Tapia v. United States

(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2010 1

Syllabus

NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is

being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued.

The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been

prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader.

See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

Syllabus

TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR

THE NINTH CIRCUIT

No. 10–5400. Argued April 18, 2011—Decided June 16, 2011

Petitioner Tapia was convicted of, inter alia, smuggling unauthorized

aliens into the United States. The District Court imposed a 51

month prison term, reasoning that Tapia should serve that long in

order to qualify for and complete the Bureau of Prisons’ Residential

Drug Abuse Program (RDAP). On appeal, Tapia argued that length

ening her prison term to make her eligible for RDAP violated 18

U. S. C. §3582(a), which instructs sentencing courts to “recogniz[e]

that imprisonment is not an appropriate means of promoting correc

tion and rehabilitation.” The Ninth Circuit disagreed. Relying on

Circuit precedent, it held that a sentencing court cannot impose a

prison term to assist a defendant’s rehabilitation, but once impris

onment is chosen, the court may consider the defendant’s rehabilita

tion needs in setting the sentence’s length.

Held: Section 3582(a) does not permit a sentencing court to impose or

lengthen a prison term in order to foster a defendant’s rehabilitation.

Pp. 3–15.

(a) For nearly a century, the Federal Government used an inde

terminate sentencing system premised on faith in rehabilitation.

Mistretta v. United States, 488 U. S. 361, 363. Because that system

produced “serious disparities in [the] sentences” imposed on similarly

situated defendants, id., at 365, and failed to “achieve rehabilitation,”

id., at 366, Congress enacted the Sentencing Reform Act of 1984

(SRA), replacing the system with one in which Sentencing Guidelines

would provide courts with “a range of determinate sentences,” id., at

368. Under the SRA, a sentencing judge must impose at least im

prisonment, probation, or a fine. See §3551(b). In determining the

appropriate sentence, judges must consider retribution, deterrence,

incapacitation, and rehabilitation, §3553(a)(2), but a particular pur

2 TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

Syllabus

pose may apply differently, or not at all, depending on the kind of

sentence under consideration. As relevant here, a court ordering im

prisonment must “recogniz[e] that imprisonment is not an appropri

ate means of promoting correction and rehabilitation.” §3582(a). A

similar provision instructs the Sentencing Commission, as the Sen

tencing Guidelines’ author, to “insure that the guidelines reflect the

inappropriateness of imposing a sentence to a term of imprisonment

for the purpose of rehabilitating the defendant.” 28 U. S. C. §994(k).

Pp. 3–6.

(b) Consideration of Tapia’s claim starts with §3582(a)’s clear text.

Putting together the most natural definitions of “recognize”—“to ac

knowledge or treat as valid”—and not “appropriate”—not “suitable or

fitting for a particular purpose”—§3582(a) tells courts to acknowledge

that imprisonment is not suitable for the purpose of promoting reha

bilitation. It also instructs courts to make that acknowledgment

when “determining whether to impose a term of imprisonment, and

. . . [when] determining the length of the term.” Amicus, appointed to

defend the judgment below, argues that the “recognizing” clause is

merely a caution for judges not to put too much faith in the capacity

of prisons to rehabilitate. But his alternative interpretation is un

persuasive, as Congress expressed itself clearly in §3582(a). Amicus

also errs in echoing the Ninth Circuit’s reasoning that §3582’s term

“imprisonment” relates to the decision whether to incarcerate, not the

determination of the sentence’s length. Because “imprisonment”

most naturally means “the state of being confined” or “a period of con

finement,” it does not distinguish between the defendant’s initial

placement behind bars and his continued stay there.

Section 3582(a)’s context supports this textual conclusion. By re

stating §3582(a)’s message to the Sentencing Commission, Congress

ensured that all sentencing officials would work in tandem to imple

ment the statutory determination to “reject imprisonment as a means

of promoting rehabilitation.” Mistretta, 488 U. S., at 367. Equally il

luminating is the absence of any provision authorizing courts to en

sure that offenders participate in prison rehabilitation programs.

When Congress wanted sentencing courts to take account of rehabili

tative needs, it gave them authority to do so. See, e.g., §3563(b)(9).

In fact, although a sentencing court can recommend that an offender

be placed in a particular facility or program, see §3582(a), the author

ity to make the placement rests with the Bureau of Prisons, see, e.g.,

§3621(e). The point is well illustrated here, where the District

Court’s strong recommendations that Tapia participate in RDAP and

be placed in a particular facility went unfulfilled. Finally, for those

who consider legislative history useful, the key Senate Report on the

SRA provides corroborating evidence. Pp. 6–12.

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 3

Syllabus

(c) Amicus’ attempts to recast what the SRA says about rehabilita

tion are unavailing. Pp. 12–14.

(d) Here, the sentencing transcript suggests that Tapia’s sentence

may have been lengthened in light of her rehabilitative needs. A

court does not err by discussing the opportunities for rehabilitation

within prison or the benefits of specific treatment or training pro

grams. But the record indicates that the District Court may have in

creased the length of Tapia’s sentence to ensure her completion of

RDAP, something a court may not do. The Ninth Circuit is left to

consider on remand the effect of Tapia’s failure to object to the sen

tence when imposed. Pp. 14–15.

376 Fed. Appx. 707, reversed and remanded.

KAGAN, J., delivered the opinion for a unanimous Court. SOTOMAYOR,

J., filed a concurring opinion, in which ALITO, J., joined.

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 1

Opinion of the Court

NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the

preliminary print of the United States Reports. Readers are requested to

notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Wash

ington, D. C. 20543, of any typographical or other formal errors, in order

that corrections may be made before the preliminary print goes to press.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 10–5400

_________________

ALEJANDRA TAPIA, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF

APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT

[June 16, 2011]

JUSTICE KAGAN delivered the opinion of the Court.

We consider here whether the Sentencing Reform Act pre

cludes federal courts from imposing or lengthening a

prison term in order to promote a criminal defendant’s

rehabilitation. We hold that it does.

I

Petitioner Alejandra Tapia was convicted of, inter alia,

smuggling unauthorized aliens into the United States, in

violation of 8 U. S. C. §§1324(a)(2)(B)(ii) and (iii). At sen

tencing, the District Court determined that the United

States Sentencing Guidelines recommended a prison term

of between 41 and 51 months for Tapia’s offenses. The

court decided to impose a 51-month term, followed by

three years of supervised release. In explaining its rea

sons, the court referred several times to Tapia’s need for

drug treatment, citing in particular the Bureau of Prison’s

Residential Drug Abuse Program (known as RDAP or the

500 Hour Drug Program). The court indicated that Tapia

should serve a prison term long enough to qualify for and

complete that program:

“The sentence has to be sufficient to provide needed

correctional treatment, and here I think the needed

2 TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

Opinion of the Court

correctional treatment is the 500 Hour Drug Program.

. . . . .

“Here I have to say that one of the factors that—I am

going to impose a 51-month sentence, . . . and one of

the factors that affects this is the need to provide

treatment. In other words, so she is in long enough to

get the 500 Hour Drug Program, number one.” App.

27.

(“Number two” was “to deter her from committing other

criminal offenses.” Ibid.) The court “strongly recom

mend[ed]” to the Bureau of Prisons (BOP) that Tapia

“participate in [RDAP] and that she serve her sentence at”

the Federal Correctional Institution in Dublin, California

(FCI Dublin), where “they have the appropriate tools . . .

to help her, to start to make a recovery.” Id., at 29. Tapia

did not object to the sentence at that time. Id., at 31.

On appeal, however, Tapia argued that the District

Court had erred in lengthening her prison term to make

her eligible for RDAP. App. to Pet. for Cert. 2. In Tapia’s

view, this action violated 18 U. S. C. §3582(a), which

instructs sentencing courts to “recogniz[e] that imprison

ment is not an appropriate means of promoting correction

and rehabilitation.” The United States Court of Appeals

for the Ninth Circuit disagreed, 376 Fed. Appx. 707 (2010),

relying on its prior decision in United States v. Duran, 37

F. 3d 557 (1994). The Ninth Circuit had held there that

§3582(a) distinguishes between deciding to impose a term

of imprisonment and determining its length. See id., at

561. According to Duran, a sentencing court cannot im

pose a prison term to assist a defendant’s rehabilitation.

But “[o]nce imprisonment is chosen as a punishment,” the

court may consider the defendant’s need for rehabilitation

in setting the length of the sentence. Ibid.

We granted certiorari to consider whether §3582(a)

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 3

Opinion of the Court

permits a sentencing court to impose or lengthen a prison

term in order to foster a defendant’s rehabilitation. 562

U. S. ___ (2010). That question has divided the Courts of

Appeals.1 Because the United States agrees with Tapia’s

interpretation of the statute, we appointed an amicus

curiae to defend the judgment below.2 We now reverse.

II

We begin with statutory background—how the relevant

sentencing provisions came about and what they say.

Aficionados of our sentencing decisions will recognize

much of the story line.

“For almost a century, the Federal Government em

ployed in criminal cases a system of indeterminate sen

tencing.” Mistretta v. United States, 488 U. S. 361, 363

(1989). Within “customarily wide” outer boundaries set by

Congress, trial judges exercised “almost unfettered discre

tion” to select prison sentences for federal offenders. Id.,

at 364. In the usual case, a judge also could reject prison

time altogether, by imposing a “suspended” sentence. If

the judge decided to impose a prison term, discretionary

authority shifted to parole officials: Once the defendant

had spent a third of his term behind bars, they could order

his release. See K. Stith & J. Cabranes, Fear of Judging:

Sentencing Guidelines in the Federal Courts 18–20 (1998).

This system was premised on a faith in rehabilitation.

——————

1 Three Circuits have held that §3582(a) allows a court to lengthen,

although not to impose, a prison term based on the need for rehabilita

tion. See United States v. Duran, 37 F. 3d 557 (CA9 1994); United

States v. Hawk Wing, 433 F. 3d 622 (CA8 2006); United States v.

Jimenez, 605 F. 3d 415 (CA6 2010). Two Courts of Appeals have ruled

that §3582(a) bars a court from either imposing or increasing a period

of confinement for rehabilitative reasons. See United States v. Man

zella, 475 F. 3d 152 (CA3 2007); In re Sealed Case, 573 F. 3d 844

(CADC 2009).

2 We appointed Stephanos Bibas to brief and argue the case, 562 U. S.

___ (2011), and he has ably discharged his responsibilities.

4 TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

Opinion of the Court

Discretion allowed “the judge and the parole officer to

[base] their respective sentencing and release decisions

upon their own assessments of the offender’s amenability

to rehabilitation.” Mistretta, 488 U. S., at 363. A convict,

the theory went, should generally remain in prison only

until he was able to reenter society safely. His release

therefore often coincided with “the successful completion

of certain vocational, educational, and counseling pro

grams within the prisons.” S. Rep. No. 98–225, p. 40

(1983) (hereinafter S. Rep.). At that point, parole officials

could “determin[e] that [the] prisoner had become reha

bilitated and should be released from confinement.” Stith

& Cabranes, supra, at 18.3

But this model of indeterminate sentencing eventually

fell into disfavor. One concern was that it produced “[s]eri

ous disparities in [the] sentences” imposed on simi-

larly situated defendants. Mistretta, 488 U. S., at 365.

Another was that the system’s attempt to “achieve reha

bilitation of offenders had failed.” Id., at 366. Lawmakers

and others increasingly doubted that prison programs

could “rehabilitate individuals on a routine basis”—or that

parole officers could “determine accurately whether or

when a particular prisoner ha[d] been rehabilitated.”

S. Rep., at 40.

——————

3 The statutes governing punishment of drug-addicted offenders (like

Tapia) provide an example of this system at work. If a court concluded

that such an offender was “likely to be rehabilitated through treat

ment,” it could order confinement “for treatment . . . for an indetermi

nate period of time” not to exceed the lesser of 10 years or the statutory

maximum for the offender’s crime. 18 U. S. C. §4253(a) (1982 ed.); see

also §4251(c) (“ ‘Treatment’ includes confinement and treatment in an

institution . . . and includes, but is not limited to, medical, educational,

social, psychological, and vocational services, corrective and preventive

guidance and training, and other rehabilitative services”). Once the

offender had undergone treatment for six months, the Attorney General

could recommend that the Board of Parole release him from custody,

and the Board could then order release “in its discretion.” §4254.

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 5

Opinion of the Court

Congress accordingly enacted the Sentencing Reform

Act of 1984, 98 Stat. 1987 (SRA or Act), to overhaul fed

eral sentencing practices. The Act abandoned indetermi

nate sentencing and parole in favor of a system in which

Sentencing Guidelines, promulgated by a new Sentencing

Commission, would provide courts with “a range of deter

minate sentences for categories of offenses and defen

dants.” Mistretta, 488 U. S., at 368. And the Act further

channeled judges’ discretion by establishing a framework

to govern their consideration and imposition of sentences.

Under the SRA, a judge sentencing a federal offender

must impose at least one of the following sanctions: im

prisonment (often followed by supervised release), proba

tion, or a fine. See §3551(b). In determining the appro

priate sentence from among these options, §3553(a)(2)

requires the judge to consider specified factors, including:

“the need for the sentence imposed—

“(A) to reflect the seriousness of the offense,

to promote respect for the law, and to pro

vide just punishment for the offense;

“(B) to afford adequate deterrence to crimi

nal conduct;

“(C) to protect the public from further

crimes of the defendant; and

“(D) to provide the defendant with needed

educational or vocational training, medical

care, or other correctional treatment in the

most effective manner.”

These four considerations—retribution, deterrence, inca

pacitation, and rehabilitation—are the four purposes of

sentencing generally, and a court must fashion a sentence

“to achieve the[se] purposes . . . to the extent that they are

applicable” in a given case. §3551(a).

The SRA then provides additional guidance about how

the considerations listed in §3553(a)(2) pertain to each of

6 TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

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the Act’s main sentencing options—imprisonment, super

vised release, probation, and fines. See §3582(a); §3583;

§3562(a); §3572(a). These provisions make clear that a

particular purpose may apply differently, or even not at

all, depending on the kind of sentence under considera

tion. For example, a court may not take account of retri

bution (the first purpose listed in §3553(a)(2)) when impos

ing a term of supervised release. See §3583(c).

Section 3582(a), the provision at issue here, specifies the

“factors to be considered” when a court orders imprison

ment. That section provides:

“The court, in determining whether to impose a term

of imprisonment, and, if a term of imprisonment is

to be imposed, in determining the length of the term,

shall consider the factors set forth in section 3553(a)

to the extent that they are applicable, recognizing

that imprisonment is not an appropriate means of

promoting correction and rehabilitation.”

A similar provision addresses the Sentencing Commission

in its capacity as author of the Sentencing Guidelines.

The SRA instructs the Commission to:

“insure that the guidelines reflect the inappropriate

ness of imposing a sentence to a term of imprisonment

for the purpose of rehabilitating the defendant or pro

viding the defendant with needed educational or voca

tional training, medical care, or other correctional

treatment.” 28 U. S. C. §994(k).

With this statutory background established, we turn to

the matter of interpretation.

III

A

Our consideration of Tapia’s claim starts with the text of

18 U. S. C. §3582(a)—and given the clarity of that provi-

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 7

Opinion of the Court

sion’s language, could end there as well. As just noted,

that section instructs courts to “recogniz[e] that impris

onment is not an appropriate means of promoting correc

tion and rehabilitation.” A common—and in context the

most natural—definition of the word “recognize” is “to ac

knowledge or treat as valid.” Random House Dictionary of

the English Language 1611 (2d ed. 1987). And a thing

that is not “appropriate” is not “suitable or fitting for a

particular purpose.” Id., at 103. Putting these two defini

tions together, §3582(a) tells courts that they should ac

knowledge that imprisonment is not suitable for the pur

pose of promoting rehabilitation. And when should courts

acknowledge this? Section §3582(a) answers: when “de

termining whether to impose a term of imprisonment, and,

if a term of imprisonment is to be imposed, [when] deter

mining the length of the term.” So a court making these

decisions should consider the specified rationales of

punishment except for rehabilitation, which it should ac

knowledge as an unsuitable justification for a prison term.

As against this understanding, amicus argues that

§3582(a)’s “recognizing” clause is not a flat prohibition

but only a “reminder” or a “guide [for] sentencing judges’

cognitive processes.” Brief for Court-Appointed Amicus

Curiae in Support of Judgment Below 23–24 (hereinafter

Amicus Brief) (emphasis deleted). Amicus supports this

view by offering a string of other definitions of the

word “recognize”: “ ‘recall to mind,’ ‘realize,’ or ‘perceive

clearly.’ ” Id., at 24 (quoting dictionary definitions). Once

these are plugged in, amicus suggests, §3582(a) reveals

itself as a kind of loosey-goosey caution not to put too

much faith in the capacity of prisons to rehabilitate.

But we do not see how these alternative meanings of

“recognize” help amicus’s cause. A judge who “perceives

clearly” that imprisonment is not an appropriate means of

promoting rehabilitation would hardly incarcerate some

one for that purpose. Ditto for a judge who “realizes” or

8 TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

Opinion of the Court

“recalls” that imprisonment is not a way to rehabilitate an

offender. To be sure, the drafters of the “recognizing”

clause could have used still more commanding language:

Congress could have inserted a “thou shalt not” or equiva

lent phrase to convey that a sentencing judge may never,

ever, under any circumstances consider rehabilitation in

imposing a prison term. But when we interpret a statute,

we cannot allow the perfect to be the enemy of the merely

excellent. Congress expressed itself clearly in §3582(a),

even if armchair legislators might come up with some

thing even better. And what Congress said was that when

sentencing an offender to prison, the court shall consider

all the purposes of punishment except rehabilitation—

because imprisonment is not an appropriate means of

pursuing that goal.

Amicus also claims, echoing the Ninth Circuit’s reason

ing in Duran, that §3582(a)’s “recognizing” clause bars

courts from considering rehabilitation only when imposing

a prison term, and not when deciding on its length. The

argument goes as follows. Section 3582(a) refers to two

decisions: “The court, [1] in determining whether to im

pose a term of imprisonment, and, if a term of imprison

ment is to be imposed, [2] in determining the length of the

term” must consider the purposes of punishment listed

in §3553(a)(2), subject to the caveat of the “recognizing”

clause. But that clause says only that “imprisonment” is

not an appropriate means of rehabilitation. Because the

“primary meaning of ‘imprisonment’ is ‘the act of confining

a person,’ ” amicus argues, the clause relates only to

[1] the decision to incarcerate, and not to [2] the separate

determination of the sentence’s length. Amicus Brief 52.

We again disagree. Under standard rules of grammar,

§3582(a) says: A sentencing judge shall recognize that

imprisonment is not appropriate to promote rehabilita

tion when the court considers the applicable factors of

§3553(a)(2); and a court considers these factors when

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 9

Opinion of the Court

determining both whether to imprison an offender and

what length of term to give him. The use of the

word “imprisonment” in the “recognizing” clause does not

destroy—but instead fits neatly into—this construction.

“Imprisonment” as used in the clause most naturally

means “[t]he state of being confined” or “a period of con

finement.” Black’s Law Dictionary 825 (9th ed. 2009); see

also Webster’s Third New International Dictionary 1137

(1993) (the “state of being imprisoned”). So the word does

not distinguish between the defendant’s initial placement

behind bars and his continued stay there. As the D. C.

Circuit noted in rejecting an identical argument, “[a]

sentencing court deciding to keep a defendant locked up

for an additional month is, as to that month, in fact choos

ing imprisonment over release.” In re Sealed Case, 573

F. 3d 844, 850 (2009).4 Accordingly, the word “imprison

ment” does not change the function of the “recognizing”

clause—to constrain a sentencing court’s decision both to

impose and to lengthen a prison term.5

The context of §3582(a) puts an exclamation point on

this textual conclusion. As noted earlier, supra, at 6,

another provision of the SRA restates §3582(a)’s message,

——————

4 Indeed, we can scarcely imagine a reason why Congress would have

wanted to draw the distinction that amicus urges on us. That distinc

tion would prevent a court from considering rehabilitative needs in

imposing a 1-month sentence rather than probation, but not in choosing

a 60-month sentence over a 1-month term. The only policy argument

amicus can offer in favor of this result is that “[t]he effects of impris

onment plateau a short while after the incarceration” and “ ‘[t]he dif

ference in harm between longer and shorter prison terms is smaller

than typically assumed.’ ” Amicus Brief 56. But nothing in the SRA

indicates that Congress is so indifferent to the length of prison terms.

5 The Government argues that “Congress did not intend to prohibit

courts from imposing less imprisonment in order to promote a defen

dant’s rehabilitation.” Brief for United States 40 (emphasis added).

This case does not require us to address that question, and nothing in

our decision expresses any views on it.

10 TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

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but to a different audience. That provision, 28 U. S. C.

§994(k), directs the Sentencing Commission to ensure that

the Guidelines “reflect the inappropriateness of imposing a

sentence to a term of imprisonment for the purpose of

rehabilitating the defendant or providing the defendant

with needed educational or vocational training, medical

care, or other correctional treatment.” In this way, Con

gress ensured that all sentencing officials would work

in tandem to implement the statutory determination to

“rejec[t] imprisonment as a means of promoting rehabilita

tion.” Mistretta, 488 U. S., at 367 (citing 28 U. S. C.

§994(k)). Section 994(k) bars the Commission from rec

ommending a “term of imprisonment”—a phrase that

again refers both to the fact and to the length of incarcera

tion—based on a defendant’s rehabilitative needs. And

§3582(a) prohibits a court from considering those needs to

impose or lengthen a period of confinement when selecting

a sentence from within, or choosing to depart from, the

Guidelines range. Each actor at each stage in the sentenc

ing process receives the same message: Do not think about

prison as a way to rehabilitate an offender.

Equally illuminating here is a statutory silence—the

absence of any provision granting courts the power to

ensure that offenders participate in prison rehabilitation

programs. For when Congress wanted sentencing courts

to take account of rehabilitative needs, it gave courts

the authority to direct appropriate treatment for offend

ers. Thus, the SRA instructs courts, in deciding whether

to impose probation or supervised release, to consider

whether an offender could benefit from training and treat

ment programs. See 18 U. S. C. §3562(a); §3583(c). And

so the SRA also authorizes courts, when imposing those

sentences, to order an offender’s participation in cer

tain programs and facilities. §3563(b)(9); §3563(b)(11);

§3563(a)(4); §3583(d). As a condition of probation, for

example, the court may require the offender to “undergo

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 11

Opinion of the Court

available medical, psychiatric, or psychological treatment,

including treatment for drug or alcohol dependency, as

specified by the court, and [to] remain in a specified insti

tution if required for that purpose.” §3563(b)(9).

If Congress had similarly meant to allow courts to base

prison terms on offenders’ rehabilitative needs, it would

have given courts the capacity to ensure that offenders

participate in prison correctional programs. But in fact,

courts do not have this authority. When a court sentences

a federal offender, the BOP has plenary control, subject to

statutory constraints, over “the place of the prisoner’s

imprisonment,” §3621(b), and the treatment programs (if

any) in which he may participate, §§3621(e), (f ); §3624(f ).

See also 28 CFR pt. 544 (2010) (BOP regulations for ad

ministering inmate educational, recreational, and voca

tional programs); 28 CFR pt. 550, subpart F (drug abuse

treatment programs). A sentencing court can recommend

that the BOP place an offender in a particular facility

or program. See §3582(a). But decisionmaking authority

rests with the BOP.

This case well illustrates the point. As noted earlier,

the District Court “strongly recommend[ed]” that Tapia

participate in RDAP, App. 29, and serve her sentence at

FCI Dublin, “where they have the facilities to really help

her,” id., at 28. But the court’s recommendations were

only recommendations—and in the end they had no effect.

See Amicus Brief 42 (“[Tapia] was not admitted to RDAP,

nor even placed in the prison recommended by the district

court”); Reply Brief for United States 8, n. 1 (“According to

BOP records, [Tapia] was encouraged to enroll [in RDAP]

during her psychology intake screening at [the federal

prison], but she stated that she was not interested, and

she has not volunteered for the program”). The sentencing

court may have had plans for Tapia’s rehabilitation, but it

lacked the power to implement them. That incapacity

speaks volumes. It indicates that Congress did not intend

12 TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

Opinion of the Court

that courts consider offenders’ rehabilitative needs when

imposing prison sentences.

Finally, for those who consider legislative history useful,

the key Senate Report concerning the SRA provides one

last piece of corroborating evidence. According to that

Report, decades of experience with indeterminate sentenc

ing, resulting in the release of many inmates after they

completed correctional programs, had left Congress skep

tical that “rehabilitation can be induced reliably in a

prison setting.” S. Rep., at 38. Although some critics

argued that “rehabilitation should be eliminated com

pletely as a purpose of sentencing,” Congress declined to

adopt that categorical position. Id., at 76. Instead, the

Report explains, Congress barred courts from considering

rehabilitation in imposing prison terms, ibid., and n. 165,

but not in ordering other kinds of sentences, ibid., and

n. 164. “[T]he purpose of rehabilitation,” the Report

stated, “is still important in determining whether a sanc

tion other than a term of imprisonment is appropriate in a

particular case.” See id., at 76–77 (emphasis added).

And so this is a case in which text, context, and history

point to the same bottom line: Section 3582(a) precludes

sentencing courts from imposing or lengthening a prison

term to promote an offender’s rehabilitation.

B

With all these sources of statutory meaning stacked

against him, amicus understandably tries to put the SRA’s

view of rehabilitation in a wholly different frame. Amicus

begins by conceding that Congress, in enacting the SRA,

rejected the old “[r]ehabilitation [m]odel.” Amicus Brief 1.

But according to amicus, that model had a very limited

focus: It was the belief that “isolation and prison routine”

could alone produce “penitence and spiritual renewal.”

Id., at 1, 11. What the rehabilitation model did not in

clude—and the SRA therefore did not reject—was prison

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 13

Opinion of the Court

treatment programs (including for drug addiction) tar

geted to offenders’ particular needs. See id., at 21, 25, 27–

28. So even after the passage of §3582(a), amicus argues,

a court may impose or lengthen a prison sentence to pro

mote an offender’s participation in a targeted treatment

program. The only thing the court may not do is to impose

a prison term on the ground that confinement itself—its

inherent solitude and routine—will lead to rehabilitation.

We think this reading of the SRA is too narrow. For one

thing, the relevant history shows that at the time of

the SRA’s enactment, prison rehabilitation efforts focused

on treatment, counseling, and training programs, not on

seclusion and regimentation. See Rotman, The Failure of

Reform: United States, 1865–1965, in Oxford History of

the Prison: The Practice of Punishment in Western Society

169, 189–190 (N. Morris & D. Rothman eds. 1995) (de

scribing the pre-SRA “therapeutic model of rehabilitation”

as characterized by “individualized treatment” and “voca

tional training and group counseling programs”); see also

n. 3, supra (noting pre-SRA statutes linking the confine

ment of drug addicts to the completion of treatment pro

grams). Indeed, Congress had in mind precisely these

programs when it prohibited consideration of rehabilita

tion in imposing a prison term. See 28 U. S. C. §994(k)

(instructing the Sentencing Commission to prevent the

use of imprisonment to “provid[e] the defendant with

needed educational or vocational training . . . or other

correctional treatment”); S. Rep., at 40 (rejecting the

“model of ‘coercive’ rehabilitation—the theory of correction

that ties prison release dates to the successful completion

of certain vocational, educational, and counseling pro

grams within the prisons”). Far from falling outside the

“rehabilitation model,” these programs practically defined

it.

It is hardly surprising, then, that amicus’s argument

finds little support in the statutory text. Read most natu

14 TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

Opinion of the Court

rally, 18 U. S. C. §3582(a)’s prohibition on “promoting

correction and rehabilitation” covers efforts to place of

fenders in rehabilitation programs. Indeed, §3582(a)’s lan

guage recalls the SRA’s description of the rehabilitative

purpose of sentencing—“provid[ing] the defendant with

needed educational or vocational training, medical care, or

other correctional treatment.” §3553(a)(2)(D). That de

scription makes clear that, under the SRA, treatment,

training, and like programs are rehabilitation’s sum and

substance. So amicus’s efforts to exclude rehabilitation

programs from the “recognizing” clause’s reach do not

succeed. That section prevents a sentencing court from

imposing or lengthening a prison term because the court

thinks an offender will benefit from a prison treatment

program.

IV

In this case, the sentencing transcript suggests the

possibility that Tapia’s sentence was based on her reha

bilitative needs.

We note first what we do not disapprove about Tapia’s

sentencing. A court commits no error by discussing the

opportunities for rehabilitation within prison or the bene

fits of specific treatment or training programs. To the

contrary, a court properly may address a person who is

about to begin a prison term about these important mat

ters. And as noted earlier, a court may urge the BOP to

place an offender in a prison treatment program. See

supra, at 11. Section 3582(a) itself provides, just after the

clause at issue here, that a court may “make a recommen

dation concerning the type of prison facility appropriate

for the defendant”; and in this calculus, the presence of a

rehabilitation program may make one facility more appro

priate than another. So the sentencing court here did

nothing wrong—and probably something very right—in

trying to get Tapia into an effective drug treatment

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 15

Opinion of the Court

program.

But the record indicates that the court may have done

more—that it may have selected the length of the sentence

to ensure that Tapia could complete the 500 Hour Drug

Program. “The sentence has to be sufficient,” the court

explained, “to provide needed correctional treatment, and

here I think the needed correctional treatment is the

500 Hour Drug Program.” App. 27; see supra, at 1–2. Or

again: The “number one” thing “is the need to provide

treatment. In other words, so she is in long enough to get

the 500 Hour Drug Program.” App. 27; see supra, at 2.

These statements suggest that the court may have calcu

lated the length of Tapia’s sentence to ensure that she

receive certain rehabilitative services. And that a sentenc

ing court may not do. As we have held, a court may not

impose or lengthen a prison sentence to enable an offender

to complete a treatment program or otherwise to promote

rehabilitation.

For the reasons stated, we reverse the judgment of the

Court of Appeals and remand the case for further proceed

ings consistent with this opinion. Consistent with our

practice, see, e.g., United States v. Marcus, 560 U. S. ___,

___ (2010) (slip op., at 8), we leave it to the Court of Ap

peals to consider the effect of Tapia’s failure to object to

the sentence when imposed. See Fed. Rule Crim. Proc.

52(b); United States v. Olano, 507 U. S. 725, 731 (1993).

It is so ordered.

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 1

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

_________________

No. 10–5400

_________________

ALEJANDRA TAPIA, PETITIONER v. UNITED STATES

ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF

APPEALS FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT

[June 16, 2011]

JUSTICE SOTOMAYOR, with whom JUSTICE ALITO joins,

concurring.

I agree with the Court’s conclusion that 18 U. S. C.

§3582(a) “precludes federal courts from imposing or length

ening a prison term in order to promote a criminal de

fendant’s rehabilitation.” Ante, at 1. I write separately

to note my skepticism that the District Judge violated this

proscription in this case.

At the sentencing hearing, the District Judge carefully

reviewed the sentencing factors set forth in §3553(a).

First, he considered “[t]he nature and circumstances of the

offense” committed by petitioner Alejandra Tapia—in this

case, alien smuggling. App. 25–26; see §3553(a)(1). He

emphasized that Tapia’s criminal conduct “created a sub

stantial risk of death or serious bodily injury” to the

smuggled aliens. App. 26; see also id., at 20 (noting that

the aliens were secreted in the vehicle’s gas tank com

partment). Second, he reviewed Tapia’s “history and

characteristics,” §3553(a)(1), including her history of being

abused and her associations “with the wrong people,” id.,

at 26. He noted his particular concern about Tapia’s

criminal conduct while released on bail, when she failed to

appear and was found in an apartment with meth

amphetamine, a sawed-off shotgun, and stolen mail.

Id., at 25–26. Third, he noted that the offense was

“serious,” warranting a “sufficient” sentence. Id., at 26; see

2 TAPIA v. UNITED STATES

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring

§3553(a)(2)(A). Fourth, he considered the need “to deter

criminal conduct” and “to protect the public from further

crimes of the defendant,” which he characterized as a “big

factor here, given [Tapia’s] failure to appear and what she

did out on bail.” App. 26; see §§3553(a)(2)(B), (C). Fifth,

he took account of the need “to provide needed correctional

treatment,” in this case, the Bureau of Prisons’ (BOP) “500

Hour Drug Program,” more officially called the Residential

Drug Abuse Treatment Program (RDAP). App. 27; see

§3553(a)(2)(D). And, finally, he noted the need “to avoid

unwarranted sentencing disparities” and the need for the

sentence “to be sufficient to effect the purposes of 3553(a)

but not greater.” App. 27; see §§3553(a), (a)(6).

Tapia faced a mandatory minimum sentence of 36

months’ incarceration, App. 18, but her Guidelines range

was 41 to 51 months, id., at 13. After reviewing the

§3553(a) factors, the judge imposed a sentence of 51

months, the top of the Guidelines range. He offered two

reasons for choosing this sentence: “number one,” the need

for drug treatment; and “[n]umber two,” deterrence. Id.,

at 27. With respect to the latter reason, the judge high

lighted Tapia’s criminal history and her criminal conduct

while released on bail—which, he said, was “something

that motivates imposing a sentence that in total is at the

high end of the guideline range.” Id., at 27–28. He con

cluded, “I think that a sentence less than what I am im

posing would not deter her and provide for sufficient time

so she could begin to address these problems.” Id., at 28.

The District Judge’s comments at sentencing suggest

that he believed the need to deter Tapia from engaging in

further criminal conduct warranted a sentence of 51

months’ incarceration. Granted, the judge also mentioned

the need to provide drug treatment through the RDAP.

The 51-month sentence he selected, however, appears to

have had no connection to eligibility for the RDAP. See

BOP Program Statement No. P5330.11, §2.5.1(b) (Mar. 16,

Cite as: 564 U. S. ____ (2011) 3

SOTOMAYOR, J., concurring

2009) (providing that, to participate in the RDAP, an

inmate must ordinarily have at least 24 months remaining

on her sentence). Even the 36-month mandatory mini

mum would have qualified Tapia for participation in the

RDAP. I thus find it questionable that the judge length

ened her term of imprisonment beyond that necessary for

deterrence in the belief that a 51-month sentence was

necessary for rehabilitation. Cf. S. Rep. No. 98–225,

p. 176 (1983) (“A term imposed for another purpose of

sentencing may . . . have a rehabilitative focus if rehabil

itation in such a case is an appropriate secondary purpose

of the sentence”).

Although I am skeptical that the thoughtful District

Judge imposed or lengthened Tapia’s sentence to promote

rehabilitation, I acknowledge that his comments at sen

tencing were not perfectly clear. Given that Ninth Circuit

precedent incorrectly permitted sentencing courts to con

sider rehabilitation in setting the length of a sentence, see

ante, at 2, and that the judge stated that the sentence

needed to be “long enough to get the 500 Hour Drug

Program,” App. 27, I cannot be certain that he did not

lengthen Tapia’s sentence to promote rehabilitation in

violation of §3582(a). I therefore agree with the Court’s

disposition of this case and join the Court’s opinion in full.