Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Two Foreign Macaw Species

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R9-ES-2011-0101: 450 003 0115]

RIN 1018-AY33

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Two Foreign Macaw Species

AGENCY:

Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION:

Proposed rule; 12-month finding.

SUMMARY:

We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), propose to list as endangered the military macaw (

Ara militaris

) and the great green macaw (

Ara ambiguus

) under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (ESA). We are taking this action in response to a petition to list these parrot species as endangered or threatened under the ESA. This document also serves as the completion of the status review and as the 12-month finding. We seek information from the public on the proposed listing for these species.

DATES:

We will consider comments and information received or postmarked on or before September 4, 2012.

ADDRESSES:

You may submit comments by one of the following methods:

•

Federal eRulemaking Portal:

http://www.regulations.gov.

Follow the instructions for submitting comments on Docket No. FWS-R9-ES-2011-0101.

•

U.S. mail or hand-delivery:

Public Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R9-ES-2011-0101; Division of Policy and Directives Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, MS 2042-PDM; Arlington, VA 22203.

We will not accept comments by email or fax. We will post all comments on

http://www.regulations.gov.

This generally means that we will post any personal information you provide us (see the Information Requested section below for more information).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:

Janine Van Norman, Chief, Branch of Foreign Species, Endangered Species Program, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 4401 North Fairfax Drive, Room 420, Arlington, VA 22203; telephone 703-358-2171. If you use a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Executive Summary

I. Purpose of the Regulatory Action

On January 31, 2008, the Service received a petition dated January 29, 2008, from Friends of Animals, represented by the Environmental Law Clinic, University of Denver, Sturm College of Law, requesting that we list 14 parrot species under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (ESA; 16 U.S.C. 1531

et seq.

). As part of a court-approved settlement agreement, the Service agreed to submit a determination as to whether the petitioned action is warranted, not warranted, or warranted but precluded by other listing actions for the military macaw

(Ara militaris

) and the great green macaw (

Ara ambiguus

)) to the

Federal Register

by June 30, 2012. This action complies in part with this settlement agreement and is authorized by the ESA.

II. Summary of the Major Provisions of the Regulatory Action in Question

We are proposing to list as endangered the military macaw (

Ara militaris

) and the great green macaw (

Ara ambiguus

). We are proposing this action primarily because of the effects of habitat loss, fragmentation, and degradation; small and declining population size; poaching; and regulatory mechanisms that are inadequate to ameliorate these threats on these birds throughout their ranges.

III. Costs and Benefits

Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the ESA directs that determinations as to whether any species is an endangered or threatened species must be made “solely on the basis of the best scientific and commercial data available.” Further, this action is not a “significant” regulatory action under Executive Order 12866. Therefore, we have not analyzed its costs or benefits.

Background

Section 4(b)(3)(B) of the ESA (16 U.S.C. 1531

et seq.

) requires that, for any petition to revise the Federal List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants that contains substantial scientific or commercial information that listing the species may be warranted, we make a finding within 12 months of the date of receipt of the petition (“12-month finding”). In this finding, we determine whether the petitioned action is: (a) Not warranted, (b) warranted, or (c) warranted, but immediate proposal of a regulation implementing the petitioned action is precluded by other pending proposals to determine whether species are endangered or threatened, and expeditious progress is being made to add or remove qualified species from the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. Section 4(b)(3)(C) of the ESA requires that we treat a petition for which the requested action is found to be warranted but precluded as though resubmitted on the date of such finding, that is, requiring a subsequent finding to be made within 12 months. We must publish these 12-month findings in the

Federal Register

.

In this document, we announce that listing these two species as endangered is warranted, and we are issuing a proposed rule to add these two species as endangered to the Federal List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. Prior to issuing a final rule on this proposed action, we will take into consideration all comments and any additional information we receive on the proposed rules. Such information may lead to a final rule that differs from this proposal. All comments and recommendations, including names and addresses of commenters, will become part of the administrative record.

Previous Federal Actions

Petition History

On January 31, 2008, the Service received a petition dated January 29, 2008, from Friends of Animals, represented by the Environmental Law Clinic, University of Denver, Sturm College of Law, requesting that we list 14 parrot species under the ESA. The petition clearly identified itself as a petition and included the requisite information required by the Code of Federal Regulations (50 CFR 424.14(a)). On July 14, 2009 (74 FR 33957), we published a 90-day finding in which we determined that the petition presented substantial scientific and commercial information indicating that listing may be warranted for 12 of the 14 parrot species. In our 90-day finding on this petition, we announced the initiation of a status review to list as endangered or threatened under the ESA the following 12 parrot species:

(1) Blue-headed macaw (

Primolius couloni

),

(2) Crimson shining parrot (

Prosopeia splendens

),

(3) Great green macaw (

Ara ambiguus

),

(4) Grey-cheeked parakeet (

Brotogeris pyrrhoptera

),

(5) Hyacinth macaw (

Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus

),

(6) Military macaw (

Ara militaris

),

(7) Philippine cockatoo (

Cacatua haematuropygia

),

(8) Red-crowned parrot (

Amazona viridigenalis

),

(9) Scarlet macaw (

Ara macao

),

(10) White cockatoo (

Cacatua alba

),

(11) Yellow-billed parrot (

Amazona collaria

), and

(12) Yellow-crested cockatoo (

Cacatua sulphurea

).

We initiated the status review to determine if listing each of the 12 species is warranted, and initiated a 60-day public comment period to allow all interested parties an opportunity to provide information on the status of these 12 species of parrots. The public comment period closed on September 14, 2009.

On October 24, 2009, and December 2, 2009, the Service received a 60-day notice of intent to sue from Friends of Animals and Wild Earth Guardians for failure to issue 12-month findings on the petition. On March 2, 2010, Friends of Animals and Wild Earth Guardians filed suit against the Service for failure to make timely 12-month findings within the statutory deadline of the Act on the petition to list the 14 species (

Friends of Animals, et al.

v.

Salazar,

Case No. 10-CV-00357 (D.D.C.)). Pursuant to a court-ordered settlement agreement entered in this case, the Service agreed to specific time frames for submitting to the

Federal Register

a determination as to whether the petitioned action is warranted, not warranted, or precluded by other listing actions. In compliance with the settlement agreement, we published status reviews for the crimson shining parrot (

Prosopeia splendens

), yellow-crested cockatoo (

Cacatua sulphurea

), white cockatoo (

Cacatua alba

), and Philippine cockatoo (

Cacatua haematuropygia

) on August 9, 2011 (76 FR 49202); the red-crowned parrot (

Amazona viridigenalis

) on October 6, 2011 (76 FR 62016); the yellow-billed parrot (

Amazona collaria

) on October 11, 2011 (76 FR 62740); and the blue-headed macaw (

Primolius couloni

) and grey-cheeked parakeet (

Brotogeris pyrrhoptera

) on October 12, 2011 (76 FR 63480).

For the remaining four species that are the subject of this settlement agreement (the military macaw, the great green macaw, the scarlet macaw, and the hyacinth macaw), the Service agreed to submit 12-month findings on the petitioned action to the

Federal Register

by June 30, 2012. This

Federal Register

document complies with the settlement agreement with respect to the military macaw and great green macaw. We will announce the 12-month findings for the remaining two parrot species for which a 90-day finding was made on July 14, 2009 (74 FR 33957) in subsequent

Federal Register

notices.

Information Requested

We intend that any final actions resulting from this proposed rule will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available. Therefore, we request comments or information from other governmental agencies, the scientific community, or any other interested parties concerning this proposed rule. We particularly seek clarifying information concerning:

(1) Information on taxonomy, distribution, habitat selection (especially breeding and foraging habitats), diet, and population abundance and trends (especially current recruitment data) of these species.

(2) Information on the effects of habitat loss and changing land uses on the distribution and abundance of these species.

(3) Information on the effects of other potential threat factors, including live capture and hunting, domestic and international trade, predation by other animals, and any diseases that are known to affect these species.

(4) Information on management programs for parrot conservation, including mitigation measures related to conservation programs, and any other private, nongovernmental, or governmental conservation programs that benefit these species.

(5) The potential effects of climate change on these species and their habitats.

Please include sufficient information with your submission (such as full references) to allow us to verify any scientific or commercial information you include. Submissions merely stating support for or opposition to the action under consideration without providing supporting information, although noted, will not be considered in making a determination. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the ESA directs that determinations as to whether any species is an endangered or threatened species must be made “solely on the basis of the best scientific and commercial data available.”

Public Hearing

At this time, we do not have a public hearing scheduled for this proposed rule. The main purpose of most public hearings is to obtain public testimony or comment. In most cases, it is sufficient to submit comments through the Federal eRulemaking Portal, described above in the

ADDRESSES

section. If you would like to request a public hearing for this proposed rule, you must submit your request, in writing, to the person listed in the

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT

section by August 20, 2012.

Species Information for the Military Macaw

Taxonomy

The military macaw (

Ara militaris,

Linnaeus 1766) is in the Psittacidae family and is also known as “guacamaya verde,” “parava,” and “ravine parrot.” Three subspecies of military macaw have been proposed and are recognized by some:

Ara militaris bolivianus

(Reichenow 1908),

Ara militaris mexicanus

(Ridgway 1915), and

Ara militaris militaris

(Linnaeus 1766). Avibase, a database of all birds of the world maintained by Bird Studies Canada, and the Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) both recognize these subspecies (

http://www.itis.gov

and

http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/avibase.jsp,

accessed August 30, 2011). The range of

A. m. bolivianus

is thought to be in Bolivia and Argentina. The range of

A. m. mexicanus

is thought to be restricted to Mexico. However, the taxonomic status of

Ara militaris

remains unclear.

Because it is a strong flyer (it has been observed traveling up to 20 kilometers (km) (12 miles [mi]) per day) and it is a semi-migratory species, the physical similarities suggest that seemingly isolated populations may be in contact (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 423), and therefore their populations may be connected genetically.

For the purpose of this rule, all populations or subspecies of this species essentially face similar threats or threats of similar magnitude, are all generally in the same region, and all have quite small populations, generally fewer than 100 individuals. Absent peer-reviewed information to the contrary and based on the best available information, we recognize all populations of military macaws as a single species. For the purpose of this proposed rule, we are proposing to list the military macaw, including all subspecies, as endangered.

Species Description

The military macaw is an extremely vocal species; it is described as being very noisy and is known to shriek (Birdlife International (BLI) 2011, p. 1). It is a large macaw (70 centimeters or 27.5 inches in length) and is quite vibrant in color. It has dark lime-green feathers mixed with blue flight feathers that are olive-colored underneath. Its forehead is red, and it has a bare white facial area and a black bill. Its lower back is blue; its tail is red and blue. The farthest south population, in Bolivia,

which extends into Argentina, exhibits reddish brown on their throats and cheeks (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 423). This species is often confused with the great green macaw. The great green macaw (

Ara ambiguus

) is very similar in appearance to the military macaw, but the military macaw has more prominent blue tinge on its hind neck, is smaller, and has darker plumage. These two species are separated geographically.

Habitat and Life History

Military macaws nest both in tree cavities and cliffs. Parrots that nest in cavities in cliff walls such as the military macaw (Bonilla-Ruz

et al.

2007, p. 730) also nest colonially (in groups). Cliff cavities in ravines used by this species have been documented 25 and 30 meters (m) (82 to 98 feet (ft)) above ground (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 70). Tree cavities used by this species have been observed to be 18 m (60 ft) above ground and 75 cm (29.5 inches) deep (Baker 1958, p. 98). This species has also been observed to use secondary cavities, such as abandoned woodpecker holes, particularly in dead pine trees (Strewe and Navarro 2004, p. 50). They alternate nesting and foraging areas based on food availability (Bonilla-Ruz undated, p. 1). Nesting appears to be synchronous with the peak fruiting season, which occurs during April and May (Huatatoca pers. comm. in Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 70). The military macaw is a social species that congregates in small flocks and is often observed in mated pairs. Its clutch size is usually two to three eggs. They begin to reproduce between 3 and 4 years of age (Mexican National Commission for Protected Areas [CONANP] 2006 in Bonilla-Ruz undated, p. 2). Aggregated nesting is believed to be due to the lack of suitable disbursed nest sites, which may also explain why they are concentrated in certain sites (Salinas-Melgoza

et al.

2009, p. 306).

This species prefers the lower montane wet forests of the Andes. It inhabits remaining fragmented forested area in the Neotropics. However, in the northernmost part of its range, in Mexico, it is associated with seasonally dry, semi-deciduous tropical forest, deciduous tropical forest, and slopes of pine-oak forest (Bonilla-Ruz 2006, p. 45; Rivera-Ortiz

et al.

2006, p. 26).

The military macaw is a seasonal migrant, based on food and nutrient availability. In some areas, it has been observed using clay licks to obtain sodium and possibly other minerals, which is a common activity in some parrot species (Lee 2010, p. 58). Its diet varies seasonally. It has been observed feeding on several plant species. Some of the plant species it was observed feeding on include:

Brosimum alicastrum

(Maya nut, ramón),

Bunchosia montana

(no common name (ncn)),

Bursera aptera

(ncn),

Bursera schlechtendalii

(ncn),

Celtis caudate

(ncn), Cedrela species (cedar fruits),

Cyrtocarpa procera

(Chupandilla),

Ficus

species (figs),

Hura crepitans

(ochoo, arbol del diablo, acacu, monkey's dinner-bell, habillo, ceiba de leche, sand-box tree, possum wood, dynamite tree, ceiba blanca, assacu, posentri),

Hura polyandra

(arbol del diablo, haba, jabillo, tetereta),

Melia azedarach

(Chinaberry tree),

Neobuxbaumia tetetzo,

(cardon, higos de teteche, tetetzo),

Orbignea guacoyula

(a type of palm),

Plumeria rubra

(Frangipani),

Tecoma stans

(yellow trumpetbush),

Tillandsia makoyana

(ncn), and

Tillandsia grandis

(ncn) (Huellega 2011, p. 9; Moschione 2007, in Navarro

et al.,

2008, p. 2; Contreras-González

et al.

2006, p. 387; Renton 2004, p. 12; Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 422). Seeds were found to be 39 percent of this species' diet. They have also been observed feeding on bromeliad stems (species unknown) and cacti (species unknown). In Mexico, in the northern part of its range, military macaws have been observed in desert habitat, although they tend to have lower reproductive success in this habitat type (Rivera-Ortiz

et al.

2008, p. 261). In desert habitat, which is suboptimal, it has been observed consuming edible flowers (species unidentified). Despite the low seasonal abundance of food, deserts offer some refuge from poaching due to the inhospitable dry climate, which can act as a deterrent to poachers (Rivera-Ortiz

et al.

2008, p. 261).

Range, Observations, and Population Estimates

The military macaw is distributed in highly fragmented, small populations in Mexico and South America. Its range extends from northern Mexico southward into Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, Venezuela, Bolivia, and the southern tip of Argentina (see Figure 1 or

http://www.birdlife.org/

for an approximation of its range and distribution). The species has been described as patchily distributed throughout the eastern foothills of the Andes Mountains (Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125). It occurs in altitudes up to 1,600 m (5,249 ft) (Strewe and Navarro 2004, p. 50; Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 33; Snyder

et al.

2000, chapter 7, pp. 102, 124-125). Although it has a large distribution (276,000 km

2

(106,564 mi

2

)), its populations are localized. Most populations are now estimated to have fewer than 100 individuals (Renton 2004, pp. 12-14). However, in 2004, one population in Colombia was estimated to be 156 individuals (Flórez and Sierra 2004, p. 3). This species may have occurred in Guatemala in the past, but it is no longer found there (Gardner 1972 in Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125). Overall, its populations are fragmented and becoming more isolated (Rivera-Ortiz 2008, p. 256).

EP06JY12.003

The species inhabits tropical semi-deciduous forests along the Pacific and Atlantic slopes through Central and South America. The best available information indicates there are reasonably healthy but small populations in El Cielo and Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserves in Mexico, Madidi and Amboró National Parks, Pilón Lajas Biosphere Reserve and Apolobamba National Integrated Management Area in Bolivia, and Manu Biosphere Reserve and Bahuaja Sonene National Park in Peru, and a small but stable remnant population in Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve, Oaxaca, Mexico (Hosner

et al.

2009, p. 222; Arizmendi 2008, p. 3; Rivera-Ortiz 2008, p. 256; Renton 2004, p. 14).

Argentina

Argentina is the southernmost part of this species' range, and here the species has never thought to have been abundant (Navarro

et al.

2008, p. 1). In fact, this species was initially thought to be extirpated (locally extinct) in Argentina, but recent surveys have found small populations of this species in at least two locations in the northern province of Salta. There are anecdotal reports of this species crossing the Itaú River (Navarro

et al.

2008, p. 3), which borders Bolivia and Argentina. Between 2005 and 2007, approximately 100 individuals were observed in the Salta Province (Coconier

et al.

2007, p. 59). These areas include: Finca Itaguazuti, and the Acambuco Provincial Flora and Fauna Reserve (8,266 hectares [ha] or 20,426 acres [ac]) in the Tartagal Mountains and which borders Bolivia (BLI 2011b; Navarro

et al.

2008, p. 1; Coconier

et al.

2007, p. 59). In 2008, flocks of between 4 and 40 individuals of this species were observed in three ravines in the Salta Province. These locations were the Agua Fresca (Cool Water) Ravine north of Campo Cauzuti, El Limón Ravine (which had the largest population), and the Caraparí River Ravine. These are believed to be established populations, rather than flocks crossing over from Bolivia (Navarro

et al.

2008, p. 1).

Bolivia

In Bolivia, the military macaw is regularly observed in five national parks (Hennessey 2010, pers. comm.). This species exists in the Andean foothills in Bolivia in forested areas extending from the northern Tambopata National Reserve to the southern Pilón Lajas Reserve (Hennessey

et al.

2003, p. 319). These parks are in the general vicinity of the border of southern Peru and northern Bolivia (Hosner

et al.

2009, p. 222; Navarro

et al.

2008, p. 2; Hennessey

et al.

2003, p. 322). They are part of the Greater Madidi-Tambopata Landscape (known as “Parque Nacional Madidi” or GMTL). Within the GMTL, there are thought to be reasonably healthy populations of this species in the Apolobamba National Integrated Management Area, Amboró and Madidi National Parks, and Pilón Lajas Biosphere Reserve (Hennessey 2011 pers. comm.; Hosner

et al.

2009, p. 225). The GMTL is 110,074 km

2

(42,500 mi

2

) in size, and encompasses one of the largest areas of intact montane forest in the tropical Andes (WCS 2009, p. 2). This area is a high conservation priority due to its large number of endemic bird species (Hennessey

et al.

2003, p. 319). Pilón Lajas consists of primary evergreen tropical lowland forest, foothill forest, and lower montane forest. Pilón Lajas was recognized as a Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous Territory by the Bolivian Government in

1992; however, it did not have any actual protections in place until 1994. This area in the past has been managed via a partnership with Veterinarians Without Frontiers (CEPF 2000, p. 28).

In 2008, this species was observed at Serranía Sadiri in Madidi National Park, La Paz Department, Bolivia (Hosner

et al.

2009, p. 225). Serranía Sadiri is found just inside Madidi National Park. Here, flocks of between 2 and 36 individuals have been observed (Hosner

et al.

2009, p. 228). The Pilón Lajas Biosphere Reserve is primarily in La Paz Department, but slightly overlaps into the Beni Department. Here, this species is described as uncommon (Hennessey 2003, p. 329). It was observed in Parapetiguasu-Taremakua, and Parapetiguas-Uruwigua in Santa Cruz, Cordillera Province, and at Altamachi and Madidi in Cochabamba, Ayopaya Province (MacLeod 2009, pp. 42-43). In summary, within Bolivia, there are many small populations of this species in areas that provide suitable habitat for this species (primarily large forest patches under some form of protection) (Herzog 2011 pers. comm.).

Colombia

In the late 1990s, there were approximately five disjunct populations in the central Andes mountains (Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125). In Colombia, groups of 50 individuals have been observed, and in one case, a population was estimated to have 156 individuals (Flórez and Sierra 2004, pp. 2-3). In most cases, the presence of these groups is related to cliff formations favorable for nesting (where they are less accessible to poachers), and where deforestation is having less of an impact (Flórez and Sierra 2004, pp. 2-3; Rodriguez and Hernández-Camacho 2002, p. 203). In Colombia, this species inhabits a wide range of altitudes and areas with various degrees of alteration (Flórez and Sierra 2004, pp. 1-3; Juniper and Parr 1998). In Colombia, this species has been observed between altitudes of 700 and 1,600 m (2,297 to 5,249 ft) (Flórez and Sierra 2004, pp. 1-3; Salaman

et al.

2002, pp. 167, 187). Populations have been observed in Guajira peninsula, Las Orquideas, Tayrona National Park, Serranía de Perijá, Serranía de San Lucas, San Salvador Valley, Sierra Nevada De Santa Marta, La Guajira Department, and Cueva de los Guacharos National Park (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 32). In 1998, this species was observed in flocks of up to 12 individuals at Villa Iguana and Alto Cagadero in Serranía de los Churumbelos (Salaman

et al.

2007, pp. 33, 38, 47, 89). It has been observed in palm stands in the San Salvador valley during the breeding season (December—July) (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 33). At Cueva de los Guacharos National Park, flocks of up to 16 have been observed (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 32).

There are two small, stable populations of military macaws at Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (Sierra meaning mountain range) and Churumbelos, Cauca, with approximately 50 mature birds at each site (Fundación ProAves 2011a). In 2004, Flórez and Sierra estimated that the population in the cliffs of the Cauca River was 156 individuals and contained 54 breeding pairs and 26 nests (2004, p. 3). However, this population is subjected to impacts from poaching and deforestation (Flórez and Sierra, 2004, pp. 3-4), so the population now may be smaller. These researchers also noted that many chicks fall from the cliff nests and die. A new population was recently reported at two locations in the Catatumbo-Barí National Park on the Colombian-Venezuelan border (Avendaño

in litt

). There are no recent records in northern Antioquia (Paramillo), Serranía de San Lucas, or Perijá ranges (Fundación ProAves 2011a, pp. 28-29).

In the Frío Valley of Colombia, this species is reported to only be present during the breeding season (Strewe and Navarro 2004, p. 50). Several nests were found here in forest fragments. A population at El Congo Reserve was intensively studied in 2001. One nest was located 12 m (39 ft) above ground in a

Ceiba

tree, within open primary forest on a steep slope at 900 m (2,953 ft). A breeding population of 12 pairs, with groups of up to 28 was observed in December 2000. However, here it is still threatened in the valley by habitat loss and domestic trade (two cases noted in 2001) (Strewe and Navarro 2004, p. 50), and the population may now be decimated.

Ecuador

In Ecuador, this species is considered to be very rare (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). This species has been observed in the areas of Sumaco and Zamora-Chinchipe in Ecuador (Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125) and at Kichwa River Reserve (Reserva Kichwa Río), within the Gran Sumaco Guacamayos Biosphere Reserve (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). Most records of military macaw in Ecuador during the 1980s and 1990s found groups of up to 20 individuals (Ridgely and Greenfield 2001); however, lately most records have not exceeded 8 individuals (Arcos -Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72) except for a breeding colony of 16 individuals that was observed in the Reserva Kichwa Río (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, pp. 70, 72). Prior to 1980, it was observed in the upper Upano River Valley (Ridgely 1980 p. 244). In 2006, 200 ha (494 ac) were turned into the Narupa Reserve, where this species has been observed recently (Fundación ProAves

et al.

2010, p. 42). Additionally, in 2010, a pair of military macaws was observed in northern Ecuador in the Sumaco region (Olah and Barnes 2010, p. 19).

Mexico

There are at least four populations of military macaws that are believed to exist in Mexico, each consisting of between 30 and 90 individuals (Rivera-Ortiz

et al.

2008, p. 256). Those populations are discussed below. Identification of these populations is difficult for two reasons. First, this species is thought to primarily breed and forage in remote areas that are difficult to access, and second, it is a semi-migratory species that follows seasonal food sources, so flocks move to other areas seasonally. In Mexico, there are reasonably healthy but small populations in the following areas:

• Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve (at the border of Puebla and Oaxaca States),

• Mineral de Nuestra Señora Reserve (Sinaloa State),

• El Cielo Biosphere Reserve (Tamaulipas State),

• Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve (Querétaro State), and

• Sierra Manantlán Biosphere Reserve (Jalisco State).

EP06JY12.004

In Mexico, there may also be isolated populations of military macaws in other States. Figure 2 shows the current and historical distribution of the military macaw in Mexico (Arizmendi 2008, p. 4). Other States where it may exist include Colima, Durango, Guerrero, Michoacán, Morelos, Nayarit (in the Valley of Flags or “Valle de Banderas”), Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, and Zacatecas, although in some cases, there are no recent records of the species in several of the previously mentioned States (Bonilla-Ruz 2011 pers. comm.; Nova-Muñoz 2006, p. 20; Iñigo-Elías 1999, 2000 in Almazán-Núñez 2006, p. 20). Areas where it has been recently documented are described below.

Chihuahua

Researchers believe there is a remaining population in the Sierra Madre Occidental Mountains (north-central Mexico) in Otachique (Cruz-Nieto

et al.

2006, p. 14). In 2005, 25 nests were observed (Cruz-Nieto

et al.

2006, p. 14). This canyon is approximately 700 m (0.5 miles) wide by 14 km (8.6 miles) in length and consists of mature pines, firs, and oaks. Some gallery temperate forest remains in this area.

Jalisco

This species is found sporadically in the western foothills of Sierra del Cuale and Sierra Cacoma in Jalisco on the western coast of Mexico (Renton 2004, pp. 13-14). Here, it was observed in 2004, near a freshwater lake, Cajón de Peña (26 by 9 km (16 by 5.6 mi) in size), which was constructed in 1976. It is found in the Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve (132,000 ha or 32,617 ac), which is managed by Mexico's Instituto de Ecologia of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Patches of semi-deciduous forest in this area form corridors between existing protected areas, such as the Chamela-Cuixmala and the Sierra Manatlán Biosphere Reserves (Renton 2004, p. 14). These patches likely have served as critical ecological links for this species.

Oaxaca

This species has recently been the focus of research in Sabino Canyon, Oaxaca. Sabino Canyon is in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve (Reserva de la Biosfera Tehuacan Cuicatlan) in central Mexico. In 2001, this species was observed in two canyons within this reserve. In both ravines, 20 pairs were observed nesting (Salazar-Torres 2001, p. 18). Here, this species nests in the canyon cliff walls in crevices that can be as high as 250 m (820 ft). Between 2002 and 2004, approximately 100 individual military macaws were observed (Bonilla-Ruz

et al.

2007, p. 729). During 2007-2008, at least 67 birds were observed during the

month of August (Rivera-Ortiz

et al.

2008, p. 256; Rivera-Ortiz

et al.

2007, p. 26). This area is thought to be a fairly new site for this species (Rivera-Ortiz

et al.

2007, p. 28). The known nesting site locations within the reserve increased from five to nine during the study period (Rivera-Ortiz

et al.

2007, p. 28). Currently in the Sabino Canyon, the population of military macaws is thought to be between 90 and 100 individuals (Arizmendi 2008, p. 15). This is a large reserve, which was created in 1998. It spans 490,187 ha (1,211,278 ac) and is located within the Mixteca Oaxaqueña Province between the cities of Puebla and Orízaba. It is approximately 150 km (93 mi) southeast of Mexico City (

http://www.parkswatch.org,

accessed July 11, 2011) and approximately 2 hours from Tehuacan, Oaxaca, Mexico. Large mountain ranges delineate the boundaries of the reserve, and six rivers are within the protected area's boundaries.

Sinaloa

This species exists in Mineral de Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria Ecological Preserve, 12 km (7.4 mi) southeast of the town of Cosala in Sinaloa, Mexico (Rubio

et al.

2007, p. 52; Bonilla-Ruz

et al.

2006, p. 45). Its area is 1,256 ha (3,104 ac) and consists of dry tropical forest. In 2002, this area was designated as a protected area by the State of Sinaloa Decree.

Sonora

Between 2008 and 2009, it was observed at the Northern Jaguar Reserve in east-central Sonora (Flesch 2009, pp. 5, 12), and was described as a rare summer resident here. In this area, this species was recently observed in small flocks in cliff areas (Flesch 2008, pp. 35-36). In 2005, it was observed in the Río Aros canyon and upper Río Yaqui valley in an area known as the Yaqui Basin (O'Brien

et al.

2006, pp. 4, 28). Flesch suggests that the species is likely to occur only in cliffs near stands of tropical vegetation (full citation 2008, p. 27).

Tamaulipas

Historically, in Mexico's eastern State of Tamaulipas, flocks of approximately 60 individuals were noted almost daily in the area of Gómez Farías, Mexico (Sutton and Pettingill 1942, p. 14). The Gómez Farías region is on the eastern slope of the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range, known locally as the “Sierra de Guatemala.” This area is in the general vicinity of the state-protected El Cielo Biosphere Reserve, where this species is still known to occur (Arvin 2001, p. 8). The University of Texas, Brownsville maintains a research station, Rancho del Cielo, within the 145,687-hectare (360,000-acre) reserve. The research station supports locally driven scientific research and community development (University of Texas, Brownsville, unpaginated). Activities conducted by the research station have positive impacts on this species by attracting researchers and the birding community, preserving and protecting habitat, and creating awareness in the area.

Peru

There are populations in Manu Biosphere Reserve, Tambopata National Reserve, and Bahuaja Sonene National Park in Peru. The two latter parks border one another in the southern Peruvian Amazon region (ParksWatch 2002, p. 1). This species has been observed around the Pongo de Mainique of the Urubamba River and on the upper Tambopata River (Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125). Recently, it was observed in the Madre de Dios department in the southeastern Peruvian Amazon (Lee 2010, p. 14). Flocks of 40 to 50 individuals have been observed in Atalya at Madre de Dios (Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125). The species has been observed seasonally in small numbers in the area of the Huállaga River Canyon (JGP Consultants 2011 pp. 1, 5, 8).

Venezuela

Within Venezuela, it has been documented primarily within protected areas. In this country, little information about the species exists (Rodriguez

et al.

2004, pp. 375-376). Here it persists in the Andes in the Central Coastal Cordillera and Sierra de Perijá (Rodriguez

et al.

2004, pp. 375, 378, 379). It has been found on the north slopes of El Ávila, Guatopo, Henri Pittier National Park, the State of Cojedes, Cerro La Misión, and Sierra de Perijá National Park (Desenne and Strahl 1994 and Fernandez-Badillo

et al.

1994 in Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125). A new population of this species was recorded at two localities at the Catatumbo-Barí National Park at the Colombian-Venezuelan border (Avendaño

in litt

). Moist forests exist as four distinct enclaves within the Catatumbo Valley, in both northwestern Venezuela and northeastern Colombia. This extends the species' previously known range from the east slope of the Serranía de Perijá southwards (Avendaño

in litt

).

Summary of Range

According to several recent surveys, the military macaw exists in small populations ranging from a few pairs to approximately 100 individuals. It is found primarily in protected areas in Mexico, Colombia, Bolivia, and to a lesser extent, in Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, and Argentina (see Figure 1), where large areas of suitable habitat remain. The population in the Pilón Lajas Biosphere Reserve, Bolivia, may serve as a link to other populations of this species to the northwest and to the south (Hennessey

et al.

2003, pp. 330-331). Recent records of this species usually, but not always, find this species in protected areas (Flesch 2009; MacLeod 2009; Flesch 2008; Flórez and Sierra 2004; Rodriguez 2004; Renton 2004; Hennessey

et al.

2003). These records find this species in areas such as protected parks where there are large remaining areas of suitable habitat for nesting, feeding, and breeding (see Figure 1).

Most current, available records of this species pertain to populations in Bolivia and Mexico, and to a smaller extent in Peru and Colombia. We do not know how this species is distributed outside of parks and protected areas other than what has been described in this status review, but it is likely that the species is primarily restricted to protected areas for the following reasons:

(1) It is a large species that requires habitat containing large trees or cliffs for nesting, both of which are limited, and large areas of suitable habitat for nesting, feeding, and breeding.

(2) This species requires a variety of specific plant species throughout the year for feeding, which likely only remain in enough abundance in protected areas.

(3) The species persists in areas where they are less accessible to poaching because they are located farther from roads.

(4) In some cases there are conservation awareness programs in place in these protected areas.

(5) Protected areas often offer some measure of protection from threats to the species.

Summary of Population Estimate

There are various but imprecise population estimates for this species. One report estimates the population to be fewer than 10,000 individuals (Arizmendi 2008, p. 3). BLI reports that the population is estimated to be between 10,000 and 19,999 mature individuals with a decreasing trend (BLI 2011, p. 1). We believe that the population is significantly fewer than 10,000 based on recent documented observations of this species, most of which are described in this status review. Researchers in Colombia agree

with our supposition (Botero-Delgadillo and Páez 2011, p. 13). Published literature (referenced in this document) has documented small flocks ranging from approximately 16 to 156 individuals distributed in disjunct locations in Mexico, Argentina, Ecuador, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. In situations where species are rare or have small populations, the number of observations made per survey may be very small and the number of sites limited, and, therefore, estimates and projections may not be accurate (Pollack 2006, p. 891; Marsden 1999, pp. 377-390).

The current total population number is unclear; however, based on these recent records, we believe that the population is substantially fewer than 10,000 individuals for the following reasons:

• It is unlikely to exist in large numbers other than in the areas documented, or it exists in small flocks of similar numbers in undocumented areas.

• It is unlikely to persist in viable populations in areas outside of protected parks, which contain large forested areas that contain suitable habitat.

• There is little evidence or documentation of substantial flocks. Because this is a loud, charismatic species, it is logical to assume that where this species exists, at least in substantial flocks, there is documentation or evidence of the species publicly available.

• The areas where this species exists are likely known because the species tends to return to the same area to nest. It has been recorded to use one area for approximately 30 years (Flórez and Sierra 2004, p. 3).

• This species may exist in other areas where it has not been documented, but if so, it is likely to exist in very small flocks, based on the best available scientific and commercial information.

We estimate that the population is closer to between 1,000 and a few thousand remaining individuals. However, with this status review, we are requesting information from range countries, species experts, local NGOs, and the public about this species regarding where it exists and current population estimates.

Conservation Status

There are various protections in place for this species at the international, national, and local levels. At the international level, this species is listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (2011). However, this status under IUCN conveys no actual protections to the species.

CITES

The military macaw is protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which is one of the most important means of controlling international trade in animal and plant species affected by trade. CITES is an international agreement through which member countries, called Parties, work together to ensure that international trade in CITES-listed animals and plants is not detrimental to the survival of wild populations by regulating their import, export, and reexport. All of the range countries for this species are Parties to CITES (CITES 2009, p. 1). Almost all psittacines (parrots), including the military macaw, were included in CITES Appendix II in 1981 (CITES 2008a, p. 1). This species was transferred to Appendix I of CITES in 1987, because populations were declining rapidly due to uncontrolled trapping for the international pet bird trade (CITES 1989a, pp. 1-7). An Appendix-I listing includes species threatened with extinction whose trade is permitted only under exceptional circumstances, which generally precludes commercial trade.

WBCA

The import of the military macaw into the United States is also regulated by the Wild Bird Conservation Act (WBCA) (16 U.S.C. 4901

et seq.

), which was enacted on October 23, 1992, in an effort to ensure that exotic bird species are not harmed by U.S. trade. The purpose of the WBCA is to promote the conservation of CITES-listed exotic birds by ensuring that all imports into the United States are (1) sustainable and (2) not detrimental to the species. Permits may be issued to allow imports of listed birds for scientific research, zoological breeding or display, or as a personal pet when certain criteria are met. The Service may approve cooperative breeding programs and subsequently issue import permits under such programs. Wild-caught birds may be imported into the United States if the Service approves a management plan for their sustainable use. At this time, the military macaw is not part of a Service-approved cooperative breeding program and does not have an approved management plan for wild-caught birds.

Argentina

There is only a small population remaining in Argentina, in the northern province of Salta. This species is considered to be a critically endangered species by the Government of Argentina (Navarro

et al.

2008, p. 1). It is protected through national legislation (Law 22.421 and Decree 691/81), administered by the Dirección Nacional de Fauna y Flora Silvestres. Law 22.421 addresses the Conservation of Fauna, enacted in 1981. Decree 691/81 addresses the protection and conservation of wild fauna and is implemented through law 22.421.

Bolivia

In Bolivia, this species is listed as vulnerable. The 1975 Law on Wildlife, National Parks, Hunting and Fishing (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1-34) has the fundamental objective of protecting the country's natural resources. This law governs the protection, management, utilization, transportation, and selling of wildlife and their products. It also governs the protection of endangered species; habitat conservation of fauna and flora; and the declaration of national parks, biological reserves, refuges, and wildlife sanctuaries.

Colombia

In Colombia, various protections are in place. Colombia categorizes this species as “vulnerable” (Salaman

et al.

2009, p. 21). A vulnerable species is considered to be one that is not in imminent danger of extinction in the near future, but it could be if natural population trends continue downward and deterioration of its range continues (EcoLex 2002, p. 10).

A conservation project focusing on the coffee zone of the middle Río Frío is ongoing and its goal is to create a conservation corridor connecting natural habitats and shade-grown coffee plantations (Strewe and Navarro 2004, p. 51). The establishment of the private nature reserve, Buena Vista, was the first step to conserve the foothill forest ecosystems. This was done in close cooperation with a local organization, Grupo Ecologico Defensores de la Naturaleza—Campesinos de Palomino, (Strewe and Navarro 2003, pp. 34-35). The Pro-Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta Foundation (FPSNSM) maintains a permanent monitoring station at Buena Vista nature reserve. FPSNSM is working toward sustainable development projects in cooperation with local communities, national park units, and coffee-grower committees in the region. This includes educational campaigns to limit hunting. Habitat management takes place on private lands in the lowlands and foothills of the San Salvador valley to reduce the pressure on the remaining natural forest

habitats, including a reforestation program using native tree species. Additionally, forest reserves have been established as part of a network of private nature reserves in the valley (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 35-36).

Ecuador

In Ecuador, this species is considered endangered, “en peligro de extinción” (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 69). Here, this species is considered to be very rare (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72).

Mexico

In Mexico, the military macaw is protected as endangered under Mexico's Wildlife Protection Act, and this species has been highlighted as a priority species for conservation in the Mexican Parrot Conservation Plan (Rivera-Ortiz

et al.

2008, p. 256; Renton 2004, p. 12). Its official list of endangered and threatened bird species is termed the Norma Oficial Mexicana 059 (NOM-059-ECOL).

Peru

In Peru, this species is listed as vulnerable and its protections fall under the jurisdiction of the National Institute of Natural Resources (Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales, INRENA). Peru's Supreme Decree No. 034-2004-AG (2004, p. 276,855) prohibits hunting, take, transport, and trade of protected species, except as permitted by regulation.

Venezuela

In Venezuela, this species is listed as endangered (Rodriguez

et al.

2004, p. 376).

NGO Involvement

In the 1980s, conservationists realized the value of identifying areas or habitat in terms of numbers of endemic bird species. BirdLife International, in partnership with countries, other nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and various other partners, developed the Important Bird Area (IBA) program, which is a worldwide initiative to identify and protect critical areas for bird conservation. IBAs are areas that regularly contain significant numbers of one or more globally threatened species or other species of global conservation concern. One of the criteria in identifying important regions for bird conservation is the distribution of restricted-range and globally threatened species such as the military macaw. As of 2007, more than 8,500 IBAs had been identified worldwide (García-Moreno

et al.

2007, p. 1). The military macaw has triggered the IBA criteria for 37 IBAs (BLI 2011, pers. comm.) Note that this does not mean this species always occupies these areas; rather, the species has been identified in these areas.

A number of locally based and international conservation organizations have developed programs in connection with protected areas within this species' range such as ecotourism associated with clay licks (Lee 2010, pp. 167-168). The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) is implementing a range of projects aimed at strengthening the management of Greater Madidi-Tambopata Landscape in Bolivia. Its program is based on three main categories: (1) Park management, (2) natural resources management, and (3) scientific research (Parks Watch 2005a, p. 35). In the Greater Madidi-Tambopata Landscape, where the WCS is monitoring populations of the military macaw (WCS 2009, p. 8), the area encompasses one of the largest swaths of intact montane forest in the Tropical Andes in northern Bolivia and southern Peru. It is 110,074 km

2

(42,500 mi

2

) and includes five protected areas.

A Colombian-based NGO, Fundación ProAves, is also working to protect this species and its habitats. Fundación ProAves developed a conservation plan for 2010 to 2020 for several parrot species, including the military macaw (Botero-Delgadillo and Páez 2011, p. 7). However, it is unclear if or when it will be adopted by the Government of Colombia.

In Mexico, several NGOs are participating in the conservation and management of this species. In 1989, a strong citizen movement began to conserve the 383,567-ha (947,815-ac) Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve by establishing the local group, Grupo Ecológico Sierra Gorda. In collaboration with the local community, this group has taken action to effectively protect bird communities as well as other groups of wildlife in this area. Strategies include environmental education, the establishment of private reserves, and payment for environmental services in a 25,000-ha (61,776-ac) area of this reserve (Pedraza-Ruiz, 2008 p. 1). The Chamela-Cuixmala Biosphere Reserve is managed by Mexico's Instituto de Ecologia of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and local NGOs. Other NGOs are working with communities to obtain macaw feathers from aviaries so that indigenous people will not hunt the macaws for their feathers (Renton 2004, p. 14). In the Sinaloa area, the Universidad Autónoma de Sinaloa has been active in conservation of this species since 1998 (Rubio

et al.

2007, p. 52). This university conducts research, and conducts outreach activities to foster knowledge and conservation of this species at the Mineral de Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria Ecological Preserve.

Evaluation of Threat Factors

Introduction

Throughout the range of this species, the factors impacting this species are generally very similar. The current primary factors affecting the military macaw are habitat loss and degradation, and poaching (Gastañaga

et al.

2011, entire; Strewe and Navarro 2004, p. 50). Habitat loss is primarily due to conversion of the species' habitat (generally forests) to agriculture and other forms that are not optimal for the military macaw (Donald

et al.

2010, p. 26; Flórez and Sierra 2004, p. 3). Conversion of habitat to soy plantations is now considered to be one of the principal causes of Amazon deforestation (Bonilha 2008, p. 17). Because this species has a small and fragmented population, poaching, while apparently uncommon, remains a concern (Botero-Delgadillo and Páez 2011, p. 13).

This status review focuses primarily on where this species has been documented, in parks and other areas with protected status and the peripheral zones. In some cases, we will evaluate the factor by country. In other cases, we may evaluate the factor by a broader region, if we do not have adequate information specific to a particular country about this species. This is because often threats are the same or very similar throughout the species' range. For particular areas in which we lack information about the species, we request additional information from the public during this proposed rule's comment period (see

DATES

, above).

A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of its Habitat or Range

The military macaw has a large but fragmented distribution (276,000 km

2

(106,564 mi

2

)), and not all locations where the military macaw exists are known. Habitat destruction and modification is one of the main threats to the military macaw; significant amounts of this species' habitat have been converted such that its habitat is no longer suitable and no longer provides adequate shelter (nesting sites) and food sources, and these causes of habitat loss are likely to continue. Between 2000 and 2005, of all the continents, South America had the largest net loss of forested area, experiencing a loss of 4.3 million ha

(10.6 million ac) per year (FAO 2006 in Mosandl

et al.

2008, p. 38). In some countries, extractive activities for nontimber forest products occur, such as the removal of palm trees (Arecaceae family) to obtain hearts of palm (ParksWatch 2011;

http://www.tropicalforestresearch.org

). Currently, the military macaw exists in many parks and other areas that have protected status (Coconier

et al.

2009, p. 63; Arizmendi 2008, p. 4; Rodriguez

et al.

2004, p. 78; Renton 2004, p. 12). Studies have found that compared with the surrounding areas, conditions inside the parks were significantly better than their surrounding areas (Bruner

et al.

2001, p. 125). One study found that in 40 percent of tropical parks, land that had formerly been under cultivation and that was incorporated into park boundaries had recovered. This subsequently led to an actual increase in vegetative cover. The study found that 83 percent of parks were successful at mitigating encroachment (Bruner

et al.

2001, p. 125). This was confirmed in a more recent study that found that forests in conservation units were four times better at protecting against deforestation than unprotected areas (Oliveira

et al.

2007, p. 1,235). However, this species still faces habitat loss, even in protected areas.

We are limiting our analysis to areas where there is readily available information about this species. For instance, there is very little information available about this species in Argentina and Venezuela (Coconier

et al.

2009; Navarro

et al.

2008, p. 1; Coconier

et al.

2007; Rodriguez

et al.

2004). However, in both of these countries, the species faces similar threats (such as the lack of suitable habitat) as in other countries (Rodriguez

et al.

2004, p. 373). The largest populations of this species, discussed in detail in the Range, Observations, and Population Estimates section, appear to be in Mexico and Bolivia. Even in these countries, its populations are small and its distribution is fragmented. In other countries within its range such as Colombia, Peru, and Ecuador, it exists in smaller populations, and Argentina and Venezuela have even smaller and possibly negligible populations. Additionally, the military macaw may have occurred in Guatemala in the past, but it is no longer found there (Gardner 1972 in Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125). We invite experts and the public to provide any additional information they may have about the species in these countries, which we will consider and incorporate into the decision making process for our final determination on this proposed action.

Argentina

In Argentina, habitat destruction, particularly deforestation for agricultural expansion for soy plantation, and timber extraction have significantly increased in recent years (Devenish 2009, p. 60; Chebez

et al.

in litt. in Navarro

et al.

2008, pp. 7, 9; DiPaola

et al.

2008, pp. 1, 8; FAO 2007, p. 42). The species was thought to no longer exist in Argentina, which is the southernmost part of its range, but recent surveys found small populations of this species in at least two locations in the Salta Province (Navarro

et al.

2008, p. 1). The primary threat to forested areas in Argentina is the expansion of agriculture, particularly soy, into remaining habitat such as the Chaco plains in the Andes mountain range (Centro de Acción Popular Olga Márquéz de Aredez (CAPOMA) 2009, p. 6). The practice of drying swamps through channeling is common in northern Argentina, particularly for producing soybeans, which have an increasing demand in the global market. The current rate of deforestation stands at 25,000 ha (61,776 ac) per year resulting from land converted to agricultural use (Devenish 2009, p. 60). The area converted to soy production increased from as little as 3 percent in the 1970s to 40 percent of the total crop area in 2003, covering 14 million ha (34.6 million ac) (Devenish 2009, p. 60). Conversion of lands to soy production is favored by the current political and economic climate, both at the global and national levels (Devenish 2009, p. 60). With regard to other types of land use, the area used for cattle ranching has decreased, but exotic tree plantations have doubled (Devenish 2009, p. 60).

In addition, pipeline routes and associated roads are being established in this area in connection with oil, gas, and mineral exploration (Navarro

et al.

2008, pp. 7, 9). Road building operations greatly facilitate access to large, previously inaccessible forested areas (Fimbel

et al.

2001, pp. 511-512). The area occupied by permanent facilities including pipelines and refineries is relatively small, but oil development areas cover large tracts of land. Oil development can have significant negative impacts on nearby habitat through construction of roads and other buildings, discharge of contaminants, and oil spills and leaks (Rhee et al. 2004, chap. 6, p. 31).

Although some of this species' habitat is protected, its habitat continues to shrink in Argentina. In the area of Acambuco, where the military macaw has been observed, the designation of Acambuco Reserve as a provincial reserve provides some protective measures. The purposes of this reserve, in part, are to preserve its genetic resources, to preserve the environment surrounding catch basins of its rivers, and to guarantee the maintenance of the biodiversity living in the reserve. However, in the Salta Province, this species is primarily found in areas that are unprotected, with the exception of the Acambuco Reserve. In summary, significant amounts of this species' habitat have been converted such that its habitat is no longer suitable, and these causes of habitat loss are likely to continue.

Bolivia

Madidi National Park experiences threats representative of threats to this species' habitat in Bolivia, and this is one of the key areas where this species likely has a viable population in Bolivia. Thus, we focused our analysis on this park. The National Service of Protected Areas (SERNAP) has authority over Bolivia's parks and protected lands. Approximately 53 percent (57.2 million ha; 141.3 million ac) of Bolivia's total area is forested (FAO 2011, p. 118). Of this area, 38.9 million ha (96.1 million ac) are within the Bolivian Amazon and constitute 5 percent of the total Amazon forest (Locklin and Haack 2003, p. 774). As of 2005, Bolivia had 12 national parks, including 6 with integrated management natural areas, 1 with indigenous territory (or communal lands), and 4 national reserves; 2 biosphere reserves; and 3 integrated management natural areas, totaling 16,834,380 ha (41,598,659 ac) (ParksWatch 2005, p. 2). A discussion of typical threats in Bolivia's parks follows. The region suffers from chronic and intense poverty levels, which affect more than 90 percent of the population (Instituto Nacional de Estadística de Bolivia (INE) 2005). The result is intense conflict between development and conservation. In Madidi National Park, the three greatest threats to the nature preserve are the construction of a highway within the park, drilling for oil, and a planned hydroelectric dam. Other activities that are impacting or are likely to impact this park are illegal logging, gold mining, and uncontrolled tourism (ParksWatch 2011b, pp. 1-15; Chavez 2010, pp. 1-2).

Deforestation and Logging

The forests of Bolivia have mainly been subjected to selective logging (Salo and Toivonen 2009, p. 610; Fredericksen 2003, p. 10), which has been done at very low levels and with

low human pressures (Pacheco 2006, p. 206), allowing them so far to remain largely intact. In the five national parks where the military macaw is regularly observed, there are some protections in place for the species' habitat (Hennessey 2010, pers. comm.). However, logging still occurs within the range of this species (ParksWatch 2011b, p. 1). Large tracts of primary forest remain in Bolivia, but it is likely that some of these will be subjected to logging (Fredericksen 2003, p. 13) due to slash-and-burn activities by indigenous communities, and because forest products are one of Bolivia's primary exports (Byers and Israel 2008, p. vi). The use of slash-and-burn practices on steep and erodible slopes has considerably affected the area's hydrological regime, particularly near the city of Santa Cruz. In many areas of human settlement, soil erosion is compounded by logging, nutrient depletion, and weed invasion.

As of 2006, 89 timber companies held the rights to 5.8 million ha (14.3 million ac) of logging concessions (Pacheco 2006, p. 208). The Bolivian Forestry Law of 1996 (Forestry Law 1700) requires the preparation and approval of management plans and adherence to best management practices ((BMPs) (Nter

et al.

2011, p. 292; Fredericksen 2003, p. 10). For instance, harvesters must pre-map harvestable trees (which have minimum diameter limits), protect seed trees, and set aside areas that are designated as protected or not harvestable (Nter

et al.

2011, p. 292). Management issues still need to be addressed, including sufficient regeneration time for commercial species (Fredericksen 2003, p. 10). However, Bolivia continues to attempt to balance the use of its natural resources with competing priorities. For example, the Pilón Lajas Management Plan divided the reserve into specific zones to combine indigenous community rights with conservation initiatives (Hennessey

et al.

2003, p. 320). Despite national laws and regulations, activities such as illegal timber extraction continue to spread unabated (World Bank 2006, p. 8; U.S. Forest Service 2007, p. 2; Pacheco 2006, p. 208; TRAFFIC 2006, p. v).

Roads

There are increasing demands for road infrastructure within Bolivia for many reasons. It is one of the poorest countries in South America (MacLeod 2009, p. 6; INE 2005), and the government would like to improve its economy (ParksWatch 2011b, p. 13). The construction of the Apolo-Ixiamas Road is one way of facilitating access to its natural resources. A road has been proposed that would bisect the Madidi National Park and Natural Integrated Management Area, opening vast, currently inaccessible tropical forest areas to colonization and resource extraction (ParksWatch 2011b, pp. 1-2; Fleck

et al.

2006, p. 13). This can promote illegal logging, and facilitate access to previously inaccessible forested areas (Fimbel

et al.

2001, pp. 511-512). The construction of roads through this park has been a source of controversy for several years (

http://conservation-strategy.org/en/project/economics-road-through-madidi-national-park,

accessed October 6, 2011). The current status of the road and whether it will be constructed around the park or through the park remains unclear. However, regional development plans are often implemented without consideration of impacts on natural resources (WCS 2009, p. 4). Plans to connect Bolivia and Peru to Brazil's expanding markets and expand the energy industry (oil and gas) will affect fragile areas of high biodiversity (WCS 2009, p. 4). Roads constructed in the past have also been problematic. In the late 1990s, roads through Serranía Sadiri spurred an increase in unsustainable logging of the area's mahogany trees, which were the most valuable tree at the time (World Land Trust 2010, p. 1).

Hydroelectric Power

Possibly one of the greatest threats in the Madidi National Park is the proposed Bala Hydroelectric Dam Project at the Beni River in the Bala Gorge, where the Beni River goes through the Bala Mountain Range (WCS 2011, p. 2). El Bala Hydroelectric Dam, as proposed, could flood much of Madidi National Park and the adjacent biosphere reserve and indigenous territory Pilón Lajas, which is an area of about 2,000 km

2

(4,942 mi

2

) (Chavez 2010, pp. 1-2; Bolivia Supreme Decree 24191). Construction of dams can have severe impacts on ecosystems (McCartney

et al.

2001, p. v). For example, a dam blocks the flow of sediment downstream. During construction of dams, disturbance to soils at the construction site is one of the largest concerns. This leads to downstream erosion and increased sediment buildup in a reservoir. Although the current status of this dam is unclear, it is clear that the Government of Bolivia is intent on becoming more self-reliant, in part through creating its own sources of energy through hydroelectric dams.

Oil Exploration

In October 2010, the Bolivian Government approved Supreme Decree 0676, which directly affects the Madidi National Park and the Biosphere Reserve and Indigenous land called Pilón Lajas (

http://www.oecoamazonia.com/en/news/bolivia/171-bolivia-transforma-parque-na-amazon;

accessed September 13, 2011) by extending gas and oil exploration and development. Oil exploration in the region would not only affect the pristine nature of the Madidi National Park and Pilón Lajas, but also the subsistence of the indigenous people living in the area (

http://www.amazonfund.eu/art-oil-madidi.html

, accessed September 13, 2011). The exact effects of oil exploration to this species are still unclear.

Other Pressures

In Madidi National Park, there is limited legal hunting, but in the areas surveyed, this species was described as common and not exploited (Hosner

et al.

2009, p. 226). Nine villages or communities are within the national park, and 22 are in the integrated management natural area. Of the 31 communities, three are located in the Andean plateau zone. In the lowlands, two of the communities occupy the zone of valleys around the municipality of Apolo. Madidi's buffer zone has an additional 11,000 indigenous inhabitants (Fleck

et al.

2006, p. 29). Timber extraction still occurs here (WorldLand Trust 2010, p. 1). In 2010, an additional 25,090 ha (62,000 ac) of pristine tropical rainforest in Bolivia were protected, following a decision by an indigenous community to create a tourism refuge in the Sadiri rainforest (WorldLand Trust 2010, p. 1). Landless Andean farmers make a living in the lowlands, and they at times expand the agricultural frontier, increasing the risk of disease transmission between domestic animals and wildlife, bringing crops and domestic animals closer to wildlife predators, and increasing hunting pressure in surrounding forests (WCS 2009, p. 4). Harvest of nontimber forest products such as palm hearts (in the Arecaceae or Palmaceae family), jatata (Geonoma species), pachiuva (

Socratea exorrhiza

), and jipijapa (

Carludovica palmata

) for subsistence (Fredericksen 2003, p. 13) also occurs.

In summary, threats to the species' habitat in Bolivia include unsustainable land use practices, illegal logging, road building, and exploration activities for oil extraction, which are contributing to the erosion of Bolivia's ecosystems

(MacLeod 2009, p. 6; ParksWatch 2005, p. 1). Large tracts of primary forest remain in Bolivia, but it is likely that many of these will be subjected to logging and other pressures, such as extraction of nontimber forest products, particularly because forest products contribute to Bolivia's national exports (Byers and Israel 2008, p. vi). The Government of Bolivia is attempting to balance improving its economy with conservation initiatives, and some of its development initiatives may negatively impact this species' habitat. Despite protections in place, this species' habitat in Bolivia continues to experience these threats, and we expect these pressures to continue into the future.

Colombia

In the past, human colonization, development, and exploration within the range of the species in Colombia were limited due to the exceptionally steep and high terrain of the Andes (Salaman

et al.

2002, p. 160). However, researchers reported in 2004 that the Cauca River Canyon in northeastern Colombia, an area containing military macaws, was extensively deforested (Floréz and Sierra 2004, p. 3). The main threats in the lowlands are the expansion of agriculture, particularly by small farmers in the middle altitude areas, and extractive activities such as hunting (including the removal of birds to sell as pets) and wood harvesting (Salaman

et al.

2007, p. 89). As resources become scarcer in the lowlands, these pressures move upland. Associated with these farming practices is the use of livestock and the erosion caused by livestock grazing on steep slopes, as well as erosion due to cultivation.

Until recently, forest cover was largely continuous in Colombia, but deforestation has increased dramatically (FAO 2010, pp. 22, 106; FAO 2002). Deforestation rates in lowland moist forest on the foothills of the eastern Andes of Colombia are rapidly accelerating. Deforestation has increased from 1.4 percent (1961-1979) to 4.4 percent (1979-1988), and is correlated with increasing human population density (Salaman

et al.

2007, p. 89; Viña and Cavelier 1999, p. 31). Primary forest habitats throughout Colombia have undergone extensive deforestation. Viña

et al.

(2004, pp. 123-124) used satellite imagery to analyze deforestation rates and patterns along the Colombian-Ecuadorian border (in the Departments of Putumayo and Sucumbios, respectively), finding that between 1973 and 1996, a total of 829 km

2

(320 mi

2

) of tropical forests within the study area were converted to other uses. This corresponds to a nearly one-third total loss of primary forest habitat, or a nearly 2 percent mean annual rate of deforestation within the study area.

Since the 1970s, the Colombian Government has encouraged road construction and colonization projects. The goal is to create links to the vast and undeveloped Amazonian region, and to open up the Llanos and Amazonian lowlands for utilization of their natural resources (Salaman

et al.

2007, pp. 10, 89; Salaman

et al.

2002, p. 160). In recent years, this species' habitat has come under increased pressure with the completion of the Mocoa-Bogotá highway, the proposed Puerto Asís-Florencia road, and the discovery and exploitation of petroleum and precious metals. All of these factors contribute to an escalation in human encroachment and associated impacts that degrade this species' habitat (Salaman

et al.

2007, p. 10). The few remaining forest connections between the upper and lower slopes are under pressure, even where they are minimally protected.

Five main routes link the lowlands from Colombia's high Andean interior. Infrastructure development on the eastern slope of the Andes in Colombia, as well as adjacent Ecuador, has also caused significant human population pressures and has led to much habitat degradation. Increased and improved access roads have led to the conversion of mature tropical forests for pasture lands, petroleum products exploitation, and coca plantations (Salaman

et al.

2007, p. 89). These road projects to link Colombia with Venezuela and Ecuador along the entire eastern base of the Andes have contributed to additional deforestation.

Serranía de los Churumbelos National Park

Currently, the Serranía de los Churumbelos forest is almost entirely intact, and land is owned by the government and uncolonized (Salaman

et al.

2007, pp. 10, 91-92). This mountain range has largely avoided the degree of human impact that other regions have suffered. However, this is changing rapidly due to mineral exploration (petroleum and precious metals) and natural resources (timber and rich organic soils for agriculture) demands. The Serranía de los Churumbelos could become the focus of large-scale deforestation and colonization in the near future (Salaman

et al.

2007, p. 89). Parque Natural Nacional Cueva de los Guácharos provides some protection to the forests in this region although it is a small park (approximately 5,000 ha or 12,355 ac) and even here, illegal encroachment occurs (Salaman

et al.

2007, p. 89).

Catatumbo-Barí National Park

The primary threat in the Catatumbo-Barí National Park (at the Colombian-Venezuelan border) is deforestation and impacts associated with coca plantations surrounding the Park (Fundación ProAves 2011, Avendaño in litt). Coca cultivation has fluctuated for the past several years. Over a 4-year study period, it contained about 100 ha (247 ac) of coca (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, undated report, p. 33). A new population of this species was recently recorded at two locations in this park (Avendaño in litt). One population in the Cauca valley (fewer than 50 mature birds) could be affected by the construction of a dam (155 m (508.5 ft) in height) that could affect its sole breeding cliff. However, this dam is still in the planning stages (Fundación ProAves 2011 pers. comm., September 4, 2011).

Ecuador

Ecuador is experiencing the highest deforestation rate in South America (Mosandl

et al.

2008, p. 37). Forested habitat within many parts of Ecuador has diminished rapidly due to logging, clearing for agriculture, and road development (Youth 2009, pp. 1-3; Mosandl

et al.

2008, p. 37; Sierra 1999, p. 136; Dodson and Gentry 1991, pp. 283-293). Between the years 1990 and 2005, Ecuador lost a total of 2.96 million ha (7.31 million ac) of primary forest, which represents a 16.7 percent deforestation rate, and a total loss of 21.5 percent of forested habitat since 1990 (Butler 2006b, pp. 1-3; FAO 2003b, p. 1). Much of the primary moist forest habitat has been replaced with pastures and scattered trees (Collar

et al.

1992, p. 533), and forest habitat loss continues in Ecuador. Very little suitable habitat now remains for the species here, and remaining suitable habitat is highly fragmented (Bass

et al.

2010, p. 2; Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 122). In the area where this species exists, near the Gran Sumaco Biosphere Reserve, there are several oil reserves (Celi-Sangurima 2005, p. 22). However, specific impacts to this species as a result of oil exploration or extraction activities are unknown.

The colony in Kichwa River Reserve is currently in an area designated as protected, although it is unclear what these protections entail. In this area, the local community group Macaw Rio is interested in conducting ecotourism. Although this colony has persisted for about 150 years (Huatatoca, in litt.), it

likely will be affected by logging and the resulting deforestation on nearby land. Researchers suggest that the apparent lack of this species in Ecuador is possibly related to lack of suitable sites for the formation of breeding colonies, or lack of knowledge about sites that may be located in inaccessible areas (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). We know of no specific threats to the species in the Kichwa River Reserve, other than those associated with small population sizes, which is discussed under Factor E, below.

Mexico

Mexico has suffered extensive deforestation (conversion of forest to other land uses) and forest degradation (reduction in forest biomass through selective cutting, etc.) over the past several decades (Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) 2010, pp. 45, 75). In recent decades, Mexico's deforestation has been rapid (Blaser

et al.

2011, pp. 343-344). Between 1990 and 2000, Mexico lost forest (factoring in natural regeneration of degraded forest and planting of forest in areas that previously did not have forest) at a net rate of 344,000 ha (850,043 ac) per year (FAO 2010, p. 21). During 1990-2010, Mexico lost approximately 6 million ha (15 million ac) of forest, and had one of the largest decreases in primary forests worldwide (FAO 2010, pp. 56, 233). Although Mexico's rate of forest loss has slowed in the past decade, it still continues. The current rate of net forest loss in Mexico is 155,000 ha (383,013 ac) per year, with an estimated 250,000-300,000 ha (617,763-741,316 ac) per year degraded (Government of Mexico (GOM) 2010b, in Blaser

et al.

2011, p. 344; FAO 2010, p. 233).

Currently, Mexico has 64.8 million ha (160.1 million ac) of forest (Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2010, p. 228), and 50 percent of these forests are considered degraded. Projections of lost forested area by the year 2030 in Mexico are between 10 percent to nearly 60 percent of mature forests lost, and approximately 0 to 54 percent of regrowth forests lost (CEC 2010, pp. 45, 75). Deforestation via forest conversion to agricultural uses remains a major driver of land transformation in Mexico (CEC 2008, p. 24). Agricultural production is projected to double within the country by 2030 (CEC 2010, pp. 34, 70). Although some of this increase in production is expected to be due to an increase in productivity on previously converted land, total agricultural land area in Mexico is projected to increase by 6,300 to 41,400 ha (15,568 to 102,302 ac) by 2030 (CEC 2010, p. 75).

In the range of the military macaw, such as the tropical forest along the Pacific coast of Mexico, high rates of deforestation have occurred; slash-and-burn agriculture still occurs along with grazing. In 2002, it was estimated that the species had suffered a 23 percent habitat loss within its range in Mexico using a Genetic Algorithm for Rule-set Prediction (GARP) analysis tool (Ríos-Muñoz 2002, pp. 24, 32). GARP analysis essentially uses ecological characteristics of known species locations in order to determine its likely distribution.

A 3-year study documented loss of habitat, particularly trees used by macaws, in the Tehuacan-Cuicatlan Biosphere Reserve, Sabino Canyon. In their study, researchers found a total of 170 individual plants of species consumed by military macaws in the pine forests in an area of 1,500 m

2

(16,146 ft

2

) in 2005 (Arizmendi 2008, p. 43). By January 2008, eleven (6.5 percent) of these trees had been logged. In the transitional forest between dry and pine (in an area of 1,000 m

2

or 10,764 ft

2

), 134 plants were documented in 2005, and by January 2008, fifteen (11.90 percent) of them had been logged. Arizmendi suggested that these activities are carried out by local communities, and suggested that a local environmental education campaign be implemented. A reduced number of trees limits the availability of adequate food resources across the landscape. With fewer trees remaining, the area cannot support the same number of individuals of the species and therefore causes a further reduction in the population. Macaws were not found in deforested areas, even where an important food source, Hura polyandra, was left as shade for cattle (Rivera-Ortíz

et al.

2008, p. 256). As further support, in Jalisco, most of the sites where macaws were present had little or no habitat loss (note that none of the sites in Jalisco where military macaws were located were in protected areas). No macaws were located in sites with more than 30 percent habitat loss, even though these sites may have had abundant trees.

Mining

At the Mineral de Nuestra Señora reserve in Cósala, where this species occurs, mining activities are occurring (Rubio

et al.

2007, p. 52; Bonilla-Ruz

et al.

2006, p. 45). This reserve is 12 km (7.5 mi) southeast of Cósala in Sinaloa, Mexico. This reserve was created after a joint effort in 1999 between the state, municipal government, and the Autonomous University of Sinaloa. The Autonomous University of Sinaloa conducted technical studies to propose the area as a nature reserve. The university also conducted conservation projects here which focused on the “Ecology and Conservation of the Military Macaw” and “Environmental Education and Ecotourism.” In 2002, the Mineral de Nuestra Señora reserve was formally designated. Since then, parrot populations and their habitat here both within and outside the preserve have been affected by mining activities taking place in the area (Rubio

et al.

2007, p. 52). In early 2005, mining efforts began on underground development and drilling (Scorpio Mining 2011, p. 2). The current effect of mining on the species is unclear.

Peru

There is little to no current published information with respect to specific threats to this species in Peru (Gastañaga

et al.

2011, entire; BLI 2011, p. 2; JGP 2011, entire; Lee 2010, entire; Cowen 2009, entire; Terborgh 2004, entire; Brightsmith 2004, entire). It exists in several parks which convey some measures of protection (Oliveira

et al.

2007, p. 1235; Terborgh 2004, p. 35). Peru's protected areas are managed by the General Department of Natural Protected Areas, INRENA, under the authority of Law No. 26834, Law of Natural Protected Areas, promulgated in 1997. The Peruvian national protected area system includes several categories of habitat protection. Habitat may be designated as any of the following:

(1) Parque Nacional (National Park, an area managed mainly for ecosystem conservation and recreation);

(2) Santuario (Sanctuary, for the preservation of sites of notable natural or historical importance);

(3) Reserva Nacional (National Reserve, for sustainable extraction of certain biological resources);

(4) Bosque de Protección (Protection Forest, to safeguard soils and forests, especially for watershed conservation);

(5) Zona Reservada (Reserved Zone, for temporary protection while further study is under way to determine their importance);

(6) Bosque Nacional (National Forest, to be managed for utilization);

(7) Reserva Comunal (Communal Reserve, for local area use and management, with national oversight); and

(8) Cotos de Caza (Hunting Reserve, for local use and management, with national oversight) (BLI 2008, p. 1; Rodríguez and Young 2000, p. 330).

Because the designations of national parks, sanctuaries, and protection forests are established by supreme decree that supersedes all other legal

claim to the land, these areas tend to provide more habitat protection than other designations. All other protected areas are established by supreme resolution, which is viewed as a less powerful form of protection (Rodríguez and Young 2000, p. 330).

This species has been documented in the Tambopata National Reserve, which is a 275,000-ha (679,540-ac) conservation area created by the Peruvian Government in 1990. The main purpose was to protect the watersheds of the Tambopata and Candamo rivers. This area protects some of the last pristine lowland and premontane tropical humid forests in the Amazon. Within the Tambopata National Reserve, there have been isolated human settlements along stretches of the Malinowski River and where it flows into the Tambopata River. Fewer than 5,000 people inhabit the Tambopata National Reserve's border area to the north. They make a living of slash-and-burn agriculture, small-scale gold mining, timber extraction, and hunting and fishing. One area of Tambopata, including a buffer zone, was recently described as a “crisis zone” (Lee 2010, p. 169). It has been described as being at high risk to illegal settlement, timber extraction, and mining (Lee 2010, p. 169).

Populations of this species are thought to be in the Manu Biosphere Reserve and the Bahuaja Sonene National Park in Peru (WCS 2007, p. 1; Herzog in litt. 2007; Terborgh 2004, pp. 40-41). Problems here are primarily due to human population growth (Terborgh 2004, pp. 40-41). Five indigenous groups reside in the Manu Biosphere Reserve—they are both legal and illegal settlers (Terborgh 2004, pp. 40-41). An ecological research station has been in place since 1973 in Manú National Park (Terborgh 2004, entire), which also adds some protection to the species. Research has shown that often simply by having a long-term research presence there, this serves to reduce poaching (Campbell

et al.

2011, p. 2). Unlike parks in the United States, in countries such as Peru, parks and protected areas were formed around the indigenous tribes that live there (Terborgh 2004, p. 51), and the management and purpose of the parks often include protection of the rights of indigenous human communities. This philosophy of park protection and mandates of parks is different from in the United States, where humans are viewed as visitors to the parks, rather than permanent residents (Terborgh 2004, p. 51). In Manu Biosphere Reserve, another potential threat is oil exploration. Both Shell and Mobil Oil have conducted oil exploration activities in this area (Terborgh 2004, p. 55; ParksWatch 2002, pp. 5, 7). Within Bahuaja, as of 2002, there were no human establishments within its boundaries (ParksWatch 2002a, p. 1). However, activities that could affect the military macaw in this area include gold mining, illegal logging, extraction of forest resources, and an increase in farming (ParksWatch 2002b, p. 1).

Venezuela

There is little published information about the species in Venezuela (BLI 2011, p. 2; Rodriguez 2004, entire). Here it exists in the Andes in the Central Coastal Cordillera, and Sierra de Perijá (Rodriguez

et al.

2004, pp. 375, 378, 379). It has been found on the north slopes of El Ávila, Guatopo, Henri Pittier National Park, Ceroo La Mision, Sierra de Perijá National Park (Desenne and Strahl 1994 in Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125; Fernandez-Badillo

et al.

1994 in Snyder

et al.

2000 p. 125). Most of its range in Venezuela is within protected areas, but threats still exist in the protected areas here (Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125). In 2000, Snyder

et al.

noted that Sierra de Perijá was being deforested for narcotics, land speculation, and cattle (p. 125). A population of this species was recently recorded for the first time at two localities at the Catatumbo-Barí National Park in the Colombian-Venezuelan border, extending the previous species' range from the east slope of the Serranía de Perijá southwards (Avendaño in litt).

Summary of Factor A

Habitat loss, human encroachment, and conversion to agriculture are the main threats acting on the species throughout its range. These threats are exacerbated by an inability by range country governments to adequately manage and monitor the species (see discussion under Factor D, below). South America had the largest net loss of forest area of all continents between 2000 and 2005 (Mosandl

et al.

2008, p. 38), with a net loss of 4.3 million ha per year. Although specific, detailed information about this species' remaining occupied habitat status is not available for each country, we know that much of this species' habitat has been lost through conversion of land to farming, forestry, or other activities (Bonilha 2008, p. 17; Etter

et al.

2006, p. 369; Renton 2004, p. 13). Conversion of habitat to soy plantations is now considered to be one of the principal causes of Amazon deforestation. Deforestation may already have destroyed as much as 1.2 million ha (3 million ac) in the Amazon. This, combined with pressures of capture for the pet trade, has severely impacted the wild population of military macaws. Studies have shown that over time, resident bird diversity generally declines as forest fragments become smaller (Turner 1996, pp. 202, 206).

As with most parrots, the military macaw requires large areas of suitable habitat, including large trees or other nesting cavities for nesting, feeding, and roosting as well as food sources. Logging is a common form of habitat loss that affects this species (Bonilla-Ruz 2006, p. 45). Deforestation via conversion of land to agricultural use is a threat to military macaws because it directly eliminates forest habitat, removing the trees that support the species' nesting, roosting, and dietary requirements. It also results in fragmented habitat that isolates military macaw populations, potentially compromising the genetics of these populations through inbreeding depression and genetic drift (Lande 1995, pp. 787-789; Gilpin and Soulé 1986, p. 27). We do not know the exact extent of deforestation in the range of the military macaw. However, the best available information indicates that deforestation continues to occur and affect the species throughout its range, despite protections that are in place.

Currently the population of military macaws is extremely small (likely a few thousand individuals), those populations are severely fragmented, and its suitable habitat is becoming increasingly more scarce. Therefore, based on the best available scientific and commercial information, we find that the present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of habitat or range is a threat to the military macaw now and in the future.

B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Purposes

The trade in wild parrots is common in some areas of South America (Gastañaga

et al.

2011, entire; Cantú-Guzmán

et al.

2008, entire). In its Red List assessment, the IUCN indicates that the two major threats to the military macaw are habitat loss and capture for the domestic pet trade (IUCN 2011, p. 1). Many reports indicate that poaching for the pet trade is still a problem for parrot species, particularly in poorer countries (Herrera and Hennessey 2007, entire; Dickson 2005, p. 548). For perspective, in the United States, captive-bred specimens of this species were recently found offered for sale for $699 (Basile 2010, p. 2). In 2006, four military macaws were advertised for sale with an average sale price of

$850 (Cantú-Guzmán

et al.

2008, p. 72). Although the scope of the illegal trade in the military macaw is unknown, poaching can be a lucrative and relatively risk-free source of income (Dickson 2005, p. 548).

A high percentage of birds die during the process of capturing from the wild, transporting, and selling them. Younger birds die at a higher rate than adult birds, and the younger birds are more desirable. Because most of these activities are illegal, it is difficult to accurately determine the actual mortality rate, but estimates vary between 31 and 90 percent (Weston and Memon 2009, p. 79; Cantú-Guzmán

et al.

2007, pp. 7, 20, 22, 55, 60). Wild harvest can destroy pair bonds, remove potentially reproductive adults from the breeding pool, and have a significant effect on small populations (Kramer and Drake 2010, p. 11). Military macaws mate for life, are long-lived, and have low reproductive rates. These traits make them particularly sensitive to the impacts of their removal from the wild (Lee 2010, p. 3; Thiollay 2005, p. 1,121; Wright

et al.

2001, p. 711). These activities adversely affect a species' population numbers (Pain

et al.

2006, p. 322).

Although poaching continues to occur for the pet trade, it has been found to be significantly lower at protected sites (Pain

et al.

2006, pp. 322-328; Wright

et al.

2002, p. 719). Other reports have found that national or local protection, particularly when local communities are actively involved in conservation efforts, can successfully reduce nest take (Pain

et al.

2006, p. 328; Chassot

et al.

2006, pp. 86-87). Gonzalez (2003, pp. 437-446) found evidence of poaching, particularly during nesting seasons, in the Pacaya-Samiria National Reserve, a protected area in the Loreto Department, Peru, during his 1996-1999 study. However, he also found that poaching decreased during the 1998 harvest season (Gonzalez 2003, p. 444), which he attributed to increased numbers of birds confiscated by regional authorities, which may have subsequently discouraged poaching (also see Factor D, below).

A related factor is the destruction of trees in this species' habitat due to poaching. This species primarily depends on tree-cavity nests as its habitat. Not only does nest poaching negatively affect this species by reducing the population size and the number of birds available to reproduce, it also in some cases destroys this species' habitat. Several studies have found that poachers will cut down trees to remove nests. A study conducted in the late 1990s found that in some cases in Peru, poachers cut down the nesting tree in order to access the nestlings (Gonzalez 2003, p. 443). They also were observed “hacking” open the nest cavities to remove chicks (Bergman 2009, pp. 6-8; Low 2003, pp. 10-11). An average of 21 nests was destroyed per poaching trip (Gonzalez 2003, p. 443). Nest destruction was also reported by Bergman in Ecuador in 2009 (pp. 6-8).

The military macaw was listed in CITES Appendix II, effective June 6, 1981, and was transferred to CITES Appendix I, effective October 21, 1987. Most of the international trade in military macaw specimens consists of live birds. Data obtained from the United Nations Environment Programme—World Conservation Monitoring Center (UNEP-WCMC) CITES Trade Database show that during the nearly 6 ½ years that the military macaw was listed in Appendix II, a total of 1,034 military macaw specimens were reported to UNEP-WCMC as (gross) exports. Of those 1,034 specimens, 1,019 were live birds and 15 were feathers. In analyzing these data, it appears that several records may be over-counts due to slight differences in the manner in which the importing and exporting countries reported their trade. It is likely that the actual number of military macaw specimens in international trade during this period was 973, including 958 live birds and 15 feathers. Fourteen of the live birds were captive-bred, and the others were reported with the source unknown. Exports from range countries included: 364 live birds from Bolivia; 320 from Mexico; 11 from Ecuador; 4 from Venezuela; and 1 from Argentina.

During the more than 22 years following the transfer to Appendix I (October 21, 1987 through December 31, 2009, the last year for which complete data are available), the UNEP-WCMC database shows a total of 1,523 military macaw specimens as (gross) exports, including 1,226 live birds, 190 scientific specimens, 105 feathers, 1 body, and 1 trophy (UNEP-WCMC trade database, accessed July 12, 2011). As noted above, it appears that some records may be over-counts due to differences in the manner in which the importing and exporting countries reported their trade. It is likely that the actual number of live military macaws in international trade during the 22-year period was 1,119. Of those 1,119 birds, 840 were captive-bred or captive-born, and 119 were reported as wild. The source of the remaining live birds is unknown. Exports from range countries included: 54 live birds from Mexico; 10 from Argentina; 4 from Venezuela; 2 from Colombia; and 1 from Peru. Annual quantities exported ranged from a low of 14 live birds during 2006, to 122 live birds (including 80 exported from South Africa) in 2009. Since 2004, none of the exports from range countries has been reported as wild origin.

Argentina, Bolivia, Ecuador, and Mexico

In Argentina, Ecuador, and Venezuela, there is little to no information available about overutilization. International trade has diminished, but local trade continues to occur. In Bolivia, a report published in 2009 indicated that of 17,609 birds (including military macaws) documented in the market studied in Department of Santa Cruz (not far from the range of this species), 64 percent of the birds were found to be adults captured in the wild. Ninety percent (24,707) of the birds were found to be from the Department of Santa Cruz. A total of 2,604 individuals were from the Department of Tarija, 176 from the Department of Beni, 20 from Peru, and 12 from Brazil (Herrera and Hennessey 2009, p. 233). The report indicated that most parrots (some of which were military macaws) were locally sold, and found that 23,306 were in the city of Santa Cruz, and 4,156 were sent to Cochabamba.

In Mexico, the military macaw is reportedly one of the most sought-after species in the illegal pet bird trade (Cantú-Guzmán

et al.

2007, p. 38), and poaching remains a concern. In 1995-2005, it was the fifth most seized Mexican psittacine species by Mexico's Environmental Enforcement Agency, becoming the fourth most seized psittacine species in 2007-2010 (p. 52). As an example, at a sinkhole in El Cielo Biosphere Reserve; a population of approximately 50 birds was decimated by poaching in the 1980s (Aragón-Tapia in litt. 1989 in Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125). In many areas, it nests in relatively inaccessible cavities on cliff walls, which provides some protection against the pressures of nest poaching. However, nest poaching is a severe threat in Jalisco and Nayarit, where the species nests in tree cavities (Contreras-González

et al.

2009, p. 43; Renton in litt. 2007 and Bonilla in litt. 2007 in BLI 2011, pp. 1-2). Between 2005 and 2006 in Mexico, five military macaws were found for sale, and the average price was $373 (Cantú-Guzmán

et al.

2007, p. 76).

Local residents in Argentina indicated that young chicks are removed “for foreigners” but also noted that it is extremely difficult due to the difficulty in accessing the species' preferred nesting sites and the aggressiveness of the macaws (Navarro

et al.

2008, pp. 7,

9). Additionally, in Mexico and Ecuador, indigenous communities have used military macaw feathers for ceremonial and medicinal practices. However, NGOs are working with these communities to obtain macaw feathers from aviaries so that the indigenous people will not hunt the macaws (Renton 2004, p. 14).

Colombia

This species and other

Ara

macaws are occasionally hunted by indigenous people in Colombia. In one study, in the Catatumbo-Barí National Park, hunting was found to be concentrated around the 15 indigenous communities within the 160,000-ha (395,369-ac) park (Avendaño 2011). In 2004, in a cliff-nesting location along the Cauca River, Colombia, threats to this species included poaching and loss of foraging trees (Flórez & Sierra 2004, pp. 2-3). They found that at the Cauca River site, it was common for some people to remove hatchlings from the nests and sell between 20 to 30 chicks per year on the black market (p. 3). To counteract these activities, a local awareness campaign was initiated (Flórez & Sierra 2004, pp. 2-3). As a result of this project, 3,000 Hura crepitans trees (a species used by the military macaw) were planted by the local communities, and the awareness campaign appeared to be effective. Researchers do not believe that hunting pressure is a serious short-term threat. However, local education and awareness programs generally need to be ongoing and long-term for them to be effective, and the local communities need to be aware of the benefits of conserving species in the wild, as well as have alternative sources of income (i.e., income other than that derived from poaching).

Peru

A recent study in Peru examined nest poaching and illegal trade of parrots, including the reasons for poaching, and the methods, seasons, and locations where the sale and actual poaching of parrots occurred. This study found that this species is still being poached in the wild (Gastañaga

et al.

2011, pp. 79-80), even in protected areas and despite national protections in place. During the 2007-2008 study, eight military macaws were found for sale in two out of eight markets surveyed in Peru (p. 79). Seven of these birds were found in the Amazonian lowland city, Pucallpa (p. 80). The study also found that where protections and enforcement have been implemented such as in Cusco, there were no parrots for sale in markets. This indicates that although it still continues, poaching is becoming less frequent due to involvement by NGOs, minimal international demand for the species, and enforcement by authorities.

Summary of Factor B

Among birds, parrots are the group most subject to commercial trade (Hutton

et al.

2000, p. 14). Parrots have suffered a disproportionate number of extinctions, in part due to their desirability as pets. Conservation efforts by the various entities working to ensure long-term conservation of the military macaw may result in its population slowly increasing; however, it is likely that the population is still declining. Even though the military macaw is listed as an Appendix-I species under CITES and laws have been established within the range countries to protect this species, we are still concerned about the illegal capture of this species in the wild. Despite regulatory mechanisms in place and restricted international trade, poaching is lucrative and continues to occur. Additionally, because each population of military macaws is small, with usually fewer than 100 individuals, poaching is likely to have a significant effect on the species. Based on the best available scientific and commercial information, we find that overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes is a threat to the military macaw throughout its range.

C. Disease or Predation

Disease

Studies of macaws indicate that this species is susceptible to many bacterial, parasitic, and viral diseases, particularly in captive environments (Kistler

et al.

2009, p. 2,176; Portaels

et al.

1996, p. 319; Bennett

et al.

1991). Viral diseases seem to be more prevalent and subsequently more studied in parrots than bacteria and parasites. Psittacines are prone to many viral infections such as retrovirus, pox virus, and paramyxo virus, and captive-held birds seem particularly susceptible (Gaskin 1989, pp. 249, 251, 252). A highly fatal disease, Pacheco's parrot disease, is also caused by a virus (Simpson

et al.

1976, p. 218). After infection from this virus, death occurs suddenly without apparent sign of sickness other than some mild nasal discharge and lethargy (Simpson

et al.

1976, p. 211). However, as transmission of this disease is mainly through nasal discharge and feces, it is less likely to happen in open habitat in the wild than in a confined aviary, particularly because in the wild this species has been observed to alternate nest sites based on food availability (Chosset

et al.

2004, pp. 35-39). Another disease, proventricular dilatation disease (PDD), may be one of the worst diseases known to affect parrots (Kistler

et al.

2008, p. 2). PDD has been documented in several continents in more than 50 different parrot species and in free-ranging species in at least five other orders of birds (Kistler

et al.

2008, p. 2). It is not clear if some diseases observed in birds in captivity also occur in the wild with the same frequency. However, because the populations of military macaws are small and widely distributed, disease is less of a concern because diseases tend to be more easily transmitted between individuals within close range, and wild birds disperse and are not constantly in close proximity. Also, captive conditions in aviaries make birds more susceptible to disease where the stress of confinement combined with inadequate diet can reduce the ability of birds to fight disease.

We have no evidence of significant adverse impacts to wild populations of military macaws due to disease. Disease is a normal occurrence within wild populations. There is no indication that disease occurs to an extent that it is a threat. Based on the best available scientific and commercial information, we find that disease is not a threat to the military macaw in any portion of its range now or in the future.

Predation

Eggs and chicks are more susceptible to predation than adult macaws (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44). Chicks and eggs are particularly susceptible to predation by snakes (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44), but military macaws select their nests where they are likely to have a high level of reproductive success. Because military macaws generally construct their nests in high locations such as canyon cliffs, snake predation is less of a concern because snakes need tree canopy or vines to climb in order to gain access to eggs and chicks.

Other predators known to consume this species' eggs include iguanas, red-tailed hawks (

Buteo jamaicensis

), turkey vultures (

Carthates aura

), and some mammals (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44). In the Sabino canyon, iguanas were observed near the nesting sites. Researchers suggested that a predator control program here would benefit the macaws (Arizmendi 2008, p. 45). Macaws frequently exhibit alarmed behavior when red-tailed hawks and turkey vultures approach their nests (Arizmendi 2008, p. 44). In Argentina, a flock of parrots was attacked by a pair of peregrine falcons (

Falco peregrinus

),

which also nest in ravines (Navarro

et al.

2008, p. 6). However, although parrots and falcons can be combative, the peregrine falcon, which normally consumes small mammals and birds, is not thought to be a natural predator of the military macaw (Bradley

et al.

1991, p. 193). Due to its large size and careful nest site selection, the military macaw is less susceptible to predation by both land and aerial predators (Floréz and Sierra 2004, pp 2-3). However, even limited predation is still a concern in part because removal of potentially reproductive adults from the breeding pool can have a significant effect on small populations by destroying macaw mating pair bonds (Kramer and Drake 2010, p. 11). Additionally, studies on similar species in similar Andean habitats indicate that vulnerability to predation by generalist predators increases with increased habitat fragmentation and smaller patch sizes (Arango-Vélez and Kattan 1997, p. 140). Because each population of military macaws is small, with usually fewer than 100 individuals, and because this species mates for life, even low levels of predation are likely to have a significant effect on the species.

Summary of Factor C

Diseases associated with military macaws in the wild are not well documented. Although there is evidence that diseases occur in parrots in the wild, we found no information that diseases affect this species to the degree that they are negatively impacting this species in the wild. Because the populations are distributed across such a large area, these populations have a built-in resiliency against impacts from disease if one population is affected by a disease outbreak. Conversely, although disease in the wild is not a concern, predation does remain a concern; there is evidence that predation on this species occurs often enough that it can have a significant impact. Because of the species' small and declining population size, tendency to mate for life, low reproductive capacity, and existence in isolated habitat fragments, even minimal predation renders the species more vulnerable to local extirpations. Therefore, we find that predation, compounded by ongoing habitat loss and poaching, is a threat to the military macaw.

D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

Regulatory mechanisms to protect a species could potentially fall under categories such as regulation of trade, wildlife management, parks management, or forestry management. We are primarily evaluating these regulatory mechanisms in terms of parks because this is where this species generally occurs. Regulatory mechanisms could be at the local, national, or international levels.

International Wildlife Trade (CITES)

A specimen of a CITES-listed species may be imported into or exported (or reexported) from a country only if the appropriate permit or certificate has been obtained prior to the international trade and it is presented for clearance at the port of entry or exit. The Conference of the Parties (CoP), which is the decision making body of the Convention and comprises all its member countries, has agreed on a set of biological and trade criteria to help determine whether a species should be included in Appendix I or II. The military macaw is listed in Appendix I. For Appendix-I species, both an export permit or reexport certificate must be issued by the country of export and an import permit from the country of import must be obtained prior to international trade. An export permit for species listed in either Appendix I or II may only be issued if the country of export determines that:

• The export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild (CITES Article III(2) and Article IV);

• The specimen was legally obtained according to the animal and plant protection laws in the country of export;

• For live animals or plants, that they are prepared and shipped for export to minimize any risk of injury, damage to health, or cruel treatment; and

• For Appendix I species, an import permit has been granted by the importing country.

Except in specific scenarios for approved captive-breeding programs, the import of an Appendix-I species requires the issuance of both an import and export permit. Import permits are issued only after the importing country determines that it will not be used for primarily commercial purposes (CITES Article III(3)) and that the proposed recipient of live animals or plants is suitably equipped to house and care for them. Thus, with few exceptions, Appendix-I species cannot be traded for commercial purposes.

The CITES Treaty requires Parties (member countries) to have adequate legislation in place for its implementation. Under CITES Resolution Conference 8.4 (Revised at CoP15) and related decisions of the CoP, the National Legislation Project evaluates whether Parties have adequate domestic legislation to successfully implement the Treaty (CITES 2011a). In reviewing a country's national legislation, the CITES Secretariat evaluates factors such as:

• Whether a Party's domestic laws prohibit trade contrary to the requirements of the Convention,

• Whether a Party has penalty provisions in place for illegal trade, and if they have designated the responsible Scientific and Management Authorities, and

• Whether a Party's legislation provides for seizure of specimens that are illegally traded or possessed.

The CITES Secretariat has determined that the legislation of Argentina, Colombia, Mexico, and Peru is in Category 1, meaning they meet all the requirements to implement CITES. Bolivia, Ecuador, and Venezuela were determined to be in Category 2, with a draft plan, but not enacted (

http://www.cites.org,

SC59 Document 11, Annex p. 1). This means the Secretariat determined that the legislation of Bolivia, Ecuador, and Venezuela meet some, but not all, of the requirements for implementing CITES. Based on the decrease in reported international trade, CITES and the range countries for this species have effectively controlled legal international trade of this species. Therefore, we find CITES is an effective mechanism for preventing overexploitation for international trade in this species.

Parks and Habitat Management

We are focusing our evaluation of the potential threats to this species primarily to parks for the following reasons. Most suitable habitat, primary forest, only remains in these protected areas. The best available information suggests that this species is now mostly found in protected areas such as parks, in part because this is where suitable habitat remains for the species. Additionally, the majority of the information available regarding the potential threats to the species pertains to the parks, where the species is usually found. Our rationale is supported by Cowen, who noted that encounter rates for large macaw species were generally higher in primary forests (2008, p. 15), which tend to be located in areas with protected status. Throughout this species' range, we found that many of the threats that occur to this species are the same or similar. Threats generally consist of various forms of habitat loss or degradation. Each range country for this species has protections in place, but for reasons such as limited budgets and limited enforcement capabilities, the laws and protections are generally not able to adequately protect the species.

Our analysis of regulatory mechanisms is discussed essentially on a country-by-country basis, beginning with Bolivia, and is summarized at the end.

Research has found that tropical parks have been surprisingly effective at protecting ecosystems and species within boundaries designated as parks or other protected status despite underfunding and pressures for resources (Oliveira

et al.

2007, p. 1,235; Bruner

et al.

2001, p. 126; Terborgh 1999, entire). Bruner's study found that protected areas are especially effective in preventing land clearing. It found that in 40 percent of parks, land that had formerly been under cultivation and that was incorporated into park boundaries had actually recovered. This subsequently led to an increase in vegetative cover. The study also found that 83 percent of parks were successful at mitigating encroachment (Bruner

et al.

2001, p. 125). It concluded that the conditions inside the parks were significantly better than in their surrounding areas (Bruner

et al.

2001, p. 125). Oliveira

et al.

found that forests in conservation units were four times better at protecting against deforestation than unprotected areas (2007, p. 1,235). However, despite these protections, this species has experienced threats such that their populations are now so small (generally fewer than 100 in each population) that any pressure now has a more significant effect. Parks, without management, are often insufficient to adequately protect the species. Conditions in specific parks are discussed below.

Argentina

In 2007, Argentina enacted a law mandating minimum standards for the environmental protection of native forests (Ley de Bosques). However, the federal government has not fully enforced the law, and provincial governments are not in full compliance with it (DiPaola et al. 2008, p. 2). Argentina lacks adequate protections of its natural environments; there is a lack of environmental awareness and commitment from the government to adequately protect its resources (FAO 2007, pp. 43-44, 59-60). Provinces usually allow landowners to decide whether to maintain forest cover or deforest the land. The absence of a serious land use planning strategy, particularly during the past 20 years, has led to significant habitat degradation (FAO 2007, p. 60). The threat to native forests has remained particularly high in the Salta Province. As a result, a coalition of indigenous communities and nongovernmental organizations filed for injunctive relief in Argentina's highest court to attempt to combat deforestation (DiPaola et al. 2008, p. 2). In this case, the court mandated deforestation activities to be halted pending the completion of a cumulative environmental impact study. The decision forced the Salta Province to comply with the deforestation moratorium imposed by the Forestry Law, and pressured the Province to comply with the other key provision of the law by completing an environmental land use plan (DiPaola et al. 2008, p. 2). Although the Forestry Law is in place and the court case has set a precedent for compliance with this law, the area where this species occurs in Argentina to the best of our knowledge remains largely unprotected (Navarro et al. 2008, pp. 7, 9). However, we do not know how this area is affected by these activities, nor what regulatory mechanisms are in place here with respect to this species and its habitat.

Bolivia

This species primarily inhabits the parks and protected areas in Bolivia's Andean region (Herzog 2011, pers. comm.). National parks are intended to be strictly protected; however, some areas where the species occurs are also designated as areas of integrated management, which are managed for both biological conservation and the sustainable development of the local communities. Bolivia attempts to balance natural resource uses; however, it is one of the poorest countries in South America (MacLeod 2009, p. 6; CIA World Factbook, accessed December 6, 2011), and subsequently has competing priorities. As of 2005, Bolivia had 5 national parks, 6 national park and integrated management natural areas, 1 national park and indigenous territory (or communal lands), 4 national reserves, 2 biosphere reserves, and 3 integrated management natural areas (ParksWatch 2005, p. 1). These make up Bolivia's National System of Protected Areas ((SNAP) Servicio Nacional de Areas Protegidas). Below are the designations and their relevant categorizations of protections (eLAW 2003, p. 3).

(1) Park, for strict and permanent protection of representative ecosystems and provincial habitats, as well as plant and animal resources, along with the geographical, scenic and natural landscapes that contain them;

(2) Sanctuary, for the strict and permanent protection of sites that house endemic plants and animals that are threatened or in danger of extinction;

(3) Natural Monument, to preserve areas such as those with distinctive natural landscapes or geologic formations, and to conserve the biological diversity contained therein;

(4) Wildlife Reserve, for protection, management, sustainable use, and monitoring of wildlife;

(5) Natural Area of Integrated Management, where conservation of biological diversity is balanced with sustainable development of the local population; and

(6) “Immobilized” Natural Reserve, a temporary (5-year) designation for an area that requires further research before any official designations can be made and during which time no natural resource concessions can be made within the area (Supreme Decree No. 24,781 1997, p. 3).

The foundation of Bolivia's laws is largely based on Bolivia's 1975 Law on Wildlife, National Parks, Hunting, and Fishing (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1-34), which has the fundamental objective of protecting the country's natural resources. This law governs the protection, management, utilization, transportation, and selling of wildlife and their products; the protection of endangered species; habitat conservation of fauna and flora; and the declaration of national parks, biological reserves, refuges, and wildlife sanctuaries, regarding the preservation, promotion, and rational use of these resources (Decree Law No. 12,301 1975, pp. 1-34; eLAW 2003, p. 2). Later, Bolivia passed an overarching environmental law in 1992 (Law No. 1,333 1992), with the intent of protecting and conserving the environment and natural resources. Studies have shown that protected areas have been successful in providing protection from poaching, logging, and other forest damage, especially when compared to unprotected areas (Lee 2010, p. 3; Killeen

et al.

2007, p. 603; Oliveira

et al.

2007, p. 1,234; Asner 2005, p. 480; Ribeiro

et al.

2005, p. 2; Gilardi and Munn 1998, p. 641). However, pressures on the parks' resources are increasing; these are described below.

Within the Greater Madidi-Tambopata Landscape, activities that could negatively affect this species occur, and there are competing priorities within these protected areas. Madidi is divided into three contiguous areas, with two different management categories: A strictly protected National Park in two sections which total 1,271,000 ha (3,140,709 ac), and a natural integrated management area with 624,250 ha (1,542,555 ac), where conservation and sustainable development of the local communities is the main purpose (Conservation Strategy Fund (CSF)

2006, p. 29). The most significant activities that are having a negative impact or could in the future in this area are the construction of a highway within Madidi, mining for natural resources such as gold, drilling for oil, and a planned hydroelectric dam (ParksWatch 2011b, p. 8;

http://www.amazonfund.eu/art-oil-madidi.html,

accessed September 13, 2011; Chavez 2010, pp. 1-2). There is limited legal hunting of this species occurring here, but in the areas surveyed, this species was described as common and not exploited (Hosner

et al.

2009, p. 226). Timber extraction still occurs in some areas (World Land Trust 2010, p. 1). In the rainforest and foothill forest of Serranía Sadiri within Madidi, roads in the late 1990s spurred a rise in the unsustainable logging of the area's mahogany trees, which were the most valuable tree at the time (World Land Trust 2010, pp. 1-2). Within the Apolobamba protected area, uncontrolled clearing, extensive agriculture, grazing, and “irresponsible” tourism are ongoing (Auza and Hennessey 2005, p. 81). Habitat degradation and destruction from grazing, forest fires, and timber extraction are ongoing in other protected areas, such as Tunari National Park (Department of Cochabamba), where suitable habitat exists for this species (De la Vie 2004, p. 7).

Bolivia's national policy is to decentralize decision making, and responsibility for land planning and natural resource management is increasingly shifting to local and regional governments (Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) 2009, pp. 2-5). However, the decentralization process is occurring without sufficient personnel, staff training, and operational funds. There is little information as to the actual protections that Bolivia's laws and protected areas confer to military macaws, despite the laws in place at the national level for its wildlife. Threats to the species and its habitat include unsustainable land use practices, illegal logging, mining, road building, oil extraction, illegal animal trade, and hunting, which are all still occurring within this species' habitat (MacLeod 2009, p. 6; WCS 2009, pp. 2-5). The mechanisms in place are inadequate at reducing the threat of habitat destruction and human disturbance within these protected areas.

Colombia

The Colombian Government has enacted and ratified numerous domestic and international laws, decrees, and resolutions for managing and conserving wildlife and flora. Colombia currently has 54 areas that have protected status (El Sistema Nacional de Areas Protegidas (SINAP); National Natural Parks of Colombia 2011). Of those, 33 have been declared Important Bird Areas (IBAs). The protected area designations are as follows: National parks (parques nacionales), flora and fauna sanctuaries (santuarios de fauna y flora), flora sanctuaries (santuarios de flora), nature reserves (reserva natural), and unique natural areas (área natural única) (Law 165 of 1994). Small populations of this species occur in several reserves and protected areas in Colombia (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 32). These protected areas in Colombia offer various degrees of protection to the species.

In 2003, conservation priorities were identified for its bird species, a conservation corridor was designed, and a habitat conservation strategy within the San Salvador valley was developed (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 29). The private Buena Vista Nature Reserve was established and protects approximately 400 ha (988 ac) of tropical wet lowland forest and wet premontane forest on the northern slope of the Sierra Nevada. It encompasses extensive primary forests along an altitudinal gradient of 600 to 2,300 m (1,968 to 7,545 ft) and forest patches and secondary forest at elevations between 450 to 600 m (1,476 to 1,968 ft). The reserve is adjacent to the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta National Park and the Kogi-Malayo Indian reserve (Strewe and Navarro 2003, p. 29).

Resource management in Colombia is highly decentralized. Colombian environmental management has been divided between the national and regional levels since the 1950s. Governmental institutions responsible for oversight appear to be under resourced (ITTO 2006, p. 222) and unable to adequately manage species such as the military macaw. Resources are managed within local municipalities by one of 33 “Autonomous Regional Corporations” known as CARs (Corporaciones Autónomas Regionales) (Blackman

et al.

2006, p. 32). CARs are described as corporate bodies of a public nature, endowed with administrative and financial autonomy to manage the environment and renewable natural resources, implemented through Law 99 of 1993 (p. 32). Each department (analogous to U.S. state designations) within Colombia is managed by a separate local entity. These corporations grant concessions, permits, and authorizations for forest harvesting (ITTO 2006, p. 219).

As of 2005, 40 percent of Colombia's public resources were managed by local municipalities, making Colombia one of the most decentralized countries in terms of forestry management in Latin America (Blackman

et al.

2006, p. 36). Monitoring of resource use and forest development authorized by these corporations is conducted mostly by local nongovernmental organizations. The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) considers the Colombian forestry sector to be lacking in law enforcement and on-the-ground control of forest resources, with no specific standards for large-scale forestry production, no forestry concession policies, and a lack of transparency in the application of the various laws regulating wildlife and their habitats (ITTO 2006, p. 222). Consequently, there is currently no effective vehicle for overall coordination of species management for multijurisdictional species such as the military macaw. Fundación ProAves developed a conservation plan for 2010 to 2020 for several parrot species, including the military macaw (Botero-Delgadillo and Páez 2011, p. 7). However, it is unclear if or when it will be adopted by the Government of Colombia.

Additionally, despite protections, forest loss continues almost unabated in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada, demonstrating that formal protections and regulatory mechanisms are inadequate. In this area, El Congo Reserve currently may be the only secure nesting site for the military macaw, but it is too small (40 ha; 99 ac) to conserve viable populations.

Efforts are occurring in Colombia to protect and monitor its species, although they do not appear to be adequate to combat the threats to this species. One management tool that Colombia has recently developed is a bird-watching strategy in these protected areas to monitor and report on bird species such as the military macaw, in conjunction with ecotourism (National Natural Parks of Colombia 2011). Despite the efforts in place, there is a lack of information available about the status of this species and its habitat in Colombia. There is no clear information about the status of the species in Colombia; particularly its population trend. We are unable to determine that this conservation strategy will sufficiently mitigate threats to the military macaw, nor are we able to find that the regulatory mechanisms in place in Colombia are adequate. The species population is small in Colombia, and threats to its habitat still exist.

Ecuador

In Ecuador, the military macaw is considered to be very rare (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). It has been observed in the areas of Sumaco and Zamora-Chinchipe (Youth 2009, p. 1; Snyder

et al.

2000, p. 125) and recently at Kichwa River Reserve (Reserva Kichwa Río), within the Gran Sumaco Biosphere Reserve Guacamayos (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). This species is categorized as endangered “en peligro de extinción” (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 69) in Ecuador. It is protected by Decree No. 3,516 of 2003 (Unified Text of the Secondary Legislation of the Ministry of Environment) (EcoLex 2003b, pp. 1-2 and 36). This decree summarizes the laws governing environmental policy in Ecuador and provides that the country's biodiversity be protected and used primarily in a sustainable manner.

Habitat destruction is ongoing and extensive in Ecuador (Mosandl

et al.

2008, p. 37; Butler 2006b, pp. 1-3; FAO 2003b, p. 1). Unsustainable forest harvest practices likely continue to impact the military macaw's habitat. In 2004, Ecuador Law No. 17 (Faolex 2004, pp. 1-29) amended the Forest Act of 1981 (Law No. 74) to include five criteria for sustainable forest management: (i) Sustainable timber production; (ii) the maintenance of forest cover; (iii) the conservation of biodiversity; (iv) co-responsibility in management; and (v) the reduction of negative social and environmental impacts (ITTO 2006, p. 225; Aguilar and Vlosky 2005, pp. 9-10). In 2001, the Ecuadorian government worked with the private sector to develop a system of monitoring and control of forest harvest practices. However, in 2003, the Supreme Court of Ecuador declared the control system unconstitutional, and new control systems were being developed (ITTO 2006, p. 225). Approximately 70 percent of the forest products harvested are harvested illegally, or are used as fuel wood, or are discarded as waste (ITTO 2006, p. 226; Aguilar and Vlosky 2005, p. 4). Because the extractive harvesting industry is not monitored, the extent of the impact is unknown; however, the best available information indicates that habitat degradation negatively affects this species in Ecuador.

The Ecuadorian government recognizes 31 different legal categories of protected lands (e.g., national parks, biological reserves, geo-botanical reserves, bird reserves, wildlife reserves, etc.). The colony in Kichwa River Reserve Macaw receives some legal protections by being in a Reserve. However, a study published in 2002 concluded that although 14 percent of Ecuador is categorized as national reserve network (Sierra

et al.

2002, p. 107), the system does not provide adequate protection for its ecosystems. As of 2006, the amount of protected land (both forested and nonforested) in Ecuador totals approximately 4.67 million ha (11.5 million ac) (ITTO 2006, p. 228). However, only 38 percent of these lands have appropriate conservation measures in place to be considered protected areas according to international standards (i.e., areas that are managed for scientific study or wilderness protection, for ecosystem protection and recreation, for conservation of specific natural features, or for conservation through management intervention) (IUCN 1994, pp. 17-20). The ITTO, as of 2006, considered ecosystem management and conservation in Ecuador, including effective implementation of mechanisms that would protect the military macaw and its habitat, to be lacking (ITTO 2006, p. 229).

Although this colony has persisted for about 150 years (Huatatoca, pers. comm. in Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72), it may be affected by logging and the resulting deforestation on nearby land (Arcos-Torres and Solano-Ugalde 2008, p. 72). The best available information indicates that on-the-ground enforcement of Ecuador's laws, oversight of the local jurisdictions, and implementing and regulating activities are ineffective in conserving the military macaw and its habitat in Ecuador. Researchers suggest that the apparent lack of this species in Ecuador is related to lack of existing suitable sites (large areas containing appropriate feeding, nesting, and breeding habitat) for the formation of breeding colonies. The governmental institutions responsible for natural resource oversight in Ecuador appear to be under-resourced, and to our knowledge, there is a lack of law enforcement on the ground. Despite the creation of a national forest plan, the best available information indicates there is a lack of capacity to implement this plan due to inconsistencies in application of regulations, and discrepancies between actual harvesting practices and forestry regulations. These inadequacies have facilitated logging, clearing for agriculture, subsistence farming, and road development. Habitat conversion and alteration are ongoing within Ecuador, including within protected areas.

Mexico

Threatened and endangered species are regulated under the general terms of the General Law of Ecological Balance and Environmental Protection (Ley General del Equilibrio Ecológico y Protección al Ambiente (LGEEPA)), the General Wildlife Law (Ley General de Vida Silvestre (LGVS)), and also under CITES (CEC 2003, unpaginated). NOM-059-ECOL-2001 establishes a list of wildlife species classified as either in danger of extinction (endangered), threatened, under special protection, or probably extinct in the wild (Government of Mexico 2002, p. 6). All use of endangered and threatened species requires a special permit from the Secretariat of the Environment and Natural Resources (Secretaría del Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (SEMARNAT). SEMARNAT's main goal is to protect, restore, and conserve its ecosystems and natural resources. Under Mexico's General Wildlife Law, the use of these protected species, including the military macaw, may be authorized only when priority is given to the collection and capture for restoration, repopulation, and reintroduction activities (Comisión Nacional Para El Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad 2009, unpaginated; CEC 2003, unpaginated).

International trade of Mexico's wildlife is also managed by SEMARNAT. In 2008, Mexico passed Article 60_2 to amend its General Wildlife Law. The article bans the capture, export, import, and reexport of any species of the Psittacidae (parrot) family whose natural distribution is within Mexico (Cantú and Sánchez 2011, p. 1). It allows for authorizations for removal of individuals from the wild to be issued only for conservation purposes, or to accredited academic institutions for scientific research. However, it does not appear to be adequate based on recent investigations of trade of Mexico's native parrot species.

The military macaw falls under the jurisdiction of several other laws in Mexico. The 2003 General Law on Sustainable Forest Management (Ley General de Desarrollo Forestal Sustenable (LGDFS)) governs forest ecosystems in Mexico, including military macaw habitat. This law formalizes the incorporation of the forest sector in a broader environmental framework. Under this law, harvesting of forests requires authorization from SEMARNAT. It also requires that harvesting forests is based on a technical study and a forest management plan (GOM 2010, p. 24). A

number of additional laws complement the 2003 law in regulating forest use. The LGEEPA regulates activities for protecting biodiversity and reducing the impact on forests and tropical areas of certain forest activities; the LGVS governs the use of plants and wildlife found in the forests; the General Law on Sustainable Rural Development (Ley General de Desarrollo Rural Sustentable) provides guidance for activities aimed at protecting and restoring forests within the framework of rural development programs; and the Agrarian Law (Ley Agraria) governs farmers' ability to use forest resources on their land (Anta 2004, in USAID 2011, unpaginated).

Another law regulating portions of the military macaw's habitat is the National System of Protected Natural Areas (Sistema Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (SINANP)). These protected natural areas are created by presidential decree, and the activities in them are regulated under the LGEEPA, which requires that the protected natural areas receive special protection for conservation, restoration, and development activities (Comisión Nacional de Áreas Naturales Protegidas (CONANP) 2011, unpaginated). These natural areas are categorized as: Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Natural Monuments, Areas of Natural Resource Protection, Areas of Protection of Flora and Fauna, and Sanctuaries (CONANP 2011, unpaginated). The military macaw is known to occur in several protected areas.

Conservation strategies in Mexico rely heavily on natural protected areas, and biosphere reserves comprise most of the designated protected area in the country (Figueroa and Sanchez 2008, pp. 3324, 3234). The military macaw occurs in or near at least four biosphere reserves. Although some areas where this species occurs have protected status, Figueroa and Sanchez (2008, entire) found that, for example, the Sierra Gorda Biosphere Reserve was ineffective (as opposed to effective or weakly-effective). This study specifically evaluated the effectiveness of Mexico's protected areas for preventing land use and land cover change. It assessed the effectiveness of national protected areas (NPAs) by quantifying (1) the rate of change and (2) the total extent of change, between 1993 and 2002, as well as (3) the percentage, in 2002, of areas transformed by human use; transformed areas included agriculture, cultivated and induced pastures, human settlements, and forestry plantations. The rate of change of transformed areas inside each NPA was also compared with that estimated for an equivalent area surrounding the NPA. They selected 69 federal decreed NPAs (out of 160 NPAs decreed in Mexico) that were 1,000 ha (2,471 ac) or larger, which is the minimum area for conserving ecosystems in Mexico (Figueroa and Sanchez 2008, p. 3,225; Ordóñez and Flórez-Villela 1995, p. 11). The study found that, overall, only approximately 54 percent of protected areas, including 65 percent of biosphere reserves, were effective.

Peru

In Peru, this species is listed as vulnerable under Supreme Decree No. 034-2004-AG (2004, p. 276855), and its protections fall under the jurisdiction of the National Institute of Natural Resources (Instituto Nacional de Recursos Naturales, INRENA). This Decree prohibits hunting, take, transport, and trade of protected species, except as permitted by regulation. The military macaw is thought to occur in at least three areas with protected status in Peru. The Peruvian national protected area system includes several categories of habitat protection (refer to Factor A. National reserves, national forests, communal reserves, and hunting reserves are managed for the sustainable use of resources (IUCN 1994, p. 2). The designations of national parks, sanctuaries, and protection forests are established by supreme decree that supersedes all other legal claim to the land and, thus, these areas tend to provide some form of habitat protection (Rodríguez and Young 2000, p. 330). However, limited information is available with respect to the status of this species in Peru. We do not know if the occurrence of the military macaw within protected areas in Peru actually protects the species or mitigates threats to the species, and to what extent these protections are effective.

Venezuela

In Venezuela, the military macaw is thought to exist in two parks: El Ávila National Park and Henri Pittier National Park. Very limited information about the status of this species is available in Venezuela. Henri Pittier National Park (107,800 ha; 266,380 ac) was declared the first national park in Venezuela in 1937. Henri Pittier National Park is the largest national park of the Cordillera de la Costa (Coastal Mountain Range) region. The principal threats to this park include fire, human encroachment, solid waste buildup, pollution, hunting, and limited resources for effective park management (ParksWatch 2011g, unpaginated). In many cases, the intensity of threats has increased. Prior to 1994, a team of government representatives, NGOs, universities, and aviculturists in Venezuela had developed both an action plan for the conservation of parrots and a book containing information on parrot biology (Morales

et al.

1994, in Snyder 2000, p. 125). However, currently, it is unclear what conservation initiatives are occurring.

El Ávila National Park (81,800 ha; 202,132 ac in size), is located along the central stretch of the Cordillera de la Costa Mountains in northern Venezuela. The most immediate threats to the park are forest fires and illegal settlements, which occur primarily near Caracas (ParksWatch 2011f, unpaginated). ParksWatch notes that the areas closest to the city have experienced more problems in the more isolated northern slope and eastern sector of El Ávila. Other threats in this park include the presence of nonnative plants and poaching.

Summary of Factor D

In Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela, we recognize that conservation activities are occurring, and that these activities may have a positive effect on the species at the local population level. Parrots, in general, are long-lived with low reproductive rates, traits that make them particularly sensitive to poaching and other threats such as habitat loss (Lee 2010, p. 3; Thiollay 2005, p. 1,121; Wright

et al.

2001, p. 711). Removal of a few birds from a population of 100 can have a greater effect than removal of a few birds from larger populations. The primary threats to this species historically have been the loss of habitat and capture for the pet trade (Strewe and BLI 2011, p. 1; Navarro 2003, p. 33). Since regulatory mechanisms such as CITES and the WBCA have been put into place, particularly since 1992, much of the legal international trade in the military macaw has declined (see Factor B discussion, above; UNEP-WCMC CITES trade database, accessed September 6, 2011). However, those pressures prior to the military macaw's listing under CITES and the WBCA contributed significantly to the decline in population numbers for this species. Since then, the species' habitat has become fragmented, its range has reduced, and its populations have more difficulty finding suitable habitat.

Each of these countries has enacted laws to protect its wildlife and habitat. However, we are unable to conclude that the regulatory mechanisms in place are adequate. The populations of this species in these four countries likely range from fewer than 100 to a few hundred individuals. There are numerous threats acting on this species;

its populations have severely declined. In some cases, the actual causes of decline may not be readily apparent and a species may be affected by more than one threat in combination. Habitat conservation measures within these range countries do not appear to sufficiently mitigate future habitat losses. Habitat loss and degradation continue to occur within these countries; the best available information does not indicate that the existing regulatory mechanisms have mitigated these threats in the range of this species. Because these populations of this species are very small in these countries, any impact is likely to have a significant impact on the species; therefore, we are unable to conclude that regulatory mechanisms in place for this species and its habitat are adequate.

Bolivia, Colombia, and Mexico have enacted various laws and regulatory mechanisms for the protection and management of this species and its habitat. Although information available is limited, the best evidence suggests that the military macaw exists in small populations in several large protected areas within these countries. As discussed under Factor A, the military macaw prefers primary forests and woodlands and complex habitat that offers a variety of food sources. Its suitable habitat has been severely constricted due to deforestation. In these three countries, there is clear evidence of threats to this species due to activities such as habitat destruction and degradation, poaching, construction of roads, and mining, as well as decreased viability due to small population sizes, despite the regulatory mechanisms in place. We acknowledge that research and conservation programs are occurring in these countries. However, based on the best available information, we find that the existing regulatory mechanisms for these countries are either inadequate or inadequately enforced in order to protect the species or to mitigate ongoing habitat loss and degradation, poaching, and the severe population decline of this species. Habitat conservation measures within these range countries do not appear to sufficiently mitigate future habitat losses.

Based on the best available information, we are unable to conclude that the existing regulatory mechanisms currently in place sufficiently mitigate threats to the military macaw throughout its range. Therefore, we find that the existing regulatory mechanisms are inadequate to mitigate the current threats to the continued existence of the military macaw throughout its range now and into the future.

E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting its Continued Existence

Small Population Size

Small, declining populations can be especially vulnerable to environmental disturbances such as habitat loss (O'Grady 2004, pp. 513-514). In order for a population to sustain itself, there must be enough reproducing individuals and habitat to ensure its survival. Conservation biology defines this as the “minimum viable population” requirement (Grumbine 1990, pp. 127-128). This requirement may be between 500 and 5,000 individuals depending on variability, demographic constraints, and evolutionary history. The military macaw occurs in relatively small populations (ranging from a few pairs to approximately 100 individuals, with the total population size that is likely no greater than a few thousand). The military macaw relies on specific habitat to provide for its breeding, feeding, and nesting. Historically, the military macaw existed in much higher numbers in more continuous, connected habitat. Its suitable habitat is becoming increasingly limited, and its suitable habitat is not likely to expand in the future.

The combined effects of habitat fragmentation and other factors on a species' population can have profound effects and can potentially reduce a species' respective effective population by orders of magnitude (Gilpin and Soulé 1986, p. 31). For example, an increase in habitat fragmentation can separate populations to the point where individuals can no longer disperse and breed among habitat patches, causing a shift in the demographic characteristics of a population and a reduction in genetic fitness (Gilpin and Soulé 1986, p. 31). This is especially applicable for a species such as the military macaw that was once wide-ranging. It has lost a significant amount of its historical range due to habitat loss and degradation. Furthermore, as a species' status continues to decline, often as a result of deterministic forces such as habitat loss or overutilization, it will become increasingly vulnerable to other impacts. If this trend continues, its ultimate extinction due to one or more stochastic (random or unpredictable) events becomes more likely. The military macaw's current occupied and suitable range is highly reduced and severely fragmented. The species' small population size, its reproductive and life-history traits, and its highly restricted and severely fragmented range increase this species' vulnerability to other threats.

Climate Change

Consideration of ongoing and projected climate change is a component of our analysis under the ESA. The term “climate change” refers to a change in the mean, variability, or seasonality of climate variables over time periods of decades or hundreds of years (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2007, p. 78). Forecasts of the rate and consequences of future climate change are based on the results of extensive modeling efforts conducted by scientists around the world (Solman 2011, p. 20; Laurance and Useche 2009, p. 1,432; Nuñez

et al.

2008, p. 1; Margeno 2008, p. 1; Meehl

et al.

2007, p. 753). Climate change models, like all other scientific models, produce projections that have some uncertainty because of the assumptions used, the data available, and the specific model features. The science supporting climate model projections as well as models assessing their impacts on species and habitats will continue to be refined as more information becomes available. While projections from regional climate model simulations are informative, various methods to downscale projections to more localized areas in which the species lives are still imperfect and under development (Solman 2011, p. 20; Nuñez

et al.

2008, p. 1; Marengo 2008, p. 1). The best available information does not indicate that climate change is impacting this species such that it is a threat. After reviewing the best available information, we do not find that changes in climate are impacting this species such that climate change is a threat.

Summary of Factor E

A species may be affected by more than one threat acting in combination. Impacts typically operate synergistically, particularly when populations of a species are decreasing. Initial effects of one threat factor can later exacerbate the effects of other threat factors (Gilpin and Soulé 1986, pp. 25-26). Further fragmentation of populations can decrease the fitness and reproductive potential of the species, which will exacerbate other threats. Lack of a sufficient number of individuals in a local area or a decline in their individual or collective fitness may cause a decline in the population size, despite the presence of suitable habitat patches. Within the preceding review of the five factors, we have identified multiple threats that may

have interrelated impacts on this species. For example, the species' behavior of not nesting in areas where depredation or disturbance is likely may mean that a nest site is “abandoned” before nesting is even attempted. Thus, the species' productivity may be reduced because of any of these threats, either singularly or in combination. The most significant threats are habitat loss and poaching, particularly because the species has such a small and fragmented population, and it requires a large range and variety of food sources. These threats occur at a sufficient scale so that they are affecting the status of the species now and in the future.

In addition, the species' current range is highly restricted and severely fragmented. The species' small population size, its reproductive and life-history traits, and its highly restricted and severely fragmented range increase the species' vulnerability to adverse natural events and manmade activities that destroy individuals and their habitat. The susceptibility to extirpation of limited-range species can occur for a variety of reasons, such as when a species' remaining population is already too small or its distribution too fragmented such that it may no longer be demographically or genetically viable (Harris and Pimm 2004, pp. 1612-1613). Therefore, we find that the species' small population size, in combination with other threats identified above, is a threat to the continued existence of the military macaw throughout its range now and in the future.

Finding and Status Determination for the Military Macaw

We find that this species is endangered based on the above evaluation, and we propose to list this species as endangered due to the threats described above that continue to act on this species. Within the preceding review of the five factors, we identified multiple threats that may have interrelated impacts on the species. For example, the productivity of military macaws may be reduced because of the effects of poaching and habitat loss, which are expected to continue to act on the species in the future. In cases where populations are very small, species mate for life, and birds produce small clutch sizes, these effects are exacerbated. The susceptibility to extirpation of species with small and declining populations can occur for a variety of reasons, such as when a species' remaining population is already too small or its distribution too fragmented such that it may no longer be demographically or genetically viable (Harris and Pimm 2004, pp. 1,612-1,613). This species exists generally in very small and fragmented populations, usually in areas with some form of protected status in Mexico, Bolivia, Peru, and Colombia, and to a limited extent Ecuador, Venezuela, and Argentina. Its life-history traits (such as mating for life and small clutch size) make it particularly susceptible to extinction because its populations are so small. Based on our review of the best available scientific and commercial information pertaining to the five factors, we found that many of these threats are similar throughout the species' range.

In four of the countries (Argentina, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela), the populations are extremely small, and very little information about the status of the species is available in many parts of its range. It is not necessarily easy to determine (nor is it necessarily determinable) which potential threat is the operational threat. However, we believe that these threats, either individually or in combination, are likely to occur at a sufficient geographical scale to significantly affect the status of the species. Additionally, although we do not have precise genetic information about populations throughout this species' range, it is likely that there is some genetic transfer between populations. We believe this based on its demonstrated ability to fly long distances in search of food sources (Chosset and Arias 2010, p. 5). The most significant threat, habitat loss and degradation, is prevalent throughout this species' range. Its suitable habitat has severely contracted, and habitat loss is likely to continue into the future. We do not find that the factors affecting the species are likely to be sufficiently ameliorated in the foreseeable future. Therefore, we find that listing the military macaw is warranted throughout its range, and we propose to list the military macaw as endangered under the ESA.

Species Information for the Great Green Macaw

Taxonomy

The great green macaw (

Ara ambiguus or ambigua,

Linnaeus, 1766; Bechstein, 1811) is in the parrot (Psittacidae) family. It is known by various common names such as lapa verde, Buffon's macaw, Guacamayo verde mayor, Guara verde, and Papagayo de Guayaquil. It occurs as two subspecies. The nominate subspecies, Ara a. ambiguus, occurs from Honduras to north-west Colombia. The subspecies A. a. guayaquilensis occurs in western Ecuador (Rodriguez-Mahecha

et al.

2002, p. 116; Fjëldsa

et al.

1987, pp. 28-31). There are believed to be only around 100 individuals of

A. a. guayaquilensis

in two areas in Ecuador. This subspecies has a smaller bill with greener underside of the flight and tail feathers than the nominate subspecies (Juniper and Parr 1998, p. 423). Avibase and ITIS both recognize these subspecies (

http://www.itis.gov and http://avibase.bsc-eoc.org/avibase.jsp,

accessed November 3, 2011).

There is no universally accepted definition of what constitutes a subspecies, and the use of the term subspecies varies among taxonomic groups (Haig and D'Elia 2010, p. 29). To be operationally useful, subspecies must be discernible from one another (i.e., diagnosable) and not merely exhibit mean differences (Patten and Unitt 2002, pp. 28, 34). This element of diagnosability, or the ability to consistently distinguish between populations, is a common thread that runs through all subspecies concepts. All populations or subspecies of Ara ambigua essentially face similar threats, all are generally in the same region (Central and northern South America), and all have small populations. For the purpose of this proposed rule and based on the best available information, we recognize all populations of great green macaws as a single species.

Description

This species ranges between 77 and 90 cm (30 and 35 inches) in length and has a red frontal band above a large black bill, bare facial features with black lines, blue flight feathers on the superior feathers and olive inferior feathers, blue lower back, and orange tail (Juniper and Parr 1998, pp. 423-424). It is the second largest New World macaw. This species is not sexually dimorphic, meaning there are no differences in appearance between males and females of the same species. The great green macaw is very similar in appearance to the military macaw, but the military macaw has more prominent blue coloring on its hind neck, has darker plumage, and is smaller. These two species are also separated geographically.

Range, Observations, and Population Estimates

The great green macaw is patchily distributed in a 100,000-km

2

(38,610-mi

2

) area (BLI 2011). In addition to occupying humid tropical forests primarily in Central America (Costa Rica, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama), there are small remnant populations in western Ecuador, as well as northern Colombia (Berg

et al.

2007, p. 1; Chassot

et al.

2006, p. 7). Although there may be some interaction between

populations, the great green macaw is fragmented into seven isolated populations throughout its distribution due to habitat loss (Monge

et al.

2009, pp. 159, 174).

Deforestation has reduced this species' habitat and concentrated its population into primarily five areas: the border of Honduras and Nicaragua, the border of Nicaragua and Costa Rica, the Darién region of Panama and Colombia, and two very small populations in Ecuador (Hardman 2010, p. 8; Monge

et al.

2009, p. 159).

Population estimates were made in the 1990s and early 2000s. The global population is now likely less than 2,500 mature individuals (or less than 3,700 with juveniles included) (Monge

et al.

2009, pp. 213, 256); however, the actual population is far from clear. In 1993, the population estimate was 5,000 individuals; in 2000, the population was estimated to be between 2,500 and 10,000 birds (BirdLife International 2009a; Rodríguez-Mahecha 2002a). Although historical observations are useful for assessing the range of the species, they may also be biased because surveys may not have sampled randomly. Thus, historical population estimates of this species may not be accurate. Although the population in Costa Rica is increasing, the population continues to be very small (Monge

et al.

2010, p. 16), and researchers believe that the global population of this species is decreasing (Botero-Delgadillo and Páez 2011, p. 91). Specific information about the range and population estimate for each country is discussed below.

EP06JY12.005

Colombia

Historically in Colombia, it was found in the north of the Serranía de Baudó and the West Andes and east to the upper Sinú valley (Snyder

et al.

2000, pp. 121-123). In the late 1990s, this species was observed in Los Katíos National Park, around Utría National Park in Serranía de Baudó (Salaman in litt. 1997), and the Chocó area of western Colombia (Angehr in litt. 1996 in Snyder

et al.

2000, pp. 121-123; Ridgley 1982). This species' potential geographical range is 51,777 km

2

(19,991 mi

2

), which includes two core areas in Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and in the center of Antioquia Department of Columbia (Salaman

et al.

2009, p. 21; Monge

et al.

2009, unpaginated; Quevado-Gill

et al.

2006, p. 15). The total Columbian population is currently unclear,

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