Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determinations of Whether Designation of Critical Habitat Is Prudent for 20 Plant Species and the Proposed Designations of Critical Habitat for 32 Plant Species From the Island of Molokai, HI

Federal RegisterDec 29, 2000

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

Fish and Wildlife Service

50 CFR Part 17

RIN 1018-AH08

Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Determinations of Whether Designation of Critical Habitat Is Prudent for 20 Plant Species and the Proposed Designations of Critical Habitat for 32 Plant Species From the Island of Molokai, HI

AGENCY:

Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION:

Proposed rule and notice of determinations of whether designation of critical habitat is prudent.

SUMMARY:

We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), have reconsidered our findings concerning whether designating critical habitat for 20 federally protected plants from the island of Molokai, some of which may also occur on other Hawaiian Islands, would be prudent. The 20 plants were listed as endangered or threatened species under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act), between 1991 and 1999. At the time each plant was listed, we determined that designation of critical habitat was not prudent because designation would increase the degree of threat to the species and/or would not benefit the plant.

We determine that critical habitat is prudent for 19 of these species

(Bidens wiebkei, Brighamia rockii, Canavalia molokaiensis, Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes, Cyanea dunbarii, Cyanea mannii, Cyanea procera, Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus, Lysimachia maxima, Mariscus fauriei, Marsilea villosa, Melicope reflexa, Phyllostegia mannii, Schiedea lydgatei, Schiedea sarmentosa, Silene alexandri, Silene lanceolata, Stenogyne bifida

, and

Tetramolopium rockii)

because the potential benefits of designating critical habitat essential for the conservation of these species outweigh the risks that may result from human activity because of critical habitat designation. We propose that critical habitat designation is not prudent for one species,

Pritchardia munroi

, because it would likely increase the threat from vandalism or collection of this species on Molokai. This proposed rule also proposes designation of critical habitat for 17 of these 20 species. Critical habitat is not proposed for two species,

Lysimachia maxima

and

Phyllostegia mannii

, that are currently found only in areas on Molokai that do not require special management consideration or protection because they are already protected and managed to the benefit of these species. Thus, these areas do not meet the definition of critical habitat.

For one additional species from Molokai,

Labordia triflora

, we determined that designation of critical habitat was prudent at the time of its listing as an endangered species in 1999. Critical habitat designation for this species is proposed at this time.

In other proposed rules we determined that critical habitat was prudent for 19 species that occur on Molokai as well as on Kauai, Niihau, Maui, Kahoolawe, and/or Lanai. The determinations were included in proposed rules for Kauai and Niihau, published on November 7, 2000, for Maui and Kahoolawe, published on December 18, 2000, or for Lanai, published on December 27, 2000. These species are:

Adenophorous periens, Alectryon macrococcus, Centarium sebaeoides, Ctenitis squamigera, Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana, Diellia erecta, Hedyotis mannii, Hesperomannia arborescens, Ischaemum byrone, Melicope mucronulata, Neraudia sericea, Peucedanum sandwicense, Plantago princeps, Platanthera holochila, Schiedea nuttallii, Sesbania tomentosa, Spermolepis hawaiiensis, Vigna o-wahuensis

, and

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

. Critical habitat designations for 14 of the 19 species on Molokai are proposed at this time. Critical habitat is not proposed for five of these species

(Adenophorus periens, Hedyotis mannii, Plantago princeps, Plantanthera holochila

, and

Schiedea nuttallii)

that currently are found in areas on Molokai that do not require special management or protection because they are already protected and managed to the benefit of these species. Thus, these areas do not meet the definition of critical habitat.

Critical habitat designations for 32 species within 28 critical habitat units on the Hawaiian island of Molokai are proposed at this time.

We solicit data and comments from the public on all aspects of this proposal, including data on the economic and other impacts of the proposed designations. We may revise this proposal to incorporate or address new information received during the comment period.

DATES:

We must receive comments from all interested parties by February 27, 2001. Public hearing requests must be received by February 12, 2001.

ADDRESSES:

If you wish to comment, you may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposal by any one of several methods:

You may submit written comments and information to the Field Supervisor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Office, 300 Ala Moana Blvd., P.O. Box 50088, Honolulu, HI 96850-0001.

You may send comments by electronic mail (e-mail) to

mo_crithab_pr@fws.gov.

Please submit comments in ASCII file format and avoid the use of special characters and encryption. Please include “Attn: 1018-AH08” and your name and return address in your e-mail message. If you do not receive a confirmation from the system that we have received your e-mail message, contact us directly by calling our Pacific Islands Office at phone number 808/541-3441. Please note that the e-mail address

(mo_crithab_pr@fws.gov)

will be closed out at the termination of the public comment period.

You may hand-deliver written comments to our Pacific Islands Office at 300 Ala Moana Blvd., Room 3-122, Honolulu, HI.

Comments and materials received, as well as supporting documentation used in the preparation of this proposed rule will be available for public inspection, by appointment, during normal business hours at the Pacific Islands Office.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:

Paul Henson, Field Supervisor, Pacific Islands Office (see

ADDRESSES

section) (telephone: 808/541-3441; facsimile: 808/541-3470).

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Background

(Bidens wiebkei, Canavalia molokaiensis, Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes, Cyanea dunbarii, Cyanea mannii, Cyanea procera, Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus, Lysimachia maxima, Melicope reflexa, Pritchardia munroi, Schiedea lydgatei, Schiedea sarmentosa, Silene alexandri, Stenogyne bifida

, and

Tetramolopium rockii)

are endemic to the island of Molokai while three species

(Mariscus fauriei, Marsilea villosa

, and

Silene lanceolata)

are known from Molokai as well as one or more other islands. One species,

Brighamia rockii

, was known from Lanai, Maui, and Molokai but currently is extant only on Molokai. Another species,

Phyllostegia mannii

, was

known from Maui and Molokai but currently is extant only on Molokai (Table 1).

Prudency determinations for 19 other species

(Adenophorous periens, Alectryon macrococcus, Centarium sebaeoides, Ctenitis squamigera, Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

, and

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense)

which also occur on the islands of Kauai, Maui and/or Lanai were published in proposed rules on November 7, 2000 (Kauai and Niihau, 65 FR 66808), on December 18, 2000 (Maui and Kahoolawe, 65 FR 79192), or on December 27, 2000 (Lanai). Critical habitat designations for 14 of these 19 species on Molokai are proposed at this time. Critical habitat is not proposed for five species

(Adenophorous periens, Hedyotis mannii, Plantago princeps, Platanthera holochila

, and

Schiedea nuttallii)

that currently are found only in areas on Molokai that are protected and managed for the benefit of these species.

In addition, for one species in this proposed rule,

Labordia triflora

, we determined that designation of critical habitat was prudent at the time of its listing as an endangered species in 1999. Critical habitat designation for this species on Molokai is proposed at this time.

Table 1.—Summary of Island Distribution of 49 Species on Molokai

Species

Island Distribution

Kauai

Oahu

Molokai

Lanai

Maui

Hawaii

N.W. Isles,

hoolawe

ihau

Adenophorus periens

(pendant kihi fern)

Alectryon macrococcus

(mahoe)

Bidens wiebkei

(ko oko olau)

Bonamia menziesii

(No common name)

Brighamia rockii

(pua ala)

Canavalia molokaiensis

(awikiwiki)

Centaurium sebaeoides

(awiwi)

Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes

(oha wai)

Ctenitis squamigera

(pauoa)

Cyanea dunbarii

(haha)

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

(haha)

Cyanea mannii

(haha)

Cyanea procera

(haha)

Cyperus trachysanthos

(pu ukaa)

Ni (C)

Diellia erecta

(No common name)

Eugenia Koolauensis

(nioi)

Flueggea neowawraea

(mehamehame)

Hedyotis mannii

(pilo)

Hesperomannia arborescens

(No common name)

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

(kokio ke okeo)

Hibiscus brackenridgei

(mao hau hele)

Ka (R)

Ischaemum byrone

(Hilo ischaemum)

Isodendrion pyrifolium

(wahine noho kula)

Ni (H)

Labordia triflora

(Kamakahala)

Lysimachia maxima

(No common name)

Mariscus faurei

(No common name)

Marsilea villosa

(ini ihi)

Ni (H)

Melicope mucronulata

(alani)

Melicope reflexa

(alani)

Neraudia sericea

(No common name)

Ka (H)

Peucedanum sandwicense

(makou)

Phyllostegia mannii

(No common name)

Phyllostegia mollis

(No common name)

Plantago princeps

(ale)

Platanthera holochila

(No common name)

Pritchardia munroi

(loulu)

Pteris lidgatei

(No common name)

Schiedea lydgatei

(No common name)

Schiedea nuttallii

(No common name)

Schiedea sarmentosa

(No common name)

Sesbania tomentosa

(ohai)

Ni (H), Ka (C), NW Isles (C)

Silena alexandri

(No common name)

Silene lanceolata

(No common name)

Solanum incompletum

(popolo ku mai)

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

(No common name)

Stenogyne bifida

(No common name)

Tetramolopium rockii

(No common name)

Vigna o-wahuensis

(No common name)

Ni (H), Ka (C)

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

(a e)

Key:

C (Current)—population last observed within the past 30 years.

H (Historical)—population not seen for more than 30 years.

R (Reported)—reported from undocumented observations.

An additional nine species are known on Molokai only from historical records (pre-1970) or from undocumented observations. Prudency determinations and proposed critical habitat designations or non-designations for these species which still occur on other islands are/will be included in the proposed rules for the islands on which they currently occur (Table 2).

The 40 plants at issue in this proposed rule were listed as endangered or threatened species under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, as amended (Act), between 1991 and 1999. At the time 39 of these plants were listed, we determined that designation of critical habitat was not prudent because designation would increase the degree of threat to the species and/or would not benefit the plant. These are not prudent determinations, along with 206 others, were challenged in

Conservation Council for Hawaii

Babbitt

. On March 9, 1998, the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii directed us to review the prudency determinations for 245 listed plant species in Hawaii, including 39 of these species (2 F. Supp. 2d 1280). On August 10, 1998, the court ordered us to publish proposed critical habitat designations or non-designations for at least 100 species by November 30, 2000, and to publish proposed designations or non-designations for the remaining 145 species by April 30, 2002 (24 F. Supp. 2d 1074).

Table 2.—List of Proposed Rules in Which Prudency Determinations and Critical Habitat Designations Will Be Made for Nine Species That No Longer Occur on Molokai

Species

Proposed rule in which prudency will be determined

Proposed rules in which critical habitat designations will be proposed

Bonamia menziesii

Kauai and Niihau (65 FR 66808)

Kauai and Niihau (65 FR 66808); Maui and Kahoolawe (65 FR 79192); Lanai; Hawaii; Oahu.

Cyperus trachysanthos

Kauai and Niihau (65 FR 66808)

Kauai and Niihau (65 FR 66808); Oahu.

Eugenia koolauensis

Oahu

Oahu.

Flueggea neowawraea

Kauai and Niihau (65 FR 66808)

Kauai and Niihau (65 FR 66808); Maui and Kahoolawe (65 FR 79192); Hawaii; Oahu.

Hibiscus brackenridgei

Maui and Kahoolawe (65 FR 79192)

Maui and Kahoolawe (65 FR 79192); Lanai; Hawaii; Oahu.

Isodendrion pyrifolium

Hawaii

Hawaii.

Phyllostegia mollis

Maui and Kahoolawe (65 FR 79192)

Maui and Kahoolawe (65 FR 79192); Oahu.

Pteris lidgatei

Oahu

Oahu.

Solanum incompletum

Hawaii

Hawaii.

We determined that designation of critical habitat was prudent for

Labordia triflora

at the time it was listed and stated in the final listing rule that we would develop a critical habitat designation for this taxon, along with nine others from Maui, Molokai, Lanai, or Kahoolawe (the Maui Nui species) at the same time we developed the designations for the 245 Hawaiian plant species. In

Conservation Council for Hawaii

Babbitt

, Civ. No. 99-00283 HG (D. Haw. Aug. 19, 1999, Feb. 16, 2000, and March 28, 2000), the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii ordered us to publish proposed critical habitat designations for these ten Maui Nui species by November 30, 2000, and to publish final critical habitat designations by November 30, 2001. This prudency determination and proposed rule designating critical habitat for 32 plants from the island of Molokai respond to these court orders.

We propose that critical habitat is prudent for 19 species (

Bidens wiebkei, Brighamia rockii, Canavalia molokaiensis, Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes, Cyanea dunbarii, Cyanea mannii, Cyanea procera, Hibiscus arnottianus ssp. immaculatus, Lysimachia maxima, Mariscus fauriei, Marsilea villosa, Melicope reflexa, Phyllostegia mannii, Schiedea lydgatei, Schiedea sarmentosa, Silene alexandri, Silene lanceolata, Stenogyne bifida, Tetramolopium rockii

) because the potential benefits of designating critical habitat essential for the conservation of these species outweigh the risks of designation as a result of human activity. We propose that critical habitat designation is not prudent for one species,

Pritchardia munroi

, because it would likely increase the threat from vandalism or collection of this species on Molokai.

Critical habitat is proposed for designation within 28 critical habitat units on the island of Molokai. The land area within these units totals 6,165 hectares (ha) (15,230 acres (ac)). If this proposal is made final, section 7 of the Act would prohibit destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat through any activity funded, authorized, or carried out by any Federal agency. Section 4 of the Act requires us to consider economic and other impacts of specifying any particular area as critical habitat.

The Island of Molokai

The island of Molokai, the fifth largest in the Hawaiian Islands chain, is approximately 61 kilometers (km) (38 miles (mi)) long, up to 17 km (10 mi) wide, and encompasses an area of about 688 sq km (266 sq mi) (57 FR 46325). Three shield volcanoes make up most of the land mass of Molokai: West Molokai Mountain, East Molokai Mountain, and a volcano that formed Kalaupapa Peninsula (57 FR 46325).

The taller and larger East Molokai Mountain rises 1,813 meters (m) (4,970 feet (ft)) above sea level and comprises roughly 50 percent of the island's area (57 FR 46325). Topographically, the windward side of East Molokai differs from the leeward side. Precipitous cliffs line the northern windward coast and deep inaccessible valleys dissect the coastal area. The annual rainfall on the windward side is 200 to over 375 centimeters (cm) (75 to over 150 inches (in)), distributed throughout the year. The soils are poorly drained and high in organic matter. The gulches and valleys are usually very steep, but sometimes gently sloping (57 FR 46325). Much of the native vegetation on the northern

part of East Molokai is intact because of its relative inaccessibility to humans and animals, although destructive ungulates have begun to enter the coastline in recent years (57 FR 46325).

Discussion of the Plant Taxa

Species Endemic to Molokai

Bidens wiebkei

(ko oko olau)

Bidens wiebkei

, a member of the aster family (Asteraceae), is a short-lived perennial herb which is somewhat woody at the base and grows from 0.5 to 1 m (1.6 to 3.3 ft) tall with opposite, pinnately compound leaves. This plant is distinguished from other

Bidens

species which grow on Molokai by its erect habit and the curved or twisted, winged achenes (57 FR 46325; Ganders and Nagata 1999).

This species was observed in flower during May (Hawaii Natural Heritage Program (HINHP) database 2000). No additional life history information is currently available (United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) 1996a).

Historically

Bidens wiebkei

was known from Pelekunu and the easternmost section of Molokai at Halawa (HINHP Database 2000). It is found currently in Halawaiki Gulch, Lamaloa Gulch, and below Puu Kolekole on State and privately owned lands (Geographic Decision Systems International (GDSI) 2000; HINHP Database 2000). There are a total of three populations containing more than 200 individuals (HINHP Database 2000).

The currently known populations of

Bidens wiebkei

are scattered along steep, exposed slopes in

Metrosideros polymorpha

(ohia) dominated mesic shrublands and dry or mesic

Metrosideros polymorpha-Styphelia tameiameiae

(pukiawe) lowland shrubland between 250 and 1,050 m (820 to 3,450 ft) in elevation, extending over a distance of 4 by 1.6 km (2.5 by 1 mi) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999; HINHP Database 2000; Ganders and Nagata 1999). Other associated plant species include

Antidesma

sp. (hame),

Dodonea viscosa

(aalii),

Canthium odoratum

(alahee),

Lysimachia

sp. (kolokolo kuahiwi),

Nestegis sandwicensis

(olopua),

Phyllanthus sandwicensis

(pamakani-mahu),

Pisonia

sp. (papala kepau), and

Scaevola gaudichaudii

(naupaka kuahiwi) (HINHP Database 2000).

The major threats to

Bidens wiebkei

on Molokai, include habitat degradation and possible predation by deer (

Axis axis

) and feral goats (

Capra hircus

); competition with non-native plants, such as

Melinus minutiflora

(molasses grass) and

Schinus terebinthifolius

(Christmas berry); fire; and damage by humans of those plants found along trails (HINHP Database 2000; 57 FR 46325).

Canavalia molokaiensis (awikiwiki)

Canavalia molokaiensis

, a member of the legume family (Fabaceae), is a short-lived perennial climbing herb with twining branches with leaves made up of three lance-shaped or sometimes oval leaflets. The only species of this genus found on Molokai, this plant can be distinguished from others in the genus by its narrower leaflets and its larger, rose-purple flowers (57 FR 46325; Wagner and Herbst 1999).

This species has been observed in flower during May and December (HINHP Database 2000). Fruits and flowers were observed in March (HINHP Database 2000). No additional life history information is currently available (USFWS 1996a).

Historically,

Canavalia molokaiensis

was known from East Molokai at Kalaupapa, Pelekunu, and farther south in Kahuaawi Gulch, and the region of Manawai (HINHP Database 2000). It now has a more restricted range, from Kalaupapa to Waialeia, Kaunakakai, Pelekunu, and Kamakou (HINHP Database 2000). There are a total of seven populations containing more than 50 plants on State lands, including lands managed by the National Park Service at Kalaupapa National Historical Park, and privately owned lands (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

Canavalia molokaiensis

typically grows in exposed sites, both dry and mesic, on steep slopes in

Metrosideros polymorpha-Dodonea viscosa

lowland shrubland and mesic shrublands between 10 and 900 m (30 to 3,060 ft) in elevation (HINHP Database 2000). Associated plant species include

Artemesia

sp. (hinahina),

Chamaesyce

sp. (akoko),

Coprosma

sp. (pilo),

Styphelia tameiameiae

, and Wikstroemia sp. (akia) (HINHP Database 2000).

The threats to this species on Molokai include habitat degradation by feral ungulates such as goats and pigs (

Sus scrofa

), possible predation by feral goats, and competition with non-native plants, such as

Melinis minutiflora

(USFWS 1996a).

Clermonita oblongifolia ssp.

brevipes

(oha wai)

Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes

, a member of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is a short-lived perennial shrub or tree which reaches a height of 2 to 7 m (6.6 to 23 ft). This species is distinguished from others in the genus by the structure of its calyx and corolla as well as by the lengths of the flower, the floral lobes, and the green hypanthium. This subspecies differs from others of the species by the shape and length of its leaves, leaf stalks, and flower stalks (Lammers 1988, 1999).

No life history information for this species is currently available (USFWS 1996a).

Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes

is known from a single population of five individuals on the privately owned land of the Nature Conservancy of Hawaii's (TNCH) Kamakou Preserve (HINHP Database 2000; USFWS 1996a; Joel Lau, HINHP,

in litt.

2000). The historical range of this subspecies is not known (USFWS 1996a).

Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes

occurs in shallow soil on gulch slopes in the wet

Metrosideros polymorpha

-dominated forest at an elevation between 1,100 and 1,200 m (3,500 and 4,320 ft) (HINHP Database 2000; J. Lau,

in litt.

2000). Associated plant species include

Cheirodendron trigynum

(olapa),

Cibotium

spp. (hapuu),

Broussaisia argutus

(kanawao),

Hedyotis terminalis

(manono), and

Melicope

sp. (alani) (J. Lau,

in litt.

2000).

The threats to this species on Molokai are habitat degradation by feral pigs; possible predation on the fruit or plant parts by rats (

Rattus rattus

), as evidence on related species suggests (USFWS 1996a; 57 FR 46325); and random naturally occurring events that may cause the extinction of the entire taxon due to its single population and very low number of individuals.

Cyanea dunbarii

(haha)

Cyanea dunbarii

, a member of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is a short-lived perennial, branched shrub 1.5 to 2 m (4.9 to 6.6 ft) tall with oval to broadly elliptic leaves that have irregularly lobed or cleft margins. This species is distinguished from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by the lack of prickles on the stems and the irregularly lobed and cleft leaf margins (Lammers 1999).

Cyanea dunbarii

was observed in flower, with immature fruit, in September (HINHP Database 2000). No additional life history information is currently available (USFWS 1998a).

Cyanea dunbarii

was collected in 1918 at Waihanau and Waialae Valleys, and was not observed again until 1992, when Joel Lau of the Hawaii Natural Heritage Program found it in Mokomoko Gulch on State owned land within Molokai Forest Reserve (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000; 61 FR 53130; Ken Wood, National Tropical Botanical Garden (NTBG),

in litt.

2000). Currently, it is known from a single population of

approximately 30 mature plants at an elevation of 671 m (2,200 ft) (HINHP Database 2000; K. Wood,

in litt.

2000).

Cyanea dunbarii

occurs on a streambank in a mesic to wet

Dicranopteris linearis

(uluhe)-

Metrosideros polymorpha

lowland forest on moderate to steep slopes (HINHP Database 2000). Associated species include

Diplazium sandwicianum

(hoio),

Charpentiera obovata

(papala),

Perrottetia sandwicensis

(olomea),

Pipturus albidus

(mamaki),

Clermontia kakeana

(ohawai),

Cheirodendron trigynum

, and

Freycinetia arborea

(ieie) (USFWS 1998a).

The major threats to this single population of

Cyanea dunbarii

on Molokai are competition with the non-native plants

Buddleia asiatica

(butterfly bush),

Erigeron karvinskianus

(daisy fleabane),

Rubus rosifolius

(thimbleberry),

Commelina diffusa

(honohono),

Hedychium gardnerianum

(ginger), and

Kalanchoe pinnata

(air plant); and catastrophic extinction by naturally occurring events such as landslides or flooding, and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of individuals in the only known population. In addition, predation by rats is a potential threat since rats are known to be in the area and are known to eat stems and fruits of other species of

Cyanea

; habitat degradation and predation by axis deer and pigs are other potential threats to this species, because both of these species are known to occur in areas adjacent to the only known population (USFWS 1998a; Cuddihy and Stone 1990).

Cyanea

mannii (haha)

Cyanea mannii

, a member of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is a branched short-lived perennial shrub 1.5 to 3 m (5 to 10 ft) tall with narrowly elliptic or lance-shaped leaves. This species is distinguished from the seven other species of the genus on Molokai by a combination of the following characters: a branched, woody habit; leaves with small, hardened, marginal teeth; and a purplish corolla (Lammers 1999; 57 FR 46325).

Cyanea mannii

has been observed in flower during July (HINHP Database 2000). No additional life history information is currently available (USFWS 1996a).

Historically,

Cyanea mannii

was known only from Kalae on East Molokai (HINHP Database 2000). In 1984, a single plant was discovered by Joan Aidem on privately owned land west of Puu Kolekole on East Molokai (HINHP Database 2000; Lammers 1999; USFWS 1996a). Since then, eight additional populations have been discovered in the east and west forks of Kawela Gulch on the privately owned land of TNCH's Kamakou Preserve on East Molokai and within the State's Molokai Forest Reserve (K. Wood,

in litt.

2000; HINHP Database 2000). These nine populations contain approximately 200 individuals on State and privately owned lands (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000; K. Wood,

in litt.

2000).

This species typically grows on the sides of deep gulches in

Metrosideros polymorpha

dominated montane mesic forest at elevations between 559 and 1,220 m (1,900 to 4,000 ft) (HINHP Database 2000; Lammers 1999; USFWS 1996a). Associated plant species include

Wiskstroemia

sp.,

Dicranopteris linearis

, and

Vaccinium

sp. (ohelo) (USFWS 1996a).

Threats to

Cyanea mannii

on Molokai are habitat degradation by feral pigs; predation by rats who may feed on the fruit or other parts of the plant, as suggested by evidence from related species; catastrophic extinction through naturally occurring events that this species is vulnerable to due to its few populations and small number of individuals (USFWS 1996a).

Cyanea procera

(haha)

Cyanea procera

, a member of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is a palm-like short-lived perennial tree 3 to 9 m (10 to 30 ft) tall with stalkless, lance-shaped leaves 60 to 75 cm (24 to 30 in) long and 10 to 17 cm (3.9 to 6.7 in) wide with tiny hardened teeth along the margins. This species can be distinguished from other species of the genus by its growth habit, its sessile leaves, and the single-lipped appearance of the corolla (Lammers 1999; 57 FR 46325).

No life history information is currently available for this species (USFWS 1996a).

Historically,

Cyanea procera

was known only from an unspecified site in the Kamalo region of East Molokai (HINHP Database 2000). Currently, this species is found on the privately owned lands of Kamakou Preserve and the State's Puu Alii Natural Area Reserve (NAR) in a total of five populations containing at least 10 individuals (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

Cyanea procera

is found on the walls of steep gulches in wet

Metrosideros polymorpha

dominated lowland mixed forest between 935 and 1,073 m (3,180 to 3,650 ft) elevation (HINHP Database 2000). Associated plant species include various species of

Asplenium, Brousaissia arguta, Coprosma ochracea

(pilo),

Cyanea

spp. (haha),

Cyrtandra macrocalyx

(haiwale),

Dicranopteris linearis, Pipturus albidus, Pisonia

spp.,

Scaevola procera

(naupaka kuahiwi), and

Touchardia latifolia

(olona) (USFWS 1996a).

Threats to

Cyanea procera

on Molokai are predation by feral rats (as suggested by evidence on related species) and goats; habitat degradation by feral goats and pigs; habitat destruction through erosion; catastrophic extinction from naturally occurring events due to the vulnerability of a few populations with a small number of individuals (57 FR 46325).

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

(kokio ke okeo)

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

, a member of the hibiscus family (Malvaceae), is a long-lived perennial tree up to 3 m (10 ft) tall with alternate, oval, toothed leaves measuring 5 to 7 cm (2 to 2.8 in) long and 4 to 6.5 cm (1.6 to 2.6 in) wide. This subspecies is distinguished from other native Hawaiian members of the genus by its white petals and white staminal column (Bates 1999; 57 FR 46325).

This taxon was observed in flower during July (HINHP Database 2000). Currently, no additional life history information is available for this species (USFWS 1996a).

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

once ranged from Waihanau Valley east to Papalaua Valley on East Molokai (HINHP Database 2000). Currently this taxon is found only west of Papalaua Valley on privately owned land and in the State's Olokui NAR above Waiehu (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000). There are a total of two populations containing between 20 and 30 individuals (HINHP Database 2000).

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

individuals are scattered along steep sea cliffs in mesic forests between 15 and 480 m (50 and 1,600 ft) in elevation (Bates 1999; HINHP Database 2000). Associated native plant species include

Athyrium

spp. (akolea),

Canthium odoratum, Cyanea grimesiana

(haha),

Antidesma platyphyllum

(hame),

Boehmeria grandis

(akolea),

Diospyros sandwicensis

(lama),

Pipturis

spp. (mamaki),

Urera glabra

(opuhe), and

Metrosideros polymorpha

(HINHP Database 2000).

The major threats to

Hibiscus arnottianus

spp.

immaculatus

on Molokai are habitat destruction by feral goats and catastrophic extinction by naturally occurring events due to the vulnerability of the two remaining populations and few individuals (USFWS 1996a).

Labordia triflora

(kamakahala)

Labordia triflora,

a short-lived perennial member of the logan family (Loganiaceae), is very similar to

Labordia tinifolia

var.

lanaiensis,

except in the following characteristics: the stems of

L. triflora

are climbing; the leaf stalks are only 1 to 3 millimeters (mm) (0.04 to 0.1 in.) long; inflorescence stalks are 40 to 50 mm (1.6 to 2 in.) long; and, each flower stalk is 10 to 25 mm (0.4 to 1 in.) long (Motley 1995).

The flowers of this species are functionally unisexual (Motley 1995; HINHP Database 2000). No additional life history information is available at this time.

Until 1990,

Labordia triflora

was known only from the type collection at Mapulehu, on the island of Molokai (Motley 1995) and was believed to be extinct. In 1990, Joel Lau rediscovered the species in Kua Gulch on Molokai (HINHP Database 2000; Motley 1995). Currently, only 10 individuals are known from privately owned land (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

This species occurs in mixed lowland mesic forest, at an elevation of ca. 800 m (2,600 ft). Associated species include

Pouteria sandwicensis

(alaa), the federally endangered

Cyanea mannii

(haha), and

Tetraplasandra

spp. (ohe ohe) (Motley 1995).

The threats to

Labordia triflora

include habitat degradation and destruction by feral pigs and goats; predation by rats that eat seeds; competition with the non-native plant species

Schinus terebinthifolius

(Motley 1995); catastrophic extinction through environmental events and reduced reproductive vigor due to the species' few populations and small number of individuals (64 FR 48307).

Lysimachia maxima

(no common name)

Lysimachia maxima,

a member of the primrose family (Primulaceae), is a sprawling short-lived perennial shrub with reddish brown bark. This species is differentiated from others in this genus by the leaves borne in groups of three, the broadest portion of the leaf above the middle, and rusty hairs that disappear with maturity (Wagner

et al.

1999).

Flowers, buds and immature fruit of

Lysimachia maxima

have been observed in late May through July (USFWS 1998a). No other life history information is available for this species (61 FR 53130).

Lysimachia maxima

is only known from a single population containing between 45 and 50 individuals on the rim of Pelekunu Valley near Ohialele, on the privately owned land of TNCH's Pelekunu Preserve (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

This species occurs in

Metrosideros polymorpha-Dicranopteris linearis

montane wet forest at an elevation of 975 m (3,200 ft). Associated species include

Psychotria

sp. (kopiko),

Vaccinium

sp.,

Hedyotis

sp. (No common name),

Dubautia

sp. (na ena e), and

Ilex anomala

(aiae) (HINHP Database 2000).

The major threats to

Lysimachia maxima

are catastrophic extinction from random environmental events (

e.g.,

landslides); reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of individuals in the only known population (USFWS 1998a); habitat degradation and/or predation by feral pigs and goats that are known from adjacent areas (USFWS 1998a).

Melicope reflexa

(alani)

Melicope reflexa,

a long-lived perennial of the citrus family (Rutaceae), is a sprawling shrub 1 to 3 m (3.3 to 10 ft) tall with short, yellowish-brown, short-lived hairs on new growth. Opposite leaves with leaf stalks usually over 1 cm (0.4 in) long, larger leaves and fruit, and partially fused sections of capsule separate it from other species of the genus (Stone

et al.

1999).

Currently, no life history information is available for this species (USFWS 1996a).

Historically,

Melicope reflexa

occurred from a ridge between Hanalilolilo and Pepeopae in Kamakou Preserve to as far east as Halawa on East Molokai (HINHP Database 2000). The three remaining populations of fewer than a total of 1,000 individuals are on State and private lands in Honomuni, the Wailau-Mapulehu summit area, and Kukuinui Ridge in Wailau Valley (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

Melicope reflexa

typically grows in wet

Metrosideros polymorpha

dominated forest with native trees such as

Cheirodendron

sp. (olapa) at elevations between 760 and 1,190 m (2,490 and 3,900 ft) (Stone

et al.

1999).

Major threats to

Melicope reflexa

include habitat degradation and predation by ungulates (axis deer and feral pigs); competition with the non-native plant

Clidemia hirta

(Koster's curse); catastrophic extinction from environmental events due to species' few populations and small number of individuals (57 FR 46325; USFWS 1996a).

Pritchardia munroi

(loulu)

Pritchardia munroi,

a member of the palm family (Arecaceae), is a perennial tree about 4 to 5 m (13 to 16 ft) tall. The leaves and petioles have scattered, mostly deciduous scales and hairs, somewhat larger on the lower leaf ribs. The leaves are deeply divided into segments which have long, drooping tips. Numerous bisexual or functionally male flowers are arranged in clusters on hairy, branching stalks which originate at the leaf bases. The mature fruit is shiny, black, and nearly spherical. This species is distinguished from others of the genus by its relatively smooth leaves; the grayish-brown hair on the inflorescence stalks, which are shorter than the petioles; and the small size of the fruits (Read and Hodel 1999).

Currently, no life history information is available for this species (USFWS 1996a).

Historically and currently

Pritchardia munroi

is found in leeward East Molokai, above Kamalo, near Kapuaokoolau Gulch (HINHP Database 2000, Read and Hodel 1999). The only known wild individual is found on privately owned land (HINHP Database 2000).

The only known wild individual grows near the base of a small ravine in remnant dry to mesic forest at an elevation of about 610 m (2,000 ft) (Read and Hodel 1999). Associated plant species include

Dodonaea viscosa, Metrosideros polymorpha, Styphelia tameiameiae,

and

Pleomele aurea

(hala pepe) (HINHP Database 2000).

Threats to the only known wild individual of

Pritchardia munroi

include habitat degradation by ungulates (axis deer, goats, and pigs) around its fenced exclosure prevent the establishment of seedlings; predation of seeds by rats; catastrophic extinction by random environmental events (

e.g.,

fire) due to its extreme rarity (57 FR 46325; USFWS 1996a).

Schiedea lydgatei

(no common name)

Schiedea lydgatei,

a member of the pink family (Caryophyllaceae), is a low, hairless perennial plant with branched stems 10 to 40 cm (4 to 16 in) long which are woody at the base. The opposite, three-veined leaves are elliptic. Bisexual flowers are arranged in loosely spreading clusters. The capsules open when mature to reveal dark reddish-brown seeds. The opposite, thin, three-veined leaves with petioles and the smooth, open flower clusters with relatively larger, green sepals separate this species from other members of this endemic Hawaiian genus (Wagner

et al.

1999).

This species was observed with flowers and fruit in June (HINHP Database 2000). Currently, no additional life history information is available (USFWS 1996a).

Historically,

Schiedea lydgatei

was found in Kalae, Poholua, Makolelau, and Ohia Gulch on East Molokai (HINHP Database 2000). This species is now known from two scattered populations in a more restricted area in Makakupaia, Kawela, and Makolelau. The two populations are distributed over an area of less than 1.6 by 5.6 km (1 by 3.5 mi), totaling fewer than 1,000 individuals on State and privately owned lands (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000).

This species is found along ridges in dry to mesic grassland, shrubland, and forest with scattered native trees. It ranges in elevation from about 600 to 650 m (2,000 to 2,100 ft) (HINHP Database 2000; Wagner

et al.

1999). Associated plant species include

Dodonaea viscosa, Metrosideros polymorpha, Styphelia tameiameiae,

and

Dicranopteris linearis

(Gagne and Cuddihy 1999).

The major threats to

Schiedea lydgatei

are habitat degradation by feral ungulates; and competition with the non-native plant species

Melinus minutiflora;

and catastrophic extinction due to random environmental events, primarily fire, (57 FR 46325; USFWS 1996a) because in this species' dry, windswept habitat, a single fire potentially could destroy a large part of the populations.

Schiedea sarmentosa

(no common name)

Schiedea sarmentosa,

a perennial herb of the pink family (Caryophyllaceae), is a many-branched shrub. The opposite leaves are slender, threadlike, and are covered with dense, gladular hairs. There may be as many as 40 to 60 inflorescences on one plant, often with 50 to 100 flowers in each inflorenscence. The flowers are female on some plants and bisexual on others. The green sepals are egg-shaped and somewhat hairy. The staminodes (false stamens) are half as long as the sepals and two-branched at the tip. The fruits are oval capsules. This species differs from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by its densely bushy habit, leaf width, hairiness, and staminode length (Wagner,

et al.

1999).

The flowers are female on some plants and bisexual on others. The population on Makolelau Gulch has a frequency 31 percent females. Based on analyses of pollen-ovule ratios, pollen size, inforescence structure, and comparison to other

Schiedea

species tested in a wind tunnel,

Schiedea sarmentosa

could be wind-pollinated. No other life history information for this species is available (USFWS 1998a).

Schiedea sarmentosa

has been found in Kawela Gulch, Makolelau, and Onini Gulch (HINHP Database 2000). Currently, only two populations are known to be extant. One population on the boundary of the privately owned land of TNCH's Kamakou Preserve and State owned land in Onini Gulch has approximately 30 individuals (HINHP Database 2000). The other population occurs on privately owned land in Makolelau, and consists of 4 subpopulations totaling approximately 300 to 400 individuals (USFWS 1998a; GDSI 2000). Estimates of the total number of individuals have ranged up to 1,000 (USFWS 1998a). An accurate count is somewhat difficult because this species is interspersed with

Schiedea lydgatei

(USFWS 1998a).

Schiedea sarmentosa

is typically found on steep slopes in

Metrosideros polymorpha-Dodonaea viscosa

lowland dry or mesic shrubland between 610 and 790 m (2,000 and 2,600 ft) elevation (HINHP Database 2000; HPCC 2000). Associated species include

Styphelia tameiameiae, Chenopodium oahuensis

(ahe ahea),

Alyxia oliviformis

(maile),

Pleomele

sp. (hala pepe),

Bidens menziesii

(kokoolau),

Carex meynii

(No common name),

Lipochaeta rockii

(nehe),

Nestegis sandwicensis, Nothocestrum latifolium

(aiea),

Nototrichium sandwicense

(kului),

Sida fallax

(ilima),

Sophora chrysophylla

(mamane), and

Chamaesyce

sp. (HINHP Database 2000).

Major threats to

Schiedea sarmentosa

include habitat degradation by feral goats and pigs, competition by the non-native plants

Melinis minutiflora

and

Ricinus communis

(paaila), and fire. The species is also threatened by a risk of extinction from naturally occurring events due to the low number of populations (61 FR 53130; USFWS 1998a).

Silene alexandri

(no common name)

Silene alexandri

, a member of the pink family (Caryophyllaceae), is an erect, perennial herb, 30 to 60 cm (1 to 2 ft) tall, and woody at the base. The narrow, elliptic leaves are hairless except for a fringe along the margins. Flowers are arranged in open clusters on stalks. The hairless stems, flowering stalks, and sepals and the larger flowers with white petals separate this species from other members of the genus (Wagner,

et al

. 1999).

Currently, no life history information is available for this species.

Historically,

Silene alexandri

was known from Makolelau and Kamalo on East Molokai. Currently, one population comprising fewer than 10 individuals remains in Makolelau on privately owned land (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

The only known population is found in remnant dry forest and shrubland at an elevation between 610 and 760 m (2,000 and 2,500 ft) (HINHP Database 2000; Wagner,

et al.

1999). Associated plant species include

Dodonaea viscosa, Metrosideros polymorpha, Styphelia tameiameiae, Dicranopteris linearis, Chenopodium oahuense,

and

Sophora chrysophylla

(Gagne and Cuddihy 1999).

Threats to the single population of

Silene alexandri

include habitat degradation by feral goats, predation by goats and cattle (

Bos taurus

) may possibly occur, and catastrophic extinction through random environmental events, of which the most serious is fire, due to the vulnerability of this single population (57 FR 46325; USFWS 1996a).

Stenogyne bifida

(no common name)

Stenogyne bifida

, a nonaromatic member of the mint family (Lamiaceae), is a climbing perennial herb, with smooth or slightly hairy, four-angled stems. The opposite, membranous, toothed leaves are oval or elliptical in shape, and are hairless except for the midribs. Flowers are usually arranged in groups of two to six in each of several whorls at the ends of the stems. The petals are fused into a nearly straight, yellow tube which flares into pale-brown lobes comprising an upper and a lower lip. The fruits are fleshy, black nutlets. The long, narrow calyx teeth and the deep lobe in the upper lip of the yellow corolla separate this species from others of the genus (Weller and Sakai 1999).

Currently, no life history information is available for this species.

Historically,

Stenogyne bifida

was known from scattered populations from Waianui in central Molokai to Pukoo Ridge on East Molokai (HINHP Database 2000). This species is now known from only four East Molokai populations totaling fewer than 10 individuals on Manawai-Kahananui Ridge along the boundary between private and State lands; on Kolo Ridge, at Kamoku flats; and on the eastern fork of Kawela Gulch on the privately owned land of TNCH's Pelekunu Preserve (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

Stenogyne bifida

typically grows on steep ridges in

Metrosideros polymorpha

dominated montane mesic to wet forest with native species such as

Cibotium

sp.,

Hedyotis

sp.,

Cyanea

sp., Dicranopteris linearis, Dodonaea viscosa,

Hedyotis hillebrandii

(manono),

Pipturus albidus, Psychotria

sp.,

Styphelia tameiameiae, Vaccinium

sp.,

Wikstroemia

sp.,

Cheirodendron trigynum, Broussaisia arguta

, and

Pouteria sandwicensis

(alaa) at elevations between 450 and 1,200 m (1,450 and 4,000 ft) (HINHP Database 2000; USFWS 1996a).

The most pervasive threat to this species is habitat degradation by ungulates (axis deer, goats, and pigs) (57 FR 46325; USFWS 1996a).

Tetramolopium rockii

(no common name)

Tetramolopium rockii

, a member of the aster family (Asteraceae), is a glandular, hairy, prostrate perennial shrub which forms complexly branching mats. The species has been divided into two varieties in the most recent treatment of this genus in Hawaii. Leaves of variety

calcisabulorum

have slightly inrolled edges, and are whitish due to the long silky hairs on their surfaces. Variety

rockii

has smaller, less hairy, flat, yellowish-green leaves. The leaves of both varieties are spatula-shaped with glands and smooth margins. Flower heads, arranged singly at the ends of flowering stalks are composed of approximately 60 to 100 white ray florets surround 30 to 55 functionally male, yellow, funnel-shaped disk florets. Fruits are achenes topped with white bristles. This species differs from others of the genus by its growth habit, its hairy and glandular surfaces, its spatulate leaf shape, and its yellow disk florets (Lowrey 1999).

Currently, no life history information is available for this species (USFWS 1996a).

Of the two recognized varieties of

Tetramolopium rockii,

variety

rockii

was first discovered at Moomomi about 80 years ago and is still extant in that area.

Tetramolopium rockii

var.

rockii

is found in three areas, from Kalawao to Kahinaakalani, Keieho Point to Kaplalauoa, and from Moomomi to Kahinaakalani (HINHP Database 2000). Variety

calcisabulorum

is only reported from Keieho Point to Kaplalauoa intergrading with variety

rockii

where their ranges overlap (HINHP Database 2000). The total number of individuals of both varieties in the three populations is estimated to be 174,000; they are located on State lands, including land managed by the National Park Service at Kalaupapa National Historical Park, and privately owned lands (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000).

Tetramolopium rockii

is restricted to hardened calcareous sand dunes or ash-covered basalt in the coastal spray zone or coastal dry shrubland and grassland between 10 and 200 m (30 and 650 ft) in elevation (Lowrey 1999). Native plant species associated with this species include

Canthium odoratum, Diospyros sandwicensis, Metrosideros polymorpha, Osteomeles anthyllidifolia

(ulei),

Scaevola

sp. (naupaka),

Fimbristylis cymosa

(mau u aki aki),

Heliotropium anomalum

(ahinahina),

Lipochaeta integrifolia

(nehe),

Sida fallax

, and

Sporobolus virginicus

(akiaki) (USFWS 1996a; HINHP Database 2000).

The major threats to

Tetramolopium rockii

are habitat degradation by ungulate (axis deer and cattle) activity and human recreation, competition with the non-native plant

Prosopis pallida

(kiawe), and catastrophic extinction due to fire (57 FR 46325).

Multi-Island Species

Adenophorus periens

(pendant kihi fern)

Adenophorus periens

, a short-lived perennial member of the grammitis family (Grammitidaceae), is a small, pendant, epiphytic (not rooted on the ground) fern. This species differs from other species in this endemic Hawaiian genus by having hairs along the pinna margins, by the pinnae being at right angles to the midrib axis, by the placement of the sori on the pinnae, and the degree of dissection of each pinna (USFWS 1999; Linney 1989).

Little is known about the life history of

Adenophorus periens

, which seems to grow only in dense closed-canopy forest with high humidity. Its breeding system is unknown but outbreeding is very likely to be the predominant mode of reproduction. Spores are dispersed by wind, possibly by water, and perhaps on the feet of birds or insects (Linney 1989). Spores lack a thick resistant coat which may indicate their longevity is brief, probably measured in days at most. Due to the weak differences between seasons, there seems to be no evidence of seasonality in growth or reproduction. Additional information on reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors is not available (USFWS 1999).

Historically,

Adenophorus periens

was known from Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, East Maui, and Hawaii Island (HINHP Database 2000). Currently, it is known from several locations on Kauai, Molokai, and Hawaii (HINHP Database 2000). On Molokai, it is found in a single population containing seven individuals on the privately owned land within TNCH's Kamakou Preserve (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

This species, an epiphyte usually growing on

Metrosideros polymorpha

trunks, is found in

Metrosideros polymorpha-Myrsine lessertiana

(kolea) forest at elevations between 400 and 1,265 m (1,312 and 4,150 ft) (HINHP Database 2000). It is found in habitats of well-developed, closed canopy providing deep shade and high humidity (Linney 1989). Associated native species include

Broussasia arguta, Cheirodendron trigynum, Coprosma ochracea, Cyanea

sp.,

Cyrtandra

sp. (haiwale),

Dicranopteris linearis, Freycinetia arborea, Hedyotis terminalis, Labordia hirtella

(No common name),

Machaerina angustifolia

(uki),

Psychotria hexandra

(kopiko),

Styphelia tameiameiae, Ilex anomala, Vaccinium calycinum

(ohelo),

Cibotium glaucum

(hapuu),

Melicope

sp.,

Viola robusta

(pamakani),

Stenogyne kamehamehae

(No common name),

Anoectochilus sandvicensis

(jewel orchid), and

Syzygium sandwicensis

(ohia ha) (HINHP Database 2000; USFWS 1999).

The threats to this species on Molokai are habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats, and competition with the non-native plant

Psidium cattleianum

(strawberry guava) (HINHP Database 2000; 59 FR 56333; USFWS 1999).

Alectryon macrococcus

(mahoe)

Alectryon macrococcus

, a long-lived perennial member of the soapberry family (Sapindaceae), consists of two varieties,

macrococcus

and

auwahiensis

, both trees with reddish-brown branches and net-veined paper- or leather-like leaves with one to five pairs of sometimes asymmetrical egg-shaped leaflets. The underside of the leaf has dense brown hairs, only when young in

A. macrococcus

var.

macrococcus

, and whether young or mature (persistent) in

A. macrococcus

var.

auwahiensis

(only found on East Maui). The only member of its genus found in Hawaii, this species is distinguished from other Hawaiian members of its family by being a tree with a hard fruit 2.5 cm (0.9 in) or more in diameter (Kimura and Nagata 1980; Wagner

et al

. 1999).

Alectryon macrococcus

is a relatively slow-growing tree that grows in xeric to mesic sites and is adapted to periodic drought. Little else is known about the life history of this species. Flowering cycles, pollination vectors, seed dispersal agents, and specific environmental requirements are unknown.

Currently,

Alectryon macrococcus

var.

macrococcus

is known from Kauai, Oahu, Maui, and Molokai. On Molakai, it is found on the privately owned land of TNCH's Kamakou Preserve, along the Puu Kolekole jeep road, Kaunakakai Gulch, and Kamiloloa Gulch in a total

of six populations containing nine individuals on State and privately owned lands (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

Alectryon macrococcus

var.

macrococcus

typically grows on dry or talus slopes or in gulches within dry or mesic lowland forest between elevations of 360 and 1,070 m (1,181 and 3,510 ft) (HINHP Database 2000; Wagner

et al

. 1999). Associated native plants include

Dodonea viscosa, Nestegis sandwicensis, Nothocestrum

sp. (aiea),

Pleomele

sp.,

Psychotria

sp.,

Streblus pendulina

(aiai),

Myrsine

sp. (kolea), and

Lipochaeta

sp. (nehe) (USFWS 1997; HINHP Database 2000).

The threats to

Alectryon macrococcus

var.

macrococcus

on Molokai include habitat degradation by feral goats and pigs; competition from non-native plant species such as

Melinus minutiflora, Pennisetum clandestinum

(kikuyu grass),

Schinus terebinthifolius,

and

Psidium cattleianum

; damage from the black twig borer (

Xylosandrus compactus

); seed predation by rats and mice (

Mus domesticus

) and by insects (probably the endemic microlepidopteran

Prays

cf.

fulvocanella

); loss of pollinators; and catastrophic extinction through a single natural or human-caused environmental disturbance (

e.g.,

fire) due to the very small remaining number of individuals and their limited distribution on Molokai (USFWS 1997; 57 FR 20772; HINHP Database 2000).

Brighamia rockii

(pua ala)

Brighamia rockii

, a long-lived perennial member of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), grows as an unbranched stem succulent with a thickened stem that tapers from the base. This species is a member of a unique endemic Hawaiian genus with only one other species, found on Kauai, from which it differs by the color of its petals, its longer calyx (fused sepals) lobes, and its shorter flower stalks (Lammers 1999).

Observations of

Brighamia rockii

by Gemmill (1996) have provided the following information: the reproductive system is protandrous, meaning there is a temporal separation between the production of male and female gametes, in this case a separation of several days; only 5 percent of the flowers produce pollen; very few fruits are produced per inflorescence; there are 20 to 60 seeds per capsule; and plants in cultivation have flowers at an age of 9 months (USFWS 1996a). This species was observed in flower during August (HINHP Database 2000).

Historically,

Brighamia rockii

ranged along the northern coast of East Molokai from Kalaupapa to Halawa and may possibly have grown on Lanai and Maui (HINHP Database 2000; Lammers 1999). Currently, it is only extant on Molokai in a total of five populations with between 121 to 131 individual plants occurring on State and privately owned lands (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000). It occurs on steep, inaccessible sea cliffs along East Molokai's northern coastline from Anapuhi Beach to Wailau Valley on private lands, and on the relatively inaccessible State-owned sea stack of Huelo, east of Anapuhi Beach (HINHP Database 2000; K. Wood,

in litt.

2000).

The plants are found in rock crevices on steep basalt sea cliffs, often within the spray zone, in coastal dry or mesic forest,

Eragrostis variabilis

(kawelu) mixed coastal cliff communities, or shrubland, or

Pritchardia

sp. (loulu) coastal mesic forest between sea level and 470 m (0 and 1,540 ft). Associated native species include

Pritchardia hillebrandii

(loulu),

Chamaesyce celastroides

var.

amplectans

(akoko),

Wikstroemia uva-ursi

(akia),

Carex wahuensis

ssp.

wahuensis

(No common name),

Mariscus phleoides

ssp.

pleoides

(No common name),

Eragrostis variabilis, Dianella sandwicensis

(ukiuki),

Cocculus trilobus

(huehue),

Phymatosorus scolopendria

(lauae),

Crytomium falcatum

(ahina kuahiwi),

Lepidium bidentatum

var.

o-waihiense

(anaunau),

Pittosporum halophilum

(hoawa),

Artemisia

sp.,

Bidens

sp. (kookoolau),

Schiedea globosa

(No common name),

Reynoldsia sandwicensis

(ohe),

Pandanus tectorius

(hala),

Peucedanum sandwicensis

(makou),

Hedyotis littoralis

(No common name),

Metrosideros polymorpha, Psydrax odoratum, Diospyros sandwicensis, Osteomeles anthyllidifolia, Tetramolopium cassia

(pamakani),

Senna gaudichaudii

(kolomona), and

Scaevola sericea

(naupaka kahakai) (HINHP Database 2000; Lammers 1999; K. Wood,

in litt.

2000).

The threats to this species on Molokai are habitat degradation (and possibly predation) by deer and goats; competition with the non-native plants,

Cyperus gracilis

(McCoy grass),

Digitaria ciliaris

(Henry's crabgrass),

Digitaria insularis

(sourgrass),

Ficus microcarpa

(Chinese banyan),

Kalanchoe pinnata, Lantana camara

(lantana),

Oxalis corniculata

(yellow wood sorrel),

Pluchea symphytifolia

(sourbush),

Portulaca oleracea

(pigweed), and

Solanum seaforthianum

(No common name); seed predation by rats; and lack of pollinators (USFWS 1996a; 57 FR 46325; HINHP Database 2000).

Centaurium sebaeoides

(awiwi)

Centaurium sebaeoides

, a member of the gentian family (Gentianaceae), is an annual herb with fleshy leaves and stalkless flowers. This species is distinguished from

Centaurium erythraea

, which is naturalized in Hawaii, by its fleshy leaves and the unbranched arrangement of the flower cluster (Wagner

et al.

1999).

Centaurium sebaeoides

has been observed flowering in April. Flowering may be induced by heavy rainfall. Populations are found in dry areas, and plants are more likely to be found following heavy rains (USFWS 1995a). This species appears to be a determinate annual; triggered by declining photo-period, the plant produces seeds and dies (Medeiros

et al.

1999). Medeiros

et al.

(1999) noted that in the wild seedlings first appeared in March and April; flowers first appeared in April and May; mature capsules were observed beginning in May and continuing through June; and by the first week of July, most plants were dead. No additional life history information is available for this plant (USFWS 1995a).

Historically and currently,

Centaurium sebaeoides

is known from scattered localities on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (Wagner

et al

. 1999). Currently on Molokai, there are a total of two populations containing thousands of individuals, near Mokio Point on privately owned land and in Kalaupapa National Historical Park on State and federally owned land that is managed by the National Park Service (Chuck Chimera, formerly with Biological Resources Division (BRD), pers. comm. 2000; GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

This species typically grows in volcanic or clay soils or on cliffs in arid coastal areas below 120 m (400 ft) elevation on Molokai (56 FR 55770; Wagner

et al

. 1999). Associated species include

Chamaesyce celastroides

(akoko),

Dodonea viscosa, Fimbristylis cymosa, Heteropogon contortus

(pili grass),

Lipochaeta heterophylla

(nehe),

Lipochaeta integrifolia, Lycium sandwicense

(ohelo kai),

Lysimachia mauritiana

(kolokolo kuahiwi),

Mariscus phleoides

(No common name),

Panicum fauriei

(No common name),

Panicum torridum

(kakonakona),

Scaevola sericea, Schiedea globosa, Sida fallax, Wikstroemia uva-ursi, Artemisia

sp.,

Bidens

sp.,

Jaquemontia ovalifolia

(pa uohi iaka), and

Lipochaeta succulenta

(nehe) (Medeiros et al. 1999; 56 FR 55770).

The major threats to this species on Molokai are displacement by non-native

woody species such as:

Casuarina equisetifolia

(paina),

Casuarina glauca

(saltmarsh),

Laucaena leucocephala

(koa haole),

Prosopis pallida, Schinus terebinthifolius, Syzygium cumini

(Java plum), and

Tournefortia argentea

(tree heliotrope); trampling and habitat degradation by feral goats and cattle; and damage caused by off-road vehicles (Medeiros

et al.

1999).

Ctenitis squamigera

(pauoa)

Ctenitis squamigera

is a short-lived perennial and a member of the wood fern family (Dryopteridaceae) (Wagner and Wagner 1992). It has a rhizome (horizontal stem) 5 to 10 mm (0.2 to 0.4 in) thick, creeping above the ground and densely covered with scales similar to those on the lower part of the leaf stalk. The leaf stalks are densely clothed with tan-colored scales up to 1.8 cm (0.7 in) long and 1 mm (0.04 in) wide. The sori are tan-colored when mature and are in a single row one-third of the distance from the margin to the midrib of the ultimate segments (Degener and Degener 1957). The indusium is whitish before wrinkling, thin, suborbicular with a narra sinus extending about half way, glabrous except for a circular margin which is ciliolate with simple several-celled glandular and nonglandular hairs arising directly from the margin or from the deltoid base (Degener and Degener 1957).

Ctenitis squamigera

can be readily distinguished from other Hawaiian species of

Ctenitis

by the dense covering of tan-colored scales on its fronds (Wagner and Wagner 1992).

Reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements and limiting factors are unknown (USFWS 1998b).

Historically,

Ctenitis squamigera

was recorded from Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii (HINHP Database 2000). It is currently found on Oahu, Lanai, Molokai, and Maui. There is currently a single population with 20 individuals on the island of Molokai in Wawaia Gulch on privately owned land (GDSI 2000; J. Lau,

in litt

. 2000).

On Molokai, this species is found in mesic forest at an elevation of approximately 865 m (254 ft) (J. Lau,

in litt

. 2000). Associated native plant taxa include

Metrosideros polymorpha, Myrsine lessertiana

(kolea),

Diospyros sandwicensis, Nestegis sandwicensis, Xylosma hawaiiense

(maua),

Pouteria sandwicensis, Nephrolepis exaltata

(kupukupu),

Carex meyenii, Dryopteris unidentata

(No common name), and

Pleomele auwahiensis

(hala pepe) (J. Lau,

in litt

. 2000; USFWS 1998b; 59 FR 49025).

The primary threats to

Ctenitis squamigera

are habitat degradation by goats, and competition with the non-native plant taxa

Schinus terebinthifolius

and

Melinis minutiflora

(J. Lau,

in litt

. 2000; USFWS 1998b; 59 FR 49025).

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

(haha)

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana,

a short-lived perennial member of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is a shrub with pinnately divided leaves. This species is distinguished from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by the pinnately lobed leaf margins and the width of the leaf blades. This subspecies is distinguished from the other two subspecies by the shape and size of the calyx lobes which overlap at the base (Lammers 1999).

Little is known about the life history of this plant. On Molokai, flowering plants have been observed in July and August. Reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are unknown (USFWS 1999).

Historically and currently,

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

is known from Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Maui (USFWS 1999). On Molokai, it is found in a total of three populations containing eight individuals, in Wailau, Puu Kahea and Olokui NAR on State and privately owned lands (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

This species is typically found in mesic forest often dominated by

Metrosideros polymorpha

and

Acacia koa

(koa), or on cliffs, at elevations between 350 and 945 m (1,150 and 3,100 ft). Associated plants include

Psychotria

sp.,

Bobea

sp. (ahakea),

Antidesma

sp.,

Syzygium sandwicensis, Xylosma

sp. (maua),

Cibotium

sp.,

Doodia

sp. (ohupukupulauii),

Nephrolepis

sp. (kupukupu),

Cyrtandra

sp.,

Dicranopteris linearis,

and

Freycinetia arborea

(HINHP Database 2000).

The threats to this species on Molokai are habitat degradation and/or destruction caused by axis deer, feral goats, and pigs; competition with various non-native plants such as

Clidemia hirta

; catastrophic extinction by randomly naturally occurring events (

e.g.,

fire, landslides) due to the small number of existing individuals; trampling by hikers; seed predation by rats; and predation by various slugs (

Milax

sp.) (HINHP Database 2000; 61 FR 53108; USFWS 1999).

Diellia erecta

(no common name)

Diellia erecta

, a short-lived perennial member of the spleenwort family (Aspleniaceae), is a fern that grows in tufts of 3 to 9 lance-shaped fronds which emerge from a rhizome covered with brown to dark gray scales. This species differs from other members of the genus in having brown or dark gray scales usually more than 2 cm (0.8 in) in length, fused or separate sori along both margins, shiny black midribs that have a hardened surface, and veins that do not usually encircle the sori (Degener and Greenwell 1950; Robinson 1912; Wagner 1952).

Little is known about the life history of this taxon. Reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are unknown (USFWS 1999).

Historically,

Diellia erecta

was known from Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (USFWS 1999). Currently, it is only known from Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii (USFWS 1999). On Molokai, it is known from a total of 4 populations containing at least 10 individuals in Halawa Valley, Kahuaawi Gulch, Makolelau and Onini Gulch on State and privately owned lands (HINHP Database 2000; K. Wood,

in litt

. 1999).

This species is found in mixed mesic forest and mesic

Diospyros sandwicensis

(lama) forest between elevations of 210 and 1,490 m (700 and 4,900 ft) (HINHP Database 2000; K. Wood, in litt. 1999). Associated native plant species include

Alyxia oliviformis, Metrosideros polymorpha, Bobea

sp.,

Coprosma foliosa

(pilo),

Dodonea viscosa, Dryopteris unidentata, Myrsine

sp.,

Ochrosia comta

(holei),

Dubautia linearis

ssp.

opposita

(na ena e),

Psychotria

sp.,

Pleomele auwahiensis, Sophora chrysophylla, Styphelia tameiameiae, Syzygium sandwicensis,

and

Wikstroemia

sp. (HINHP Database 2000; K. Wood,

in litt.

1999).

The major threats to

Diellia erecta

on Molokai are habitat degradation by pigs, goats, and deer; competition with the non-native plant species

Fraxinus uhdei

(tropical ash),

Ricinus communis, Melinus minutiflora, Psidium cattleianum, Blechnum occidentale

(No common name); and catastrophic extinction due to random naturally occurring events and reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing individuals (HINHP Database 2000; K. Wood,

in litt.

1999; 59 FR 56333; USFWS 1999).

Hedyotis mannii

(pilo)

Hedyotis mannii,

a member of the coffee family (Rubiaceae), is a short-lived perennial with smooth, usually erect stems 30 to 60 cm (1 to 2 ft) long which are woody at the base and four-angled or -winged. The leaves are opposite, thin in texture and elliptic to

sometimes lance-shaped. Stipules (leaf-like appendages), which are attached to the slightly winged leaf stalks where they join and clasp the stem, are triangular. Flowers are arranged in loose clusters up to 30 cm (1 ft) long at the ends of the stems and are either bisexual or female. This species' growth habit; its quadrangular or winged stems; the shape, size, and texture of its leaves; and its dry capsule which opens when mature, separate it from other species of the genus (Wagner

et al.

1999).

Currently, no life history information is available for this species (USFWS 1996a).

Hedyotis mannii

was once widely scattered on Lanai, West Maui, and Molokai (HINHP Database 2000). Currently, this species is extant on Molokai, West Maui, and Lanai. After an absence of 50 years, this species was rediscovered in 1987 by Steve Perlman on private land in Kawela Gulch in TNCH's Kamakou Preserve (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000). Only five plants are known to exist in this area (HINHP Database 2000).

Hedyotis mannii

typically grows on dark, narrow, rocky gulch walls in mesic and perhaps wet forests at 150 to 1,050 m (490 to 3,450 ft) in elevation (Wagner

et al.

1999; HINHP Database 2000). Associated plant species include

Pipturus

sp.,

Cibotium

sp.,

Cyanea

sp.,

Scaevola

sp., and

Psychotria

sp. (HINHP Database 2000; USFWS 1996a).

The threats to

Hedyotis mannii

on Molokai are habitat degradation by feral pigs; competition with the non-native plant

Melinis minutiflora;

and catastrophic extinction through random environmental events to which the limited number of individuals are extremely vulnerable (HINHP Database 2000; 57 FR 46325; USFWS 1996a).

Hesperomannia arborescens

(no common name)

Hesperomannia arborescens,

a long-lived perennial member of the aster family (Asteraceae), is a small shrubby tree that usually stands 1.5 to 5 m (5 to 16 ft) tall. This member of an endemic Hawaiian genus differs from other

Hesperomannia

species in having the following combination of characters, erect to ascending flower heads, thick flower head stalks, and usually hairless and relatively narrow leaves (Wagner

et al.

1999).

This species was observed in flower from April through June and fruit during March and June (USFWS 1998c). No other information is available on reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors (USFWS 1998c).

Hesperomannia arborescens

was formerly known from Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu (HINHP Database 2000). This species is now known from Oahu, Molokai, and Maui. On Molokai, one population of five individuals is known from the State's Olokui NAR (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

Hesperomannia arborescens

is found on slopes or ridges in wet

Metrosideros polymorpha-Dicranopteris

linearis lowland forest or mesic

Diospyros sandwicensis-Metrosideros polymorpha

lowland forest transition zones between 360 and 750 m (1,200 and 2,500 ft) in elevation (HINHP Database 2000). Associated native species include

Broussaisia arguta, Freycinetia arborea, Antidesma

sp.,

Cibotium glaucum, Psychotria mauiensis

(kopiko),

Elaphoglossum

sp. (ekaha),

Coprosma

sp.,

Hedyotis

sp.,

Cheirodendron

sp.,

Smilax melastomifolia

(hoi kuahiwi),

Clermontia pallida

(oha wai),

Thelypteris

sp. (palapalaia),

Diplopterygium pinnatum

(uluhe lau nui),

Ilex anomala, Myrsine

sp.,

Urera glabra, Cyrtandra

sp.,

Pipturus

sp.,

Boehmeria grandis, Nestegis sandwicensis

(olopua),

Nephrolepis exaltata,

and

Wikstroemia

sp. (HINHP Database 2000).

The major threats to

Hesperomannia arborescens

on Molokai are habitat degradation by feral pigs, goats, and humans; competition with non-native plant taxa such as

Clidemia hirta, Kalanchoe pinnata,

and

Rubus rosifolius;

catastrophic extinction due to random environmental events or reduced reproductive vigor due to this species' limited numbers are significant threats as well (59 FR 14482; HINHP Database 2000).

Ischaemum byrone

(Hilo ischaemum)

Ischaemum byrone,

a member of the grass family (Poaceae), is a short-lived perennial species with creeping underground and erect stems.

Ischaemum byrone

can be distinguished from other Hawaiian grasses by its tough outer flower bracts, dissimilar basic flower units, which are awned and two-flowered, and a di- or trichotomously-branching inflorescence (O'Connor 1999).

No life history information is currently available for this species (USFWS 1996b).

Ischaemum byrone

was historically distributed on Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (59 FR 10305). Currently, this species is found on Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island. It has also been reported from unconfirmed sightings on Kauai (HINHP Database 2000). On Molokai, there are a total of 2 populations containing between 100 to 1,000 individuals located in Wailau Valley and the eastern edge of Kikipua on State and privately owned lands (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

Ischaemum byrone

is found in coastal dry shrubland or

Artemisia

cliff communities, near the ocean, among rocks or on basalt cliffs or talus slopes, and elevations between sea level and 75 m (0 and 250 ft) (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999; O'Connor 1999; HINHP Database 2000). Associated taxa include

Bidens molokaiensis

(No common name),

Hedyotis littoralis, Lysimachia mauritiana, Fimbrystylis cymosa,

and

Pandanus tectorius

(hala) (HINHP Database 2000).

The threats to

Ischaemum byrone

on Molokai are competition by non-native grasses, particularly

Digitaria ciliaris;

predation by goats and axis deer; and elimination and degradation of habitat through fire and residential development; (USFWS 1996b).

Mariscus fauriei

(no common name)

Mariscus fauriei,

a member of the sedge family (Cyperaceae), is a perennial plant with somewhat enlarged underground stems and three-angled, single or grouped aerial stems 10 to 50 cm (4 to 20 in) tall. It has leaves shorter than or the same length as the stems 1 to 3.5 mm (0.04 to 0.1 in) wide. This species differs from others in the genus in Hawaii by its smaller size and its narrower, flattened, and more spreading spikelets (Koyama 1999; 59 FR 56333).

Currently, no life history information is available for this species (USFWS 1996b).

Historically and currently,

Mariscus fauriei

is found on east Molokai and on the island of Hawaii. This species is no longer extant on Lanai. Currently on Molokai, one population with 20 to 30 plants occurs above Kamiloloa on State-owned land (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000).

This species typically grows in

Diospyros sandwicensis

dominated lowland dry forests, often on a lava substrate, at an elevation of 207 m (680 ft) (HINHP Database 2000; Koyama 1999). Associated species include

Canthium odoratum, Peperomia

sp. (ala ala wai nui), and

Rauvolfia sandwicensis

(hao) (HINHP Database 2000).

The threats to

Mariscus fauriei

on Molokai are predation and habitat degradation by feral goats and axis deer. Because there is only one known population on Molokai, the species is threatened by the risk of extinction through random environmental events and through reduced reproductive vigor (USFWS 1996b; 59 FR 56333).

Marsilea villosa

(ihi ihi)

Marsilea villos,

a member of the family Marsileaceae, is a perennial aquatic to semiaquatic fern similar in appearance to a four-leaved clover. The leaves are born in pairs along a thin rhizome. The leaves and rhizomes vary in pubescence, depending on the aridity of the habitat at the time of development. A hard sporocarp (hard-walled case containing male and female spores) is borne at the base of a leaf pair. The young sporocarp, like the rhizome, is covered with rust-colored hairs which are lost as the sporocarp matures. The plant occurs either in scattered clumps or as a dense interwoven mat, depending on the competition with other species for limited habitat resources. The species is the only member of the genus native to Hawaii and is closely related to

Marsilea vestita

of the western coast of the United States (USFWS 1996c).

Marsilea villosa

requires periodic flooding for spore release and fertilization, then a decrease in water levels for the young plants to establish, and finally dry soil for sporocarps to mature. Shading reduces vigor of

Marsilea villosa.

No other life history information is currently available for this species (USFWS 1996c).

Marsilea villosa

was known historically from Oahu, Molokai and Niihau. Currently, it is found only on Oahu and Molokai. On Molokai there are four populations with an unspecified number of individuals located at Kamaka ipo, Ilio Point, Kaiehu Point, and from Kaeo to Mokio on State and privately owned lands (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000).

Marsilea villosa

typically occurs in shallow depressions in clay soil, or lithified sand dunes overlaid with alluvial clay. All reported populations occur at or below 150 m (500 ft) elevation. While

Marsiliea villosa

can withstand minimal shading, it appears most vigorous growing in open areas. The associated native vegetation of

Marsilea villosa

on Molokai includes

Heteropogon contortus, Sida fallax, Waltheria indica

(uhaloa),

Centaurium sebaeoides

(awiwi),

Tetramolopium sylvae

(pamakani), and

Schiedea globosa

(USFWS 1996c).

The main reason for the decline of

Marsilea villosa

on Molokai is habitat destruction including the destruction of natural hydrology; the encroachment and competition from naturalized, non-native plants such as

Cenchrus ciliaris

(buffelgrass),

Prosopis pallida, Lantana camara, Digitaria insularis,

and

Chamaecrista nictitans

(partridge pea); the disturbance of areas where the plant grows by off-road vehicles or by grazing cattle and axis deer; habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation through development, fire, trampling by humans and introduced mammals; catastrophic extinction from random environmental events and reduced reproductive vigor due to few populations and small population sizes (USFWS 1996c; 57 FR 27863).

Melicope mucronulata

(no common name)

Melicope mucronulata,

a long-lived perennial of the citrus family (Rutaceae) is a small tree up to 13 ft (4 m) tall with oval to elliptic-oval leaves. This species is distinguished from others in the genus by the growth habit, the number of flowers in each flower cluster, the size and shape of the fruit, and the degree of hairiness of the leaves and fruit walls (Stone

et al.

1999).

Currently, no life history information is available for this species.

First discovered in 1920 in Kanaio, East Maui,

Melicope mucronulata

was not relocated until 1983. One population of two individuals was then found two years later in Kupaia on the border of the privately owned Kamakou Preserve and the State's Molokai Forest Reserve in east Molokai (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000; Stone

et al.

1999).

Melicope mucronulata

occurs on steep, west- or north-facing, dry to mesic, forested lowland slopes at elevations of 670 to 870 m (2,200 to 2,850 ft). Associated native species include

Dodonea viscosa, Metrosideros polymorpha, Styphelia tameiameiae,

and

Dubautia linearis

(naenae) (HINHP Database 2000).

The major threat to the continued existence of this species is catastrophic extinction from random environmental events due to the few extant populations and small number of individuals. Habitat degradation by goats and pigs; predation by goats; and competition with non-native plants, particularly

Melinis minutiflora,

also pose immediate threats to this species (USFWS 1997; 57 FR 20772).

Neraudia sericea

(no common name)

Neraudia sericea,

a short lived perennial and a member of the nettle family (Urticaceae), is a 3 to 5 m (10 to 16 ft) tall shrub with densely hairy branches. The elliptic or oval leaves have smooth margins or slightly toothed margins on young leaves. The upper leaf surface is moderately hairy and the lower leaf surface is densely covered with irregularly curved, silky gray to white hairs along the veins. The male flowers may be stalkless or have short stalks. The female flowers are stalkless and have a densely hairy calyx that is either toothed, collar-like, or divided into narrow unequal segments. The fruits are achenes with the apical section separated from the basal portion by a deep constriction. Seeds are oval with a constriction across the upper half.

Neraudia sericea

differs from the other four closely related species of this endemic Hawaiian genus by the density, length, color, and posture of the hairs on the lower leaf surface and by its mostly entire leaf margins (Wagner

et al.

1999).

Additional information on the life history of this plant, reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are generally unknown (USFWS 1999).

Neraudia sericea

was known historically from Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Kahoolawe (HINHP Database 2000). Currently, this species is found only on Maui and Molokai. On Molokai, one population of 50 to 100 individuals is known from Makolelau on privately owned land (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

Neraudia sericea

generally occurs in lowland dry to mesic

Metrosideros polymorpha-Dodonaea viscosa-Styphelia tameiameiae

shrubland or forest between 670 and 1,370 m (2,200 and 4,500 ft) in elevation (HINHP Database 2000; Wagner

et al.

1999). Other associated plant species include

Sida fallax, Diospyros sandwicensis, Bobea

sp.,

Coprosma

sp., and

Hedyotis

sp. (HINHP Database 2000).

The primary threats to

Neraudia sericea

on Molokai are habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats; competition with the non-native plant,

Melinus minutiflora;

and catastrophic extinction through random environmental events due to the vulnerability of a single population (USFWS 1999; 59 FR 56333).

Peucedanum sandwicense

(makou)

Peucedanum sandwicense,

a short lived perennial and a member of the parsley family (Apiaceae), is a parsley-scented, sprawling herb. Hollow stems arise from a short, vertical, perennial stem with several fleshy roots. This species is the only member of the genus in the Hawaiian Islands (Constance and Affolter 1999).

Additional information on the life history of this plant, reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are generally unknown (USFWS 1995b).

Historically and currently,

Peucedanum sandwicense

was known from Molokai, Maui, and Kauai (HINHP

Database 2000). Discoveries in 1990 extended the known distribution of this species to the island of Oahu (USFWS 1995b). On Molokai, five populations are known from private and State owned lands in Pelekunu Valley, on Huelo Islet and Mokapu Islet, and State owned lands managed by the National Park Service at Kalaupapa National Historical Park, totaling approximately 50 individuals (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000; K. Wood,

in litt.

2000).

This species grows in cliff habitats in brown soil and talus in

Chamaesyce celastroides

var.

amplectans-Chenopodium oahuense

coastal dry shrubland or

Diospyros sandwicensis

forest from sea level to above 900 m (3,000 ft) and is associated with native species such as

Eragrostis

sp. (kawelu),

Santalum ellipticum

(iliahialoe),

Pritchardia hillebrandii, Reynoldsia sandwicensis, Osteomeles anthyllidifolia, Scaevola sericea, Senna gaudichaudii, Pittosporum halophilum, Sida fallax, Plumbago zeylanica

(iliee),

Artemisia australis

(ahinahina),

Portulaca lutea

(ihi),

Lepidium bidentatum

var.

o-waihiense, Schiedea globosa, Lipochaeta integrifolia, Peperomia remyi

(No common name),

Plechranthus parviflorus

(ala ala wai nui), Dianella sandwicensis and Metrosideros polymorpha (Constance and Affolter 1999; USFWS 1995b; HINHP Database 2000; K. Wood,

in litt.

2000).

Threats to

Peucedanum sandwicense

on Molokai are seed predation by rats and competition with the non-native plant species

Ageratum conyzoides

(maile hohono),

Coronopus didymus

(swinecress),

Kalanchoe pinnata, Lantana camara, Malvastrum coromandelianum

ssp.

coromandelianum

(false mallow),

Morinda citrifolia

(Indian mulberry),

Plantago lanceolata

(English plantain),

Pluchea carolinensis

(sourbush),

Portulaca oleracea , Elaphantopus spicatus

(No common name),

Schinus terebinthifolius,

and

Sonchus oleraceus

(pualele) (USFWS 1995b; 59 FR 9304; K. Wood,

in litt.

2000).

Phyllostegia mannii

(no common name)

Phyllostegia mannii,

a nonaromatic member of the mint family (Lamiaceae), is a climbing vine with many-branched, four-sided, hairy stems. The opposite, hairy leaves, which are shaped like narrow triangles or narrow triangular ovals have coarsely toothed margins. Clusters of four to six white flowers are arranged in each of several false whorls along an unbranched flowering stem. The fruits are fleshy, dark-green to black nutlets (dry seeds with a hard outer covering). This species is distinguished from others in the genus by its hairiness; its thin, narrow leaves, which are not pinnately divided; and the usually six flowers per false whorl in a terminal inflorescence (Wagner

et al.

1999).

This species was observed with fruit in July (USFWS 1996a). Currently, no additional life history information is available for this species.

Historically,

Phyllostegia mannii

was found from Hanalilolilo to Ohialele on East Molokai and at Ukulele on East Maui. It has not been seen on Maui for over 70 years and is apparently extirpated on that island (USFWS 1996a). This species is now known only from four individuals at Hanalilolilo within Kamakou Preserve on privately owned land (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000).

Phyllostegia mannii

grows in shaded sites in sometimes foggy and windswept, wet, open,

Metrosideros polymorpha

-dominated montane forest with a native shrub and

Cibotium

sp. understory at 347 m (1,140 ft) in elevation (USFWS 1996a). Associated plant species include

Asplenium

sp. (No common name),

Broussaisia arguta, Cheirodendron trigynum, Coprosma ochracea, Cyanea

sp.,

Dicranopteris linearis, Hedyotis hillebrandii, Pipturus albidus, Pouteria sandwicensis, Psychotria

sp.,

Touchardia latifolia, Vaccinium

sp., and

Wikstromia

sp. (HINHP Database 2000).

The only known population of

Phyllostegia mannii

is threatened by habitat destruction and degradation by feral pigs. Because of the small number of individuals, a natural or human-caused environmental event could extirpate all or a significant portion of the population (USFWS 1996a; 57 FR 46325).

Plantago princeps

(ale)

Plantago princeps,

a short-lived member of the plantain family (Plantaginaceae), is a small shrub or robust perennial herb. This species differs from other native members of the genus in Hawaii by its large branched stems, flowers at nearly right angles to the axis of the flower cluster, and fruits that break open at a point two-thirds from the base. The four varieties,

anomala, laxiflora, longibracteata,

and

princeps,

are distinguished by the branching and pubescence of the stems; the size, pubescence, and venation of the leaves; the density of the inflorescence; and the orientation of the flowers (Wagner

et al.

1999).

Little is known about the life history of this plant. Reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are generally unknown. However, individuals have been observed in fruit from April through September (USFWS 1999).

Plantago princeps

is historically and currently found on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui. It is no longer extant on the island of Hawaii.

Plantago princeps

var.

anomala

is currently known from Kauai and Oahu; var.

longibracteata

is known from Kauai and Oahu; var.

princeps

is known from Oahu; and var.

laxiflora

is known from Molokai and Maui. On Molokai, there is currently one remaining population of

Plantago princeps

var.

laxiflora

with five individuals in Kawela Gulch on privately owned lands (GDSI 2000; HINHP Database 2000; USFWS 1999).

On Molokai,

Plantago princeps

var.

laxiflora

is typically found on basalt cliffs in

Metrosideros polymorpha

lowland wet forest or

Acacia koa-Metrosideros polymorpha

montane wet forest or Metrosideros polymorpha montane wet shrubland, from 402 to 2,042 m (1,320 to 6,700 ft) elevation (Wagner

et al.

1999). Associated plant species include

Eragrostis variabilis, Hedyotis formosa

(No common name), and

Dubautia plantaginea

spp.

humile

(na ena e) (HINHP Database 2000; USFWS 1999).

The primary threats to

Plantago princeps

var.

laxiflora

on Molokai are predation and habitat degradation by feral pigs and goats and competition with various non-native plant species (59 FR 56333; USFWS 1999).

Platanthera holochila

(no common name)

Platanthera holochila,

a short-lived perennial and a member of the orchid family (Orchidaceae), is an erect, deciduous herb. The stems arise from underground tubers, the pale green leaves are lance to egg-shaped and the greenish-yellow flowers occur in open spikes. This is the only species of this genus that occurs in the Hawaiian Islands (Wagner

et al.

1999).

Little is known about the life history of this plant. Reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are unknown (USFWS 1999).

Historically,

Platanthera holochila

was known from Maui, Oahu, Molokai, and Kauai (HINHP Database 2000). Currently,

Platanthera holochila

is extant on Kauai, Molokai, and Maui (HINHP Database 2000). On Molokai, one population with less than 10 individuals is reported from Hanalilolilo on the privately owned land of Kamakou Preserve (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000).

Platanthera holochila

is found in

Metrosideros polymorpha-Dicranopteris

linearis

montane wet forest or

Metrosideros polymorpha

mixed montane bog between 1,048 and 1,515 m (3,440 and 4,970 ft) elevation. Associated native plants include

Cibotium

sp.,

Coprosma ernodeoides

(nene),

Oreobolus furcatus

(No common name),

Styphelia tameiameiae, Wikstroemia

sp.,

Scaevola chamissoniana

(naupaka kuahiwi),

Sadleria

sp. (amau),

Lythrum maritimum

(pukamole),

Deschampsia

sp. (hair grass),

Luzula hawaiiensis

(wood rush),

Sisyrinchium acre

(mau u la ili),

Broussaisia arguta, Clermontia

sp. (oha wai),

Lycopodium cernuum

(wawae iole),

Dubautia scabra

(na ena e),

Polypodium pellucidum

(ae),

Gahnia gahniiformis

(No common name), and

Vaccinium reticulatum

(ohelo ai)(61 FR 53108; USFWS 1999).

The primary threats to

Platanthera holochila

on Molokai are habitat degradation and/or destruction by feral pigs; competition with non-native plants; and a risk of extinction from naturally occurring events and/or reduced reproductive vigor, due to the small number of remaining populations and individuals. Predation by slugs may also be a potential threat to this species (61 FR 53108; USFWS 1999).

Schiedea nuttallii

(no common name)

Schiedea nuttallii,

a member of the pink family (Caryophyllaceae), is a generally hairless, erect subshrub. This species is distinguished from others in this endemic Hawaiian genus by its habit, length of the stem internodes, length of the inflorescence, number of flowers per inflorescence, smaller leaves, smaller flowers, and smaller seeds (Wagner

et al.

1999).

Little is known about the life history of

Schiedea nuttallii

. Based on field and greenhouse observations, it is hermaphroditic (flowers contain both sexes) (Weller

et al.

1990). Plants located close to the Makua rim on Oahu have been under observation for 10 years, and they appear to be long-lived (USFWS 1999).

Schiedea nuttallii

appears to be an outcrossing species. Under greenhouse conditions, plants fail to set seed unless pollinated, suggesting that this species requires insects for pollination. Seedlings of

Schiedea

occurring in mesic or wet sites are apparently consumed by introduced slugs and snails. These have been observed feeding on

S. membranacea,

another mesic forest species occurring on Kauai. In contrast to mesic forest species,

Schiedea

occurring in dry areas produce abundant seedlings following winter rains, presumably because there are fewer alien consumers in drier sites (USFWS 1999). Fruits and flowers are abundant in the wet season but can be found throughout the year (Kapua Kawelo, U.S. Dept. of Defense, Army Environmental,

in litt.

1999). Little is known about the life history of this plant. Reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are unknown.

Historically

Schiedea nuttallii

was known from scattered locations on southeastern Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, and Maui (HINHP Database 2000). Currently, known populations occur on Kauai, Oahu, and Molokai (USFWS 1999). On Molokai one population with 22 individuals of

Schiedea nuttallii

occurs on the privately owned lands of TNCH's Kamakou Preserve (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000).

Schiedea nuttallii

typically grows in diverse lowland mesic forest, often with

Metrosideros polymorpha

dominant, at elevations between 415 and 730 m (1,360 and 2,400 ft). On Molokai, the population is found at 354 m (1,160 ft) elevation. Associated plants include

Cyrtandra hawaiensis

(haiwale),

Antidesma

sp.,

Psychotria

sp.,

Perottetia sandwicensis, Pisonia

sp., and

Hedyotis acuminata

(au) (HINHP Database 2000).

Schiedea nuttalli

i on Molokai is seriously threatened by competition with several non-native plants; predation by the black twig borer, slugs, and snails; and a risk of extinction from naturally occurring events (

e.g.,

landslides) and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of individuals.(USFWS 1999; 61 FR 53108).

Sesbania tomentosa

(ohai)

Sesbania tomentosa

, a short lived perennial and a member of the pea family (Fabaceae), is typically a sprawling shrub but may also be a small tree. Each compound leaf consists of 18 to 38 oblong to elliptic leaflets which are usually sparsely to densely covered with silky hairs. The flowers are salmon tinged with yellow, orange-red, scarlet or rarely, pure yellow.

Sesbania tomentosa

is the only endemic Hawaiian species in the genus, differing from the naturalized

Sesbania sesban

by the color of the flowers, the longer petals and calyx, and the number of seeds per pod (Geesink

et al

. 1999).

The pollination biology of

Sesbania tomentosa

is being studied by David Hopper, a graduate student in the Department of Zoology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa. His preliminary findings suggest that although many insects visit

Sesbania

flowers, the majority of successful pollination is accomplished by native bees of the genus

Hylaeus

and that populations at Kaena Point on Oahu are probably pollinator limited. Flowering at Kaena Point is highest during the winter-spring rains, and gradually declines throughout the rest of the year (USFWS 1999). Other aspects of this plant's life history are unknown.

Currently,

Sesbania tomentosa

occurs on at least six of the eight main Hawaiian Islands (Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii) and in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Nihoa and Necker). It is no longer extant on Niihau and Lanai (59 FR 56333; GDSI 2000, USFWS 1999; HINHP Database 2000). On Molokai,

Sesbania tomentosa

is known from eight populations with an estimated total of 100 to 150 individuals. Three of the populations occur from Moomomi to Nenehanaupo and five from Kamiloloa to Makolekau on State and privately owned lands (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000).

Sesbania tomentosa

is found in

Scaevola sericea

coastal dry shrubland on windswept slopes, sea cliffs and weathered basaltic slopes between sea level and 579 m (0 and 1,900 ft) elevation (HINHP Database 2000). Associated plant species include

Lipochaeta integrifolia, Jacquemontia sandwicensis, Sida fallax,

and

Dodonea viscosa

(HINHP Database 2000; USFWS 1999).

The primary threats to

Sesbania tomentosa

on Molokai are competition with various non-native plant species such as

Lantana camara,

and grass species; habitat degradation by feral cattle; lack of adequate pollination; seed predation by rats, mice and, potentially, non-native insects; and destruction by random environmental events (

e.g.,

fire) and by human activities (

e.g.,

use of off-road vehicles) (59 FR 56333; USFWS 1999).

Silene lanceolata

(no common name)

Silene lanceolata,

a member of the pink family, is an upright, perennial plant with stems 15 to 50 cm (6 to 20 in) long, which are woody at the base. The narrow leaves are smooth except for a fringe of hairs near the base. Flowers are arranged in open clusters. The flowers are white with deeply-lobed, clawed petals. The capsule opens at the top to release reddish-brown seeds. This species is distinguished from

S. alexandri,

the only other member of the genus found on Molokai, by its smaller flowers and capsules and its stamens, which are shorter than the sepals (Wagner

et al

. 1999).

Currently, no life history information is available for this species (USFWS 1996a).

The historical range of

Silene lanceolata

includes five Hawaiian

Islands: Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, and Hawaii Island.

Silene lanceolata

is presently extant on the islands of Molokai, Oahu, and Hawaii. On Molokai, a single population of approximately 100 individuals was found in 1987 on private land near Puu Kolekole (K. Wood,

in litt.

1999; GDSI 2000; USFWS 1996a).

On Molokai, this species grows on cliff faces and ledges of gullies in dry to mesic shrubland at an elevation of about 800 m (2,600 ft) (USFWS 1996a). Associated native plant species include

Dodonea viscosa, Styphelia tameiameiae,

and

Dubautia linearis

(K. Wood,

in litt.

1999).

Habitat destruction by feral ungulates (goats and pigs), wildfires, and competition by invading non-native plants are immediate threats to

Silene lanceolata

on Molokai (57 FR 46325; USFWS 1996a).

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

(no common name)

Spermolepis hawaiiensis,

a member of the parsley family (Apiaceae), is a slender annual herb with few branches. Its leaves, dissected into narrow, lance-shaped divisions, are oblong to somewhat oval in outline and grow on stalks. Flowers are arranged in a loose, compound umbrella-shaped inflorescence arising from the stem, opposite the leaves.

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

is the only member of the genus native to Hawaii. It is distinguished from other native members of the family by being a non-succulent annual with an umbrella-shaped inflorescence (Constance and Affolter 1999).

Little is known about the life history of

Spermolepis hawaiiensis.

Reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are unknown (USFWS 1999).

Historically,

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

was known from Kauai, Oahu, Lanai and the island of Hawaii (HINHP Database 2000). Currently, it is extant on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Maui, and Hawaii (GDSI 2000; 59 FR 56333; HINHP Database 2000). On Molokai, there is one known population with approximately 600 individuals on privately owned land in Kamalo (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000; USFWS 1999).

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

is known from shady spots in

Dodonea viscosa

lowland dry shrubland, at an elevation of 219 m (720 ft). Associated plant species include

Eragrostis variabilis, Lipochaeta lavarum

(nehe),

Sida fallax, Myoporum sandwicensis

(naio),

Santalum ellipticum

, and

Heteropogon contortus

(HINHP Database 2000; USFWS 1999).

The primary threats to

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

on Molokai are habitat degradation by feral goats; competition with various non-native plants such as

Melinis minutiflora, Lantana camara

, and grasses; and habitat destruction and extinction due to natural environmental events such as erosion, landslides, and rockslides due to natural weathering (59 FR 56333; USFWS 1999).

Vigna o-wahuensis

(no common name)

Vigna o-wahuensis

, a member of the pea family (Fabaceae), is a slender twining perennial herb with fuzzy stems. Each leaf is made up of three leaflets which vary in shape from round to linear, and are sparsely or moderately covered with coarse hairs. Flowers, in clusters of one to four, have thin, translucent, pale yellow or greenish yellow petals. The two lowermost petals are fused and appear distinctly beaked. The sparsely hairy calyx has asymmetrical lobes. The fruits are long slender pods that may or may not be slightly inflated and contain 7 to 15 gray to black seeds. This species differs from others in the genus by its thin yellowish petals, sparsely hairy calyx, and thin pods which may or may not be slightly inflated (Geesink

et al.

1999).

Additional information on the life history of this plant, reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are generally unknown (USFWS 1999).

Historically,

Vigna o-wahuensis

was known from Niihau, Oahu, and Maui (HINHP Database 2000). Currently,

Vigna o-wahuensis

is known from the islands of Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui, and Hawaii (HINHP Database 2000). There are no currently known populations on Niihau or Oahu. On Molokai, two populations with approximately 16 individuals occur on privately owned lands at Onini Gulch and Makolelau (GDSI 2000).

On Molokai,

Vigna o-wahuensis

occurs in dry to mesic grassland and shrubland from 207 to 256 m (680 to 840 ft) in elevation (Geesink

et al.

1999; HINHP Database 2000). Associated plant species include

Chenopodium oahuense, Cyperus laevigatus, Eragrostis variabilis, Heteropogon contortus, Ipomoea

sp. (morning glory),

Scaevola sericea, Sida fallax, Vitex rotundifolia

(kolokolo kahakai),

Dodonea viscosa

, and

Styphelia tameiameiae

(HINHP Database 2000; USFWS 1999).

The primary threats to

Vigna o-wahuensis

on Molokai are competition with various non-native plant species; and a risk of extinction due to random environmental events (primarily fire), and/or reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of existing populations and individuals (USFWS 1999; 59 FR 56333).

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

(ae)

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

, a long lived perennial, is a medium-size tree with pale to dark gray bark, and lemon-scented leaves in the rue family (Rutaceae). Alternate leaves are composed of three small triangular-oval to lance-shaped, toothed leaves (leaflets) with surfaces usually without hairs.

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

is distinguished from other Hawaiian members of the genus by several characters: three leaflets all of similar size, one joint on lateral leaf stalk, and sickle-shape fruits with a rounded tip (Stone

et al.

1999).

Additional information on the life history of this plant, reproductive cycles, longevity, specific environmental requirements, and limiting factors are generally unknown (USFWS 1996b).

Historically,

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

was known from the islands of Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, southern and southwestern slopes of Haleakala on Maui, and Hawaii. Currently,

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

is extant on Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii. On Molokai, the two extant populations with a total of five individuals are located at Makolelau and Puu Hoi Ridge on private and State lands (HINHP Database 2000; GDSI 2000).

On Molokai,

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

is found in mesic

Metrosideros polymorpha

Diospyros sandwicensis

lowland dry forest with

Nestegis sandwicensis

and

Pleomele auwahiensis

at elevations between 182 and 256 m (600 to 840 ft) (Stone

et al.

1999; 59 FR 10305; HINHP Database 2000). Associated species include

Pisonia

sp.,

Xylosma hawaiiensis, Santalum ellipticum, Alphitonia ponderosa

(kauila),

Osteomeles anthyllidifolia, Alectryon macrococcus

(mahoe),

Charpentiera

sp. (papala),

Melicope

sp.,

Dodonea viscosa, Streblus pendulinus, Myrsine lanaiensis

(kolea), and

Sophora chrysophylla

(HINHP Database 2000).

The threats to

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

on Molokai include browsing, grazing, and trampling by feral goats; competition with non-native plant species; habitat degradation and destruction by humans, and extinction from naturally occurring events (primarily fire) and/or from reduced reproductive vigor due to the small number of individuals and populations (59 FR 10305; USFWS 1996b).

A summary of populations and landownership for these 40 plant species on Molokai is given in Table 3.

Table 3.—Summary of Populations and Landownership for 40 Species on Molokai.

Species

Number of current populations

Landownership

Federal

State

Private

Adenophorus periens

Alectryon macrococcus

Bidens wiebkei

Brighamia rockii

Canavalia molokaiensis

Centaurium sebaeoides

Clermontia oblongifolia brevipes

ssp.

Ctenitis squamigera

Cyanea dunbarii

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

Cyanea mannii

Cyanea procera

Diellia erecta

Hedyotis mannii

Hesperomannia arborescens

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

Ischaemum byrone

Labordia triflora

Lysimachia maxima

Mariscus fauriei

Marsilea villosa

Melicope mucronulata

Melicope reflexa

Neraudia sericea

Peucedanum sandwicense

Phyllostegia mannii

Plantago princeps

Platanthera holochila

Pritchardia munroi

Schiedea lydgatei

Schiedea nuttallii

Schiedea sarmentosa

Sesbania tomentosa

Silene alexandri

Silene lanceolata

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

Stenogyne bifida

Tetramolopium rockii

Vigna o-wahuensis

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

Some populations are on State land that is managed by the National Park Service at Kalaupapa National Historical Park.

Previous Federal Action

Federal action on these plants began as a result of Section 12 of the Act, which directed the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to prepare a report on plants considered to be endangered, threatened, or extinct in the United States. This report, designated as House Document No. 94-51, was presented to Congress on January 9, 1975. In that document,

Adenophorus periens, Alectryon macrococcus

(as

Alectryon macrococcum

var.

macrococcum

and

Alectryon mahoe

Bidens wiebkei, Brighamia rockii, Canavalia molokaiensis, Hedyotis mannii

(as

Hedyotis thyrsoidea

var.

thyrsoidea

Hesperomannia arborescens

(as

Hesperomannia arborescens

var.

bushiana

and var.

swezeyi

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

(as

Hibiscus immaculatus

Ischaemum byrone, Marsilea villosa, Melicope reflexa

(as

Pelea reflexa

Neraudia sericea

(as

Neraudia kahoolawensis

Peucedanum sandwicense

(as

Peucedanum kauaiense

Plantago princeps

(as

Plantago princeps

var.

elata,

var.

laxifolia,

var.

princeps

Pritchardia munroi

(as

Pritchardia munroii

Sesbania tomentosa

(as

Sesbania hobdyi

and

Sesbania tomentosa

var.

tomentosa

Silene alexandri, Silene lanceolata, Vigna o-wahuensis

(as

Vigna sandwicensis

var.

heterophylla

and var.

sandwicensis

), and

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

(as

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

var.

citiodora

) were considered endangered;

Diellia erecta

and

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

(as

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

var.

hawaiiense

and var.

velutinosum

) were considered threatened; and,

Labordia triflora, Melicope mucronulata

(as

Pelea mucronulata

Plantago princeps

(as

Plantago princeps

var.

acaulis,

var.

denticulata,

and var.

queleniana

), and

Tetramolopium rockii

were considered to be extinct. On July 1, 1975, we published a notice in the

Federal Register

(40 FR 27823) of our acceptance of the Smithsonian report as a petition within the context of Section 4(c)(2) (now Section 4(b)(3)) of the Act, and giving notice of our intention to review the status of the plant taxa named therein. As a result of that review, on June 16, 1976, we published

a proposed rule in the

Federal Register

(41 FR 24523) to determine endangered status pursuant to Section 4 of the Act for approximately 1,700 vascular plant taxa, including all of the above taxa except

Labordia triflora.

The list of 1,700 plant taxa was assembled on the basis of comments and data received by the Smithsonian Institution and the Service in response to House Document No. 94-51 and the July 1, 1975,

Federal Register

publication.

General comments received in response to the 1976 proposal are summarized in an April 26, 1978,

Federal Register

publication (43 FR 17909). In 1978, amendments to the Act required that all proposals over two years old be withdrawn. A one-year grace period was given to proposals already over two years old. On December 10, 1979, we published a notice in the

Federal Register

(44 FR 70796) withdrawing the portion of the June 16, 1976, proposal that had not been made final, along with four other proposals that had expired. The Service published updated notices of review for plants on December 15, 1980 (45 FR 82479), September 27, 1985 (50 FR 39525), February 21, 1990 (55 FR 6183), September 30, 1993 (58 FR 51144), and February 28, 1996 (61 FR 7596), and September 19, 1977 (62 FR 49398). A summary of the status categories for these 40 plant species in the 1980-1996 notices of review can be found in Table 4(a). We listed the 40 species as endangered or threatened between 1991 and 1999. A summary of the listing actions can be found in Table 4(b).

Table 4(

).—Summary of Candidacy Status for 40 Plant Species on Molokai

Species

Federal Register

Notice of Review

1980

1985

1990

1993

1996

Adenophorus periens

Alectryon macrococcus

Bidens wiebkei

Brighamia rockii

Canavalia molokaiensis

Centaurium sebaeoides

Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes

Ctenitis squamigera

Cyanea dunbarii

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

Cyanea mannii

Cyanea procera

C1*

Diellia erecta

Hedyotis mannii

C1*

Hesperomannia arborescens

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

Ischaemum byrone

Labordia triflora

Lysmachia maxima

Mariscus fauriei

Marsilea villosa

Melicope mucronulata

Melicope reflexa

Neraudia sericea

Peucedanum sandwicense

Phyllostegia mannii

Plantago princeps

Platanthera holochila

Pritchardia munroi

Schiedea lydgatei

Schiedea nuttallii

Schiedea sarmentosa

Sesbania tomentosa

C1*

Silene alexandri

Silene lanceolata

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

Stenogyne bifida

Tetramolopium rockii

Vigna o-wahuensis

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

Key:

C: Taxa for which the Service has on file sufficient information on the biological vulnerability and threat(s) to support proposals to list them as endangered or threatened species. (The 1996 Notice of Review discontinued the use of different categories of candidates (as described below; candidates were redefined as species meeting the definition of former C1 species.)

C1: Taxa for which the Service has on file enough sufficient information on biological vulnerability and threat(s) to support proposals to list them as endangered or threatened species.

C1*: Taxa of known vulnerable status in the recent past that may already have become extinct.

C2: Taxa for which there is some evidence of vulnerability, but for which there are not enough data to support listing proposals at this time.

3A: Taxa for which the Service has persuasive evidence of extinction. If rediscovered, such taxa might acquire high priority for listing.

Federal Register

Notices of Review

1980: 45 FR 82479

1985: 50 FR 39525

1990: 55 FR 6183

1993: 58 FR 51144

1996: 61 FR 7596

Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as amended, and implementing regulations (50 CFR 424.12) require that, to the maximum extent prudent and determinable, the Secretary designate critical habitat at the time the species is determined to be endangered or threatened. Our regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)) state that designation of critical habitat is not prudent when one or both of the following situations exist: (1) The species is threatened by taking or other human activity, and identification of critical habitat can be expected to increase the degree of threat to the species, or (2) such designation of critical habitat would not be beneficial to the species. At the time each plant was listed, we determined that designation of critical habitat was prudent for one of these plants (Labordia triflora) and not prudent for the other 39 plants because it would not benefit the plant and/or would increase the degree of threat to the species.

The not prudent determinations were challenged in

Conservation Council for Hawaii

Babbitt

. 2 F. Supp. 2d 1280 (D. Haw. 1998). On March 9, 1998, the United States District Court for the District of Hawaii (the Court) directed us to review the prudency determinations for 245 listed plant species in Hawaii, including these 39 species. Among other things, the Court held that in most cases we did not sufficiently demonstrate that the species are threatened by human activity or that such threats would increase with the designation of critical habitat. The Court also held that we failed to balance any risks of designating critical habitat against any benefits (

Id.

at 1283-1285).

Table 4(

).—Summary of Listing Actions for 40 Plant Species on Molokai

Species

Federal status

Proposed rule

Date

Federal

Final rule

Date

Federal

Adenophorus periens

09/14/93

58 FR 48012

11/10/94

59 FR 56333

Alectryon macrococcus

05/24/91

56 FR 23842

05/15/92

57 FR 20772

Bidens wiebkei

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Brighamia rockii

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Canavalia molokaiensis

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Centaurium sebaeoides

09/28/90

55 FR 39664

10/29/91

56 FR 55770

Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Ctenitis squamigera

06/24/93

58 FR 34231

09/09/94

59 FR 49025

Cyanea dunbarii

10/02/95

60 FR 51436

10/10/96

61 FR 53130

Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

grimesiana

10/02/95

60 FR 51417

10/10/96

61 FR 53108

Cyanea mannii

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Cyanea procera

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Diellia erecta

09/14/93

58 FR 48012

11/10/94

59 FR 56333

Hedyotis mannii

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Hesperomannia arborescens

10/14/92

57 FR 47028

03/28/94

59 FR 14482

Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

immaculatus

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Ischaemum byrone

12/17/92

57 FR 59951

03/04/94

59 FR 10305

Labordia triflora

05/15/97

62 FR 26757

09/03/99

64 FR 48307

Lysmachia maxima

10/02/95

60 FR 51436

10/10/96

61 FR 53130

Mariscus fauriei

12/17/92

57 FR 59951

03/04/94

59 FR 10305

Marsilea villosa

02/15/91

56 FR 6349

06/22/92

57 FR 27863

Melicope mucronulata

05/24/91

56 FR 23842

05/15/92

57 FR 20772

Melicope reflexa

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Neraudia sericea

09/14/93

58 FR 48012

11/10/94

59 FR 56333

Peucedanum sandwicense

10/30/91

56 FR 55862

02/25/94

59 FR 9304

Phyllostegia mannii

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Plantago princeps

09/14/93

58 FR 48012

11/10/94

59 FR 56333

Platanthera holochila

10/02/95

60 FR 51417

10/10/96

61 FR 53108

Pritchardia munroi

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Schiedea lydgatei

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Schiedea nuttallii

10/02/95

60 FR 51417

10/10/96

61 FR 53108

Schiedea sarmentosa

10/02/95

60 FR 51436

10/10/96

61 FR 53130

Sesbania tomentosa

09/14/93

58 FR 48012

11/10/94

59 FR 56333

Silene alexandri

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Silene lanceolata

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Spermolepis hawaiiensis

09/14/93

58 FR 48012

11/10/94

59 FR 56333

Stenogyne bifida

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Tetramolopium rockii

09/20/91

56 FR 47718

10/08/92

57 FR 46325

Vigna o-wahuensis

09/14/93

58 FR 48012

11/10/94

59 FR 56333

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

12/17/92

57 FR 59951

03/04/94

59 FR 10305

Key:

E=Endangered

T=Threatened

Regarding our determination that designating critical habitat would have no additional benefits to the species above and beyond those already provided through the section 7 consultation requirement of the Act, the Court ruled that we failed to consider the specific effect of the consultation requirement on each species (

. at 1286-88). In addition, the Court stated that we did not consider benefits outside of the consultation requirements. In the Court's view, these potential benefits include substantive and procedural protections. The Court

held that substantively, designation establishes a “uniform protection plan” prior to consultation and indicates where compliance with section 7 of the Act is required. Procedurally, the Court stated that the designation of critical habitat educates the public and State and local governments and affords them an opportunity to participate in the designation (

. at 1288). The Court also stated that private lands may not be excluded from critical habitat designation even though section 7 requirements apply only to Federal agencies. In addition to the potential benefit of informing the public and State and local governments of the listing and of the areas that are essential to the species' conservation, the Court found that there may be Federal activity on the private property in the future, even though no such activity may be occurring there at the present (

. at 1285-88).

On August 10, 1998, the Court ordered us to publish proposed critical habitat designations or non-designations for at least 100 species by November 30, 2000, and to publish proposed designations or non-designations for the remaining 145 species by April 30, 2002 (24 F. Supp. 2d 1074).

At the time we listed

Labordia triflora

(64 FR 48307) we determined that designation of critical habitat was prudent and that we would develop critical habitat designations for this taxon, along with nine others, at the same time we developed designations for the 245 Hawaiian plant species. This timetable was challenged in

Conservation Council for Hawaii

Babbitt.

Civ. No. 99-00283 HG (D. Haw. Aug. 19, 1999, Feb. 16, 2000, and March 28, 2000). The Court agreed, however, that it was reasonable for us to integrate these ten Maui Nui (Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Kahoolawe) plant taxa into the schedule established for designating critical habitat for the other 245 Hawaiian plants, and ordered us to publish proposed critical habitat designations for the ten Maui Nui species by November 30, 2000, and to publish final critical habitat designations by November 30, 2001. This notice responds to the Court orders.

On November 30, 1998, we published a notice in the

Federal Register

requesting public comments on our reevaluation of whether designation of critical habitat is prudent for the 245 Hawaiian plants at issue (63 FR 65805). The comment period closed on March 1, 1999, and was reopened from March 24, 1999, to May 24, 1999 (64 FR 14209). We received over 100 responses from individuals, non-profit organizations, the State of Hawaii's Division of Forestry and Wildlife, county governments, and Federal agencies (U.S. Department of Defense—Army, Navy, Air Force). Only a few responses offered information on the status of individual plant species or on current management actions for one or more of the 245 Hawaiian plants. While many of the respondents expressed support for the designation of critical habitat for 245 Hawaiian plants, more than 80 percent opposed the designation of critical habitat for these plants. In general, these respondents opposed designation because they believed it will cause economic hardship, chill cooperative projects, polarize relationships with hunters, or potentially increase trespass or vandalism on private lands. In addition, commenters also cited a lack of information on the biological and ecological needs of these plants which, they suggested, may lead to designation based on guesswork. The respondents who supported the designation of critical habitat cited that designation will: provide a uniform protection plan for the Hawaiian Islands; promote funding for management of these plants; educate the public and State government; and protect partnerships with landowners and build trust.

On February 18, 2000, we mailed letters to over 100 landowners on the island of Molokai requesting any information considered germane to the management of any of the 255 plants on his/her property, and containing a copy of the November 30, 1998,

Federal Register

notice, a map showing the general locations of the plants that may be on his/her property, and a handout containing general information on critical habitat. We received 25 written responses to our landowner mailing with varying types of information on their current land management activities. Some landowners reported that they are not conducting conservation management actions on their lands while others provided information on various activities such as fencing, weeding, ungulate control, hunting, control of human access, scientific research, fire control, and propagation and/or planting of native plants. We held one open house on the island of Molokai, at the Mitchell Pauole Community Center, on March 15, 2000, to meet one-on-one with local landowners and other interested members of the public. A total of 14 people attended the open house. In addition we met with Maui County Division of Forestry and Wildlife staff and discussed their management activities on Molokai.

On November 7, 2000, we published the first of the court-ordered prudency determinations and proposed critical habitat designations for Kauai and Niihau plants (65 FR 66808). The prudency determinations and proposed critical habitat designations for Maui and Kahoolwe plants were published on December 18, 2000 (65 FR 79192), and for Lanai plants on December 27, 2000. In those proposals we determined that critical habitat was prudent for 19 species (

Adenophorus periens, Alectryon macrococcus, Centarium sebaeoides, Ctenitis squamigera, Cyanea grimesiana

ssp.

and

Zanthoxylum hawaiiense

) that occur on Molokai as well as on Kauai, Niihau, Maui, Kahoolawe, and/or Lanai.

Critical Habitat

Critical habitat is defined in section 3 of the Act as—(i) the specific areas within the geographic area occupied by a species, at the time it is listed in accordance with the Act, on which are found those physical or biological features (I) essential to the conservation of the species and (II) that may require special management considerations or protection; and (ii) specific areas outside the geographic area occupied by a species at the time it is listed, upon a determination that such areas are essential for the conservation of the species. “Conservation” means the use of all methods and procedures that are necessary to bring an endangered or a threatened species to the point at which listing under the Act is no longer necessary.

Critical habitat receives protection under section 7 of the Act through the prohibition against destruction or adverse modification of critical habitat with regard to actions carried out, funded, or authorized by a Federal agency. Section 7 also requires conferences on Federal actions that are likely to result in the destruction or adverse modification of proposed critical habitat. In our regulations at 50 CFR 402.02, we define destruction or adverse modification as “* * * the direct or indirect alteration that appreciably diminishes the value of critical habitat for both the survival and recovery of a listed species. Such alterations include, but are not limited to, alterations adversely modifying any

of those physical or biological features that were the basis for determining the habitat to be critical.” Aside from the added protection that may be provided under section 7, the Act does not provide other forms of protection to lands designated as critical habitat. Because consultation under section 7 of the Act does not apply to activities on private or other non-Federal lands that do not involve a Federal nexus, critical habitat designation would not afford any additional protections under the Act against such activities.

In order to be included in a critical habitat designation, the habitat must first be “essential to the conservation of the species.” Critical habitat designations identify, to the extent known using the best scientific and commercial data available, habitat areas that provide essential life cycle needs of the species (

i.e.

, areas on which are found the primary constituent elements, as defined at 50 CFR 424.12(b)).

Section 4 requires that we designate critical habitat at the time of listing and based on what we know at the time of the designation. When we designate critical habitat at the time of listing or under short court—ordered deadlines, we will often not have sufficient information to identify all areas of critical habitat. We are required, nevertheless, to make a decision and thus must base our designations on what, at the time of designation, we know to be critical habitat.

Within the geographic area occupied by the species, we will designate only areas currently known to be essential. Essential areas should already have the features and habitat characteristics that are necessary to sustain the species. We will not speculate about what areas might be found to be essential if better information became available, or what areas may become essential over time. If the information available at the time of designation does not show that an area provides essential life cycle needs of the species, then the area should not be included in the critical habitat designation. Within the geographic area occupied by the species, we will not designate areas that do not now have the primary constituent elements , as defined at 50 CFR 424.12(b), that provide essential life cycle needs of the species.

Our regulations state that, “The Secretary shall designate as critical habitat areas outside the geographic area presently occupied by the species only when a designation limited to its present range would be inadequate to ensure the conservation of the species.” (50 CFR 424.12(e)). Accordingly, when the best available scientific and commercial data do not demonstrate that the conservation needs of the species require designation of critical habitat outside of occupied areas, we will not designate critical habitat in areas outside the geographic area occupied by the species.

The Service's Policy on Information Standards Under the Endangered Species Act, published in the

Federal Register

on July 1, 1994 (Vol.59, p. 34271), provides criteria, establishes procedures, and provides guidance to ensure that decisions made by the Service represent the best scientific and commercial data available. It requires Service biologists, to the extent consistent with the Act and with the use of the best scientific and commercial data available, to use primary and original sources of information as the basis for recommendations to designate critical habitat. When determining which areas are critical habitat, a primary source of information should be the listing package for the species. Additional information may be obtained from a recovery plan, articles in peer-reviewed journals, conservation plans developed by states and counties, scientific status surveys and studies, and biological assessments or other unpublished materials (

i.e.

, gray literature).

Habitat is often dynamic, and species may move from one area to another over time. Furthermore, we recognize that designation of critical habitat may not include all of the habitat areas that may eventually be determined to be necessary for the recovery of the species. For these reasons, all should understand that critical habitat designations do

not

signal that habitat outside the designation is unimportant or may not be required for recovery. Areas outside the critical habitat designation will continue to be subject to conservation actions that may be implemented under section 7(a)(1) and to the regulatory protections afforded by the section 7(a)(2) jeopardy standard and the section 9 take prohibition, as determined on the basis of the best available information at the time of the action. We specifically anticipate that federally funded or assisted projects affecting listed species outside their designated critical habitat areas may still result in jeopardy findings in some cases. Similarly, critical habitat designations made on the basis of the best available information at the time of designation will not control the direction and substance of future recovery plans, habitat conservation plans, or other species conservation planning efforts if new information available to these planning efforts calls for a different outcome.

A. Prudency Redeterminations

As previously stated, designation of critical habitat is not prudent when one or both of the following situations exist: (i) The species is threatened by taking or other human activity, and identification of critical habitat can be expected to increase the degree of such threat to the species; or (ii) such designation of critical habitat would not be beneficial to the species (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)).

To determine whether critical habitat would be prudent for each of the 20 species at issue, we analyzed the potential threats and benefits for each species in accordance with the court's order. Due to low numbers of individuals and/or populations and their inherent immobility, the 20 plants may be vulnerable to unrestricted collection, vandalism, or disturbance. We have examined the evidence currently available for each of these taxa and have found specific evidence of taking, vandalism, collection or trade for one species of

Pritchardia

, the native palm on Molokai. At the time of listing, we determined that designation of critical habitat was not prudent for

Pritchardia munroi

because it would increase the degree of threat from vandalism or collecting, and would provide no benefit (57 FR 46325). Recently we received information on the commercial trade in palms conducted through the internet (Grant Canterbury, USFWS,

in litt.

2000). Several nurseries advertise and sell seedlings and young plants, including 13 species of Hawaiian

Pritchardia

. Seven of these species are federally protected, including

Pritchardia munroi

. In light of this information, we believe that designation of critical habitat would likely increase the threat from vandalism or collection to this species of

Pritchardia

on Molokai. First, it is easy to identify, and second, it may be attractive to collectors of rare palms either for their personal use or to trade or sell for personal gain (Johnson 1996). We believe that the evidence shows that this species of palm may be attractive to such collectors. The final listing rule for this species contained only general information on its distribution, but the publication of precise maps and descriptions of critical habitat in the

Federal Register

would make this species more vulnerable to incidents of vandalism or collection, and therefore, make recovery more difficult and contribute to the decline of this species (57 FR 46325).

In addition, we believe that designation would not provide significant benefits that would outweigh these increased risks. First,

Pritchardia munroi

does not occur on Federal land. The private land where it is found is zoned for agriculture, though the single tree has been fenced (HINHP Database 2000). In addition, this species is found in a small ravine in an area that is remote and inaccessible to standard vehicles. It is, therefore, unlikely that the land on which it is found will be developed. Since there does not appear to be any actions in the future that would involve a Federal agency, designation of critical habitat would not provide any additional protection to the species that it does not already have through listing alone. If however in the future any Federal involvement did occur, such as through the permitting process or funding by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Department of Interior, the Corps through section 404 of the Clean Water Act, the U.S. Federal Department of Housing and Urban Development or the Federal Highway Administration, the actions would be subject to consultation under section 7 of the Act.

We acknowledge that critical habitat designation, in some situations, may provide some value to the species, for example, by identifying areas important for conservation and calling attention to those areas in need of special protection. However, for this species, we believe that the benefits of designating critical habitat do not outweigh the potential increased threats from vandalism or collection. Given all of the above considerations, we propose that designation of critical habitat for

Pritchardia munroi

is not prudent.

We examined the evidence for the other 19 taxa and have not, at this time, found specific evidence of taking, vandalism, collection or trade of these taxa or of similarly situated species. Consequently, while we remain concerned that these activities could potentially threaten these 19 plant species in the future, consistent with applicable regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)(i)) and the court's discussion of these regulations, we do not find that any of these species are currently threatened by taking or other human activity, which threats would be exacerbated by the designation of critical habitat.

In the absence of finding that critical habitat would increase threats to a species, if there are any benefits to critical habitat designation, then a prudent finding is warranted. The potential benefits include: (1) Triggering section 7 consultation in new areas where it would not otherwise occur because, for example, it is or has become unoccupied or the occupancy is in question; (2) focusing conservation activities on the most essential areas; (3) providing educational benefits to State or county governments or private entities; and, (4) preventing people from causing inadvertent harm to the species.

In the case of these 19 species, there would be some benefits to critical habitat. The primary regulatory effect of critical habitat is the section 7 requirement that Federal agencies refrain from taking any action that destroys or adversely affects critical habitat. At least four of these species are reported from Federal lands or lands under Federal jurisdiction (

Canavalia molokaiensis, Centaurium sebaeoides, Peucedanum sandwicense,

and

Tetramalopium rockii

) (see Table 3), where most actions would be subject to section 7. While a majority of these species are located exclusively on non-Federal lands with limited Federal activities, there could be Federal actions affecting these lands in the future. While a critical habitat designation for habitat currently occupied by these species would be unlikely to change the section 7 consultation outcome because an action that destroys or adversely modifies such critical habitat would also be likely to result in jeopardy to the species, there may be instances where section 7 consultation would be triggered only if critical habitat were designated. There also may be some educational or informational benefits to the designation of critical habitat. Educational benefits include the notification of land owners, land managers, and the general public of the importance of protecting the habitat of these species and dissemination of information regarding their essential habitat requirements.

Therefore, we propose that critical habitat is prudent for 19 plant species:

Bidens wiebkei, Brighamia rockii, Canavalia molokaiensis, Clermontia oblongifolia

ssp.

brevipes, Cyanea dunbarii, Cyanea mannii, Cyanea procera, Hibiscus arnottianus

ssp.

and

Tetramolopium rockii.

B. Primary Constituent Elements

In accordance with section 4(b)(2) of the Act and regulations at 50 CFR 424.12, in determining which areas to propose as critical habitat, we are required to base critical habitat determinations on the best scientific and commercial data available and to consider those physical and biological features that are essential to the conservation of the species and that may require special management considerations or protection. Such requirements include, but are not limited to, space for individual and population growth, and for normal behavior; food, water, air, light, minerals, or other nutritional or physiological requirements; cover or shelter; sites for breeding, reproduction, or rearing of offspring, germination, or seed dispersal; and habitats that are protected from disturbance or are representative of the historic geographical and ecological distributions of a species.

As stated above in the discussion about each of the 32 species, very little is known about the specific physical and biological requirements of these species. As such, we are proposing to define the primary constituent elements on the basis of general habitat features of the areas in which the plant species are currently found, such as the type of plant community and their physical location (

e.g.

, steep rocky cliffs, talus slopes, stream banks) and elevation. Therefore, the descriptions of the physical elements of the locations of each of these species and the plant community associated with the species, as described in the

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Discussion of the Plant Taxa

section above, constitute the primary constituent elements for these species.

C. Methods for Selection of Areas for Proposed Critical Habitat Designations

Critical habitat is defined as the specific areas within the geographic area occupied by the species, at the time it is listed in accordance with the provisions of section 4 of the Act, on which are found those physical and biological features (I) essential to the conservation of the species and (II) which may require special management considerations or protection (16 U.S.C. 1532(5)(A)(i)). As discussed above, very little is known about the specific physical and biological requirements of most of these 40 species. Therefore, we have defined primary constituent elements based on the general habitat features of the areas in which they currently occur such as the type of plant community the plants are growing in, their physical location (

e.g.

, steep rocky cliffs, talus slopes, stream banks), and elevation. The areas we are proposing to designate as critical habitat provide some or all of the habitat components

essential for the conservation of the plant species.

Critical habitat may also include areas outside the geographic area presently occupied by a species upon determination that such areas are essential to the conservation of the species (16 U.S.C. 1532 (5)(A)(ii)). This may include, for example, potentially suitable unoccupied habitat that is important to the recovery of the species. However, we have not included such areas in the proposed designations for these species because of our limited knowledge of the historical range (the geographical area outside the area presently occupied by the species), and our lack of more detailed information on the specific physical or biological features essential for the conservation of the species that would be needed, for instance, to determine where to reintroduce a species.

The historical (pre-1970) or even post-1970 records for a species may be based on herbarium specimens that contain only the most rudimentary collection information, such as only the name of the island from which the specimen was collected or a general place name (

e.g.,

East Molokai, Kamakou, Pelekunu). In the main Hawaiian Islands, climatic and ecological conditions such as rainfall, elevation, slope, aspect, etc., may vary dramatically within a relatively short distance. Therefore a simple place name does not provide adequate information on the physical and biological features that may have occurred there or may occur there now.

The unpredictable distribution of Hawaiian plant species also makes it difficult to designate potentially suitable unoccupied habitat. For example, currently a species may be known from northern and southern (or eastern and western) locations on an island but not from intervening locations in similar habitat. Based on the best available information, we are unable to determine whether a species once occurred in the intervening areas and disappeared from there prior to Polynesian or European times (thus never having been collected or documented there) or simply never occurred there.

We consider reintroduction (the planting of propagated individuals or seedlings into an area) to be an acceptable method to try to achieve plant species recovery. However, native plant reintroductions are difficult and successful efforts are not common. We do not know enough about these 40 species to identify areas where reintroductions are likely to be successful. We will continue to support experimental efforts to reintroduce species that may eventually provide us with additional information on the physical and biological features essential to the conservation of these species, and thus, may eventually result in identification of unoccupied habitat for future designation.

As required by the Act and regulations (section 4 (b) (2) and 50 CFR 424.12) we used the best scientific information available to determine areas that contain those physical and biological features that are essential for the survival and recovery of the 40 plant species. This information included site-specific species information from the Hawaii Natural Heritage Program (HINHP) and our rare plant database, species information from the Center for Plant Conservation's (CPC) rare plant monitoring database housed at the University of Hawaii's Lyon Arboretum, recent biological surveys and reports, our recovery plans for 39 of these 40 species, discussions with botanical experts, and recommendations (see below) from the Hawaii and Pacific Plant Recovery Coordinating Committee (HPPRCC) (CPC,

in litt.

1999; HINHP Database 2000, HPPRCC 1998, USFWS 1995a, 1995b, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c; 1999).

In 1994, the HPPRCC initiated an effort to identify and map habitat it believed to be important for the recovery of 282 endangered and threatened Hawaiian plant species. The HPPRCC identified these areas on most of the islands in the Hawaiian chain, and in 1999 we published them in our

Recovery Plan for the Multi-Island Plants

(USFWS 1999). The HPPRCC expects there will be subsequent efforts to further refine the locations of important habitat areas and that new survey information or research findings may also lead to additional refinements (HPPRCC 1998).

Because the HPPRCC identified essential habitat areas for all listed, proposed, and candidate plant species and evaluated species of concern to determine if essential habitat areas would provide for their habitat needs as well, the HPPRCC's mapping of habitat is distinct from the regulatory designation of critical habitat, as defined by the Act. While these habitat maps are a planning tool to focus conservation efforts on the areas that may be most important to the conservation of Hawaii's listed plant species, as well as other plant species of concern, it does not substitute for the more exacting regulatory process of designating critical habitat. Therefore, the proposed critical habitat designations in this proposed rule do not include all of the habitat, particularly unoccupied habitat, identified by the HPPRCC.

For these plant species from Molokai, currently occupied habitat was examined and critical habitat boundaries were delineated in such a way that locations with a high density of endangered and threatened plants could be depicted clearly (multi-species units). However, these multi-species critical habitat units are not homogenous or uniform in nature. Critical habitat units often encompassed a number of plant community types.

To examine plant occurrences, every current (post-1970) location of every species was delineated within a 536 m (1,760 ft) radius circle with an additional 50 m (164 ft) added to the radius of each location, in order to insure enough area to provide for the proper ecological functioning of the habitat immediately supporting the plant, for a total of 586 m (1,924 ft) radius. The 536 m (1,760 ft) radius is consistent with the accuracy of the mapped locations of the plant(s), and is based on the standard mapping methodology for rare species used by the HINHP (1996). The additional 50 m (164 ft) is consistent with the guidelines identified in the recovery plans for these species for minimum-sized exclosures for rare plants (USFWS 1995a, 1995b, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1999). In cases where there were isolated species locations, a circular area with a radius of roughly 586 m (1,924 ft) is proposed as critical habitat (HINHP 1996; USFWS 1995a, 1995b, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1999).

The manner in which we delineated each multi-species proposed critical habitat unit is described below.

—Known current locations of each species were delineated using the guidelines explained above (Figure 1(a)).

—The perimeter boundaries of individual circular areas were connected to form unit area boundaries (Figure 1(b)).

—Unit area boundaries were delineated to follow significant topographic features (50 CFR 424.12(c)) such as coastlines, ridgelines, and valleys (Figure 1(c)).

EP29DE00.000

EP29DE00.001

EP29DE00.002

These delineation methods were used to facilitate identification of boundary lines and to aid in implementation of on-the-ground conservation measures. In delineating critical habitat units we made an effort to avoid developed areas such as towns, agricultural lands, and other lands unlikely to contribute to the conservation of these 32 species.

Within the critical habitat boundaries, adverse modification generally would only occur if the primary constituent elements are affected. Therefore, not all activities within critical habitat would trigger an adverse modification conclusion. Existing features and structures within proposed areas, such as buildings, roads, aqueducts, telecommunications equipment, arboreta and gardens, heiaus (indigenous places of worship or shrines), and other man-made features, do not contain, and are not likely to develop, constituent elements. Therefore, unless a Federal action related to such features or structures indirectly affected nearby habitat containing the primary constituent elements, operation and maintenance of such features or structures generally would not be impacted by the designation of critical habitat.

All currently occupied sites containing one or more of the primary constituent elements considered essential to the conservation of these 40 plant species were examined to determine if additional special management considerations or protection are required above those currently provided. We reviewed all available management information on these plants at these sites including published reports and surveys; annual performance reports; forestry management plans; grants; memoranda of understanding and cooperative agreements; State of Hawaii, Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW) planning documents; internal letters and memos; biological assessments and environmental impact statements; and, section 7 consultations. Additionally, each public (

i.e.,

any county, state, or Federal government office holdings) and private landowner on Molokai with a known occurrence of one of the 40 species was contacted by mail. We reviewed all information received during the public comment period, in response to our landowner mailing and at an open house held in Kaunakakai, Molokai on March 15, 2000. When clarification was required on the information provided to us, we followed up with a telephone contact.

Pursuant to the definition of critical habitat in section 3 of the Act, any area so designated must also require “special managment considerations or protections.” Adequate special management or protection is provided by a legally operative plan that addresses the maintenance and improvement of the essential elements and provides for the long-term conservation of the species. The Service considers a plan adequate when it meets all of the following three criteria: (1) The plan provides a conservation benefit to the species (

i.e.,

the plan must maintain or provide for an increase in the species' population or the enhancement or restoration of its habitat within the area covered by the plan; (2) the plan provides assurances that the management plan will be implemented (

i.e.,

those responsible for implementing the plan are capable of accomplishing the objectives, have an implementation schedule and/or have adequate funding to implement the management plan); and, (3) the plan provides assurances the conservation plan will be effective (

i.e.,

it identifies biological goals, has provisions for reporting progress, and is of a duration sufficient to implement the plan and achieve the plan's goals and objectives). If an area is covered by a plan that meets these criteria, it does not constitute critical habitat as defined by the Act.

In determining and weighing the relative significance of the threats that would need to be addressed in

management plans or agreements, we considered the following:

—The factors that led to the listing of the species, as described in the final rules for listing each of the species. For all or nearly all endangered and threatened plants in Hawaii, the major threats include adverse impacts due to non-native plant and animal species. Direct browsing, digging, and trampling by ungulates, including pigs, goats, cattle, sheep, and deer, and direct competition from non-native plants have led to the decline of Hawaii's native flora (Cuddihy and Stone 1990; Loope 1998; Scott

et al.

1986; Smith 1985; Stone 1985; USFWS 1995a, 1995b, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1999; Vitousek 1992; Wagner

et al.

1985). Ungulate activity in most areas results in an increase of non-native plants because most of these non-native plants are able to colonize newly disturbed areas more quickly and effectively than Hawaii's native plants (Cuddihy and Stone 1990; Mack 1992; Scott

et al.

1986; Smith 1985; Tunison

et al.

1992; USFWS 1995a, 1995b,1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c; 1999).

—The recommendations from the HPPRCC in their 1998 report to the Service (“Habitat Essential to the Recovery of Hawaiian Plants”). As summarized in this report, recovery goals for endangered Hawaiian plant species cannot be achieved with ungulates (

e.g.,

pigs, goats, deer, and sheep) present in Essential Habitat Areas.

—The management actions needed for assurance of survival and ultimate recovery of Hawaii's endangered plants. These actions are described in the Service's recovery plans for 39 of the 40 species (USFWS 1995a, 1995b, 1996a, 1996b, 1996c, 1997, 1998a, 1998b, 1998c, 1999), in the 1998 HPPRCC report to the Service (HPPRCC 1998), and in various other documents and publications relating to plant conservation in Hawaii (Cuddihy and Stone 1990; Mueller-Dombois 1985; Smith 1985; Stone 1985; Stone

et al.

1992). These actions include, but are not limited to, the following: (1) Feral ungulate control; (2) non-native plant control; (3) rodent control; (4) invertebrate pest control; (5) fire control; (6) maintenance of genetic material of the endangered and threatened plants species; (7) propagation; reintroduction, and/or augmentation of existing populations into areas deemed essential for the recovery of these species; (8) ongoing management of the wild, outplanted, and augmented populations; (9) habitat management and restoration in areas deemed essential for the recovery of these species; and (10) monitoring of the wild, outplanted, and augmented populations.

In general, taking all of the above recommended management actions into account, the following management actions are ranked in order of importance. It should be noted, however, that, on a case-by-case basis, some of these actions may rise to a higher level of importance for a particular species or area, depending on the biological and physical requirements of the species and the location(s) of the individual plants:

—Feral ungulate control;

—Non-native plant control;

—Rodent control;

—Invertebrate pest control;

—Fire control;

—Maintenance of genetic material of the endangered and threatened plant species;

—Propagation; reintroduction and/or augmentation of existing populations into areas deemed essential for the recovery of the species;

—Ongoing management of the wild, outplanted and augmented populations;

—Maintenance of natural pollinators and pollinating systems, when known;

—Habitat management and restoration in areas deemed essential for the recovery of the species;

—Monitoring of the wild, outplanted and augmented populations;

—Rare plant surveys;

—Control of human activities/access.

As shown in Table 3, these 40 species of plants occur on Federal, State, and private lands on the island Molokai. In response to our two public notices, letters to the landowners, open houses, and meetings, along with information in our files, we received varying amounts and various types of information on the conservation management actions occurring on these lands. Some landowners reported that they are not conducting conservation management actions on

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