affecting elections, especially conflicting orders,

can themselves result in voter confusion and consequent incentive to remain

away from the polls. As an election draws closer, that risk will increase.” 25

Here, the district court found a VRA violation in mid-February 2019. At

that time, a slew of election deadlines was fast approaching. Most notably, the

qualification deadline was March 1. Roughly a week after its original

decision—days before the qualifying period ended—the court imposed

redistricting and moved the qualifying deadline back only two weeks. And in a

20 Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533, 585 (1964).

21 Veasey v. Perry, 769 F.3d 890, 892 (5th Cir. 2014).

22 Id. at 896 (Costa, J., concurring).

23 Id.

24 Id. at 897 (citing North Carolina v. League of Women Voters of N.C., 135 S. Ct. 6

(2014) (Mem.); Husted v. Ohio State Conference of NAACP, 573 U.S. 988 (2014) (Mem.)).

25 Purcell v. Gonzalez, 549 U.S. 1, 4–5 (2006) (per curiam).

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separate order, the court created further uncertainty about district lines by

encouraging the parties to collaborate on a new plan. This was days away from

the qualifying deadline and mere months before the primary and general

elections. And lest you think that the election date is the only date that

matters, the Supreme Court has cautioned that qualifying deadlines (or other

preliminary deadlines) “cannot be considered in isolation from the election of

which [they] form[] a part.” 26

This severely interfered with candidate registration, with the political

process, and with the Legislature. Political candidates don’t jumpstart

campaigns at the drop of a hat. Nor are legislatures designed to legislate with

lickety-split haste—even in response to district court diktats. 27 The status quo

was preferable to federal-court intervention at the eleventh hour.

II

Laches bars this suit too. As the Supreme Court recently put it, laches

“protect[s] defendants against ‘unreasonable, prejudicial delay in commencing

suit.’ ” 28 To assert laches, a defendant must show “(1) a delay in asserting a

right or claim; (2) that the delay was not excusable; and (3) that there was

undue prejudice to the party against whom the claim is asserted.” 29 Here, every

26 NAACP v. Hampton Cty. Election Comm’n, 470 U.S. 166, 177 (1985).

27 The district court observed that “[a] stay would probably . . . be warranted if the

Court was ruling on this case in September or October.” Given the nature of this case and

the potential for en banc review, ongoing consideration of this matter into those months

seems quite possible. Even if a stay was not appropriate in February (which I believe it was),

it certainly seems appropriate now.

28 SCA Hygiene Prods. Aktiebolag v. First Quality Baby Prods., LLC, 137 S. Ct. 954,

960 (2017) (quoting Petrella v. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Inc., 572 U.S. 663, 667 (2014)); see also

Am. Rice, Inc. v. Producers Rice Mill, Inc., 518 F.3d 321, 334 (5th Cir. 2008).

29 Save Our Wetlands, Inc. v. U.S. Army Corps of Eng’rs, 549 F.2d 1021, 1026 (5th

Cir.), cert. denied, 434 U.S. 836 (1977); see also Lopez v. Hale Cty., 797 F. Supp. 547 (N.D.

Tex. 1992), aff’d, 506 U.S. 1042 (1993).

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box is checked. The plaintiffs unreasonably delayed. And that delay prejudiced

the State. The district court’s ruling otherwise was clear error. 30

A

At bottom, the plaintiffs believed District 22 violated the law in 2012. As

we explained in our 1998 Capece decision, “[t]he period for laches begins when

the plaintiff knew or should have known of the infringement.” 31 True, a district

court has considerable discretion in applying laches. But it’s not unfettered

discretion. That’s why our 1982 Armco decision reversed a district court for

denying laches when it miscalculated the plaintiff’s delay as six years shorter

than it actually was. 32 Again, we emphasized that delay should be counted

from when the plaintiff should’ve known of the alleged violation. 33

Here, the plaintiffs could have sued in 2012, when the Department of

Justice granted preclearance to the State’s districts. Indeed, Thomas

challenged District 22 in a letter to the Department of Justice in August 2012:

This letter is a request for the Department of Justice to look hard

at the Mississippi Senate Redistricting plan. This plan has

violated section 5 and 2 of the Voting Right Bill. Please look at

District[s] 21, 22, [and] 34 . . . .

So Thomas himself admits that he knew every element of his claim in 2012.

This actually goes beyond the laches standard, which is when the plaintiff

should have known of the violation. 34

30 Retractable Techs., Inc. v. Becton Dickinson & Co., 842 F.3d 883, 898 (5th Cir. 2016)

(explaining that we review the district court’s findings of delay, unreasonableness, and

prejudice for abuse of discretion—overturning only if there was clear error).

31 Elvis Presley Enters., Inc. v. Capece, 141 F.3d 188, 205 (5th Cir. 1998); see also White

v. Daniel, 909 F.2d 99, 102 (4th Cir. 1990) (stating that an inexcusable delay occurs when a

party “discovers or with reasonable diligence could have discovered the facts giving rise to

his cause of action”).

32 Armco, Inc. v. Armco Burglar Alarm Co., 693 F.2d 1155, 1161–62 (5th Cir. 1982).

33 Id. at 1161.

34 See Envtl. Def. Fund, Inc. v. Alexander, 614 F.2d 474, 479 (5th Cir. 1980) (“[L]aches

does not depend on subjective awareness of the legal basis on which a claim can be made.”).

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The majority suggests that the State abandoned this timeframe on

appeal, arguing that 2015, not 2012, was the operative date. Not true. That

was merely an argument in the alternative. But all along, the State has

contended that 2012 was the key date. Consider these excerpts from the State’s

briefs on appeal:

• “Rejecting Thomas’s concerns, the DOJ precleared the [State’s]

plan in September 2012. []Thomas waited. He did not file a

Voting Rights Act challenge in 2012, 2013, or 2014.”

• “[T]he length of delay in this case is at least three years . . . .”

• “Instead of bringing suit in 2012 when the plan was adopted

and precleared by DOJ or after the 2015 election, Thomas . . .

waited almost three additional years to commence this action.”

• “Under the ‘should have known’ test, they all ‘should have

known’ in 2015. There is no doubt that, if not in 2012, then by

the time of the 2015 election, any reasonable person would have

known of the present cause of action.”

The 2015 window merely confirmed that, as in 2012, the plaintiffs had

everything necessary for their § 2 claim. Waiting three years, much less six,

was inexplicable for Thomas. By then, the district had progressed through

preclearance and an election.

Take another Voting Rights Act case currently moving through the

courts: Chestnut v. Merrill, a recently decided case out of the Northern District

of Alabama. 35 The court held that laches barred the plaintiffs’ request for

injunctive relief. The plaintiffs’ claims first became available when the state

35 Chestnut v. Merrill, 377 F. Supp. 3d 1308 (N.D. Ala. 2019).

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redistricted, and based on that timeline, the court found that the plaintiffs had

unreasonably delayed in suing Alabama. 36

B

So have the plaintiffs here. They dawdled—then dawdled some more.

And this was highly prejudicial. To the State, who was thwarted from

redistricting according to the wishes of its elected representatives. And also to

voters. Even the majority concedes that eleventh-hour changes “will inevitably

cause disruption.”

Indeed, this suit has injected pointless confusion into the electoral

process. Voters should know what district they live in and who they are voting

for. Candidates should know their potential constituency. Instead, the district

court strong-armed the State into a slap-dash redistricting plan. This suit

began in 2018 and wasn’t decided until 2019. And next year there’s a census.

So the State will doubtless have to redistrict again.

Returning to the Alabama district court in Chestnut, the court there

sensibly barred the VRA claim since “forc[ing] the state of Alabama to

redistrict twice in two years—once based on nine-year-old census data—would

result in prejudice.” 37 A Florida district court held likewise in 1999, applying

laches. 38 The defendants asserted that they were prejudiced by delay because

“voters [had] come to know their districts and candidates, and [would] be

confused by change”; and because “requiring redistricting [then], before the

2000 census [would] result in two redistrictings within a two year period, with

36 Id. at 1314–18.

37 Id. at 1317.

38 Fouts v. Harris, 88 F. Supp. 2d 1351, 1354 (S.D. Fla. 1999), aff’d sub nom. Chandler

v. Harris, 529 U.S. 1084 (2000) (Mem.).

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resulting voter confusion, instability, dislocation, and financial and logistical

burden on the state.” 39

Clearly, as the Fourth Circuit has pointed out, “there is large potential

for disruption in reapportioning with undue frequency.” 40 But that’s not the

only prejudice. The plaintiffs hamstrung the State by creating a nigh-

impossible timetable for effectively litigating. The plaintiffs’ late filing date

forced the State, at the taxpayers’ expense, to expedite each facet of this case.

The Legislature had to quickly enact a new district map, without the

substantial deliberation that redistricting requires. This urgency stymied the

State’s ability to fully litigate its own preferred, democratically enacted plan,

which inherently prejudiced the State. Laches should bar this case.

For the same reason, this case—as the majority opinion correctly holds—

is not moot. As the Supreme Court explained seven years ago in Knox, a case

“becomes moot only when it is impossible for a court to grant ‘“any effectual

relief” whatever to the prevailing party.’ ” 41 Here, Mississippi wants its old

districts back.

III

Turning to the § 2 merits analysis:

Nothing in the Voting Rights Act requires proportional representation.

The statute states so unequivocally: “[N]othing in [§ 2] establishes a right to

have members of a protected class elected in numbers equal to their proportion

to the population.” 42 The VRA explicitly disavows the maximization of minority

electoral success and explicitly emphasizes electoral participation and

39 Id.

40 White v. Daniel, 909 F.2d 99, 104 (4th Cir. 1990).

41 Knox v. Serv. Emps. Int’l Union, Local 1000, 567 U.S. 298, 307 (2012) (quoting Erie

v. Pap’s A.M., 529 U.S. 277, 287 (2000)).

42 52 U.S.C. § 10301(b).

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opportunity. Section 2 tells us to look to “the totality of the circumstances” to

determine if “members of a racial group . . . have less opportunity . . . to

participate in the political process and to elect representatives of their

choice.” 43

Both Congress and the Supreme Court have emphasized this. Congress

requires plaintiffs to show that the political process isn’t “equally open to

participation by members of a [protected] class . . . [because] members have

less opportunity than other members of the electorate to participate . . . .” 44 And

the Supreme Court noted 25 years ago in De Grandy that “the ultimate right

of § 2 is equality of opportunity, not a guarantee of electoral success for

minority-preferred candidates of whatever race.” 45 Thus, a viable § 2 claim

must show unequal opportunity. The Supreme Court explained how to do this

only a year later in Shaw. 46 A § 2 plaintiff can allege that a state either

“fragment[ed] politically cohesive minority voters among several districts or

pack[ed] them into one district or a small number of districts.” 47 That is, § 2

can be violated if a state “cracks” racial minorities among many districts

(making them an ineffective minority of voters) or “packs” them into few

districts (making them an excessive majority of voters)—weakening their

overall voting power.

The State argues that plaintiffs from a majority-minority population

cannot bring a § 2 claim at all. Our precedent, as Judge Higginson notes in his

43 League of United Latin Am. Citizens v. Perry (LULAC), 548 U.S. 399, 425 (2006)

(quoting 42 U.S.C. § 1973(b)).

44 52 U.S.C. § 10301(b) (emphasis added).

45 Johnson v. De Grandy, 512 U.S. 997, 1014 n.11 (1994).

46 Shaw v. Hunt, 517 U.S. 899, 914 (1996).

47 Id.; see also Thomas, 919 F.3d at 318–19 (Clement, J., dissenting).

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concurrence, suggests they can. 48 We held in Salas that members of a

registered voter majority class are not barred, “as a matter of law,” from

bringing a vote-dilution claim. 49 Obtaining relief, however, turns on proof. 50

And that’s the real question: the standard of proof. The law lacks clarity as to

what exactly a protected-class plaintiff must show in order to prevail on a vote-

dilution claim when they are already part of the majority in the district.

This much is clear, however: No court has ever ruled that a majority-

minority district violates § 2 in isolation. The two dilutive tactics recognized by

the Supreme Court—packing and cracking—necessarily cross district lines,

which necessarily requires courts to examine electoral ripple effects, which

necessarily demands painstaking statistical analysis spanning multiple

districts to ferret out the siphoning of minorities’ voting power. 51 How can a

court conclude that a specific district violates § 2 without scrutinizing whether

and how the minority vote has been manipulated across various districts? I am

unaware of any court decision holding that a majority-minority district can

violate § 2 in a vacuum, all by itself, unaccompanied by evidence—or even an

allegation—of packing or cracking. 52

48 Salas v. Sw. Tex. Jr. Coll. Dist., 964 F.2d 1542, 1547 (5th Cir. 1992) (“We first

consider whether plaintiffs, as members of a registered voter majority class, are precluded,

as a matter of law, from bringing a vote dilution claim. We hold that they are not.”).

49 Id. at 1547. Judge Higginson’s concurrence forthrightly and correctly identifies an

unresolved tension in our caselaw that bears directly on the unusual situation presented

here: How must a majority-minority population in a single-member district show § 2

causation in the absence of packing or cracking of the majority-minority population?

50 See id.

51 See, e.g., Voinovich v. Quilter, 507 U.S. 146, 154 (1993) (“[W]e have recognized that

‘[d]ilution of racial minority group voting strength may be caused’ either ‘by the dispersal of

blacks into districts in which they constitute an ineffective minority of voters or from the

concentration of blacks into districts where the constitute an excessive majority.’ ” (quoting

Thornburg v. Gingles, 478 U.S. 30, 46 n.11 (1986))).

52 The majority opinion, in footnote 118, attributes to me this assertion: “The dissent

. . . insists that no court has ever found that a majority-minority district violated § 2.” Not

exactly. My precise point is that no court I’m aware of has ever found such a violation absent

allegations and evidence of packing and cracking and attendant multi-district statistical

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No such evidence was presented here. Indeed, the complaint (neither

original nor amended) never mentions “packing” or “cracking.” But it did

mention that District 22 needed “a significantly increased black voting age

population,” specifically “60% rather than the existing 50.8%.” And the

evidence, such as it was, focused solely on District 22, not on any adjoining

districts.

Yes, the majority opinion is right to emphasize the Supreme Court’s

decision in Gingles. 53 But the Gingles factors are mere thresholds for a dilution

claim. 54 They’re not the test itself. Nor is “totality of the circumstances” the

entirety of the text from the statute. 55 It’s true that since Gingles, district-court

findings profoundly influence redistricting law. District courts must engage in

a close, fact-specific analysis of voting patterns. Yet in this case, there are

major disconnects among the district court’s findings. These disconnects make

analysis. See discussion infra n.51 & accompanying text. For support, the majority opinion

points to several cases. Respectfully, the cited cases underscore, rather than undermine, my

point.

Every single case includes discussion of packing, cracking, and multi-district electoral

consequences. First, Bone Shirt v. Hazeltine, 336 F. Supp. 2d 976 (D.S.D. 2004). Literally, the

first sentence in that opinion: “Plaintiffs contend that South Dakota’s 2001 legislative

redistricting plan dilutes . . . by packing . . . in violation of § 2 of the Voting Rights Act of

1965.” Id. (emphasis added). Second, there’s LULAC, discussed later in this dissent, which

had to do with an illusory majority, not an actual one. See discussion infra nn.64–66 &

accompanying text. Third, there’s Perez v. Abbott, 253 F. Supp. 3d 864 (W.D. Tex. 2017). True,

one sliver of that order did not discuss packing or cracking. But the overall case was a

sprawling challenge to Texas’s entire congressional redistricting plan. As such, it

necessitated intensive statewide and multi-regional analysis (“South/West Texas area,”

“Dallas–Ft. Worth area,” and “Houston area”). The order is chock-full of cross-district

number-crunching and discussion of plaintiffs’ claims of packing and cracking. Indeed,

variations of the word “pack” appear 44 times, and “crack” 42 times. Finally, fourth, there’s

Baldus v. Members of Wis. Gov’t Accountability Bd., 849 F. Supp. 2d 840, 854–58 (E.D. Wis.

2012). And here too, the decision analyzes whether there had been packing and cracking. See

id. at 848, 856.

53 Thornburg, 478 U.S. at 48–49.

54 Id.

55 Contra Thomas, 919 F.3d at 309 (discussing the “totality of the circumstances”

language from § 2 but neglecting to mention the rest of the sentence that the phrase is from).

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