Availability, Oil Spill Restoration Plan

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

Availability, Oil Spill Restoration Plan

AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION: Notice of availability.

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SUMMARY: The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service) herein releases

the draft Apex Houston Oil Spill Restoration Plan (Plan) for public

review. The Plan covers the Service proposal to restore natural

resources injured as a result of the 1986 Apex Houston barge oil spill.

DATES: Written comments must be submitted on or before December 5,

1994.

ADDRESSES: Requests for copies of the Plan may be made to: U.S. Fish

and Wildlife Service, Ecological Services, 2800 Cottage Way, Room E-

1803, Sacramento, CA 95825.

Written comments or material regarding the Plan should be sent to

the same address.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Daniel Welsh, Natural Resource Damage

Assessment Branch Chief, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2800 Cottage

Way, Room E-1803, Sacramento CA 95825.

Interested parties may also call (916) 978-5603 for further

information.

Restoration of Nearshore Breeding Seabird Colonies on the Central

California Coast

Executive Summary

Between January 28 and February 4, 1986 the transportation barge

Apex Houston discharged an undetermined amount of San Joaquin Valley

crude oil while in transit from San Francisco Bay to the Long Beach

Harbor. The oil spill caused damage to natural resources from San

Francisco to the Big Sur coast. Approximately 9,000 seabirds were

killed, including 6,000 common murres (Uria aalge), in addition to

other aquatic life in and around the coastal waters of central

California. State and Federal personnel responded to the spill and

assessed damages as a result of the spill.

The State and Federal natural resource trustees commenced

litigation in this matter against potentially responsible parties in

January 1989. The complaints alleged claims for natural resource

damages, costs, and penalties pursuant to the Clean Water Act, 33

U.S.C. Sec. 1251 et seq., Title III of the National Marine Sanctuaries

Act, 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1431 et seq. (formerly the National Marine

Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act, ``MPRSA''), the California

Harbors & Navigation Code Secs. 293 and 294, and other State Law.

In August, 1994 the parties settled this matter in a Consent Decree

entered by the Federal District Court for the Northern District of

California for $6.4 million. As part of this natural resources damage

settlement, approximately $4.92 million has been allocated for the

restoration of common murres. An additional $500,000 has been allocated

for the acquisition of habitat for the Federally endangered marbled

murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus), another species impacted by the

spill. The marbled murrelet project will be the subject of future

restoration planning efforts in this case and is not included in this

plan. The remainder of the $6.4 million collected in the settlement is

for penalties and costs incurred as a result of the spill. A Trustee

Council, comprised of representatives of each Trustee (California

Department of Fish and Game, National Oceanic and Atmospheric

Administration, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) was established to

review and select restoration actions. This Trustee Council will meet

regularly during the duration of the project to review progress and

make necessary changes.

The goal of this effort is to restore common murres in areas where

colonies were extirpated or severely depleted by the Apex Houston oil

spill. Social attractants (decoys and recorded vocalizations of common

murres) will be used to attract common murres to nest at historic

nearshore colonies in the vicinity of San Francisco and Monterey.

Behavior and phenology of common murres will be monitored at these

sites and at reference sites at Point Reyes and the Farallon Islands to

determine when the goal has been met. This project may take

approximately 10 years to achieve success because common murres have

inherently low reproductive rates and do not breed until they are

several years old.

Restoration of Nearshore Breeding Seabird Colonies on the Central

California Coast

Introduction

Nearshore breeding colonies of common murres (Uria aalge)

throughout central coastal California decreased by 60% between 1980 and

1986 (Takekawa et al. 1990). This population decline was attributed to

high mortality from gill-net fishing, oil spills (including the Apex

Houston spill), and a severe El Nino-Southern Oscillation event in

1982-1983 (Takekawa et al. 1990, Swartzman and Carter 1991). The Apex

Houston oil spill, which occurred principally between San Francisco and

the Monterey Peninsula, killed nearly 9,000 seabirds in February 1986

(Siskin et al. 1993). These mortalities included approximately 1,293

rhinoceros auklets (Cerorhinca monocerata), 180 small alcids, 12

marbled murrelets (Brachyramphus marmoratus), and 1,206 other birds

(including loons, grebes, scoters, cormorants, shorebirds, and gulls)

killed as a result of the spill (Siskin et al. 1993). In addition,

approximately 6,000 common murres were killed (Siskin et al. 1993). The

common murre colony at Devil's Slide Rock was found to be abandoned,

subcolonies at Castle Rocks disappeared, and other central coastal

breeding sites (e.g., Hurricane Point Rocks, Point Reyes) were greatly

reduced after the spill (Takekawa et al. 1990, Swartzman and Carter

1991)(Figure 1).

In the early 1900's, common murres bred at Prince Island in

southern California (Carter et al. 1992), However, the central coastal

California population currently represents the southernmost range for

breeding common murres in the Pacific. Future oil spills and other

catastrophic events (e.g., disease, predation, climate change) could

result in the extirpation of this population as well as a reduction in

the species' geographic range. The restoration of former common murre

colonies would aid in securing the central coastal California common

murre population and would spread the risk of future disasters among

colony sites over a wider range of the California coast.

The goal of this project is to recolonize common murres at historic

breeding colonies in central California. The project will be conducted

over approximately 10 years. A total of $4.92 million is available for

this project.

Purpose

The restoration funds were recovered under the Clean Water Act, the

National Marine Sanctuaries Act, the California Harbors & Navigation

Code Secs. 293 and 294, and other State law. A Trustee Council,

comprised of representatives of each Trustee, was established to review

and select restoration actions. As part of the settlement in the Apex

Houston litigation, approximately $4.92 million has been allocated for

the restoration of common murre colonies that suffered damage from the

Apex Houston oil spill. This project should protect the central

California common murre populaton. This will be achieved by restoring

this population to a larger part of its historic range and spreading

the risk of future catastrophic events (e.g. oil spills, disease,

storms) between more colony sites and over a broader section of the

California coast.

Proposed Restoration Alternatives

Alternatives Considered

Numerous studies have shown that oil spills impact coastal marine

ecosystems by decreasing the species diversity, reducing genetic

variability, disrupting food chains, and modifying community structure.

However, human intervention in the form of restoration projects can

promote the recovery of resources impacted by oil spills. Therefore,

the Trustees concentrated their damage assessment and restoration

efforts on the recovery of seabird populations, especially alcids,

impacted by the Apex Houston oil spill.

Alternatives considered for seabird restoration included active

recolonization/restoration projects and habitat acquisition projects.

Alternatives were compared based on their monetary costs, benefits to

local populations of the impacted species, and location relative to

impacted areas.

Recolonization/restoration efforts were considered for common

murres and rhinoceros auklets, two seabird species that suffered high

mortality as a result of the spill. The rhinoceros auklet project

involved use of artificial nest sites to enhance breeding populations

along the central California coast. The common murre recolonization

project (described herein for public comment) was given higher priority

because its potential benefits were linked more closely to the injuries

caused by the spill. Most of the impacted common murres came from local

colonies, whereas many of the dead auklets were wintering birds that

nest north of the impacted area. A third restoration project involving

construction of a seabird breeding and rehabilitation facility was

rejected because its cost was prohibitive relative to settlement funds.

Four habitat acquisition projects were considered: purchase of Cape

Vizcaino in northern Mendocino County to protect nesting seabirds,

purchase of coastal land near Castle Rock to protect a mainland colony

of common murres, purchase of lands within San Francisco Bay, and

purchase of marbled murrelet nesting habitat along the central

California coast. The first three projects were given lower priorities

because they were outside of the area impacted by the spill (Cape

Vizcaino), were too costly (mainland site near Castle Rock), or were

beneficial primarily to species that were not affected by the spill

(sites in San Francisco Bay). A restoration plan describing the marbled

murrelet habitat acquisition project will be made public at a later

date.

Preferred Alternative: Recolonization of Impacted Common Murre Colonies

The project the Trustee's prefer and on which public comment is

invited is the recolonization of common murre colonies at Devil's Slide

and San Pedro rocks in San Mateo County and Castle and Hurricane Point

Rocks in Monterey County.

A. Devil's Slide and San Pedro Rocks Common Murre Recolonization:

Recolonize Common Murres at Devil's Slide and San Pedro Rocks (San

Mateo County, California) Using Social Attraction Methods (Decoys and

Recorded Vocalizations) and Develop Reference Information Needed To

Evaluate and Refine Restoration Efforts

Location(s): Devil's Slide and San Pedro Rocks, San Mateo County,

California; Point Reyes area (Point Reyes, Point Resistance, Double

Point, and Miller Point rocks), Marin County, California; Farallon

Islands, San Francisco County, California

Justification: The recolonization of abandoned common murre

colonies in central California will contribute to the restoration of

this seabird's historic geographic range. This population sustained

severe losses from commercial and subsistence egging in the 1800's and

early 1900's, from chronic oil pollution and spills in the early to mid

1900's, and from chronic oil spills and gill-netting in the 1980's and

1990's. Common murres were last recorded breeding at San Pedro Rock in

1909, when the colony was in the process of being extirpated by egg

collectors (Ray 1909). The Apex Houston spill in 1986 contributed

significantly to the loss of the Devil's Slide Rock colony near San

Francisco. The San Pedro and Devil's Slide Rocks colonies are in close

proximity and constitute the only common murre colonies between San

Francisco and Monterey. This is a large portion of the range of the

central California common murre population.

Given the current depleted condition of the common murre

population, extirpated colonies are not likely to be reestablished in

the foreseeable future without human assistance. The San Pedro Rock

colony has not recolonized over the past 85 years and the Devil's Slide

Rock colony has not been recolonized in the 8 years following the Apex

Houston spill. Similarly, the Prince Island colony in southern

California has not been recolonized since extirpation in the early

1900's (Carter et al. 1992). Furthermore, all six nearshore colonies in

central California have remained severely depleted since the mid-

1980's. The reduction of the geographic range and small numbers of

common murres in central California increases the risk for extinction

for the central California population.

Studies of seabird colony formation in Maine demonstrated that

recolonization can be achieved using social attractants (Kress 1978,

Kress and Nettleship 1988, and Kress et al. 1991). The use of decoys

and tape recordings has attracted prospecting seabirds, which have bred

once a threshold has been reached. These techniques have assisted in

the recolonization by several species of colonial nesting seabirds

(Podolsky 1985; Podolsky and Kress 1989, 1991). Preliminary efforts at

recolonizing common murres in Maine in 1992-1994 have attracted common

murres during the breeding season (S. Kress, pers. comm.). However,

social attraction techniques must be applied for many years before

breeding begins and a self-sustaining breeding colony can be attained.

In order to refine recolonization methods and evaluate their

success, reference information will be needed on the reproductive

biology, behavior, and phenology of common murres at an unmanipulated

near-shore site in the local area. However, little information is

available from near-shore colonies in central California. Monitoring

attendance patterns, arrival dates, reproductive success, and behavior

of breeding and nonbreeding common murres at accessible colonies in the

Point Reyes area will provide a comparison to evaluate recolonization

of Devil's Slide and San Pedro rocks. The Point Reyes colonies (i.e.,

Point Reyes, Point Resistance, Double Point, and Miller Point rocks)

are the closest to the recolonization sites, are the most ecological

similar, and should provide a reference for what would normally be

expected in a near-shore common murre colony as well as a good

comparison with the recolonization site. The monitoring conducted at

these unmanipulated colonies will be used to assess recolonization

responses and common murre activity patterns at recolonization sites,

as well as support refinement of recolonization methods.

In addition, unique information will be needed from the common

murre colony at the South Farallon Islands at Farallon National

Wildlife Refuge in order to evaluate recolonization responses and

refine techniques. Common murre reproductive success, diet, and

breeding biology have been studied for over 20 years at the South

Farallon Islands as part of long-term monitoring of seabird populations

required for the Farallon National Wildlife Refuge and other research

conducted by the Point Reyes Bird Observatory (Ainley and Boekelheide

1990, Ainley et al. 1994). As a result of these studies, a small number

of individually marked birds of known age and sex exist at the Farallon

Islands. Little information is available concerning the attendance of

breeding and nonbreeding common murres at breeding sites, especially

during winter. Information obtained on individually-marked birds, where

age and sex are known, would give a better understanding of expected

time-in-attendance and behavior at breeding sites for adult and

subadult common murres during the breeding and nonbreeding seasons.

Detailed information on common murre attendance and prospecting in the

winter will make it possible to evaluate the significance of winter

attendance at the recolonization sites. If winter attendance is crucial

to successful breeding, social attraction methods may have to be

deployed for a longer period. In addition, all accessible subcolonies

of common murres at the South Farallon Islands would be examined for

more general attendance patterns throughout the year.

Attendance, breeding biology, and behavior will be monitored during

the breeding season in marked and unmarked birds in plots at the South

Farallon Islands so that recolonization responses at recolonization

sites can be more effectively evaluated. Certain colonies with

potential for future intensive monitoring efforts may be examined in

greater detail, including reproductive success. This information will

be important in evaluating and modifying the social attraction methods

used at the restoration sites. Information that is only available at

this larger, more accessible, and closely monitored common murre

colony, including known-aged common murre information, will be used to

refine and assess recolonization efforts.

Proposed Actions: Social attraction techniques will be used to

recolonize common murres at Devil's Slide and San Pedro rocks. The use

of decoys and tape-recordings, similar to those used elsewhere to

encourage recolonization by several seabird species, is proposed

(Podolsky and Kress 1989, Kress 1990, Podolsky 1985). Preliminary work

will consist of selecting observation points to view recolonization

sites, constructing and installing observation blinds, obtaining access

permits, and purchasing needed equipment. Periodic observations of

winter attendance of colonies will also be conducted in fall and winter

1994-1995. Aerial surveys of central California breeding seabird

colonies and periodic observations of breeding colonies from vantage

points will be conducted in the spring and summer of 1995. Additional

aerial reconnaissance of Devil's Slide and San Pedro rocks will be

conducted to obtain photographs for mapping the restoration sites.

Reconnaissance trips to Devil's Slide and San Pedro rocks will take

place to determine equipment and procedures needed to deploy social

attraction equipment. Ladders may be installed to allow safe access

onto the colonies for project personnel.

Decoys and audio equipment will be placed on the rocks in fall 1995

before common murres begin to frequent nesting islands. Recordings of

common murre breeding vocalizations will be made at the Farallon NWR.

Life-size common murre decoys will be positioned on suitable nesting

habitat. The decoys will be secured to the rock in a fashion that

simulates occupied common murre colonies. Several omnidirectional

weather resistant loudspeakers will be positioned at the recolonization

sites. Endless tape loops or compact disks of California common murre

vocalizations will be played throughout the breeding season from

December to August. Daily observations of the recolonization sites will

begin once decoys have been deployed and will continue through July.

Devil's Slide Rock will be observed from the mainland using a portable

blind and telescope. San Pedro Rock observations will occur from a

blind located on the rock, from a boat, and/or from the mainland.

Data collected will include common murre arrival date, number of

common murres present, behavior of common murres, interaction with

other species (e.g., Brandt's Cormorants (Phalacrocorax penicillatus)),

location on rock, attendance patterns, and presence of predators.

Prospecting common murres will be plotted by location on maps of the

recolonization site. One or more aerial photographic censuses of the

central California common murre colonies will be conducted annually

between May and June. The censuses will be used to calculate annual

breeding population sizes at the recolonization sites and nearby

reference colonies in central California, compare trends between years,

and assist in determining numbers of common murres not visible from the

mainland or boats. Social attractants will be displayed through the

breeding season until after common murres normally leave the breeding

sites, usually in August. The decoys and audio equipment will be

collected after all bird breeding on the rock has been completed.

Equipment will be checked, cleaned, and replaced as necessary. The

equipment will be redeployed during the following fall before common

murres begin to frequent nesting islands. Monitoring of recolonization

sites will continue annually after the first social attractants are

deployed. The restoration efforts will be evaluated annually and

revised as necessary.

The breeding behavior and colony attendance of common murres will

be monitored at four nearby colonies in the Point Reyes National

Seashore and/or the Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary:

Point Reyes, Point Resistance, Double Point Rocks, and Miller Point

Rocks. Several variables will be monitored to allow comparison to

recolonization sites, including population size and status, attendance

patterns, timing, breeding phenology and success, behavior, interaction

with other species, impacts of predators, and human and other

disturbances. The population size and status would be determined using

similar methods employed by Birkhead and Nettleship (1980), Gaston et

al. (1983), Mudge (1988), and Hatch and Hatch (1989). Only subcolonies

that can be viewed from a safe location will be selected.

Reconnaissance work and preliminary observations and logistics would

begin in spring-summer 1995. This work would consist of obtaining

access permits to conduct work, selecting subcolonies to be studied,

selecting plots within subcolonies, and conducting aerial surveys of

the colony. The monitoring period would parallel that followed at

Devil's Slide and San Pedro rocks.

Winter and summer attendance, and selected aspects of breeding

biology of banded and unbanded common murres will be monitored at

breeding sites at the South Farallon Islands at Farallon NWR.

Established and new study plots, individually-banded birds, blinds, and

other facilities will allow for the study of summer and winter

attendance in more detail than at nearshore locations. Monitoring would

include determining arrival dates, winter attendance patterns (breeding

versus nonbreeding common murres), winter behavior of nonbreeding and

breeding common murres, site fidelity of breeding common murres,

reproductive success, population size, and impacts of predation.

Monitoring at the South Farallon Islands will continue for at least two

years and may be extended beyond two years if needed to support

refinement of recolonization methods or to facilitate interpretation of

data at other colonies.

Schedule: Fall and winter 1994-1995: Begin preliminary work,

including contracting, planning, logistics, permits, and purchasing.

Spring-summer 1995: Conduct aerial surveys of seabird colonies in

central California to obtain baseline data, conduct aerial flights of

Devil's Slide and San Pedro rocks to obtain aerial photos for mapping

purposes, and record breeding common murre vocalizations at the

Farallon NWR for use in the recolonization project. Select colonies and

study plots to be monitored in the Point Reyes area. Conduct safety

training for personnel as required.

Fall and winter 1995-1996: In fall 1995, conduct reconnaissance

trips to recolonization sites in preparation for deployment of social

attractants. Before December 1995, deploy social attractants and

initiate daily observations of recolonization sites. Initiate daily

observations of study plots in December 1995. Complete field season in

August when common murres generally leave breeding colonies.

Observations of study plots will continue from December through August

for a minimum of 5 years to 10 years in order to provide necessary

information to adequately evaluate the recolonization project. Work at

the South Farallon Islands will begin the winter of 1995-1996 and will

continue for a minimum of two years. Regular progress reports and an

annual report will be submitted by the contractor performing the work

at the South Farallon Islands.

B. Castle and Hurricane Point Rocks Restoration: Restore Common Murres

at Castle and Hurricane Point Rocks Using Social Attraction Methods

(Decoys and Recorded Vocalizations)

Location: Castle and Hurricane Point rocks, Monterey County,

California.

Justification: As described above, the recolonization of historic

common murre colonies in central California will contribute to the

reversal of the dramatic reduction of this seabird's historic

geographic range. The 1986 Apex Houston spill severely affected the

breeding colonies that make up the southern half of the central

California breeding range. Two breeding colonies near Monterey, Castle

and Hurricane Point rocks, were hard hit by the Apex Houston spill and

are in serious danger of perishing entirely. The remaining subcolonies

on these rocks are very small and disjunct. These colonies are

particularly important because they are at the current southern end of

the central California population as well as the southern extreme of

the species' range in the Pacific Ocean. These colonies are in close

proximity to each other and constitute the only active common murre

colonies south of San Francisco, a large portion of the range of the

central California common murre population. Given the current fragile

condition of the overall common murre population and the lack of

recovery over time, colonies once lost are not likely to be

reestablished in the foreseeable future without human assistance. If

the colonies at Castle and Hurricane Point rocks are lost, the

resulting reductions in the geographical range, numbers, and

productivity of common murres further increase the risk of extinction

of the entire central California population.

Proposed Action: The common murre colonies at the Castle and

Hurricane Point rock complexes will be evaluated to determine the best

means of employing social attractants at these locations. A minimum of

two years would be required to determine appropriate methods. Both of

these colonies are composed of several subcolonies on different rocks.

Subcolonies will be examined to obtain a comprehensive understanding of

colony dynamics in a severely depleted condition. Breeding population

levels, reproductive success, attendance patterns, behavioral

observations, and nesting locations will be determined at as many

subcolonies as possible. Particular attention will be paid to

prospecting birds within established subcolonies and at unoccupied

rocks. In addition, all unoccupied rocks and potential mainland

breeding habitats will be assessed for the use of social attractants to

encourage common murre breeding. Habitat will be assessed for

suitability to support a common murre subcolony, including such factors

as slope, size, protection from human and other disturbance, surf

conditions, and predation threats. The unoccupied rocks will be

regularly monitored to detect prospecting common murres.

A phased approach to employing social attractants may be used to

refine the use of social attractants on the colony. Criteria to be used

to determine the use of social attractants include: loss of subcolonies

or colonies, below normal reproductive success, lack of colony growth,

limited availability of breeding sites in existing subcolonies, high

numbers of prospecting common murres in existing subcolonies, presence

of prospecting common murres in areas with no breeding, and population

status at each colony. The use of social attractants would be employed

at sites where it was deemed necessary to encourage common murres to

recolonize lost subcolonies or prospect and nest on unoccupied rocks.

The goal would be to prevent colony loss and/or restore the breeding

colony to historic numbers without negatively impacting existing

subcolonies. If, for any reason, social attractants are not deemed

advisable after two years, the colonies at these sites will be

monitored for three more years to insure adequate reproductive success,

activity, colony survival, and recovery and, if necessary, to develop

alternative restoration techniques.

Schedule: Fall and winter 1994-1995: Preliminary work will begin,

including selection of observation points, obtaining access permits,

planning, and purchasing. In December 1994, observations of breeding

colonies will begin in order to obtain necessary baseline information.

Spring and summer 1995: Aerial surveys of breeding common murre

colonies will be conducted in May-June to obtain baseline data. These

surveys will be conducted in conjunction with aerial common murre

surveys for central California. Observations of breeding colonies will

continue each year from December 1994 until August 1997, at a minimum.

In August 1997, the use of social attractants will be assessed to

restore these common murre colonies. In fall 1997, social attractants

will be deployed where suitable.

Goals

The Apex Houston oil spill killed an estimated 6,000 common murres,

eradicated the Devil's Slide Rock colony, and damaged colonies at

Castle and Hurricane Point Rocks. If the latter two colonies are lost,

over 75% of the recent range of the central California common murre

population will have been lost. The Trustee Council has selected

restoration alternatives designed to restore common murres to colonies

in the areas most severely affected by the spill. An important goal is

to make significant progress toward the establishment of 100 breeding

pairs of common murres at Devil's Slide Rock and San Pedro Rock

colonies. The time frame needed for common murres to become established

at extirpated colonies is unknown but is suspected to be many years. If

possible, the project will attempt to restore the colonies to pre-spill

population levels. The time frame needed for common murres to reach

pre-spill population levels is unknown but is suspected to take several

generations. Ultimately, the long-term goal is to restore the common

murre colonies to historic breeding levels, although this would

probably require funds in addition to those currently budgeted.

The Trustee Council plans to review the common murre restoration

project at least annually at which time the effectiveness of the

project and possible improvements will be considered. The annual review

process may result in revisions to the plan. Revisions will be reviewed

by the Trustee Council. Revisions to the plan will be guided by

documented evidence, scientific literature, and best professional

judgement.

Environmental Compliance

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has determined that the project

is categorically excluded from the National Environmental Policy Act

(NEPA), 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq, according to the Department of

Interior's Departmental Manual, 516 DM 6, Appendix I, 516 DM 2,

Appendix I. Resource management activities such as the type described

for this project, which include research, reintroduction of established

species into their historic range, and small structures or

improvements, are categorically excluded from NEPA. The U.S. Fish and

Wildlife Service has prepared an Environmental Action Memorandum

setting forth the basis for the categorical exclusion of this project.

The State of California has determined that the project is

categorically exempt from the California Environmental Quality Act

(CEQA), Cal. Pub. Resources Code 21000 et seq., and has filed a Notice

of Exemption with the State Clearinghouse.

The Trustee Council is submitting a Consistency Determination

pursuant to the Coastal Zone Management Act, 16 U.S.C. Sec. 1456(c)

with the California Coastal Commission. The Trustee Council has

concluded that the proposed project will have no impact on California's

coastal zone.

Literature Cited

Ainley, D.G. and R.J. Boekelheide, editors. 1990. Seabirds of the

Farallon Islands: Ecology, dynamics, and structure of an upswelling-

system community. Stanford University Press, Stanford, California.

450 pages.

Ainley, D.G., W.J. Sydeman, S.A. Hatch, and U.W. Wilson. 1994.

Seabird population trends along the west coast of North America:

causes and extent of regional concordance. Studies in Avian Biology

No. 15:119-133.

Birkhead, T.R. and D.N. Nettleship. 1980. Census methods for murres,

Uria species: a unified approach. Canadian Wildlife Service

Occasional Papers. Paper Number 43. 25pp.

Carter, H.R. and M.L. Morrison, editors. 1992. Status and

conservation of the Marbled Murrelet in North America. Proceedings

of a 1987 Pacific Seabird Group symposium. Proceedings of the

Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology No. 5. 134 pages.

Carter, H.R., G.J. McChesney, D.L. Jaques, C.S. Strong, M.W. Parker,

J.E. Takekawa, D.L. Jory, and D.L. Whitworth. 1994. Breeding

populations of seabirds in California, 1989-1991.

Gaston, A.J., D.G. Noble, and M.A. Purdy. 1983. Monitoring breeding

biology parameters for murres Uria spp.: levels of accuracy and

sources of bias. Journal of Field Ornithology 54:275-282.

Hatch, S.A., and M.A. Hatch. 1989. Attendance patterns of murres at

breeding sites: implications for monitoring. Journal of Wildlife

Management 53(2):486-493.

Kress, S. 1978. Establishing Atlantic Puffins at a former breeding

site. Pp. 373-377 in S.A. Temple (ed.). Endangered birds: management

techniques for preserving threatened species. University of

Wisconsin Press, Madison, Wisconsin.

Mudge, G.P. 1988. An evaluation of current methodology for

monitoring changes in the breeding populations of Guillemots Uria

aalge. Bird Study 35:1-9.

Podolsky, R.H. 1985. Colony formation and attraction of the Laysan

Albatross and Leach's Storm-Petrel. Ph.D. dissertation. Ann Arbor,

University of Michigan.

Podolsky, R.H. and S.W. Kress. 1989. Factors affecting colony

formation in Leach's Storm-Petrel. Auk 106(2):332-336.

Siskin, B.R., G.W. Page, and H.R. Carter. 1993. Impacts of the 1986

Apex Houston oil spill on marine birds in central California.

Unpublished report, U.S. Department of Justice.

Swartzman, G. and H.R. Carter. 1991. Response of the California

population of Common Murres (Uria aalge) to Mortality from the 1986

Apex Houston oil spill. Unpublished report, U.S. Department of

Justice.

Takekawa, J.E., H.R. Carter, and T.E. Harvey. 1990. Decline of the

Common Murre in Central California 1980-1986. Studies in Avian

Biology 14:149-163.

Dated: October 28, 1994.

Thomas Dwyer,

Acting Regional Director, Fish and Wildlife Service, Portland, Oregon.

[FR Doc. 94-27374 Filed 11-3-94; 8:45 am]

BILLING CODE 4310-55-M