Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing 38 Species on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui as Endangered and Designating Critical Habitat on Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe for 135 Species

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

[Docket No. FWS-R1-ES-2011-0098; MO 92210-0-0009]

RIN 1018-AX14

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Listing 38 Species on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui as Endangered and Designating Critical Habitat on Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe for 135 Species

AGENCY:

Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION:

Proposed rule.

SUMMARY:

We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), propose to list 38 species on the Hawaiian Islands of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui as endangered under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act). We are also reaffirming the listing of two endemic Hawaiian plants currently listed as endangered. We propose to designate critical habitat for 39 of these 40 plant and animal species. Critical habitat is not determinable for the plant

Cyanea mauiensis.

In this document, we also propose to designate critical habitat for 11 previously listed plant and animal species that do not have designated critical habitat, and propose to revise critical habitat for 85 plant species that are already listed as endangered or threatened. The proposed critical habitat designation totals 271,062 acres (ac) (109,695 hectares (ha)) on the islands of Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe (collectively called Maui Nui), and includes both occupied and unoccupied habitat. Approximately 47 percent of the area being proposed as critical habitat is already designated as critical habitat for the 85 plant species or other species. We also propose to delist the plant

Gahnia lanaiensis,

due to new information that this species is synonymous with

G. lacera,

a widespread species from New Zealand. In addition, we propose name changes or corrections for 11 endangered plants and 2 endangered birds, and taxonomic revisions for 2 endangered plant species.

DATES:

We will consider comments received on or postmarked on or before August 10, 2012. Please note that if you are using the Federal eRulemaking Portal (see

ADDRESSES

section below), the deadline for submitting an electronic comment is 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on this date. We must receive requests for public hearings, in writing, at the address shown in the

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT

section by July 26, 2012.

ADDRESSES:

You may submit comments by one of the following methods:

•

Federal eRulemaking Portal:

http://www.regulations.gov

. Search for FWS-R1-ES-2011-0098, which is the docket number for this proposed rule.

•

U.S. mail or hand delivery:

Public Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R1-ES-2011-0098; Division of Policy and Directives Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, MS 2042-PDM; Arlington, VA 22203.

We will post all comments on

http://www.regulations.gov

. This generally means that we will post any personal information you provide us (see the Public Comments section below for more information).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:

Loyal Mehrhoff, Field Supervisor, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Box 50088, Honolulu, HI 96850; by telephone at 808-792-9400; or by facsimile at 808-792-9581. If you use a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD), call the Federal Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Executive Summary

Why we need to publish a rule.

This is a proposed rule to list 38 species (35 plants and 3 tree snails) from the island cluster of Maui Nui (Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe) in the State of Hawaii as endangered, and concurrently designate 271,062 acres as critical habitat. In this proposed rule, we are also proposing to revise critical habitat for 85 plants and proposing to designate critical habitat for 11 listed plants and animals that do not have designated critical habitat on these islands. Under the Endangered Species Act, we must issue a rule to list a species as endangered or threatened and, concurrently, designate critical habitat at the time a species is listed as threatened or endangered. We may, as appropriate, revise critical habitat designations. If adopted as proposed, this rule would establish an integrated, comprehensive, ecosystem-based critical habitat designation, which would allow the Service to better prioritize, direct, and focus conservation and recovery actions.

As part of a settlement agreement, we agreed to submit to the

Federal Register

a proposed rule for Maui Nui candidate species in fiscal year 2012. This action complies with the agreement.

This rule proposes the following:

• List 38 plants and animals as endangered species.

• Reaffirm the listing for two listed plants with taxonomic changes.

• Designate critical habitat for 37 of the 38 proposed species and for the two listed plants with taxonomic changes.

• Revise designated critical habitat for 85 listed plants.

• Designate critical habitat for 11 listed plants and animals that do not have designated critical habitat on these islands.

One or more of the 38 proposed species are threatened by:

• Habitat loss and degradation due to agriculture and urban development, nonnative feral ungulates (e.g., pigs, goats, axis deer) and plants, wildfire, hurricanes, flooding, and drought.

• Predation or herbivory by nonnative feral ungulates, rats, snails, and slugs.

• Inadequate existing regulatory mechanisms that prevent the introduction and spread of nonnative plants and animals.

• Small number of individuals and populations, and lack of reproduction in the wild.

This rule proposes critical habitat for 50 species and proposes critical habitat revisions for 85 listed plants:

• A total of 271,062 acres is proposed as critical habitat. Approximately 47 percent, or 127,407 acres, of the area being proposed as critical habitat is already designated as critical habitat for previously listed plant and animal species. Therefore, 53 percent, or 143,655 acres, of the proposed area is newly proposed critical habitat.

• The proposed critical habitat units are ecosystem-based and encompass areas essential for the conservation of multiple species.

• The proposed designation includes both occupied and unoccupied critical habitat, although those areas are not differentiated in the proposed rule or on the maps.

• We are considering excluding approximately 40,973 acres of privately owned lands on Maui and Molokai. These privately owned lands include The Nature Conservancy preserves, lands owned by East Maui Irrigation Company, Haleakala Ranch, Maui Land and Pineapple Company, and Ulupalakua Ranch.

• We are proposing critical habitat on lands owned by the U.S. Coast Guard, U.S. National Park Service, State of Hawaii, County of Maui, and private interests.

The basis for our action.

Under the Endangered Species Act, we must issue a rule to list a species as endangered or threatened and, concurrently, designate critical habitat. We may, as appropriate, revise critical habitat designations. We are required to list species solely on the

basis of the best available scientific and commercial data available. A critical habitat designation must be based on the best available scientific data after taking into consideration economic and other impacts. We can exclude an area from critical habitat if the benefits of exclusion outweigh the benefits of designation, unless the exclusion will result in the extinction of the species.

We are preparing an economic analysis.

To ensure that we consider the economic impacts of the proposed critical habitat designation, we are preparing an economic analysis that will:

• Rely on information from previous economic analyses that were prepared to evaluate the economic impact of critical habitat designation in the areas of Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe that are currently designated as critical habitat (47 percent of the proposed designation).

• Update that information to consider economic impacts in the areas newly proposed as critical habitat in this rule (53 percent of the proposed designation).

• Address any other potential economic impacts that may have not been sufficiently considered.

We will publish an announcement and seek public comments on the draft economic analysis when it is completed.

We will seek peer review.

We are seeking comments from independent specialists to ensure that our listing determinations and critical habitat designations are based on scientifically sound data, assumptions, and analyses. We have invited these peer reviewers to comment on our specific assumptions and conclusions regarding the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing, and the proposed designation of critical habitat.

Public Comments

We intend that any final action resulting from this proposal will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we solicit comments or suggestions on this proposed rule from the public, other concerned governmental agencies, the scientific community, industry, or other interested parties. We are proposing to list a total of 38 species (35 plants and 3 tree snails) as endangered; reevaluate the listing of 2 plant species; designate critical habitat for 39 of the 40 species we are proposing to list, or are reevaluating for listing, as endangered; designate critical habitat for 11 currently listed species that do not have designated critical habitat (9 plants and 2 birds); and revise the critical habitat designation for 85 plant species on the islands of Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe. We particularly seek comments concerning:

(1) Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning threats (or the lack thereof) to the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing, and regulations that may be addressing those threats.

(2) Additional information concerning the range, distribution, and population sizes of each of the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing, including the locations of any additional populations of these species.

(3) Any information on the biological or ecological requirements of the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing.

(4) The reasons why we should or should not designate areas for any of the species in this proposal as “critical habitat” under section 4 of the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act) (16 U.S.C. 1531

et seq.

), including whether there are threats to these species from human activity, the degree to which can be expected to increase due to the designation, and whether the benefit of designation would outweigh threats to these species caused by the designation, such that the designation of critical habitat is prudent.

(5) Whether a revision of critical habitat is warranted for the 85 plant species that are already listed as endangered or threatened under the Act and that currently have designated critical habitat.

(6) Specific information on:

• The amount and distribution of critical habitat for the species included in this proposed rule;

• What areas currently occupied, and that contain the necessary physical or biological features essential for the conservation of the species, we should include in the designation and why;

• Whether special management considerations or protections may be required for the physical or biological features essential to the conservation of the species in this proposed rule; and

• What areas not currently occupied are essential to the conservation of the species and why.

(7) Land use designations and current or planned activities in the areas occupied or unoccupied by the species and proposed as critical habitat, and the possible impacts of these activities on these species, or of critical habitat on these designations or activities.

(8) Any foreseeable economic, national security, or other relevant impacts of designating any area as critical habitat. We are particularly interested in any impacts on small entities, and the benefits of including or excluding areas that may experience these impacts.

(9) Whether the benefits of excluding any particular area from critical habitat outweigh the benefits of including that area as critical habitat under section 4(b)(2) of the Act, after considering the potential impacts and benefits of the proposed critical habitat designation. Under section 4(b)(2), the Secretary may exclude an area from critical habitat if he or she determines that the benefits of such exclusion outweigh the benefits of including that particular area as critical habitat, unless failure to designate that specific area as critical habitat will result in the extinction of the species. We request specific information on:

• The benefits of including specific areas in the final designation and supporting rationale;

• The benefits of excluding specific areas from the final designation and supporting rationale; and

• Whether any specific exclusions may result in the extinction of the species and why.

(10) Whether the proposed critical habitat on private lands and under consideration for exclusion under section 4(b)(2) of the Act should or should not be excluded and why.

(11) Information on the projected and reasonably likely impact of climate change on the species included in this proposed rule.

(12) Information on any special management needs or protections that may be needed in the critical habitat areas we are proposing.

(13) Whether we could improve or modify our approach to designating critical habitat in any way to provide for greater public participation and understanding, or to better accommodate public concerns and comments.

(14) Specific information on ways to improve the clarity of this rule as it pertains to completion of consultations under section 7 of the Act.

(15) Comments on our proposal to revise taxonomic classification with name changes or family changes for 11 plant species and 2 bird species identified in this proposed rule.

You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed rule by one of the methods listed in the

ADDRESSES

section. We request that you send comments only by the methods described in the

ADDRESSES

section.

We will post your entire comment—including your personal identifying information—on

http://www.regulations.gov

. If you

provide personal identifying information in your comment, such as your street address, phone number, or email address, you may request at the top of your document that we withhold this information from public review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so.

Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be available for public inspection at

http://www.regulations.gov

, or by appointment, during normal business hours, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT

).

You may obtain copies of the proposed rule by mail from the Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT

) or by visiting the Federal eRulemaking Portal at

http://www.regulations.gov

.

Background

Maui Nui Species Addressed in This Proposed Rule

The table below (Table 1) provides the common name, scientific name, listing status, and critical habitat status for the species that are the subjects of this proposed rule.

Table 1—The Maui Nui Species Addressed in This Proposed Rule

[Note that many of the species share the same common name. “E” denotes endangered status under the Act; “C” denotes a species currently on the candidate list]

Scientific name

Common name(s)

Listing status

Critical habitat status

Species Proposed for Listing as Endangered

Plants:

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera

kookoolau

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis

kookoolau

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Bidens conjuncta

kookoolau

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Calamagrostis hillebrandii

[NCN]

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Canavalia pubescens

awikiwiki

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Cyanea asplenifolia

haha

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Cyanea duvalliorum

haha

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Cyanea horrida

haha nui

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Cyanea kunthiana

haha

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Cyanea magnicalyx

haha

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Cyanea maritae

haha

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Cyanea mauiensis

haha

Proposed—Endangered

Not determinable.

Cyanea munroi

haha

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Cyanea obtusa

haha

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Cyanea profuga

haha

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Cyanea solanacea

popolo

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Cyrtandra ferripilosa

haiwale

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Cyrtandra filipes

haiwale

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Cyrtandra oxybapha

haiwale

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Festuca molokaiensis

[NCN]

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Geranium hanaense

nohoanu

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Geranium hillebrandii

nohoanu

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Mucuna sloanei

var.

persericea

sea bean

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Myrsine vaccinioides

kolea

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Peperomia subpetiolata

alaala wai nui

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Phyllostegia bracteata

[NCN]

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Phyllostegia haliakalae

[NCN]

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Phyllostegia pilosa

[NCN]

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Pittosporum halophilum

hoawa

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Pleomele fernaldii

hala pepe

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Schiedea jacobii

[NCN]

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Schiedea laui

[NCN]

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Schiedea salicaria

[NCN]

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Stenogyne kauaulaensis

[NCN]

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Wikstroemia villosa

akia

Proposed—Endangered

Proposed.

Animals:

Newcombia cumingi

Newcomb's tree snail

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Partulina semicarinata

Lanai tree snail

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Partulina variabilis

Lanai tree snail

Proposed—Endangered (C)

Proposed.

Species Reevaluated for Listing

Cyanea  grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

haha

Reevaluation of Listing—Endangered

Proposed revision.

Santalum freycinetianum

var.

lainaiense

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

S. h.

var.

lanaiense

)

iliahi

Reevaluation of Listing—Endangered

Proposed.

Scientific name

Common name(s)

Listing status

Status of existing critical

habitat

Listed Species Without Critical Habitat Designations

Plants:

Abutilon eremitopetalum

[NCN]

Listed 1991—E

None—Proposed.

Acaena exigua

liliwai

Listed 1992—E

None—Proposed.*

Cyanea macrostegia

ssp.

gibsonii

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

C. gibsonii

)

haha

Listed 1991—E

None—Proposed.

Hedyotis schlechtendahliana

var.

remyi

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

Kadua cordata

ssp.

remyi

)

kopa

Listed 1999—E

None—Proposed.

Kokia cookei

Cooke's kokio

Listed 1979—E

None—Proposed.*

Labordia tinifolia

var.

lanaiensis

kamakahala

Listed 1999—E

None—Proposed.

Melicope munroi

alani

Listed 1999—E

None—Proposed.

Phyllostegia hispida

[NCN]

Listed 2009—E

None—Proposed.†

Viola lanaiensis

[NCN]

Listed 1991—E

None—Proposed.

Animals:

Palmeria dolei

Akohekohe, crested honeycreeper

Listed 1967—E

None—Proposed.‡

Pseudonestor xanthophrys

Kiwikiu, Maui parrotbill

Listed 1967—E

None—Proposed.‡

Scientific name

Common name(s)

Year of critical habitat

designation—current

proposed action

Listed Species for Which Revisions to Existing Critical Habitat Are Proposed

Adenophorus periens

pendent kihi fern

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Alectryon macrococcus

mahoe

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Argyroxiphium sandwicense

ssp.

macrocephalum

ahinahina (= Haleakala silversword)

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Asplenium fragile

var.

insulare

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

A. peruvianum

var.

insulare

)

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Bidens micrantha

ssp.

kalealaha

kookoolau

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Bidens wiebkei

kookoolau

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Bonamia menziesii

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Brighamia rockii

pua ala

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Canavalia molokaiensis

awikiwiki

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cenchrus agrimonioides

kamanomano (= sandbur, agrimony)

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Centaurium sebaeoides

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

Schenkia sebaeoides

)

awiwi

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Clermontia lindseyana

oha wai

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes

oha wai

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

mauiensis

oha wai

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Clermontia peleana

oha wai

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Clermontia samuelii

oha wai

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Colubrina oppositifolia

kauila

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Ctenitis squamigera

pauoa

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyanea copelandii

ssp.

haleakalaensis

haha

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyanea dunbarii

(spelling correction proposed, to

C. dunbariae

)

haha

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyanea glabra

haha

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyanea hamatiflora

ssp.

hamatiflora

haha

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyanea lobata

haha

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyanea mannii

haha

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyanea mceldowneyi

haha

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyanea procera

haha

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyperus trachysanthos

puukaa

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Cyrtandra munroi

haiwale

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Diellia erecta

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

Asplenium dielerectum

)

Asplenium-leaved diellia

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Diplazium molokaiense

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Dubautia plantaginea

ssp.

humilis

naenae

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Eugenia koolauensis

nioi

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Flueggea neowawraea

mehamehame

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Geranium arboreum

Hawaiian red-flowered geranium

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Geranium multiflorum

nohoanu

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Gouania hillebrandii

[NCN]

1984—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Gouania vitifolia

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Hedyotis coriacea

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

Kadua coriacea **

)

kioele

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Hedyotis mannii

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

Kadua laxiflora

)

pilo

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Hesperomannia arborescens

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Hesperomannia arbuscula

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

kokio keokeo

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Hibiscus brackenridgei

mao hau hele

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Huperzia mannii

wawaeiole

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Ischaemum byrone

Hilo ischaemum

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Isodendrion pyrifolium

wahine noho kula

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Kanaloa kahoolawensis

kohe malama malama o kanaloa

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Labordia triflora

kamakahala

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Lipochaeta kamolensis

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

Melanthera kamolensis

)

nehe

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Lysimachia lydgatei

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Lysimachia maxima

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Mariscus fauriei

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

Cyperus fauriei

)

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Mariscus pennatiformis

(taxonomic revision proposed, to

Cyperus pennatiformis **)

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Marsilea villosa

ihi ihi

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Melicope adscendens

alani

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Melicope balloui

alani

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Melicope knudsenii

alani

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Melicope mucronulata

alani

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Melicope ovalis

alani

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Melicope reflexa

alani

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Neraudia sericea

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Nototrichium humile

kului

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Peucedanum sandwicense

makou

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Phyllostegia mannii

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Plantago princeps

laukahi kuahiwi

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Platanthera holochila

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Portulaca sclerocarpa

poe

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Pteris lidgatei

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Remya mauiensis

Maui remya

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Sanicula purpurea

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Schiedea haleakalensis

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Schiedea lydgatei

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Schiedea sarmentosa

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Sesbania tomentosa

ohai

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Silene alexandri

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Silene lanceolata

[NCN]

2003.

Solanum incompletum

popolo ku mai

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Stenogyne bifida

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Tetramolopium capillare

pamakani

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Tetramolopium lepidotum

ssp.

lepidotum

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Tetramolopium remyi

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Tetramolopium rockii

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Vigna o-wahuensis

[NCN]

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

ae

2003—Proposed Revision of Critical Habitat

[NCN] = no common name.

* Critical habitat was found to be not prudent at the time of listing, and therefore was not designated at that time.

† Critical habitat was found to be prudent but not determinable at the time of listing.

‡ The requirement that the designation of critical habitat be considered was enacted in 1978.

** Taxonomic revision proposed in our August 2, 2011 proposed rule Listing 23 Species on Oahu as Endangered and Designating Critical Habitat for 124 Species (76 FR 46362).

Previous Federal Actions

Twenty of the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing are candidate species (75 FR 69222; November 10, 2010). Candidate species are those taxa for which the Service has sufficient information on their biological status and threats to propose them for listing under the Act, but for which the development of a listing regulation has been precluded to date by other higher priority listing activities. The current candidate species addressed in this proposed listing rule include the 17 plants

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, B. campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis, B. conjuncta, Calamagrostis hillebrandii,

Canavalia pubescens, Cyanea asplenifolia, C. kunthiana, C. obtusa, Cyrtandra filipes, C. oxybapha, Geranium hanaense, G. hillebrandii, Myrsine vaccinioides, Peperomia subpetiolata, Phyllostegia bracteata, Pleomele fernaldii,

and

Schiedea salicaria;

and the 3 tree snails

Newcombia cumingi, Partulina semicarinata

and

P. variabilis

. The candidate status of all of these species was most recently assessed and reaffirmed in the November 10, 2010, Review of Native Species That Are Candidates for Listing as Endangered or Threatened (CNOR) (75 FR 69222).

On May 4, 2004, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the Secretary of the Interior to list 225 species of plants and animals, including the 20 candidate species listed above, as endangered or threatened under the Act. Since then, we have published our annual findings on the May 4, 2004, petition (including our findings on the 20 candidate species listed above) in the CNORs dated May 11, 2005 (70 FR 24870), September 12, 2006 (71 FR 53756), December 6, 2007 (72 FR 69034), December 10, 2008 (73 FR 75176), November 9, 2009 (74 FR 57804), and November 10, 2010 (75 FR 69222). This proposed rule constitutes a further response to the 2004 petition.

On November 9, 1984, we published a final rule designating 112 ac (45 ha) on Maui as critical habitat for

Gouania hillebrandii

(49 FR 44753). On January 9, 2003, we published a final rule designating approximately 789 ac (320 ha) as critical habitat for 3 plant species on Lanai (68 FR 1220), and on March 18, 2003, we published a final rule designating approximately 24,333 ac (9,843 ha) as critical habitat for 41 plant species on Molokai (68 FR 12982). On May 14, 2003, we published a final rule designating approximately 93,200 ac (37,717 ha) on the island of Maui and 2,915 ac (1,180 ha) on the island of Kahoolawe as critical habitat for 60 plant species on Maui and Kahoolawe (68 FR 25934). We are proposing to revise the 1984 and 2003 critical habitat designations on the islands of Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe in this rule. In addition, we are proposing critical habitat for the listed plants

Abutilon eremitopetalum

(56 FR 47686, September 20, 1991),

Acaena exigua

(57 FR 20772, May 15, 1992),

Cyanea gibsonii

(currently listed as

Cyanea macrostegia

ssp.

gibsonii

(56 FR 47686, September 20, 1991)),

Kadua cordata

ssp.

remyi

(currently listed as

Hedyotis schlechtendahliana

var.

remyi

(64 FR 48307, September 3, 1999)),

Kokia cookei

(44 FR 62470, October 30, 1979),

Labordia tinifolia

var.

lanaiensis

(64 FR 48307, September 3, 1999),

Melicope munroi

(64 FR 48307, September 3, 1999),

Phyllostegia hispida

(74 FR 11319, March 17, 2009),

Viola lanaiensis

(56 FR 47686, September 20, 1991)), and the birds akohekohe or crested honeycreeper and kiwikiu or Maui parrotbill (32 FR 4001; March 11, 1967)) for which critical habitat has not been previously designated.

In addition to the 20 candidate species, we are proposing to list 15 plant species that have been identified as the “rarest of the rare” Hawaiian plant species and in need of immediate conservation under the multi-agency (Federal, State, and private) Plant Extinction Prevention Program (PEPP). The goal of PEPP is to prevent the extinction of plant species that currently have fewer than 50 individuals remaining in the wild on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii (Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW) 2010). The 15 species of plants identified by PEPP from the islands of Molokai, Lanai, or Maui include:

Cyanea horrida, C. magnicalyx, C. maritae, C. mauiensis, C. munroi, C. profuga, C. solanacea, Festuca molokaiensis, Phyllostegia haliakalae, P. pilosa, Pittosporum halophilum, Schiedea jacobii, S. laui, Stenogyne kauaulaensis,

and

Wikstroemia villosa

. We believe these 15 plant species warrant listing under the Act for the reasons discussed in the “Summary of Factors Affecting the Species” section (below). Because these 15 plant species occur within 5 of the ecosystems identified in this proposed rule, and share common threats with the other 25 species in these ecosystems proposed or reevaluated for listing under the Act, we have included them in this proposed rule to provide them with protection under the Act in an expeditious manner.

We are also proposing to list three other plant species (

Cyanea duvalliorum, Cyrtandra ferripilosa,

and

Mucuna sloanei

var.

persericea

) reported from Maui. We believe these three Maui plant species warrant listing under the Act for the reasons discussed in the “Summary of Factors Affecting the Species” section (below). Because these three plant species occur within three of the ecosystems identified in this proposed rule, and share common threats with the other 37 species proposed or reevaluated for listing in these ecosystems under the Act, we have included them in this proposed rule to provide them with protection under the Act in an expeditious manner.

Finally, we are reevaluating the listing of

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

and

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense,

both of which have undergone taxonomic changes since they were originally listed in 1996 and 1986, respectively.

Proposed Taxonomic Changes and Spelling Corrections Since Listing for 2 Bird Species and 11 Plant Species From Maui Nui

Below is a brief discussion on each of the proposed taxonomic or spelling changes, in alphabetical order by genus, starting with the 2 bird species, followed by 11 plant species. In brief, we propose to accept the recently adopted Hawaiian common name, kiwikiu, for the Maui parrotbill. We also propose to add the Hawaiian common name, akohekohe, to the listing for the crested honeycreeper. Additionally, based on recent botanical work, we propose to accept various taxonomic changes and spelling corrections for 11 endangered plant species listed between 1991 and 1999 (Table 1A).

Table 1A—Proposed Taxonomic Changes and Spelling Corrections for 2 Listed Endangered Hawaiian Birds and 11 Listed Endangered Hawaiian Plants

Listing

Family

Name as currently listed

Proposed new name

Type of change

Change in range of listed entity?

Birds:

32 FR 4001

Fringillidae

Maui parrotbill (

Pseudonestor xanthophrys

)

Kiwikiu, Maui parrotbill (

Pseudonestor xanthophrys

)

Add Hawaiian common name

No.

32 FR 4001

Fringillidae

Crested honeycreeper (

Palmeria dolei

)

Akohekohe, crested honeycreeper (

Palmeria dolei

)

Add Hawaiian common name

No.

Plants:

59 FR 49025

Aspleniaceae

Asplenium fragile

var.

insulare

Asplenium peruvianum

var.

insulare

New genus

No.

56 FR 55770

Gentianaceae

Centaurium sebaeoides

Schenkia sebaeoides

New genus

No.

61 FR 53130

Campanulaceae

Cyanea dunbarii

Cyanea dunbariae

Spelling correction

No.

56 FR 47686

Campanulaceae

Cyanea macrostegia

ssp.

gibsonii

Cyanea gibsonii

From subspecies to full species

No.

59 FR 56333

Aspleniaceae

Diellia erecta

Asplenium dielerectum

New scientific name

No.

64 FR 48307

Rubiaceae

Hedyotis schlechtendahliana

var.

remyi

Kadua cordata

ssp.

remyi

New scientific name

No.

57 FR 46325

Rubiaceae

Hedyotis mannii

Kadua laxiflora

New scientific name

No.

57 FR 20772

Asteraceae

Lipochaeta kamolensis

Melanthera kamolensis

New genus

No.

59 FR 10305

Cyperaceae

Mariscus fauriei

Cyperus fauriei

New genus

No.

57 FR 20772

Lycopodiaceae

Phlegmariurus mannii

Huperzia mannii

Consolidate entries

No.

51 FR 3182

Santalaceae

Santalum freycinetianum

var.

lanaiense

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

New genus

Yes.*

* See “Proposed TaxoNo.mic Changes Since Listing for Two Maui Nui Plant Species.”

We listed the bird

Pseudonestor xanthophrys

as an endangered species in 1967 (32 FR 4001; March 11, 1967). The common name for this endemic Hawaiian bird in 50 CFR 17.11 is Maui parrotbill. Recently, the Hawaiian Lexicon Committee proposed the Hawaiian name kiwikiu (meaning bent or curved as in the blade of a sickle, referring to the bird's strongly bent beak), and, while it has yet to be adopted by the American Ornithologists' Union, this name has been adopted by conservationists and Hawaiian language experts (Maui Forest Bird Recovery Project (MFBRP) 2010). We therefore propose to accept the following common names for this endangered bird: Maui parrotbill (Kiwikiu).

We listed the bird

Palmeria dolei

as an endangered species in 1967 (32 FR 4001; March 11, 1967). Currently, the common name listed for this endemic Hawaiian bird in 50 CFR 17.11 is crested honeycreeper. Although this bird's Hawaiian common name, akohekohe, was originally listed in 50 CFR 17.11 as well, at some point in time it was inadvertently deleted from the list of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. We propose to reinsert the Hawaiian common name for this endangered bird, such that the common names will read: crested honeycreeper (Akohekohe).

We listed

Asplenium fragile

var.

insulare

as an endangered species in 1994 (59 FR 49025; September 26, 1994) following the taxonomic treatment of Morton (1947, pp. 116-117). However, we are currently following the more recent, widely used, and accepted

Hawaii's Ferns and Fern Allies

by Palmer (2003, pp. 70-71). Palmer placed

A. fragile

var.

insulare

in synonymy with

A. peruvianum

var.

insulare.

The recognized scientific name for this species is

A. peruvianum

var.

insulare.

The range of the species at the time of listing and now has not changed. Therefore, we propose to recognize the listed species as

Asplenium peruvianum

var.

insulare.

At the time we listed

Centaurium sebaeoides

as an endangered species (56 FR 55770; October 29, 1991), we followed the taxonomic treatment in Wagner

et al.'

s (1990a, p. 725) widely used and accepted

Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii.

However, in 2004, Mansion published a new classification of

Centaurium,

resurrecting the previously published combination

Schenkia sebaeoides

and placing

Centaurium sebaeoides

in synonymy with

S. sebaeoides

(Mansion 2004, pp. 724-726). The recognized scientific name for this species is

S. sebaeoides.

The range of the species at the time of listing and now has not changed. We therefore propose to recognize the listed species as

Schenkia sebaeoides.

Cyanea dunbarii

was misspelled in the final listing rule in 1996 (61 FR 53130; October 10, 1996), based on the misspelling of the specific epithet in the 1990 version of the

Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii

(Lammers in Wagner

et al.

1990, p. 448). The misspelling was corrected to

Cyanea dunbariae

in the 1999 version of the

Manual

(Lammers 1999, p. 448), and is recognized in the 2003

Supplement

to the

Manual

(Wagner and Herbst 2003, p. 15) and in the Smithsonian Institution's

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands Database

(Wagner

et al.

2005a). The recognized scientific name for this species is

Cyanea dunbariae.

The range of the species at the time of listing and now has not changed. Therefore, we propose to accept the spelling of the listed species as

Cyanea dunbariae.

At the time we listed

Cyanea macrostegia

ssp.

gibsonii

as an endangered species (56 FR 47686; September 20, 1991), we followed Lammer's taxonomic treatment in Wagner

et al.'

s (1990, p. 456) widely used and accepted

Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii.

Determinations made by Lammers on herbarium specimens at Hawaii's Bishop Museum Herbarium show he recognizes this species as

Cyanea gibsonii

(Imada 2011, in litt.) In addition,

C. gibsonii

is recognized and accepted in the Smithsonian Institution's

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands Database

(Wagner

et al.

2005a). The range of the species at the time of listing and now has not changed. We propose to accept the listed species name as

Cyanea gibsonii.

We listed

Diellia erecta

as an endangered species in 1994 (59 FR 56333; November 10, 1994), following Wagner (1952, pp. 10-13, 142-158), and Wagner and Wagner (1992, pp. 30-33). The name for this species has undergone several revisions, and it is currently recognized as

Asplenium dielerectum

(Viane and Reichstein 1991, p. 159; Schneider

et al.

2005, p. 458; Smith

et al.

2006, p. 715; Schuettpelz and Pryer 2007, p. 1,044). The range of the species at the time of listing and now has not changed. We propose to accept the listed species name as

Asplenium dielerectum.

We listed

Hedyotis mannii

and

Hedyotis schlechtendahliana

var.

remyi

as endangered in 1992 and 1999, respectively (57 FR 46325, October 8, 1992; 64 FR 48307, September 3, 1999), following the taxonomic treatments in Wagner

et al.'

s (1999a, pp. 1,150-1,152) widely used and accepted

Manual of the

Flowering Plants of Hawaii.

In 2005, Terrell

et al.

(2005, pp. 818-819) resurrected the genus

Kadua

for all 21 native Hawaiian members of

Hedyotis,

as treated in Wagner

et al.

(1999a, pp. 1,133-1,156) and Wagner and Lorence (1998, p. 315-317), as well as 7 other Polynesian species, based on an analysis of fruit and corolla characters combined with seed shape and surface features determined by scanning electron microscopy. In their treatment, Terrell

et al.

(2005, pp. 818-819) synonymized

Hedyotis mannii

with

Kadua laxiflora

and

Hedyotis schlechtendahliana

var.

remyi

with

Kadua cordata

ssp.

remyi,

and these synonyms are accepted by Wagner

et al.

in the Smithsonian Institution's

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands Database

(2005a). The ranges of the two species at the time of listing and now have not changed; therefore we propose to accept the listed species names as

Kadua laxiflora

and

Kadua cordata

ssp.

remyi.

We listed

Lipochaeta kamolensis

as an endangered species in 1992 (57 FR 20772; May 15, 1992) following the taxonomic treatment in Wagner

et al.'

s (1990a, p. 337) widely used and accepted

Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii.

Wagner and Robinson (2001, pp. 539-561) transferred

L. kamolensis,

along with 13 other species of Hawaiian

Lipochaeta,

to

Melanthera

based on achene morphology and chromosome number, while retaining 6 of the Hawaiian species in

Lipochaeta. Lipochaeta kamolensis

is recognized as a synonym of

Melanthera kamolensis

by Wagner and Robinson (2001) and in the Smithsonian Institution's

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands Database

(Wagner

et al.

2005a). The accepted scientific name for this species is

Melanthera kamolensis.

The range of the species at the time of listing and now has not changed; therefore we propose to accept the listed species name as

Melanthera kamolensis.

At the time we listed

Mariscus fauriei

as an endangered species (59 FR 10305; March 4, 1994), we followed the taxonomic treatment by Koyama in Wagner

et al.'

s (1990, p. 1,417) widely used and accepted

Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii.

Since then, Strong and Wagner (1997, p. 39) and, more recently, Wagner and Herbst (2003, pp. 52-53) moved all Hawaiian species of

Mariscus

to

Cyperus.

The accepted scientific name for this species is

Cyperus fauriei.

The range of the species at the time of listing and now has not changed. We therefore propose to accept the listed species name as

Cyperus fauriei.

In 1992, we listed

Huperzia mannii

(57 FR 20772; May 15, 1992) and that listing was retained through 1996. However, in 1997, the List of Endangered and Threatened Plants at 50 CFR 17.12 indicated the species name as

Phlegmariurus mannii,

and in 2003, critical habitat was designated under the species name

Phlegmariurus mannii

(68 FR 25934; May 14, 2003). The List of Endangered and Threatened Plants at 50 CFR 17.12 currently has two entries: One for

Huperzia mannii,

which is out-of-date because it does not contain the critical habitat information for this plant, and one for

Phlegmariurus mannii,

which displays the current critical habitat information. We are currently following the widely used and accepted

Hawaii's Fern and Fern Allies

by Palmer (2003, p. 256), who recognizes this species as

Huperzia mannii,

following Ollgaard's

Index of the Lycopodiaceae

(1987, 135 pp.). The range of the species at the time of listing and now has not changed. Therefore, we propose to remove the entry for

Phlegmariurus mannii

and recognize the listed species as

Huperzia mannii.

Proposed Taxonomic Changes Since Listing for Two Maui Nui Plant Species

At the time we listed

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

as endangered (61 FR 53108; October 10, 1996) we followed the taxonomic treatment of Lammers in Wagner

et al.

(1990, pp. 451-452). The distribution of

C. grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

as recognized at that time included the islands of Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui. Subsequently, Lammers (1998, pp. 31-32) recognized morphological differences in the broadly circumscribed

Cyanea grimesiana

group and published new combinations for the plants reported from Maui (

C. mauiensis

) and Lanai (

C. munroi

). Plants reported from Molokai were identified as either

C. munroi

or

C. grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana.

In 2004, Lammers (pp. 85-87) recognized further differences in the plants reported from Maui and described a new species,

C. magnicalyx,

known only from west Maui. The range of

C. grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

now includes only Oahu and Molokai (Lammers 1998, pp. 31-32; Lammers 2004, pp. 84-85). Because the range of the listed entity has changed, in this proposed rule we evaluate the effects of the five factors described in section 4(a)(1) of the Act on

C. grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

as currently recognized to determine whether the species still warrants its status as endangered under the Act (see Summary of Factors Affecting the 40 Species Proposed or Reevaluated for Listing, below).

We listed

Santalum freycinetianum

var.

lanaiense

as endangered (51 FR 3182; January 24, 1986) in 1986. At that time the species was known only from the island of Lanai. Our recovery plan for this species, published in 1995, expanded the range to include west Maui, as well as Lanai, based on new information (USFWS 1995a, pp. 35-36). In her revision of the Hawaiian species of

Santalum,

Harbaugh

et al.

(2010, pp. 834-835) moved the plants previously recognized as

S. freycinetianum

var.

lanaiense

to

S. haleakalae

var.

lanaiense.

The range of

S. haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

now includes Molokai, Lanai, and east and west Maui (HBMP 2010; Harbaugh

et al.

2010, pp. 834-835). Because the range of the listed entity has changed, in this proposed rule we evaluate the effects of the five factors described in section 4(a)(1) of the Act on

S. haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

as currently recognized to determine whether the species still warrants its status as endangered under the Act (see Summary of Factors Affecting the 40 Species Proposed or Reevaluated for Listing, below).

Proposed Delisting of Gahnia lanaiensis

Gahnia lanaiensis

was listed as endangered in 1991 (56 FR 47686; September 20, 1991). At that time, this species was known from 15 or 16 large “clumped” plants growing on the summit of Lanaihale, on the island of Lanai. The distribution of these plants was considered to be the entire known range of the species.

Gahnia lanaiensis

was threatened due to the small number of individuals remaining and resulting negative consequences of very small populations which increased the potential for extinction of the species due to stochastic events; the potential for destruction of plants due their proximity to a popular hiking and jeep trail; and habitat degradation and destruction by feral ungulates and nonnative plants (56 FR 47686; September 20, 1991).

In a recently published paper, Koyama

et al.

(2010, pp. 29-30) found that based on spikelet and achene characters,

G. lanaiensis

is a complete match for

G. lacera,

a species endemic to New Zealand. Koyama further states that

G. lacera

likely arrived on Lanai, either intentionally or unintentionally, through the restoration efforts of George Munro, the Resident Manager of Lanai Ranch from 1911 to 1930 (Koyama 2010, p. 30). Born and raised in New Zealand, Munro is known to have used seeds of New Zealand's native plants for reforestation efforts on Lanai (Koyama 2010, p. 30).

Because

G. lanaiensis

is not believed to be a uniquely valid species; is synonymous with

G. lacera,

a species

endemic to New Zealand where it is known to be common (Piha New Zealand Plant Conservation Network 2010, in litt.); and is not in danger of extinction or likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range, we propose to delist

G. lanaiensis

due to error in the original listing.

An Ecosystem-Based Approach

On the islands of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui, as on most of the Hawaiian Islands, native species that occur in the same habitat types (ecosystems) depend on many of the same biological features and the successful functioning of that ecosystem to survive. We have therefore organized the species addressed in this proposed rule by common ecosystem. Although the listing determination for each species is analyzed separately, we have organized the individual analysis for each species within the context of the broader ecosystem in which it occurs to avoid redundancy. In addition, native species that share ecosystems often face a suite of common factors that may threaten them, and ameliorating or eliminating these threats for each individual species often requires the exact same management actions in the exact same areas. Effective management of these threats often requires implementation of conservation actions at the ecosystem scale to enhance or restore critical ecological processes and provide for long-term viability of those species in their native environment. Thus, by taking this approach, we hope to not only organize this proposed rule efficiently, but also to more effectively focus conservation management efforts on the common threats that occur across these ecosystems. Those efforts would facilitate restoration of ecosystem functionality for the recovery of each species, and provide conservation benefits for associated native species, thereby potentially precluding the need to list other species under the Act that occur in these shared ecosystems. In addition, this approach is in concordance with one of the primary stated purposes of the Act, as stated in section 2(b): “To provide a means whereby the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved.”

We propose to list

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, B. campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis, B. conjuncta,

Calamagrostis hillebrandii, Cyanea asplenifolia,

C. duvalliorum, C. horrida,

C. kunthiana, C.

magnicalyx, C. maritae,

C. mauiensis,

C. munroi,

C. obtusa, C. profuga,

C. solanacea, Cyrtandra ferripilosa,

C. filipes, C. oxybapha,

Festuca molokaiensis, Geranium hanaense,

G. hillebrandii, Mucuna sloanei

var.

persericea, Myrsine vaccinioides,

Peperomia subpetiolata, Phyllostegia bracteata,

P. haliakalae,

P. pilosa,

Pittosporum halophilum, Pleomele fernaldii,

Schiedea jacobii, S. laui,

S. salicaria, Stenogyne kauaulaensis,

and

Wikstroemia villosa;

and

Newcombia cumingi, Partulina semicarinata

and

P. variabilis,

from the islands of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui as endangered species. We also propose to list

Canavalia pubescens,

known from the islands of Niihau, Kauai, Lanai, and Maui. In addition, we are reevaluating the listing of two plant species:

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

from the islands of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui, and

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana,

known from Oahu and Molokai, as endangered species. These 40 species (37 plants and 3 tree snails) are found in 10 ecosystem types: coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane dry, montane wet, montane mesic, subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff (Tables 2A, 2B, and 2C).

Table 2A—Molokai: Species Proposed or Reevaluated for Listing and the Ecosystems Upon Which They Depend

Ecosystem

Species

Coastal

Plants:

Pittosporum halophilum

.

Lowland Mesic

Plants:

Cyanea profuga, Cyanea solanacea,

Cyrtandra filipes, Festuca molokaiensis,

Phyllostegia haliakalae, Phyllostegia pilosa, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

.

Lowland Wet

Plants:

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana, Cyanea solanacea,

Cyrtandra filipes

.

Montane Mesic

Plants:

Cyanea solanacea, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

.

Montane Wet

Plants:

Cyanea profuga, Cyanea solanacea,

Phyllostegia pilosa, Schiedea laui

.

Wet Cliff

Plants:

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana, Cyanea munroi

.

Table 2B—Lanai: Species Proposed or Reevaluated for Listing and the Ecosystems Upon Which They Depend

Ecosystem

Species

Coastal

Plants:

Canavalia pubescens

.

Lowland Dry

Plants:

Pleomele fernaldii

.

Lowland Mesic

Plants:

Pleomele fernaldii, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

.

Lowland Wet

Plants:

Pleomele fernaldii, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense,

Animals:

Partulina semicarinata, Partulina variabilis

.

Montane Wet

Plants:

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

Animals:

Partulina semicarinata, Partulina variabilis

.

Dry Cliff

Plants:

Phyllostegia haliakalae, Pleomele fernaldii

.

Wet Cliff

Plants:

Cyanea munroi, Phyllostegia haliakalae,

Pleomele fernaldii, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

Animals:

Partulina semicarinata, Partulina variabilis

.

Table 2C—Maui: Species Proposed or Reevaluated for Listing and the Ecosystems Upon Which They Depend

Ecosystem

Species

Lowland Dry

Plants:

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Canavalia pubescens, Cyanea obtusa,

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense, Schiedea salicaria

.

Lowland Mesic

Plants:

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Cyanea

asplenifolia, C. mauiensis

*,

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

.

Lowland Wet

Plants:

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis, Bidens conjuncta,

Cyanea asplenifolia, Cyanea duvalliorum,

Cyanea kunthiana,

Cyanea magnicalyx, Cyanea maritae,

Cyrtandra filipes, Mucuna sloanei

var.

persericea, Phyllostegia

bracteata, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense, Wikstroemia

villosa

.

Animals:

Newcombia cumingi

.

Montane Dry

Plants:

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

.

Montane Mesic

Plants:

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Cyanea

horrida, Cyanea

kunthiana, Cyanea magnicalyx,

Cyanea obtusa, Cyrtandra ferripilosa,

Cyrtandra oxybapha, Geranium

hillebrandii, Phyllostegia

bracteata, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense, Stenogyne kauaulaensis,

Wikstroemia villosa

.

Montane Wet

Plants:

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Bidens

campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis, Bidens conjuncta,

Calamagrostis hillebrandii, Cyanea duvalliorum,

Cyanea horrida, Cyanea kunthiana,

Cyanea maritae, Cyrtandra ferripilosa,

Cyrtandra oxybapha, Geranium hanaense,

Geranium hillebrandii, Myrsine

vaccinioides, Peperomia subpetiolata,

Phyllostegia bracteata, Phyllostegia pilosa,

Schiedea jacobii, Wikstroemia villosa

.

Subalpine

Plants:

Phyllostegia bracteata

.

Dry Cliff

Plants:

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Cyanea mauiensis

.*

Wet Cliff

Plants:

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis, Bidens conjuncta,

Cyanea horrida, Cyanea magnicalyx,

Cyrtandra filipes, Phyllostegia bracteata,

Phyllostegia haliakalae, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

.

* Not seen since the 1800s.

For each species, we identified and evaluated those factors that threaten the species and that may be common to all of the species at the ecosystem level. For example, the degradation of habitat by nonnative ungulates is considered a threat to 37 of the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing here, and is likely a threat to many, if not most or even all of the native species within a given ecosystem. We consider such a threat factor to be an “ecosystem-level threat,” as each individual species within that ecosystem faces a threat that is essentially identical in terms of the nature of the impact, its severity, its imminence, and its scope. Beyond ecosystem-level threats, we further identified and evaluated threat factors that may be unique to certain species, but do not apply to all species under consideration within the same ecosystem. For example, the threat of predation by nonnative snails is unique to the three tree snails in this proposed rule, and is not applicable to any of the other species proposed for listing. We have identified such threat factors, which apply only to certain species within the ecosystems addressed here, as “species-specific threats.”

An Ecosystem-Based Approach to Determining Primary Constituent Elements of Critical Habitat

Under section 4(a)(3)(A) of the Act, we are required to designate critical habitat to the maximum extent prudent and determinable concurrently with the publication of a final determination that a species is endangered or threatened. In this proposed rule, we are proposing to designate critical habitat for 39 of 40 species on the islands of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui proposed here for listing as endangered. We are also proposing to designate critical habitat for 11 species that are already listed as endangered but for which critical habitat has not been previously proposed or designated. In addition, we are proposing to revise existing critical habitat for 85 listed plant species on the islands of Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe. When critical habitat was designated for these Maui Nui plant species in 1984 (49 FR 44573; November 9, 1984) and 2003 (68 FR 1220, January 9, 2003; 68 FR 12982, March 18, 2003; 68 FR 25934, May 14, 2003), the areas designated were identified based primarily on where the species were known to occur at that time. We are proposing to revise critical habitat for these species because since then, we have learned that many native Hawaiian plants and animals currently persist only in areas of marginal habitat where the threats to the species are reduced under current conditions, but that these species can thrive when reintroduced into their historical habitats when threats are effectively managed there. For this reason, we believe it is important to designate habitat that may currently be unoccupied in cases where we have determined that habitat to be essential for the recovery of the species. In addition, because the prior designations focused only on discrete areas occupied by the species at the time of listing, the designations resulted in an overlapping and confusing patchwork of critical habitat areas for the many plant species that could be difficult for the public to interpret. As explained above, we believe that managing for the conservation of these multiple species on an ecosystem level will be a more efficient and effective use of resources to achieve the recovery of these species, as well as potentially preclude the need to list additional native species in the future. We believe this ecosystem-based approach will ultimately provide for greater public understanding of the conservation and recovery needs for each of the species addressed in this proposed rule.

In this proposed rule, we propose critical habitat for 135 species in 100 multiple-species critical habitat units. Although critical habitat is identified for each species individually, we have found that the conservation of each depends, at least in part, on the successful functioning of the physical or biological features of the commonly shared ecosystem. Each critical habitat unit identified in this proposed rule contains the physical or biological features essential to the conservation of those individual species that occupy that particular unit, or areas essential for the conservation of those species identified that do not presently occupy that particular unit. Where the unit is not occupied by a particular species, we believe it is still essential for the conservation of that species because the designation allows for the expansion of its range and reintroduction of individuals into areas where it occurred

historically, and provides area for recovery in the case of stochastic events that otherwise hold the potential to eliminate the species from the one or more locations it is presently found. Under current conditions, many of these species are so rare in the wild that they are at high risk of extirpation or even extinction from various stochastic events, such as hurricanes or landslides. Therefore, building up resilience and redundancy in these species through the establishment of multiple, robust populations, is a key component of recovery.

Each of the areas proposed for designation represents critical habitat for multiple species, based upon their shared habitat requirements (i.e., physical or biological features) essential for their conservation. The identification of critical habitat also takes into account any species-specific conservation needs as appropriate. For example, the presence of a seasonally wet area within the coastal ecosystem is essential for the conservation of the plant

Marsilea villosa,

but is not a requirement shared by all of the other species within that same ecosystem; this would be an example of a species-specific requirement. However, a functioning ecosystem is also essential to

Marsilea villosa

because it provides the broader “ecosystem-level” physical or biological features that are required to support its specific life history requirements.

The Islands of Maui Nui

The islands of Maui Nui include Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe (Figure 1). During the last Ice Age, about 21,000 years ago, when sea levels were approximately 459 feet (ft) (140 meters (m)) below their present level, these four islands were connected by a broad lowland plain and unified as a single island (Nullet

et al.

1998, p. 64; Ziegler 2002, p. 22). This land bridge allowed the movement and interaction of each island's flora and fauna and contributed to the present close relationships of their biota (Nullet

et al.

1998, p. 64).

EP11JN12.000

The island of Molokai is the fifth largest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands. It was formed from three shield volcanoes and is about 260 square miles (sq mi) (673 square kilometers (sq km)) in area (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 11, 13). The volcanoes that make up most of the land mass of Molokai include the west and east Molokai mountains, and a volcano that formed Kalaupapa peninsula. The taller and larger east Molokai mountain rises 4,970 ft (1,514 m) above sea level and comprises roughly 50 percent of the island's area (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 11). Topographically, the windward (north) side of east Molokai differs from the leeward (south) side. Precipitous cliffs line the windward coast and deep valleys dissect the coastal area. The annual rainfall on the windward side of Molokai is 75 to more than 150 inches (in) (200 to more than 375 centimeters (cm)) (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, p. 50).

The island of Lanai is the sixth largest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, located southeast of Molokai and northwest of Hawaii Island. It is located in the lee or rain shadow of the taller west Maui mountains. Lanai was formed from a single shield volcano and built by eruptions at its summit and along three rift zones (Clague 1998, p. 42). The island is about 140 sq mi (364 sq km) in area and its highest point, Lanaihale, has an elevation of 3,366 ft (1,027 m) (Clague 1998, p. 42; Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 13; Walker 1999, p. 21). Annual rainfall on the summit is 30 to 40 in (76 to 102 cm), but is considerably less, 10 to 20 in (25 to 50 cm), over much of the rest of the island (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, p. 56).

The island of Maui is the second largest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, located southeast of Molokai and northwest of Hawaii Island (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14). It was formed from two shield volcanoes and resulted in the west Maui mountains which are about 1.3 million years old and Haleakala on east Maui which is about 750,000 years old (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14). West and east Maui are connected by the central Maui isthmus, and the island's total land area is 729 sq mi (1,888 sq km) (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14; Walker 1999, p. 21). The west Maui mountains have been eroded by streams that created deep valleys and ridges. The highest point on west Maui is Puu Kukui at 5,788 ft (1,764 m) in elevation, and with an average rainfall of 400 in (1,020 cm) per year it is the second wettest spot in Hawaii (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14; Wagner

et al.

1999b, p. 41). East Maui's Haleakala volcano remains volcanically active, with its last eruption occurring only 200 years ago (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14). Haleakala rises 10,023 ft (3,055 m) in elevation but lacks the diverse vegetation typical of the older and more eroded west Maui mountains. Rainfall on the slopes of Haleakala is about 35 in (89 cm) per year, with its windward (northeastern) slope receiving the most precipitation. However, Haleakala's crater is a dry cinder desert because it is above the level at which precipitation develops and is sheltered from moisture-laden winds usually associated with orographic (mountain) rainfall (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, p. 55).

The island of Kahoolawe is the smallest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, located southeast of Molokai and northwest of Hawaii Island. The island is about 45 sq mi (116 sq km) in area, and was formed from a single shield volcano (Clague 1998, p. 42; Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 7, 16). The maximum elevation on Kahoolawe is 1,477 ft (450 m) at the summit of Puu Moaulanui (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 15-16). Kahoolawe is in the rain shadow of Haleakala and is arid, receiving no more than 25 in (65 cm) of rainfall annually (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 16; Mitchell

et al.

2005, pp. 6-66).

The vegetation of the islands of Maui Nui has undergone extreme alterations because of past and present land use and other activities. Land with rich soils was altered by the early Hawaiians and, more recently, converted to agricultural use in the production of sugar and pineapple (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 45) or pasture. For example, on Haleakala, on the island of Maui, the upland slopes have been converted to diversified agriculture and cattle ranches (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 16). Archaeological surveys suggest that the early Hawaiians did not live in the highest areas of Haleakala but instead inhabited the area temporarily for religious ceremonies, the creation of adzes (tools used for smoothing or carving wood), and bird hunting (Burney 1997, p. 448). Intentional and inadvertent introduction of alien plant and animal species has also contributed to the reduction in range of native vegetation on the islands of Maui Nui (throughout this rule, the terms “alien,” “feral,” “nonnative,” and “introduced” all refer to species that are not naturally native to the Hawaiian Islands). Currently, most of the native vegetation on the islands persists on upper elevation slopes, valleys and ridges; steep slopes; precipitous cliffs; valley headwalls; and other regions where unsuitable topography has prevented urbanization and agricultural development, or where inaccessibility has limited encroachment by nonnative plant and animal species.

Maui Nui Ecosystems

There are 11 different ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane dry, montane mesic, montane wet, subalpine, alpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff) recognized on the islands of Maui Nui. The 40 species proposed for listing occur in 10 of these ecosystems (all except the alpine), which collectively support the 135 species for which critical habitat is proposed. All 11 Maui Nui ecosystems are described in the following section; see Table 4 (in “Physical or Biological Features,” below) for a list of the species that occur in each ecosystem type.

Coastal

The coastal ecosystem is found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands, with the highest native species diversity in the least populated coastal areas of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Kahoolawe, Hawaii Island, and their associated islets. On Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe, the coastal ecosystem includes mixed herblands, shrublands, and grasslands, from sea level to 980 ft (300 m) in elevation, generally within a narrow zone above the influence of waves to within 330 ft (100 m) inland, sometimes extending further inland if strong prevailing onshore winds drive sea spray and sand dunes into the lowland zone (The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 2006a). The coastal ecosystem is typically dry, with annual rainfall of less than 20 in (50 cm); however, windward rainfall may be high enough (up to 40 in (100 cm)) to support mesic-associated and sometimes wet-associated vegetation (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 54-66). Biological diversity is low to moderate in this ecosystem, but may include some specialized plants and animals such as nesting seabirds and the endangered plant

Sesbania tomentosa

(ohai) (TNC 2006a). The plants

Canavalia pubescens

and

Pittosporum halophilum,

which are proposed for listing as endangered in this rule, are reported in this ecosystem on Molokai and Lanai (Hawaii Biodiversity and Mapping Program (HBMP) 2008; TNC 2007).

Lowland Dry

The lowland dry ecosystem includes shrublands and forests generally below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) elevation that receive less than 50 in (130 cm) annual rainfall, or are in otherwise prevailingly dry substrate conditions that range from weathered reddish silty loams to stony clay soils, rocky ledges with very

shallow soil, or relatively recent little-weathered lava (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 67). Areas consisting of predominantly native species in the lowland dry ecosystem are now rare; this ecosystem is found on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, Kahoolawe and Hawaii, and is best represented on the leeward sides of the islands (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 67). On the islands of Maui Nui, this ecosystem is typically found on the leeward side of the mountains (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 67; TNC 2006b). Native biological diversity is low to moderate in this ecosystem, and includes specialized animals and plants such as the Hawaiian owl or pueo (

Asio flammeus sandwichensis

) and

Santalum ellipticum

(iliahialoe or coast sandalwood) (Wagner

et al.

1999c, pp. 1,220-1,221; TNC 2006b). The plants

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Canavalia pubescens,

Cyanea obtusa, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense, Pleomele fernaldii,

and

Schiedea salicaria,

which are proposed or reevaluated for listing as endangered in this rule, are reported from this ecosystem on Lanai and Maui (HBMP 2008; TNC 2007).

Lowland Mesic

The lowland mesic ecosystem includes a variety of grasslands, shrublands, and forests, generally below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) elevation, that receive between 50 and 75 in (130 and 190 cm) annual rainfall (TNC 2006c). In the Hawaiian Islands, this ecosystem is found on Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii, on both windward and leeward sides of the islands. On the islands of Maui Nui, this ecosystem is typically found on the leeward slopes of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 75; TNC 2006c). Native biological diversity is high in this system (TNC 2006c). The plants

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Cyanea asplenifolia,

C. profuga, C. solanacea,

Cyrtandra filipes, Festuca molokaiensis,

Phyllostegia haliakalae, P.

pilosa, Pleomele fernaldii,

and

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense,

which are proposed or reevaluated for listing as endangered in this rule, are reported in this ecosystem on this islands of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (HBMP 2008; TNC 2007). In addition,

Cyanea mauiensis,

a species proposed for listing, may have occurred in this ecosystem on Maui but this species has not been observed for over 100 years. The species-specific habitat needs of

Cyanea mauiensis

are not known.

Lowland Wet

The lowland wet ecosystem is generally found below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) elevation on the windward sides of the main Hawaiian Islands, except Niihau and Kahoolawe (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 85; TNC 2006d). These areas include a variety of wet grasslands, shrublands, and forests that receive greater than 75 in (190 cm) annual precipitation, or are in otherwise wet substrate conditions (TNC 2006d). On the islands of Maui Nui, this system is best developed in wet valleys and slopes on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (TNC 2006d). Native biological diversity is high in this system (TNC 2006d). The plants

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis, B. conjuncta, Cyanea asplenifolia,

C. duvalliorum, C. grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana, C. kunthiana,

C. magnicalyx, C. maritae,

C. solanacea, Cyrtandra filipes,

Mucuna sloanei

var.

persericea, Phyllostegia bracteata,

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense, Pleomele fernaldii,

and

Wikstroemia villosa;

and the tree snails

Newcombia cumingi, Partulina semicarinata,

and

P. variabilis,

which are proposed or reevaluated for listing as endangered in this rule, are reported in this ecosystem on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (HBMP 2008; TNC 2007).

Montane Wet

The montane wet ecosystem is composed of natural communities (grasslands, shrublands, forests, and bogs) found at elevations between 3,300 and 6,500 ft (1,000 and 2,000 m), in areas where annual precipitation is greater than 75 in (190 cm) (TNC 2006e). This system is found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe, and only the islands of Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii have areas above 4,020 ft (1,225 m) (TNC 2006e). On the islands of Maui Nui this ecosystem is found on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (TNC 2007). Native biological diversity is moderate to high (TNC 2006e). The plants

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, B. campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis, B. conjuncta,

Calamagrostis hillebrandii, Cyanea duvalliorum,

C. horrida, C. kunthiana,

C. maritae, C. profuga,

C. solanacea, Cyrtandra ferripilosa,

C. oxybapha, Geranium hanaense,

G. hillebrandii, Myrsine vaccinioides,

Peperomia subpetiolata, Phyllostegia bracteata,

P. pilosa, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense, Schiedea jacobii,

S. laui, and Wikstroemia villosa;

and the tree snails

Partulina semicarinata

and

P. variabilis,

which are proposed or reevaluated for listing as endangered in this rule, are reported in this ecosystem on the islands of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (HBMP 2008; TNC 2007).

Montane Mesic

The montane mesic ecosystem is composed of natural communities (forests and shrublands) found at elevations between 3,300 and 6,500 ft (1,000 and 2,000 m), in areas where annual precipitation is between 50 and 75 in (130 and 190 cm), or are in otherwise mesic substrate conditions (TNC 2006f). This system is found on Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 97-99; TNC 2007). Native biological diversity is moderate, and this habitat is important for Hawaiian forest birds (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 98-99; TNC 2006f). The plants

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Cyanea horrida,

C. kunthiana, C. magnicalyx,

C. obtusa, C. solanacea,

Cyrtandra ferripilosa, C. oxybapha,

Geranium hillebrandii, Phyllostegia bracteata,

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense, Stenogyne kauaulaensis,

and

Wikstroemia villosa,

which are proposed or reevaluated for listing as endangered in this rule, are reported in this ecosystem on Molokai and Maui (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008).

Montane Dry

The montane dry ecosystem is composed of natural communities (shrublands, grasslands, forests) found at elevations between 3,300 and 6,500 ft (1,000 and 2,000 m), in areas where annual precipitation is less than 50 in (130 cm), or are in otherwise dry substrate conditions (TNC 2006g). This system is found on the islands of Maui and Hawaii (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 93-97). The only plant species reevaluated for listing found in this ecosystem is

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

(TNC 2007; HBMP 2008).

Subalpine

The subalpine ecosystem is composed of natural communities (shrublands, grasslands, forests) found at elevations between 6,500 ft and 9,800 ft (2,000 and 3,000 m), in areas where annual precipitation is seasonal, between 15 and 40 in (38 and 100 cm), or are in otherwise dry substrate conditions (TNC 2006h). Fog drip is an important moisture supplement (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 107-110). This system is found on the islands of Maui and Hawaii (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 107-110). Native biological diversity is not high, but specialized invertebrates and plants (

Sophora chrysophylla

(mamane),

Myoporum sandwicense

(naio), and

Deschampsia nubigena

(hairgrass)) are reported in this

ecosystem (TNC 2006h). The plant

Phyllostegia bracteata,

which is proposed as endangered in this rule, is reported in this ecosystem (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008).

Alpine

The alpine ecosystem is composed of natural communities (shrublands, alpine lake, aeolian (wind-shaped) desert) found at elevations above 9,800 ft (3000 m), in areas where annual precipitation is infrequent, with frost and snow, and intense solar radiation (TNC 2006i). Fog drip is an important moisture supplement (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 107-110). This system is found on the islands of Maui and Hawaii (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 107-110). Native biological diversity is not high, but highly specialized plants, such as the threatened

Argyroxiphium sandwicense

ssp.

macrocephalum

(ahinahina), occur in this ecosystem on Maui (TNC 2006i). None of the species proposed or reevaluated for listing in this rule are reported from this ecosystem (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008).

Dry Cliff

The dry cliff ecosystem is composed of vegetation communities occupying steep slopes (greater than 65 degrees) in areas that receive less than 75 in (190 cm) of rainfall annually, or are in otherwise dry substrate conditions (TNC 2006j). This ecosystem is found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau, and is best represented along the leeward slopes of Lanai and Maui (TNC 2006j). A variety of shrublands occur within this ecosystem (TNC 2006j). Native biological diversity is low to moderate (TNC 2006j). The plants

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Phyllostegia haliakalae,

and

Pleomele fernaldii,

which are proposed as endangered in this rule, are reported in this ecosystem on Lanai and Maui (HBMP 2008; TNC 2007).

Wet Cliff

The wet cliff ecosystem is generally composed of shrublands on near-vertical slopes (greater than 65 degrees) in areas that receive more than 75 in (190 cm) of annual precipitation, or in otherwise wet substrate conditions (TNC 2006k). This system is found on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii. On the islands of Maui Nui, this system is typically found along the windward sides of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (TNC 2006k). Native biological diversity is low to moderate (TNC 2006k). The plants

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, B. campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis, B. conjuncta,

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana, C.horrida, C. magnicalyx, C. munroi, Cyrtandra filipes, Phyllostegia bracteata, P. haliakalae, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense, and Pleomele fernaldii;

and the tree snails

Partulina semicarinata

and

P. variabilis,

which are proposed or reevaluated for listing as endangered in this rule, are reported in this ecosystem on the islands of Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (HBMP 2008; TNC 2007).

Description of the 40 Species Proposed or Reevaluated for Listing

Below is a brief description of each of the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing, presented in alphabetical order by genus. Plants are presented first, followed by animals.

Plants

In order to avoid confusion regarding the number of locations of each species (a location does not necessarily represent a viable population, as in some cases there may only be one or a very few representatives of the species present) we use the word “occurrence” instead of “population.” Each occurrence is composed only of wild (i.e., not propagated and outplanted) individuals.

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera

(kookoolau), a perennial herb in the sunflower family (Asteraceae), occurs only on the island of Maui (Ganders and Nagata 1999, pp. 271, 273). Historically,

B. campylotheca

spp.

pentamera

was found on Maui's eastern volcano (i.e., Haleakala). Currently, this subspecies is found on east Maui in the montane mesic, montane wet, dry cliff, and wet cliff ecosystems of Waikamoi Preserve and Kipahulu Valley (in Haleakala National Park) (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; Welton 2008, in litt.; National Tropical Botanical Garden (NTBGa) 2009, pp. 1-2; Fay 2010, in litt.). It is uncertain if plants observed in the Hana Forest Reserve at Waihoi Valley are

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera

(Osterneck 2010, in litt.). On west Maui,

B. campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera

is found on and near cliff walls in the lowland dry and lowland mesic ecosystems of Papalaua Gulch (West Maui Forest Reserve) and Kauaula Valley (NTBG 2009a, pp. 1-2; Perlman 2009a, in litt.). The 6 occurrences on east and west Maui total approximately 200 individuals.

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis

(kookoolau), a perennial herb in the sunflower family (Asteraceae), occurs only on the island of Maui (Ganders and Nagata 1999, pp. 271, 273). Historically,

B. campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis

was found on Maui's eastern volcano in Waihoi Valley and Kaumakani ridge (HBMP 2008). Currently, this subspecies is found in the lowland wet, montane wet, and wet cliff ecosystems in Kipahulu Valley (Haleakala National Park) and possibly in Waihoi Valley (Hana Forest Reserve) on east Maui (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; Welton 2008, in litt.). Approximately 200 plants are scattered over an area of about 2.5 miles (4 km) in Kipahulu Valley (Welton 2010a, in litt.). In 1974, hundreds of individuals were observed in Waihoi Valley along Waiohonu stream (NTBG 2009b, p. 4).

Bidens conjuncta

(kookoolau), a perennial herb in the sunflower family (Asteraceae), occurs only on the island of Maui (Ganders and Nagata 1999, pp. 273-274). Historically, this species was known only from the mountains of west Maui in the Honokohau drainage basin (Sherff 1923, p. 162). Currently,

B. conjuncta

is found scattered throughout the upper elevation drainages of the west Maui mountains in the lowland wet, montane wet, and wet cliff ecosystems, in 9 occurrences totaling an estimated 7,000 individuals (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; Oppenheimer 2008a, in litt.; Perlman 2010, in litt.).

Calamagrostis hillebrandii

(NCN), a perennial in the grass family (Poaceae), occurs only on the island of Maui (O'Connor 1999, p. 1,509). Historically, this species was known from Puu Kukui in the west Maui mountains (Wagner

et al.

2005a—

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands database

). Currently, this species is found in bogs in the montane wet ecosystem in the west Maui mountains, from Honokohau to Kahoolewa ridge, including East Bog and Eke Crater, in three occurrences totaling a few hundred individuals (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; Oppenheimer 2010a, in litt.).

Canavalia pubescens

(awikiwiki), a perennial climber in the pea family (Fabaceae), is currently found only on the island of Maui, although it was also historically known from Niihau, Kauai, and Lanai (Wagner and Herbst 1999, p. 654). On Niihau, this species was known from one population in Haao Valley that was last observed in 1949 (HBMP 2008). On Kauai, this species was known from six populations ranging from Awaawapuhi to Wainiha, where it was last observed in 1977 (HBMP 2008). On Lanai, this species was known from Kaena Point to Huawai Bay. Eight individuals were reported in the coastal ecosystem west of Hulupoe, but they have not been seen since 1998 (Oppenheimer 2007a, in litt.; HBMP 2008). At present, the only known occurrence is on east Maui, from Puu o Kali south to Pohakea, in the lowland

dry ecosystem (Starr 2006, in litt.; Altenburg 2007, pp. 12-13; Oppenheimer 2006a, in litt.; 2007a, in litt.). All plants of this species that formerly were found in the Ahihi-Kinau Natural Area Reserve on Maui were destroyed by feral goats (

Capra hircus

) by the end of 2010 (Fell-McDonald 2010, in litt.). In April of 2010,

C. pubescens

totaled as many as 500 individuals; however, with the recent loss of the plants at Ahihi-Kinau Natural Area Reserve,

C. pubescens

may currently total fewer than 200 individuals at a single location.

Cyanea asplenifolia

(HAHA), a shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is found only on the island of Maui. This species was known historically from Waihee Valley and Kaanapali on west Maui, and Halehaku ridge on east Maui (Lammers 1999, p. 445; HBMP 2008). On west Maui, in the lowland wet ecosystem, there are 3 occurrences totaling 14 individuals in the Puu Kukui Preserve and two occurrences totaling 5 individuals in the West Maui Natural Area Reserve. On east Maui,

C. asplenifolia

is found in 1 occurrence each in the lowland mesic ecosystem in Haleakala National Park (53 individuals) and Kipahulu FR (140 individuals), and 1 occurrence in the lowland wet ecosystem in the Makawao FR (5 individuals) (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; Oppenheimer 2008b, in litt, 2010b, in litt.; PEPP 2008, p. 48; Welton and Haus 2008, p. 12; NTBG 2009c, pp. 3-5; Welton 2010a, in litt.). Currently,

C. asplenifolia

is known from 8 occurrences totaling fewer than 200 individuals.

Cyanea duvalliorum

(HAHA), a tree in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is found only in the east Maui mountains (Lammers 2004, p. 89). This species was described in 2004, after the discovery of individuals of a previously unknown species of

Cyanea

at Waiohiwi Gulch (Lammers 2004, p. 91). Studies of earlier collections of sterile material extend the historical range of this species on the windward slopes of Haleakala in the lowland wet and montane wet ecosystems, east of Waiohiwi Stream, from Honomanu Stream to Wailua Iki Streams, and to Kipahulu Valley (Lammers 2004, p. 89). In 2007, one individual was observed in the lowland wet ecosystem of the Makawao FR (NTBG 2009d, p. 2). In 2008, 71 individuals were found in 2 new locations in the Makawao FR, along with many juveniles and seedlings (NTBG 2009d, p. 2). Currently there are 2 occurrences with an approximate total of 71 individuals in the montane wet ecosystem near Makawao FR, with an additional 135 individuals outplanted in Waikamoi Preserve (TNC 2007; NTBG 2009d, p. 2; Oppenheimer 2010a, in litt.).

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

(HAHA), a shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is known only from Oahu and Molokai (Lammers 2004 p. 84; Lammers 1999, pp. 449, 451; 68 FR 35950, June 17, 2003). On Molokai, this species was last observed in 1991 in the wet cliff ecosystem at Wailau Valley (PEPP 2010, p. 45). Currently, on Oahu there are five to six individuals in four occurrences in the Waianae and Koolau Mountains (U.S. Army 2006; HBMP 2008).

Cyanea horrida

(haha nui), a member of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is a palm-like tree found only on the island of Maui. This species was known historically from the slopes of Haleakala (Lammers 1999, p. 453; HBMP 2008). Currently,

C. horrida

is known from 12 occurrences totaling 44 individuals in the montane mesic, montane wet, and wet cliff ecosystems in Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawai Natural Area Reserve, and Haleakala National Park on east Maui (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; PEPP 2009, p.  52; PEPP 2010, p.  46-47; Oppenheimer 2010c, in litt.; TNCH 2010a, p.  1).

Cyanea kunthiana

(HAHA), a shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is found only on Maui, and was historically known from both the east and west Maui mountains (Lammers 1999, p. 453; HBMP 2008).

Cyanea kunthiana

was known to occur in the montane mesic ecosystem in the east Maui mountains in upper Kipahulu Valley, in Haleakala National Park and Kipahulu FR (HBMP 2008). Currently, in the east Maui mountains,

C. kunthiana

occurs in the lowland wet and montane wet ecosystems in Waikamoi Preserve, Hanawi Natural Area Reserve, East Bog, Kaapahu, and Kipahulu Valley. In the west Maui mountains,

C. kunthiana

occurs in the lowland wet and montane wet ecosystems at Eke Crater, Kahoolewa ridge, and at the junction of the Honokowai, Hahakea, and Honokohau gulches (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; NTBG 2009e, pp. 1-3; Perlman 2010, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2010a, in litt.). The 15 occurrences total 165 individuals, although botanists speculate that this species may total as many as 400 individuals with further surveys of potential habitat on east and west Maui (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; Fay 2010, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2010a, in litt.; Osternak 2010, in litt.).

Cyanea magnicalyx

(HAHA), a perennial shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is known from west Maui (Lammers 1999, pp. 449, 451; Lammers 2004, p. 84). Currently, there are seven individuals in three occurrences on west Maui: Two individuals in Kaluanui, a subgulch of Honokohau Valley, in the lowland wet ecosystem; four individuals in Iao Valley in the wet cliff ecosystem; and one individual in a small drainage south of the Kauaula rim, in the montane mesic ecosystem (Lammers 2004, p. 87; Perlman 2009b in litt.; Wood 2009, in litt.).

Cyanea maritae

(HAHA), a shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is found only on Maui (Lammers 2004, p. 92). Sterile specimens were collected from the northwestern slopes of Haleakala in the Waiohiwi watershed and east to Kipahulu in the early 1900s. Between 2000 and 2002, fewer than 20 individuals were found in the Waiohiwi area (Lammers 2004, pp. 92, 93). Currently, there are 4 occurrences, totaling between 23 to 50 individuals in Kipahulu, Kaapahu, west Kahakapao, and in the Koolau FR in the lowland wet and montane wet ecosystems on east Maui (TNC 2007; Oppenheimer 2010b, in litt.; Welton 2010b, in litt.).

Cyanea mauiensis

(HAHA), a perennial shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), was last observed on Maui about 100 years ago (Lammers 2004, pp. 84-85; TNC 2007). Although there are no documented occurrences of this species known today, botanists believe this species may still be extant as all potentially suitable lowland mesic and dry cliff habitat has not been been surveyed.

Cyanea munroi

(HAHA), a short-lived shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is known from Molokai and Lanai (Lammers 1999, pp. 449, 451; Lammers 2004, pp. 84-87). Currently, there are no known individuals on Molokai (last observed in 2001), and only two individuals on Lanai at a single location, in the wet cliff ecosystem (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; Oppenheimer 2010d, in litt.; Perlman 2008a, in litt.; Wood 2009a, in litt.).

Cyanea obtusa

(HAHA), a shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is found only on Maui (Lammers 1999, p. 458). Historically, this species was found in both the east and west Maui mountains (Hillebrand 1888, p. 254; HBMP 2008). Not reported since 1919 (Lammers 1999, p. 458),

C. obtusa

was rediscovered in the early 1980s at one site each on east and west Maui. However, by 1989, plants in both locations had disappeared (Hobdy

et al.

1991, p. 3; Medeiros 1996, in litt.). In 1997, 4 individuals were observed in Manawainui Gulch in Kahikinui, and another occurrence of 5 to 10

individuals was found in Kahakapao Gulch, both in the montane mesic ecosystem on east Maui (Wood and Perlman 1997, p. 11; Lau 2001, in litt.). However, the individuals found at Kahakapao Gulch are now considered to be

Cyanea elliptica

or hybrids between

C. obtusa

and

C. elliptica

(PEPP 2007, p. 40). In 2001, several individuals were seen in Hanaula and Pohakea gulches on west Maui; however, only hybrids are currently known in this area (NTBG 2009f, p. 3). It is unknown if individuals of

C. obtusa

remain at Kahikinui, as access to the area to ascertain the status of these plants is difficult and has not been attempted since 2001 (PEPP 2008, p. 55; PEPP 2009, p. 58). Two individuals were observed on a cliff along Wailaulau Stream in the montane mesic ecosystem on east Maui in 2009 (Duvall 2010, in litt.). Currently, this species is known from one occurrence of only a few individuals in the montane mesic ecosystem on east Maui. Historically, this species also occurred in the lowland dry ecosystem at Manawainui on west Maui and at Ulupalakua on east Maui (HBMP 2008).

Cyanea profuga

(HAHA), a shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), occurs only on Molokai (Lammers 1999, pp. 461-462; Wood and Perlman 2002, p. 4). Historically, this species was found in Mapulehu Valley and along Pelekunu Trail, and has not been seen in those locations since the early 1900s (Wood and Perlman 2002, p. 4). In 2002, six individuals were discovered along a stream in Wawaia Gulch (Wood and Perlman 2002, p. 4). In 2007, seven individuals were known from Wawaia Gulch, and an additional six individuals were found in Kumueli (Wood 2005, p. 17; USFWS 2007a; PEPP 2010, p. 55). In 2009, only four individuals remained at Wawaia Gulch; however, nine were found in Kumueli Gulch (Bakutis 2010, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2010e, in litt.; Perlman 2010, in litt.; PEPP 2010, p. 55). Currently, there are 4 occurrences totaling up to 34 individuals in the lowland mesic and montane wet ecosystems on Molokai (TNC 2007; Bakutis 2010, in litt.; Perlman 2010, in litt.).

Cyanea solanacea

(popolo, haha nui), a shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is found only on Molokai. According to Lammers (1999, p. 464) and Wagner (

et al.

2005a—

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands database

) the range of

C. solanacea

includes Molokai and may also include west Maui. In his treatment of the species of the Hawaiian endemic genus

Cyanea,

Lammers (1999, p. 464) included a few sterile specimens of

Cyanea

from Puu Kukui, west Maui and the type specimen (now destroyed) for

C. scabra

var.

sinuata

from west Maui in

C. solanacea.

However, Oppenheimer recently reported (Oppenheimer 2010a, in litt.) that the plants on west Maui were misidentified as

C. solanacea

and are actually

C. macrostegia.

Based on Oppenheimer's recent field observations, the range of

C. solanacea

is limited to Molokai. Historically,

Cyanea solanacea

ranged from central Molokai at Kalae, eastward to Pukoo in the lowland mesic, lowland wet, and montane mesic ecosystems (HBMP 2008). Currently, there are four small occurrences at Hanalilolilo, near Pepeopae Bog, Kaunakakai Gulch, and Kawela Gulch, in the montane wet ecosystem. These occurrences total 26 individuals (Bakutis 2010, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2010a, in litt.; TNCH 2011, pp. 21, 57).

Cyrtandra ferripilosa

(haiwale), a shrub in the African violet family (Gesneriaceae), occurs only on Maui (St. John 1987, pp. 497-498; Wagner and Herbst 2003, p. 29). This species was discovered in 1980 in the east Maui mountains at Kuiki in Kipahulu Valley (St. John 1987, pp. 497-498; Wagner

et al.

2005a—

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands database

). Currently, there are a few individuals each in two occurrences at Kuiki and on the Manawainui plane in the montane mesic and montane wet ecosystems (Oppenheimer 2010f, in litt.; Welton 2010a, in litt.).

Cyrtandra filipes

(haiwale), a shrub in the African violet family (Gesneriaceae), is found on Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999d, pp. 753-754; Oppenheimer 2006b, in litt.). According to Wagner

et al.

(1999d, p. 754), the range of

C. filipes

includes Maui and Molokai. Historical collections from Kapunakea (1800) and Olowalu (1971) on Maui indicate it once had a wider range on this island. In 2004, it was believed there were over 2,000 plants at Honokohau and Waihee in the west Maui mountains; however, recent studies have shown that these plants do not match the description for

C. filipes

(Oppenheimer 2006b, in litt.). Currently, there are between 134 and 155 individuals in 4 occurrences in the lowland wet and wet cliff ecosystems at Kapalaoa, Honokowai, Honolua, and Waihee Valley on west Maui, and approximately 7 individuals at Mapulehu in the lowland mesic ecosystem on Molokai, with an historical occurrence in the lowland wet ecosystem (Oppenheimer 2010c, in litt.).

Cyrtandra oxybapha

(haiwale), a shrub in the African violet family (Gesneriaceae), is found on Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999d, p. 771). This species was discovered in the upper Pohakea Gulch in Hanaula in the west Maui mountains in 1986 (Wagner

et al.

1989, p. 100; TNC 2007). Currently, there are 2 known occurrences with a total of 137 to 250 individuals.

Cyrtandra oxybapha

occurs in the montane wet ecosystem on west Maui, from Hanaula to Pohakea Gulch. This occurrence totals between 87 and 97 known individuals, with perhaps as many as 150 or more (Oppenheimer 2008c, in litt.). The current status of the 50 to 100 individuals in the montane mesic ecosystem in Manawainui Gulch on east Maui is unknown, as these plants have not been surveyed since 1997 (Oppenheimer 2010a, in litt.).

Festuca molokaiensis

(NCN), a member of the grass family (Poaceae), is found on Molokai (Catalan

et al.

2009, p. 54). This species is only known from the type locality at Kupaia Gulch, in the lowland mesic ecosystem (Catalan

et al.

2009, p. 55). Last seen in 2009, the current number of individuals is unknown; however, field surveys for

F. molokaiensis

at Kupaia Gulch are planned for 2011 (Oppenheimer 2010g, in litt.). Oppenheimer (2011, pers. comm.) suggests that the drought over the past couple of years on Molokai may have suppressed the growth of

Festuca molokaiensis

and prevented its observation by botanists in the field. He also suggested that this species may be an annual whose growth will be stimulated by normal rainfall patterns.

Geranium hanaense

(nohoanu), a shrub in the geranium family (Geraniaceae), is found on Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999e, pp. 730-732). This species was first collected in 1973, from two adjacent montane bogs on the northeast rift of Haleakala, east Maui (Medeiros and St. John 1988, pp. 214-220). At that time, there were an estimated 500 to 700 individuals (Medeiros and St. John 1988, pp. 214-220). Currently,

G. hanaense

occurs in “Big Bog” and “Mid Camp Bog” in the montane wet ecosystem on the northeast rift of Haleakala, with the same number of estimated individuals (Welton 2008, in litt.; Welton 2010a, in litt.; Welton 2010b, in litt.).

Geranium hillebrandii

(nohoanu), a shrub in the geranium family (Geraniaceae), is found on Maui (Aedo and Munoz Garmendia 1997; p. 725; Wagner

et al.

1999e, pp. 732-733; Wagner and Herbst 2003, p. 28). Little is known of the historical locations of

G. hillebrandii,

other than the type collection made in the 1800s at Eke Crater, in the west Maui mountains (Hillebrand 1888, p. 56). Currently, 4 occurrences total over 10,000 individuals, with the largest 2 occurrences in the west Maui bogs, from Puu Kukui to East Bog and Kahoolewa ridge. A third occurrence is at Eke

Crater and the surrounding area, and the fourth occurrence is at Lihau (HBMP 2008; Oppenheimer 2010h, in litt.). These occurrences are found in the montane wet and montane mesic ecosystems on west Maui (TNC 2007).

Mucuna sloanei

var.

persericea

(sea bean), a vine in the pea family (Fabaceae), is found on Maui (Wilmot-Dear 1990, pp. 27-29; Wagner

et al.

2005a—

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands database

). In her revision of

Mucuna

in the Pacific Islands, Wilmot-Dear recognized this variety from Maui based on leaf indumentum (covering of fine hairs or bristles) (Wilmot-Dear 1990, p. 29). At the time of Wilmot-Dear's publication,

M. sloanei

var.

persericea

ranged from Makawao to Wailua Iki, on the windward slopes of the east Maui mountains (Wagner

et al.

2005a—

Flora of the Hawaiian Islands database

). Currently, there are possibly a few hundred individuals in five occurrences: Ulalena Hill, north of Kawaipapa Gulch, lower Nahiku, Koki Beach, and Piinau Road, all in the lowland wet ecosystem on east Maui (Duvall 2010, in litt.; Hobdy 2010, in litt.).

Myrsine vaccinioides

(kolea), a shrub in the myrsine family (Myrsinaceae), is found on Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999f, p. 946; HBMP 2008). This species was historically known from shrubby bogs near Violet Lake on west Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999f, p. 946). In 2005, three occurrences of a few hundred individuals were reported at Eke, Puu Kukui and near Violet Lake (Oppenheimer 2006c, in litt.). Currently, there are estimated to be several hundred, but fewer than 1,000, individuals scattered in the summit area of the west Maui mountains at Eke Crater, Puu Kukui, Honokowai-Honolua, and Kahoolewa, in the montane wet ecosystem (Oppenheimer 2010i, in litt.).

Peperomia subpetiolata

(alaala wai nui), a perennial herb in the pepper family (Piperaceae), is found on Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999g, p. 1035; HBMP 2008). Historically,

P. subpetiolata

was known only from the lower Waikamoi (Kula pipeline) area on the windward side of Haleakala on east Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999g, p. 1,035; HBMP 2008). In 2001, it was estimated that 40 individuals occurred just west of the Makawao-Koolau FR boundary, in the montane wet ecosystem.

Peperomia cookiana

and

P. hirtipetiola

also occur in this area, and are known to hybridize with

P. subpetiolata

(NTBG 2009g, p. 2; Oppenheimer 2010j, in litt.). In 2007, 20 to 30 hybrid plants were observed at Maile Trail, and at three areas near the Waikamoi Flume road (NTBG 2009g, p. 2). Based on the 2007 and 2010 surveys, all known plants are now considered to be hybrids mostly between

P. subpetiolata

and

P. cookiana,

with a smaller number of hybrids between

P. subpetiolata

and

P. hirtipetiola

(NTBG 2009g, p. 2; Lau 2011, in litt.).

Peperomia subpetiolata

is recognized as a valid species and botanists continue to search for plants in its previously known locations as well as in new locations with potentially suitable habitat (NTBG 2009g, p. 2; PEPP 2010, p. 96; Lau 2011, pers. comm.).

Phyllostegia bracteata

(NCN), a perennial herb in the mint family (Lamiaceae), is found on Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999h, pp. 814-815). Historically, this species was known from the east Maui mountains at Ukulele, Puu Nianiau, Waikamoi Gulch, Koolau Gap, Kipahulu, Nahiku-Kuhiwa trail, Waihoi Valley, and Manawainui; and from the west Maui mountains at Puu Kukui and Hanakaoo (HBMP 2008). This species appears to be short-lived, ephemeral, and disturbance-dependent, in the lowland wet, montane mesic, montane wet, subalpine, and wet cliff ecosystems (NTBG 2009h, p. 1). There have been several reported sightings of

P. bracteata

between 1981 and 2001, at Waihoi Crater Bog, Waikamoi Preserve, Waikamoi flume, and Kipahulu on east Maui, and at Pohakea Gulch on west Maui; however, none of these individuals were extant as of 2009 (PEPP 2009, pp. 89-90). In 2009, one individual was found at Kipahulu, near Delta Camp, on east Maui, but was not relocated on a follow-up survey during that same year (NTBG 2009h, p. 3). Botanists continue to search for

P. bracteata

in previously reported locations, as well as in other areas with potentially suitable habitat (NTBG 2009h, p. 3; PEPP 2009, pp. 89-90).

Phyllostegia haliakalae

(NCN), a vine in the mint family (Lamiaceae), is known from Molokai, Lanai, and east Maui (Wagner 1999, p. 269). The type specimen was collected by Wawra in 1869 or 1870, in a dry ravine at the foot of Haleakala. An individual was found in flower on the eastern slope of Haleakala, in the wet cliff ecosystem, in 2009; however, this plant has died (TNC 2007; Oppenheimer 2010b, in litt.). Collections were made before the plant died, and propagules outplanted in the Puu Mahoe Arboretum (three plants) and Olinda Rare Plant Facility (four plants) (Oppenheimer 2011b, in litt.). Botanists continue to search in areas with potentially suitable habitat for this plant (Oppenheimer 2010b, in litt.).

Phyllostegia haliakalae

was last reported from the lowland mesic ecosystem on Molokai in 1928, and from the dry cliff and wet cliff ecosystems on Lanai in the early 1900s (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008). Currently no individuals are known in the wild on Maui, Molokai, or Lanai.

Phyllostegia pilosa

(NCN), a vine in the mint family (Lamiaceae), is known from east Maui (Wagner 1999, p. 274). There are two occurrences totaling seven individuals west of Puu o Kakae on east Maui, in the montane wet ecosystem (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008). The individuals identified as

P. pilosa

on Molokai, at Kamoku Flats (montane wet ecosystem) and at Mooloa (lowland mesic ecosystem), have not been observed since the early 1900s (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008).

Pittosporum halophilum

(hoawa), a shrub or small tree in the pittosporum family (Pittosporaceae), is found on Molokai (Wood 2005, pp. 2, 41). This species was reported from Huelo islet, Mokapu Island, Okala Island, and Kukaiwaa peninsula. On Huelo islet, there were two individuals in 1994, and in 2001, only one individual remained (Wood

et al.

2001, p. 12; Wood

et al.

2002, pp. 18-19). The current status of this species on Huelo islet is unknown. On Mokapu Island, there were 15 individuals in the coastal ecosystem in 2001, and in 2005, 10 individuals remained. On Okala Island, there were two individuals in 2005, and one individual on the sea cliff at Kukaiwaa peninsula (Wainene) (Wood 2005, pp. 2, 41). As of 2010, there were three occurrences totaling five individuals: Three individuals on Mokapu Island, one individual on Okala Island, and one individual on Kukaiwaa peninsula (Bakutis 2010, in litt.; Hobdy 2010, in litt.; Perlman 2010, in litt.). At least 17 individuals have been outplanted at 3 sites on the coastline of the nearby Kalaupapa peninsula (Garnett 2010a, in litt.).

Pleomele fernaldii

(hala pepe), a tree in the asparagus family (Asparagaceae), is found only on the island of Lanai (Wagner

et al.

1999i, p. 1,352; Wagner and Herbst 2003, p. 67). Historically known throughout Lanai, this species is currently found in the lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, dry cliff, and wet cliff ecosystems, from Hulopaa and Kanoa gulches southeast to Waiakeakua and Puhielelu (St. John 1947, pp. 39-42 cited in St. John 1985, pp. 171, 177-179; HBMP 2006; HBMP 2008; PEPP 2008, p. 75; Oppenheimer 2010d, in litt.). Currently, there are several hundred to perhaps as many as 1,000 individuals. The number of individuals has decreased by about one-half in the past 10 years (there were more than 2,000 individuals in 1999), with very little recruitment observed recently (Oppenheimer 2008d, in litt.).

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

(iliahi, Lanai sandalwood) is a tree in the sandalwood family (Santalaceae). Currently,

S. haleakalae

var.

lanaiense

is known from Molokai, Lanai, and Maui, in 26 occurrences totaling fewer than 2,000 individuals (Wagner

et al.

1999c, pp. 1,221-1,222; HBMP 2008; Harbaugh

et al.

2010, pp. 834-835). On Molokai, there are more than 12 individuals in 4 occurrences from Kikiakala to Kamoku Flats and Puu Kokekole, with the largest concentration at Kumueli Gulch, in the montane mesic and lowland mesic ecosystems (Harbaugh

et al.

2010, pp. 834-835). On Lanai, there are approximately 10 occurrences totaling 30 to 40 individuals: Kanepuu, in the lowland mesic ecosystem (5 individuals); the headwaters of Waiopae Gulch in the lowland wet ecosystem (3 individuals); the windward side of Hauola on the upper side of Waiopae Gulch in the lowland mesic ecosystem (1 individual); the drainage to the north of Puhielelu Ridge and exclosure, in the headwaters of Lopa Gulch in the lowland mesic ecosystem (3 individuals); 6 occurrences near Lanaihale in the montane wet ecosystem (21 individuals); and the mountains east of Lanai City in the lowland wet ecosystem (a few individuals) (HBMP 2008; Harbaugh

et al.

2010, pp. 834-835; HBMP 2010; Wood 2010a, in litt.). On west Maui, there are eight single individual occurrences: Hanaulaiki Gulch in the lowland dry ecosystem; Kauaula and Puehuehunui Gulches in the lowland mesic, montane mesic, and wet cliff ecosystems; Kahanahaiki Gulch and Honokowai Gulch in the lowland wet ecosystem; Wakihuli in the wet cliff ecosystem; and Manawainui Gulch in the montane mesic and lowland dry ecosystems (HBMP 2008; Harbaugh

et al.

2010, pp. 834-835; Wood 2010a, in litt.). On east Maui, there are 4 occurrences (10 individuals) in Auwahi, in the montane mesic, montane dry, and lowland dry ecosystems (TNC 2007; HBMP 2008; Harbaugh

et al.

2010, pp. 834-835).

Schiedea jacobii

(NCN), a perennial herb or subshrub in the pink family (Caryophyllaceae), occurs only on Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999j, p. 284). Discovered in 1992, the single occurrence consisted of nine individuals along wet cliffs between Hanawi Stream and Kuhiwa drainage (in Hanawi Natural Area Reserve), in the montane wet ecosystem on east Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999j, p. 286). By 1995, only four plants could be relocated in this location. It appeared that the other five known individuals had been destroyed by a landslide (Wagner

et al.

1999j, p. 286). In 2004, one seedling was observed in the same location, and in 2010, no individuals were relocated (Perlman 2010, in litt.). The State of Hawaii plans to outplant propagated individuals in a fenced area in Hanawi Natural Area Reserve in 2011 (Oppenheimer 2010a, in litt.; Perlman 2010, in litt.).

Schiedea laui

(NCN), a perennial herb or subshrub in the pink family (Caryophyllaceae), is found only on Molokai (Wagner

et al.

2005b, pp. 90-92). In 1998, when this species was first observed, there were 19 individuals located in a cave along a narrow stream corridor at the base of a waterfall in the Kamakou Preserve, in the montane wet ecosystem (Wagner

et al.

2005b, pp. 90-92). By 2000, only nine individuals with a few immature plants and seedlings were relocated, and in 2006, 13 plants were seen (Wagner

et al.

2005b, pp. 90-92; PEPP 2007, p. 57). Currently, there are 24 to 34 individuals in the same location in Kamakou Preserve (Bakutis 2010, in litt.).

Schiedea salicaria

(NCN), a shrub in the pink family (Caryophyllaceae), occurs on Maui (Wagner

et al.

1999j, pp. 519-520). It is historically known from a small area on west Maui, from Lahaina to Waikapu. Currently, this species is found in three occurrences: Kaunoahua gulch (500 to 1,000 individuals), Puu Hona (about 50 individuals), and Waikapu Stream (3 to 5 individuals), in the lowland dry ecosystem on west Maui (TNC 2007; Oppenheimer 2010k, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2010l, in litt.). Hybrids and hybrid swarms (hybrids that can interbreed with other hybrids and parent species) between

S. salicaria

and

S. menziesii

are known on the western side of west Maui (Wagner

et al.

2005b, p. 138).

Stenogyne kauaulaensis

(NCN), a vine in the mint family (Lamiaceae), occurs on Maui. This recently described (2008) plant is found only along the southeastern rim of Kauaula Valley, in the montane mesic ecosystem on west Maui (TNC 2007; Wood and Oppenheimer 2008, pp. 544-545). At the time

S. kauaualuaensis

was described, the authors reported a total of 15 individuals at one occurrence. However, one of the authors reports that due to the clonal (genetic duplicate) growth habit of this species, botanists believe it is currently represented by only three genetically distinct individuals (Oppenheimer 2010k, in litt.).

Wikstroemia villosa

(akia), a shrub or tree in the akia family (Thymelaeaceae), is found on Maui (Peterson 1999, pp. 1,290-1,291). Historically known from the lowland wet, montane wet, and montane mesic ecosystems on east and west Maui, this species is currently known from a recent discovery (2007) of one individual on the windward side of Haleakala (on east Maui), in the montane wet ecosystem (Peterson 1999, p. 1,291; TNC 2007; HBMP 2008). As of 2010, there was one individual and one seedling at the same location (Oppenheimer 2010m, in litt.). In addition, three individuals have been outplanted in Waikamoi Preserve (Oppenheimer 2010m, in litt.).

Animals

Newcomb's tree snail (

Newcombia cumingi

), a member of the family Achatinellidae and the endemic Hawaiian subfamily Achatinellinae (Newcomb 1853, p. 25), is known only from the island of Maui (Cowie

et al.

1995, p. 62). All members of this species have sinistral (left-coiling), oblong, spindle-shaped shells of five to seven whorls that are coarsely sculptured (Cooke and Kondo 1960, pp. 9, 33). Newcomb's tree snail reaches an adult length of approximately 0.8 in (21 mm) and its shell is mottled in shades of brown that blend with the bark of its native host plant,

Metrosideros polymorpha

(ohia) (Pilsbry and Cooke 1912-1914, p. 10; Thacker and Hadfield 1998, p. 4). The exact life span and fecundity of Newcomb's tree snails is unknown, but they attain adult size within 4 to 5 years (Thacker and Hadfield 1998, p. 2). Newcomb's tree snail is believed to exhibit the low reproductive rate of other Hawaiian tree snails belonging to the same family (Thacker and Hadfield 1998, p. 2). It feeds on fungi and algae that grow on the leaves and trunks of its host plant (Pilsbry and Cooke 1912-1914, p. 103). Historically, this species was distributed from the west Maui mountains (near Lahaina and Wailuku) to the slopes of Haleakala (Makawao) on east Maui (Pilsbry and Cooke 1912-1914, p. 10). In 1994, a small population of Newcomb's tree snail was found on a single ridge on the northeastern slope of the west Maui mountains, in the lowland wet ecosystem (Thacker and Hadfield 1998, p. 3; TNC 2007). Eighty-six snails were documented in the same location in 1998; however, in 2006, only nine individuals were located (Thacker and Hadfield 1998, p. 2; Hadfield 2007, p. 8).

Partulina semicarinata

(Lanai tree snail, pupu kani oe), a member of the family Achatinellidae and the endemic Hawaiian subfamily Achatinellinae, is known only from the island of Lanai (Pilsbry and Cooke 1912-1914, p. 86). The shell may coil to the right (dextral) or left (sinistral), but appears to be

constant within a population. The oblong to ovate shells of the adult are 0.6 to 0.8 in (16 to 20 mm) long, have 5 to 7 whorls, and range in color from rusty brown to white, with some individuals having bands around the shells. The shell has a distinctive keel that runs along the last whorl, and is more distinctive in juveniles (Pilsbry and Cooke 1912-1914, pp. 86-88). Adults may attain an age exceeding 15 to 20 years, and reproductive output is low, with an adult snail giving birth to 4 to 6 live young per year (Hadfield and Miller 1989, pp. 10-12).

Partulina semicarinata

is arboreal and nocturnal, and grazes on fungi and algae growing on leaf surfaces (Pilsbry and Cooke 1912-1914, p. 103). This snail species is found on the following native host plants:

Metrosideros polymorpha, Broussaisia arguta

(kanawao),

Psychotria

spp. (kopiko),

Coprosma

spp. (pilo),

Melicope

spp. (alani), and dead

Cibotium glaucum

(tree fern, hapuu). Occasionally the snail is found on nonnative plants such as

Psidium guajava

(guava),

Cordyline australis

(New Zealand tea tree), and

Phormium tenax

(New Zealand flax) (Hadfield 1994, p. 2). Historically,

P. semicarinata

was found in wet and mesic

Metrosideros polymorpha

forests on Lanai. There are no historical population estimates for this snail, but qualitative accounts of Hawaiian tree snails indicates they were widespread and abundant, possibly numbering in the tens of thousands between the 1800s and early 1900s (Hadfield 1986, p. 69). In 1993, 105 individuals of

P. semicarinata

were found during surveys conducted in its historical range. Subsequent surveys in 1994, 2000, 2001, and 2005 documented 55, 12, 4, and 29 individuals, respectively, in the lowland wet, montane wet, and wet cliff ecosystems in central Lanai (Hadfield 2005, pp. 3-5; TNC 2007).

Partulina variabilis

(Lanai tree snail, pupu kani oe), a member of the family Achatinellidae and the endemic Hawaiian subfamily Achatinellinae, is known only from the island of Lanai (Pilsbry and Cooke 1912-1914, p. 86). The shell may coil to the right (dextral) or left (sinistral), and both types can be found within a single population. The oblong to ovate shells of the adult are 0.5 to 0.6 in (14 to 16 mm) long, have 5 to 7 whorls, and have a white base color with no bands or a variable number of spiral bands around the shells (Pilsbry and Cooke 1912-1914, pp. 67, 83-86). Adults may attain an age exceeding 15 to 20 years, and reproductive output is low, with an adult snail giving birth to 4 to 6 live young per year (Hadfield and Miller 1989, pp. 10-12).

Partulina variabilis

is arboreal and nocturnal, and grazes on fungi and algae growing on leaf surfaces (Pilsbry and Cooke 1912-1914, p. 103). This snail is found on the following native host plants:

Metrosideros polymorpha, Broussaisia arguta, Psychotria

spp.,

Coprosma

spp.,

Melicope

spp., and dead

Cibotium glaucum

. Occasionally

Partulina variabilis

is found on nonnative plants such as

Psidium guajava

and

Cordyline australis

(Hadfield 1994, p. 2). Historically,

Partulina variabilis

was found in wet and mesic

Metrosideros polymorpha

forests on Lanai. There are no historical population estimates for this snail, but qualitative accounts of Hawaiian tree snails indicate they were widespread and abundant, possibly numbering in the tens of thousands between the 1800s and early 1900s (Hadfield 1986, p. 69). In 1993, 111 individuals of

Partulina variabilis

were found during surveys conducted in its historical range. Subsequent surveys in 1994, 2000, 2001, and 2005 documented 175, 14, 6, and 90 individuals, respectively, in the lowland wet, montane wet, and wet cliff ecosystems in central Lanai (Hadfield 2005, pp. 3-5; TNC 2007).

Summary of Factors Affecting the 40 Species Proposed or Reevaluated for Listing

Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533) and its implementing regulations (50 CFR part 424) set forth the procedures for adding species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. A species may be determined to be an endangered or threatened species due to one or more of the five factors described in section 4(a)(1) of the Act: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be warranted based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in combination. Each of these factors is discussed below.

In considering what factors might constitute threats to a species; we must look beyond the exposure of the species to a particular factor to evaluate whether the species may respond to that factor in a way that causes actual impacts to the species. If there is exposure to a factor and the species responds negatively, the factor may be a threat and, during the status review, we attempt to determine how significant a threat it is. The threat is significant if it drives, or contributes to, the risk of extinction of the species such that the species warrants listing as endangered or threatened as those terms are defined in the Act. However, the identification of factors that could impact a species negatively may not be sufficient to warrant listing the species under the Act. The information must include evidence sufficient to show that these factors are operative threats that act on the species to the point that the species meets the definition of endangered or threatened under the Act.

If we determine that the level of threat posed to a species by one or more of the five listing factors is such that the species meets the definition of either endangered or threatened under section 3 of the Act, that species may then be proposed for listing. The Act defines an endangered species as “in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range,” and a threatened species as “likely to become an endangered species within the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of its range.” The threats to each of the individual 40 species proposed for listing here are summarized in Table 3, and discussed in detail below.

Assumptions

We acknowledge that the specific nature of the threats to the individual species being proposed for listing are not completely understood. Scientific research directed toward each of the species proposed for listing is limited because of their rarity and the challenging logistics associated with conducting field work in Hawaii (e.g., areas are typically remote, difficult to access and work in, and expensive to survey in a comprehensive manner). However, there is information available on many of the threats that act on Hawaiian ecosystems, and, for some ecosystems, these threats are well studied and understood. Each of the native species that occurs in Hawaiian ecosystems suffers from exposure to those threats to differing degrees. For the purposes of our listing determination, our assumption is that the threats that act at the ecosystem level also act on each of the species that occurs in those ecosystems (although in some cases we have additionally identified species-specific threats, such as predation by nonnative invertebrates). Similarly, for the purposes of our critical habitat determinations, the physical or biological features that support an adequately functioning ecosystem are

the physical or biological features required by the species that occur in those ecosystems (see “Critical Habitat” section, below).

The following constitutes a list of ecosystem-level threats that affect the species proposed or reevaluated for listing in all 11 ecosystems on the islands of Maui Nui:

(1) Foraging and trampling of native plants by ungulates, including feral pigs (

Sus scrofa

), goats, cattle (

Bos taurus

), axis deer (

Axis axis

), or mouflon sheep (

Ovis gmelini musimon

), which can result in severe erosion of watersheds because these mammals inhabit terrain that is often steep and remote (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 63). Foraging and trampling events destabilize soils that support native plant communities, bury or damage native plants, and have adverse water quality effects due to runoff over exposed soils.

(2) Disturbance of soils by feral pigs from rooting, which can create fertile seedbeds for alien plants (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 65).

(3) Increased nutrient availability as a result of pigs rooting in nitrogen-poor soils, which facilitates establishment of alien weeds. Alien weeds are more adapted to nutrient rich soils than native plants (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 63), and rooting activity creates open areas in forests allowing alien species to completely replace native stands.

(4) Ungulate destruction of seeds and seedlings of native plant species (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 63), which facilitates the conversion of disturbed areas from native to nonnative vegetative communities.

(5) Rodent damage to plant propagules, seedlings, or native trees, which changes forest composition and structure (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 67).

(6) Feeding or defoliation of native plants from alien insects, which can reduce geographic ranges of some species because of damage (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 71).

(7) Alien insect predation on native insects, which affects pollination of native plant species (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 71).

(8) Significant changes in nutrient cycling processes because of large numbers of alien invertebrates such as earthworms, ants, slugs, isopods, millipedes, and snails, resulting in changes to the composition and structure of plant communities (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 73).

Each of the above threats is discussed in more detail below, and summarized in Table 3. The most-often cited effects of nonnative plants on native plant species are competition and displacement; competition may be for water, light, or nutrients, or it may involve allelopathy (chemical inhibition of other plants). Alien plants may displace native species of plants by preventing their reproduction, usually by shading and taking up available sites for seedling establishment. Alien plant invasions may also alter entire ecosystems by forming monotypic stands, changing fire characteristics of native communities, altering soil-water regimes, changing nutrient cycling, or encouraging other nonnative organisms (Smith 1989, pp. 61-69; Vitousek

et al.

1987).

TABLE 3—Summary of Primary Threats Identified for Each of the 40 Maui Nui Species

Species

Ecosystem

Factor A

Agriculture and urban

development

Ungulates

Non native

plants

Fire

Stochastic

events

Climate

change

Factor B

Over-

utilization

Factor C

Disease

Predation/

Herbivory by ungulates

Predation/

Herbivory by other NN

vertebrates

Predation/

Herbivory

by NN

invertebrates

Factor D

Inadequate existing

regulatory

mechanisms

Factor E

Other

species-

specific

threats

Plants

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera

LD, LM, MM, MW, DC, WC

P, G, D

X

X

H

X

P, G, D

R

X

HY

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

waihoiensis

LW, MW, WC

P, G, D

X

F, H

X

P, G, D

R

S

X

HY

Bidens conjuncta

LW, MW, WC

P, G

X

H

X

P, G

R

S

X

Calamagrostis hillebrandii

MW

P

X

H

X

P

X

Canavalia pubescens

CO, LD

X

P, G, D, C

X

X

H

X

P, G, D, C

X

Cyanea asplenifolia

LM, LW

P, G, D, C

X

L, H

X

P, G, D, C

R

S

X

Cyanea duvalliorum

LW, MW

P

X

F, H

X

P

R

S

X

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

LW, WC

P, G, D

X

X

L, H

X

P, G, D

R

S

X

LN

Cyanea horrida

MM, MW, WC

P

X

DR, F, L, TF, H

X

P

R

S

X

LN

Cyanea kunthiana

LW, MM, MW

P

X

H

X

P

R

S

X

Cyanea magnicalyx

LW, MM, WC

P

X

X

L, TF, H

X

P

R

S

X

LN

Cyanea maritae

LW, MW

P

X

L, TF, H

X

P

R

S

X

LN, T

Cyanea mauiensis

LM, DC

P

X

X

L, TF, H

X

P

R

S

X

LN

Cyanea munroi

WC

G, D

X

TF, H

X

G, D

R

S

X

LN

Cyanea obtusa

LD, MM

P, G, D, C

X

X

H

X

P, G, D, C

R

S

X

HY, LN

Cyanea profuga

LM, MW

P, G

X

F, L, RF, TF, H

X

P, G

R

S

X

LN

Cyanea solanacea

LM, LW, MM, MW

P, G

X

L, H

X

P, G

R

S

X

LN

Cyrtandra ferripilosa

MM, MW

P, G

H

X

P, G

X

LN

Cyrtandra filipes

LM, LW, WC

P, G, D

X

L, H

X

P, G, D

S

X

Cyrtandra oxybapha

MM, MW

P, G, C

X

H

X

P, G, C

X

Festuca molokaiensis

LM

G

X

X

DR, H

X

G

X

LN

Geranium hanaense

MW

P

X

H

X

P

X

Geranium hillebrandii

MM, MW

P

X

H

X

P

S

X

Mucuna sloanei

var.

persericea

LW

P, C

X

H

X

P, C

R

X

Myrsine vaccinioides

MW

P

X

H

X

P

R

S

X

Peperomia subpetiolata

MW

P

X

H

X

P

R

S

X

HY, LN

Phyllostegia bracteata

LW, MM, MW, SB, WC

P, C

X

X

H

X

P, C

S

X

LN

Phyllostegia haliakalae

LM, DC, WC

C

X

X

H

X

C

S

X

LN

Phyllostegia pilosa

LM, MW

P, G

X

H

X

P, G

S

X

LN

Pittosporum halophilum

CO

P

X

X

H

X

P

R

X

LN

Pleomele fernaldii

LD, LM, LW, DC, WC

D, M

X

X

H

X

D, M

R

X

NR

Santalum haleakalae

var

. lanaiensis

LD, LM, LW, MD, MM, MW, WC

P, G, D, M

X

X

H

X

P, G, D, M

R

S

X

Schiedea jacobii

MW

G, D, C

DR, L, TF, H

X

G, D, C

S

X

LN

Schiedea laui

MW

X

F, L, H

X

R

S

X

LN

Schiedea salicaria

LD

G, D, C

X

X

H

X

D, C, G

X

HY

Stenogyne kauaulaensis

MM

X

X

DR, L, RF, H

X

S

X

LN

Wikstroemia villosa

LW, MM, MW

P

X

L, H

X

P

R

S

X

LN, T

Snails

Newcombia cumingi

(Newcomb's tree snail)

LW

X

DR, H

X

Pt

Pt

R, JC

Flatworm

Pt

Snails

X

LN

Partulina semicarinata

(Lanai tree snail)

LW, MW, WC

D, M

DR, H

X

Pt

Pt

R, JC

Flatworm

Pt

Snails

X

LN

Partulina variabilis

(Lanai tree snail)

LW, MW, WC

D, M

DR, H

X

Pt

Pt

R, JC

Flatworm

Pt

Snails

X

LN

Factor A = Habitat Modification; Factor B = Overutilization; Factor C = Disease or Predation; Factor D = Inadequacy of Regulatory Mechanisms; Factor E = Other Species-Specific Threats.

CO = Coastal; LD = Lowland Dry; LM = Lowland Mesic; LW = Lowland Wet; MD = Montane Dry; MM = Montane Mesic; MW = Montane Wet; SB = Subalpine; DC = Dry Cliff; WC = Wet Cliff.

P = Pigs; G = Goats; D = Axis Deer; M = Mouflon; C = Cattle; R = Rats; S = Slugs; JC = Jackson's chameleon.

F = Flooding; DR = Drought; H = Hurricane; L = Landslide; T = Trampling; RF = Rockfalls; TF = Treefalls.

LN = Limited Numbers; HY = Hybridization; NN = Nonnative; NR = No Regeneration; Pt = Potential.

A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range

The Hawaiian Islands are located over 2,000 mi (3,200 km) from the nearest continent. This isolation has allowed the few plants and animals that arrived in the Hawaiian Islands to evolve into many highly varied and endemic species (species that occur nowhere else in the world). The only native terrestrial mammals in the Hawaiian Islands are two bat taxa, the extant Hawaiian hoary bat (

Lasiurus cinereus semotus

) and an extinct, unnamed insectivorous bat (Ziegler 2002, p. 245). The native plants of the Hawaiian Islands, therefore, evolved in the absence of mammalian predators, browsers, or grazers. As a result, many of the native species have lost unneeded defenses against threats such as mammalian predation and competition with aggressive, weedy plant species that are typical of continental environments (Loope 1992, p. 11; Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 45; Wagner

et al.

1999l, pp. 3-6). For example, Carlquist (in Carlquist and Cole 1974, p. 29) notes “Hawaiian plants are notably free from many characteristics thought to be deterrents to herbivores (toxins, oils, resins, stinging hairs, coarse texture).” Native Hawaiian plants are therefore highly vulnerable to the impacts of introduced mammals and alien plants. In addition, species restricted and adapted to highly specialized locations (e.g.,

Argyroxiphium sandwicense

ssp.

macrocephalum

) are particularly vulnerable to changes (from nonnative species, hurricanes, fire, and climate change) in their habitat (Carlquist and Cole 1974, pp. 28-29; Loope 1992, pp. 3-6; Stone 1989, pp. 88-95).

Habitat Destruction and Modification by Agriculture and Urban Development

The consequences of past land use practices such as agricultural or urban development have resulted in little or no native vegetation below 2,000 ft (600 m) throughout the Hawaiian Islands (TNC 2007), largely impacting the coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, and lowland wet ecosystems. Although agriculture has been declining in importance, large tracts of former agricultural lands are being converted into residential areas or left fallow (TNC 2007). In addition, Hawaii's population increased almost 7 percent in the past 10 years, further increasing demands on limited land and water resources in the islands (Hawaii Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism 2010).

Development and urbanization of coastal and lowland dry ecosystems on Maui are a serious threat to one species proposed for listing in this rule,

Canavalia pubescens,

which is dependent on these ecosystems and is currently found only in east Maui. Two individuals at Palauea-Keahou were destroyed by development prior to 2001 (Oppenheimer 2000, in litt.). Future development plans for this area include a golf course and associated infrastructure (Altenberg 2007, p. 2-5). Currently, fewer than 20 known individuals of

C. pubescens

persist in this area (Altenberg 2010, in litt.).

Habitat Destruction and Modification by Introduced Ungulates

Introduced mammals have greatly impacted the native vegetation, as well as the native fauna, of the Hawaiian Islands. Impacts to the native species and ecosystems of Hawaii accelerated following the arrival of Captain James Cook in 1778. The Cook expedition and subsequent explorers intentionally introduced a European race of pigs or boars and other livestock, such as goats, to serve as food sources for seagoing explorers (Tomich 1986, pp. 120-121; Loope 1998, p. 752). The mild climate of the islands, combined with the lack of competitors or predators, led to the successful establishment of large populations of these introduced mammals, to the detriment of native Hawaiian species and ecosystems. The presence of introduced alien mammals is considered one of the primary factors underlying the alteration and degradation of native plant communities and habitats on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui. Ten ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane dry, montane mesic, montane wet, subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff) on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui and their associated species are currently threatened by the destruction or degradation of habitat due to nonnative ungulates (hoofed mammals), including pigs, goats, axis deer, mouflon, and cattle. Thirty-five of the 37 plant species and both species of

Partulina

tree snails (

Partulina semicarinata

and

P. variabilis

) proposed or reevaluated for listing in this rule are threatened by habitat degradation or destruction by ungulates (Table 3).

Pigs have been described as the most pervasive and disruptive nonnative influence on the unique native forests of the Hawaiian Islands, and are widely recognized as one of the greatest current threats to forest ecosystems in Hawaii (Aplet

et al.

1991, p. 56; Anderson and Stone 1993, p. 195). European pigs, introduced to Hawaii by Captain James Cook in 1778, hybridized with domesticated Polynesian pigs, became feral, and invaded forested areas, especially wet and mesic forests and dry areas at high elevations. The Hawaii Territorial Board of Agriculture and Forestry started a feral pig eradication project in the early 1900s that continued through 1958, removing 170,000 pigs from forests Statewide (Diong 1982, p. 63). Feral pigs are currently present on Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii.

These feral animals are extremely destructive and have both direct and indirect impacts on native plant communities. While rooting in the earth in search of invertebrates and plant material, pigs directly impact native plants by disturbing and destroying vegetative cover, and trampling plants and seedlings. It has been estimated that at a conservative rooting rate of 2 square (sq)-yards (yd) per minute, with only 4 hours of foraging a day, a single pig could disturb over 1,600 sq-yd of groundcover per week (Anderson

et al.

2007, p. 2).

Pigs may also reduce or eliminate plant regeneration by damaging or eating seeds and seedlings (further discussion of predation by nonnative ungulates is provided under Factor C, below). Pigs are a major vector for the establishment and spread of competing invasive nonnative plant species by dispersing plant seeds on their hooves and fur, and in their feces (Diong 1982, pp. 169-170), which also serves to fertilize disturbed soil (Matson 1990, p. 245; Siemann

et al.

2009, p. 547). Pigs feed on the fruits of many nonnative plants, such as

Passiflora tarminiana

(banana poka) and

Psidium cattleianum

(strawberry guava), spreading the seeds of these invasive species through their feces as they travel in search of food. Pigs also feed on native plants, such as Hawaiian tree ferns that they root up to eat the core of the trunk. These cored trunks then fill with rainwater and serve as breeding sites for introduced mosquitos that spread nonnative avian malaria, with devastating consequences for Hawaii's native forest birds (Baker 1975, p. 79). In addition, rooting pigs contribute to erosion by clearing vegetation and creating large areas of disturbed soil, especially on slopes (Smith 1985, pp. 190, 192, 196, 200, 204, 230-231; Stone 1985, pp. 254-255, 262-264; Medeiros

et al.

1986, pp. 27-28; Scott

et al.

1986, pp. 360-361; Tomich 1986, pp. 120-126; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 64-65; Aplet

et al.

1991, p. 56; Loope

et al.

1991, pp. 1-21; Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 52). Ten of the Maui Nui ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland

wet, montane dry, montane mesic, montane wet, subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff) and their associated species are currently threatened by the destruction or degradation of habitat due to pigs.

Goats native to the Middle East and India were also successfully introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in the late 1700s. Actions to control feral goat populations began in the 1920s (Tomich 1986, pp. 152-153); however, they still occupy a wide variety of habitats on Molokai and Maui and to a lesser degree on Lanai, where they consume native vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, accelerate erosion, and promote the invasion of alien plants (van Riper and van Riper 1982, pp. 34-35; Stone 1985, p. 261; Kessler 2010, pers. comm.). Goats are able to access, and forage in, extremely rugged terrain, and they have a high reproductive capacity (Clarke and Cuddihy 1980, pp. C-19, C-20; Culliney 1988, p. 336; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 64). Because of these factors, goats are believed to have completely eliminated some plant species from islands (Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, p. 21). Goats can be highly destructive to native vegetation, and contribute to erosion by eating young trees and young shoots of plants before they can become established, creating trails that damage native vegetative cover, promoting erosion by destabilizing substrate and creating gullies that convey water, and dislodging stones from ledges that can cause rockfalls and landslides and damage vegetation below (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 63-64). Nine of the described ecosystems on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane dry, montane mesic, montane wet, dry cliff, and wet cliff) and their associated species are currently threatened by the destruction or degradation of habitat due to goats.

Axis deer were first introduced to Molokai in 1868, Lanai in 1920, and Maui in 1959 (Hobdy 1993, p. 207; Erdman 1996, pers. comm

.

cited in Waring 1996, in litt., p. 2; Hess 2008, p. 2). On Molokai, axis deer have likely spread throughout the island at all elevations (from the coast to the summit area at 4,961 ft (1,512 m)) (Kessler 2011, pers. comm.). The most current population estimate of axis deer on Molokai is between 4,000 and 5,000 individuals (Anderson 2003, p. 130). It is likely this is an underestimate of the total number of individuals as it was published almost a decade ago, and little management for deer control has been implemented. On Lanai, as of 2007, axis deer were reported to number approximately 6,000 to 8,000 individuals (The Aloha Insider 2008, in litt.; WCities 2010, in litt.). On Maui, five adults were released east of Kihei in 1959 (Hobdy 1993, p. 207; Hess 2008, p. 2). By 1968, the population was estimated to be 85 to 90 animals, and by 1995, there were over 500 individuals on Ulupalakua Ranch alone (Erdman 1996, pers. comm. cited in Waring 1996, in litt., p. 2). As of 2001, there was concern that their numbers on Maui could expand to between 15,000 to 20,000 or more individuals within a few years (Anderson 2001, in litt.; Nishibayashi 2001, in litt.). According to Medeiros (2010a, pers. comm.) axis deer can be found in all but the uppermost ecosystems (subalpine and alpine) and montane bogs on Maui. Medeiros (2010a, pers. comm.) also observed that axis deer are increasing at such high rates on Maui that native forests are changing in unprecedented ways. According to Medeiros (2010a, pers. comm.), native plants will only survive in habitat that is fenced or otherwise protected from the grazing and trampling effects of axis deer. Kessler (2010, pers. comm.) and Hess (2010, pers. comm.) report axis deer up to 9,000 ft (2,743 m) in elevation on Maui, and Kessler suggests that no ecosystem is safe from the negative impacts of these animals. Montane bogs are also susceptible to impacts from axis deer. As the native vegetation dies off from the combined effects of grazing and trampling by axis deer, the soil dries out, and invasive nonnative plants gain a foothold. Eventually, the bog habitat and its associated native plants and animals are replaced by a grassland, shrubland, or forest habitat dominated by nonnative plants.

Axis deer are primarily grazers, but also browse numerous palatable plant species including those grown as commercial crops (Waring 1996, p. 3; Simpson 2001, in litt.). They prefer the lower, more openly vegetated areas for browsing and grazing; however, during episodes of drought (e.g., from 1998-2001 on Maui (Medeiros 2010a, pers. comm.)), axis deer move into urban and forested areas in search of food (Waring 1996, in litt., p. 5; Nishibayashi 2001, in litt.). Like goats, axis deer can be highly destructive to native vegetation and contribute to erosion by eating young trees and young shoots of plants before they can become established, creating trails that can damage native vegetative cover, promoting erosion by destabilizing substrate and creating gullies that convey water, and by dislodging stones from ledges that can cause rockfalls and landslides and damage vegetation below (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 63-64). Nine of the described Maui Nui ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane dry, montane mesic, montane wet, dry cliff, and wet cliff) and their associated species are currently threatened by the destruction or degradation of habitat due to axis deer.

The mouflon sheep (

Ovis gmelini musimon

), native to Asia Minor, was introduced to the islands of Lanai and Hawaii in the 1950s as a managed game species, and has become widely established on these islands (Tomich 1986, pp. 163-168; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 66; Hess 2008, p. 1). Mouflon have high reproduction rates; for example, the original population of 11 individuals on the island of Hawaii has increased to more than 2,500 in 36 years, even though hunted as a game animal (Hess 2008, p. 3). Mouflon only form large groups when breeding, thus limiting control techniques and hunting efficiency (Hess 2008, p. 3). Mouflon sheep are both grazers and browsers, and have decimated vast areas of native forest and shrubland through browsing and bark stripping (Stone 1985, p. 271; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 63, 66; Hess 2008, p. 3). In range studies done on the effects of mouflon grazing and browsing on the island of Hawaii, plant species found to be most affected were

Argyroxiphium sandwicense

ssp.

sandwicense

(Mauna Kea silversword), an endangered species;

Acacia koa; Geranium

spp. (hinahina);

Sophora chrysophylla; Vaccinium

spp. (ohelo); and native grasses (Giffin 1981, pp. 22-23; Scowcroft and Conrad 1992, pp. 628-662; Hess 2008, p. 3). Mouflon also create trails and pathways through thick vegetation, leading to increased runoff and erosion through soil compaction. In some areas, the interaction of browsing and soil compaction leads to a change from native rainforest to grassy scrublands (Hess 2008, p. 3). Seven of the described ecosystems (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane wet, dry cliff, and wet cliff) on Lanai and their associated species are currently threatened by the destruction or degradation of habitat due to mouflon sheep.

Cattle (

Bos taurus

), the wild progenitors of which were native to Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern Asia, were introduced to the Hawaiian Islands in 1793. Large feral herds (as many as 12,000 on the island of Hawaii) developed as a result of restrictions on killing cattle decreed by King Kamehameha I (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 40). While small cattle ranches were developed on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, west Maui, and

Kahoolawe, very large ranches of tens of thousands of acres were created on east Maui and Hawaii Island (Stone 1985, pp. 256, 260; Broadbent 2010, in litt.). Logging of native

Acacia koa

was combined with establishment of cattle ranches, quickly converting native forest to grassland (Tomich 1986, p. 140; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 47). Feral cattle can presently be found on the islands of Maui and Hawaii, where ranching is still a major commercial activity. According to Kessler (2011, pers. comm.), there are approximately 300 individuals roaming east Maui up to the alpine ecosystem (i.e., 1,000 to 9,900 ft (305 to 3,000 m) elevation) with occasional observations on west Maui. Cattle eat native vegetation, trample roots and seedlings, cause erosion, create disturbed areas into which alien plants invade, and spread seeds of alien plants in their feces and on their bodies. The forest in areas grazed by cattle degrades to grassland pasture, and plant cover is reduced for many years following removal of cattle from an area. In addition, several alien grasses and legumes purposely introduced for cattle forage have become noxious weeds (Tomich 1986, pp. 140-150; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 29). Five of the described ecosystems (lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane mesic, and montane wet) on Maui and their associated species are currently threatened by the destruction or degradation of habitat due to cattle.

In summary, the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing and that are dependent upon the 10 ecosystems identified in this proposed rule (coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane dry, montane mesic, montane wet, subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff) are exposed to both direct and indirect negative impacts of feral ungulates (pigs, goats, axis deer, mouflon, and cattle). These negative impacts result in the destruction and degradation of habitat for the native species on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui. The effects of these nonnative animals include the destruction of vegetative cover; trampling of plants and seedlings; direct consumption of native vegetation; soil disturbance; dispersal of alien plant seeds on hooves and coats, and through the spread of seeds in feces; and creation of open disturbed areas conducive to further invasion by nonnative pest plant species. All of these impacts lead to the subsequent conversion of a plant community dominated by native species to one dominated by nonnative species (see “Habitat Destruction and Modification by Nonnative Plants,” below). In addition, because these mammals inhabit terrain that is often steep and remote (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 59), foraging and trampling contributes to severe erosion of watersheds and degradation of streams. As early as 1900, there was increasing concern expressed about the integrity of island watersheds, due to effects of ungulates and other factors, leading to the establishment of a professional forestry program emphasizing soil and water conservation (Nelson 1989, p. 3).

Habitat Destruction and Modification by Nonnative Plants

Native vegetation on all of the main Hawaiian Islands has undergone extreme alteration because of past and present land management practices, including ranching, the deliberate introduction of nonnative plants and animals, and agricultural development (Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 27, 58). The original native flora of Hawaii (species that were present before humans arrived) consisted of about 1,000 taxa, 89 percent of which were endemic (species that occur only in the Hawaiian Islands). Over 800 plant taxa have been introduced from elsewhere, and nearly 100 of these have become pests (e.g., injurious plants) in Hawaii (Smith 1985, p. 180; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 73; Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 45). Of these 100 nonnative pest plant species, close to 70 species have altered the habitat of 36 of the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing (only

Cyrtandra ferripilosa, Schiedea jacobii,

Partulina semicarinata,

and

P. variabilis

are not directly impacted by nonnative plants; see Table 3). Some of the nonnative plants were brought to Hawaii by various groups of people, including the Polynesians, for food or cultural reasons. Plantation owners (and the territorial government of Hawaii), alarmed at the reduction of water resources for their crops caused by the destruction of native forest cover by grazing feral and domestic animals, introduced nonnative trees for reforestation. Ranchers intentionally introduced pasture grasses and other nonnative plants for agriculture, and sometimes inadvertently introduced weeds as well. Other plants were brought to Hawaii for their potential horticultural value (Scott

et al.

1986, pp. 361-363; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 73).

Nonnative plants adversely impact native habitat in Hawaii, including the 10 Maui Nui ecosystems that support the 40 species proposed or reevaluated for listing, and directly adversely impact 36 of these 40 species, by: (1) Modifying the availability of light; (2) altering soil-water regimes; (3) modifying nutrient cycling; (4) altering the fire regime affecting native plant communities (e.g., successive fires that burn farther and farther into native habitat, destroying native plants and removing habitat for native species by altering microclimatic conditions to favor alien species); and (5) ultimately, converting native-dominated plant communities to nonnative plant communities (Smith 1985, pp. 180-181; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; D'Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 73; Vitousek

et al.

1997, p. 6). Below, we have organized a list of nonnative plants by their ecosystems followed by a discussion of the specific negative effects of those nonnative plants on the species proposed or reevaluated for listing here.

Nonnative Plants in the Coastal Ecosystem

Nonnative plant species that threaten

Pittosporum halophilum

and

Canavalia pubescens,

the two species proposed for listing in this rule that inhabit the coastal ecosystem on Molokai and Lanai, include the understory and subcanopy species

Cenchrus ciliaris

(buffelgrass),

Kalanchoe pinnata

(air plant),

Lantana camara

(lantana),

Leucaena leucocephala

(koa haole), and

Pluchea carolinensis

(sourbush)

(HBMP 2008). Nonnative canopy species that threaten the two species proposed for listing include

Acacia farnesiana

(klu) and

Prosopis pallida

(kiawe)

(HBMP 2008). These nonnative plant species pose serious and ongoing threats to the two species proposed for listing that depend on this ecosystem (see “Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,” below).

Nonnative Plants in the Lowland Dry Ecosystem

Nonnative plant species that threaten the six species (

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Canavalia pubescens,

Cyanea obtusa, Pleomele fernaldii,

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense,

and

Schiedea salicaria

) proposed or reevaluated for listing in this rule that inhabit the lowland dry ecosystem on Lanai and Maui include the understory and subcanopy species

Ageratina adenophora

(Maui pamakani),

Leucaena leucocephala,

and

Neonotonia wightii

(glycine) (HBMP 2008). Nonnative canopy species that threaten the six species proposed or reevaluated for listing include

Acacia farnesiana, Prosopis pallida,

and

Schinus terebinthifolius

(christmasberry) (HBMP 2008). In addition, the six species proposed or reevaluated for listing are threatened by the nonnative grasses

Andropogon virginicus

(broomsedge),

Cenchrus ciliaris,

and

Melinis repens

(natal redtop) (HBMP 2008). See “Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts” (below) for specific threats each of these nonnative plant species pose to the six species proposed or reevaluated for listing that depend on this ecosystem.

Nonnative Plants in the Lowland Mesic Ecosystem

Nonnative plant species that threaten the 11 species (

Bidens campylotheca

ssp.

pentamera, Cyanea

asplenifolia, Cyanea profuga, Cyanea solanacea,

Cyrtandra filipes, Festuca molokaiensis,

Phyllostegia haliakalae, Phyllostegia pilosa,

Pleomele fernaldii, Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense,

and

Schiedea salicaria

) proposed or reevaluated for listing in this rule that inhabit the lowland mesic ecosystem on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui include the understory and subcanopy species

Clidemia hirta

(Koster's curse),

Erigeron karvinskianus

(daisy fleabane),

Lantana camara, Leptospermum scoparium

(tea tree),

Rubus rosifolius

(thimbleberry), and

Cyathea cooperi

(Australian tree fern) (HBMP 2008). Nonnative canopy species that threaten the 11 species proposed or reevaluated for listing include

Coffea arabica

(Arabian coffee)

, Psidium cattleianum, Schinus terebinthifolius,

and

Szygium cumini

(java plum) (HBMP 2008). An additional species that threatens the 11 species proposed or reevaluated for listing is the nonnative grass

Paspalum conjugatum

(Hilo grass) (HBMP 2008). These nonnative plant species pose serious and ongoing threats (see “Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,” below) to all 11 of the species proposed or reevaluated for listing that depend on this ecosystem.

Nonnative Plants in the Lowland Wet Ecosystem

Nonnative plant species that threaten the 15 plant species (

Bidens campylotheca waihoiensis,

B. conjuncta, Cyanea asplenifolia,

C. duvalliorum, C. grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana, C.

kunthiana, C. magnicalyx,

C. maritae, C. solanacea,

Cyrtandra filipes, Mucuna sloanei

var.

persericea, Phyllostegia

bracteata, Pleomele fernaldii,

Santalum haleakalae

var.

lanaiense,

and

Wikstroemia villosa

), and the tree snail species

Newcombia cumingi

proposed or reevaluated for listing in this rule that inhabit the lowland wet ecosystem on Molokai, Lanai, and Maui include the understory and subcanopy species

Ageratina adenophora, Ageratina riparia

(Hamakua pamakani),

Blechnum appendiculatum, Buddleia asiatica

(dog tail),

Chrysophyllum oliviforme

(satinleaf),

Cinchona pubescens

(quinine),

Cinnamomum burmannii

(padang cassia),

Clidemia hirta, Coffea arabica,

Cordyline fruticosa, Cortaderia jubata

(pampas grass),

Juncus planifolius, Leptospermum scoparium,

Melastoma

sp.,

Rubus rosifolius,

and

Tibouchina herbacea

(glorybush) (Maui Land and Pineapple Co. (MLP) 2005, p. 11; HBMP 2008; TNCH 2009a, pp. 1-14; East Maui Watershed Partnership (EMWP) 2009, pp. 29-30). Nonnative canopy species that threaten the 16 species proposed or reevaluated for listing include

Aleurites moluccana

(kukui),

Eucalyptus

spp. (gum tree),

Fraxinus uhdei

(tropical ash),

Miconia calvescens

(miconia),

Psidium cattleianum,

and

Psidium guajava

(HBMP 2008). Nonnative grasses that threaten this ecosystem are

Axonopus fissifolius

(carpetgrass),

Oplismenus hirtellus

(basketgrass), and

Paspalum conjugatum

(HBMP 2008). These nonnative plant species pose serious and ongoing threats to 16 of the species proposed or reevaluated for listing that depend on this ecosystem (see “Specific Nonnative Plant Species Impacts,” below).

Nonnative Plants i

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