Navy Ship Propulsion Technologies: Options for Reducing Oil Use—Background for Congress
Congressional research reportJan 26, 2007
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Navy Ship Propulsion Technologies:
Options for Reducing Oil Use—Background
for Congress
Ronald O’Rourke
Specialist in Naval Affairs
January 26, 2007
Congressional Research Service
7-....
www.crs.gov
RL33360
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
Navy Ship Propulsion Technologies
Summary
General strategies for reducing the Navy’s dependence on oil for its ships include reducing energy
use on Navy ships; shifting to alternative hydrocarbon fuels; shifting to more reliance on nuclear
propulsion; and using sail and solar power.
Reducing energy use on Navy ships. A 2001 study concluded that fitting a Navy cruiser with
more energy-efficient electrical equipment could reduce the ship’s fuel use by 10% to 25%.
The Navy has installed fuel-saving bulbous bows and stern flaps on many of its ships. Ship fuel
use could be reduced by shifting to advanced turbine designs such as an intercooled recuperated
(ICR) turbine. Shifting to integrated electric-drive propulsion can reduce a ship’s fuel use by
10% to 25%; some Navy ships are to use integrated electric drive. Fuel cell technology, if
successfully developed, could reduce Navy ship fuel use substantially.
Alternative hydrocarbon fuels. Potential alternative hydrocarbon fuels for Navy ships include
biodiesel and liquid hydrocarbon fuels made from coal using the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process.
A 2005 Naval Research Advisory Committee (NRAC) study and a 2006 Air Force Scientific
Advisory Board both discussed FT fuels.
Nuclear propulsion. Oil-fueled ship types that might be shifted to nuclear propulsion include
large-deck amphibious assault ships and large surface combatants (i.e., cruisers and
destroyers). A 2005 “quick look” analysis by the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program concluded
that total life-cycle costs for nuclear-powered versions of these ships would equal those of oilfueled versions when oil reaches about $70 and $178 per barrel, respectively.
Sail and solar propulsion. Kite-assisted propulsion might be an option for reducing fuel use on
Navy auxiliaries and DOD sealift ships. Two firms are now offering kite-assist systems to
commercial ship operators. Solar power might offer some potential for augmenting other forms
of shipboard power, perhaps particularly on Navy auxiliaries and DOD sealift ships.
FY2007 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 5122/P.L. 109-364). Section 128 of P.L. 109-364
(conference report H.Rept. 109-702 of September 29, 2006) expresses the sense of the Congress
that the Navy should make greater use of alternative technologies, including expanded application
of integrated power systems, fuel cells, and nuclear power, for propulsion of future major surface
combatant ships. The report directs the Navy to include integrated power systems, fuel cells, and
nuclear power as propulsion alternatives to be evaluated within the analysis of alternatives for
future major surface combatant ships. Section 360 makes it Department of Defense (DOD) policy
to improve the fuel efficiency of weapons platforms, consistent with mission requirements, and
requires a report on DOD progress in implementing the policy.
This report will be updated as events warrant.
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Navy Ship Propulsion Technologies
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................1
Reducing Energy Use on Navy Ships ..........................................................................................1
General .................................................................................................................................1
Hotel-Load Electrical Systems ..............................................................................................3
Bulbous Bows.......................................................................................................................4
Stern Flaps............................................................................................................................5
Propeller Coatings.................................................................................................................6
Higher-Efficiency Gas Turbines ............................................................................................7
Integrated Electric-Drive Propulsion .....................................................................................8
Fuel Cells..............................................................................................................................9
Alternative Hydrocarbon Fuels.................................................................................................. 11
Navy Ground Vehicles And Installations ............................................................................. 11
National Park Service Boat ................................................................................................. 12
2005 NRAC Study .............................................................................................................. 12
ONR Interest In Synthetic Fuels .......................................................................................... 13
2006 Air Force Scientific Advisory Board Study ................................................................. 14
Nuclear Propulsion.................................................................................................................... 15
2005 Naval Reactors Quick Look Analysis.......................................................................... 15
Past Nuclear Ships Other than Carriers and Submarines ...................................................... 16
Implications for Procurement Costs of Other Ships ............................................................. 17
Implications for Construction Shipyards.............................................................................. 17
Implications for Ship Maintenance ...................................................................................... 18
Implications for Port Calls and Forward Homeporting......................................................... 18
Sail and Solar Power ................................................................................................................. 18
Sails and Wingsails ............................................................................................................. 19
Kites ................................................................................................................................... 22
KiteShip........................................................................................................................ 23
SkySails........................................................................................................................ 24
Solar Power ........................................................................................................................ 26
Solar Sailor Ferry Boat.................................................................................................. 27
E/S Orcelle Concept Design .......................................................................................... 28
Legislative Activity................................................................................................................... 28
FY2007 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 5122/P.L. 109-364) ............................................. 28
House ........................................................................................................................... 28
Senate........................................................................................................................... 29
Conference Report ........................................................................................................ 31
FY2007 Defense Appropriations Act (H.R. 5631/P.L. 109-289) ........................................... 33
Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation Act of 2006 (H.R. 889/P.L. 109-241).................. 33
FY2006 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 1815/P.L. 109-163) ............................................. 34
Figures
Figure 1. Bulbous Bow Section for CVN-77................................................................................4
Figure 2. Bulbous Bow Design for DDG-51 ................................................................................5
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Navy Ship Propulsion Technologies
Figure 3. Stern Flap on DDG-51 Class Destroyer ........................................................................6
Figure 4. Electric Power Plants.................................................................................................. 10
Figure 5. Shin Aitoku Maru (left) and Usuki Pioneer (right) ...................................................... 19
Figure 6. Pleasure Craft Equipped with Walker Wingsails ......................................................... 20
Figure 7. Project Windship 50,000-ton DWT Product Carrier .................................................... 21
Figure 8. KiteShip Concept Applied to Commercial Cargo Ship ................................................ 23
Figure 9. SkySails Concept Applied to Commercial Cargo Ship ................................................ 25
Figure 10. Potential Fuel Savings from SkySails System ........................................................... 26
Figure 11. Solar Sailor Hybrid-Powered Ferry Boat................................................................... 27
Figure 12. E/S Orcelle Concept Design ..................................................................................... 28
Tables
Table 1. Navy Nuclear-Powered Cruisers (CGNs) ..................................................................... 16
Contacts
Author Contact Information ...................................................................................................... 35
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Navy Ship Propulsion Technologies
Introduction
This report provides background information on options for technologies that could reduce the
Navy’s dependence on oil for its ships. It is based on testimony prepared for a hearing on
alternative Navy ship propulsion technologies held on April 6, 2006, before the Projection Forces
Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee, which granted permission for the
testimony to be converted into this report.
The report discusses four general strategies for reducing the Navy’s dependence on oil for
its ships:
•
reducing energy use on Navy ships;
•
alternative hydrocarbon fuels;
•
nuclear propulsion; and
•
sail and solar power.
Following this discussion is a section on legislative activity.
A July 2006 Government Accountability Office (GAO) report discusses the status of Navy studies
on alternative ship propulsion methods and certain Navy efforts for developing new shippropulsion technologies. 1
Reducing Energy Use on Navy Ships
One strategy for reducing the Navy’s dependence on oil would be to reduce energy use on
Navy ships.
General
The Department of Defense (DOD) testified in September 2006 that its energy use represents
about 1.2% of total U.S. energy use, and that DOD in FY2005 consumed roughly 125 million
barrels of oil. Of total DOD energy use, DOD testified, mobility fuels for aircraft, ships, and
vehicles account for about 74%. Jet fuel, which is used not only by aircraft, but also by tanks,
other ground vehicles, and electrical generators, accounts for 58% of DOD’s consumption, DOD
testified, while marine diesel fuel accounts for 13%.2
1
Government Accountability Office, Propulsion Systems for Navy Ships and Submarines, GAO-06-789R, July 6, 2006.
Joint Statement [of] Honorable John J. Young, Jr., Director, Defense Research and Engineering, [and] Mr. Philip W.
Grone, Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations and Environment), Before the Subcommittee on Terrorism,
Unconventional Threats and Capabilities and Readiness of the House Armed Services Committee, September 26, 2006,
pp. 4-5.According to a Naval Research Advisory Committee (NRAC) study briefed to DOD senior officials in October
2005, the U.S. government in FY2003 used about 330,000 barrels of oil per day (BPD), or about 2% of the total U.S.
use of 16 million BPD. Of the U.S. government total, the Department of Defense (DOD) accounted for about 300,000
BPD, or about 91%. Within the DOD total, aircraft accounted for 73%, ground vehicles 15%, and installations 4%.
Ships accounted for the remaining 8%—about 24,000 BPD, or 8,760,000 barrels per year. (Source: NRAC presentation
entitled “Future Fuels, [presented to] Flag Officers & Senior Executive Service, 4 October 2005, The Pentagon
(continued...)
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Navy Ship Propulsion Technologies
The Navy stated in October 2006 that it uses about 41 million barrels of oil per year for all
purposes (about 33% of the above-mentioned DOD figure of 125 million barrels in FY2005), and
that in FY2005, the Navy spent $900 million for fuel for its ships and aircraft, or about 32% of
the DOD total of $2.83 billion for that year.3
For fossil-fueled Navy ships, reducing energy use can reduce fuel costs and increase cruising
range. Increasing cruising range can improve operational flexibility by increasing the time
between refuelings and the distance that the ship can operate away from its next refueling point. It
might also reduce the ship’s infrared signature, and thus increase its survivability, by reducing
emissions of hot exhaust gasses. If applied to a significant number of ships, an increase in
cruising range might permit a reduction in Navy costs for fuel-related force structure (e.g., oilers)
and infrastructure (e.g., storage facilities).
A 2001 report by a Defense Science Board (DSB) task force on improving the fuel efficiency of
DOD weapon platforms stated:
The Navy has had a program since 1977 to improve weapon platform fuel efficiency,
focused primarily on legacy systems. The Navy staff estimates it has reduced the fuel
consumption of the ship and aircraft fleet by 15 and 6 percent respectively. Deployment of
the technologies and products has been primarily through no- and low-cost routes, such as
the normal overhaul process or procedural changes. However, fuel efficiency has not been
given a high priority in future system design. Fuel consumption enters design tradeoffs as
one of many components of operating cost, and in most cases is one of the least important
components because its benefits are so undervalued for reasons presented [elsewhere in the
report]. As a result of this undervaluation and split incentives, new fuel saving technologies
that promise increased performance and positive return on investment do not compete well
for funding if the initial investment is high and the savings do not appear for several years....
A portion of the Navy’s Development, Test and Evaluation (DT&E) program (Categories 6.4
and 6.5) is specifically dedicated to improving the fuel efficiency of ships, primarily legacy
ships. This program began in the late 1970s, with funding peaking at about $35M in 1984.
After fuel prices dropped in 1985 the program was funded at a more modest level, settling to
around $8M per year through the 1990s.4
The DSB report listed options for power-plant improvements that could improve fuel efficiency
by 3% to 8%, options for hull-system hydrodynamic improvements that could improve fuel
efficiency by another 3% to 8%, and options for improvements to hull coatings and cleaning,
auxiliary systems, sensors, controls, and procedures, and “hotel loads” (functions such as lighting
and fresh water production) that could lead to further improvements in fuel efficiency. Some of
the options listed in the DSB report are discussed in greater detail below.
(...continued)
Auditorium,” slide 9, available online at http://www.onr.navy.mil/nrac/docs/2005_brief_future_fuels.pdf.)
3
Geoff Fein, “Navy Study Examining Alternatives To Fossil Fuels For Ships,” Defense Daily, November 1, 2006.
4
U.S. Department of Defense, More Capable Warfighting Through Reduced Fuel Burden: [Report of] The Defense
Science Board Task Force on Improving Fuel Efficiency of Weapons and Platforms. Washington, 2001. (January 2001,
Office of the Under Secretary of Defense For Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics) p. 50.
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Hotel-Load Electrical Systems
Dr. Amory Lovins, the director of the Rocky Mountain Institute (RMI) and a member of the DSB
task force, estimated in 2001 that as much as 30% of the Navy’s non-aviation fuel appears to be
used to generate power for hotel loads.5 A study conducted by RMI for the Navy in 2001 of
energy use on the Aegis cruiser Princeton (CG-59) found that hotel loads on these ships could be
substantially reduced. According to the DSB report, the RMI study “found retrofittable hotel-load
electric savings potential on the order of 20 to 50 percent, with significant further opportunities
still to be assessed. Many of the savings opportunities were purely operational, requiring little or
no investment.”6 In an online article about the RMI study, Dr. Lovins stated:
The Naval Sea Systems Command’s [NAVSEA’s] able engineers had estimated that 19
percent could be saved on ships of this class, of which Princeton was in the top one fourth
for efficiency....
Our preliminary survey found gratifyingly large potential savings: perhaps, if found feasible,
as much as several times NAVSEA’s expectations.
Princeton uses nearly $6 million worth of diesel-like turbine fuel each year. Her gas turbines,
akin to those on an older passenger jet aircraft, use about $2-3 million worth of oil to make
up to 2.5 megawatts of electricity, the rest for 80,000 horsepower of propulsion. The RMI
team found that retrofitting motors, pumps, fans, chillers, lights, and potable water systems
could save an estimated 20-50 percent of the ship’s electricity. That could cut total fuel use
by an estimated 10-25 percent....
Just as in civilian facilities ashore, the RMI team started by calculating what it’s worth to
save a kilowatt-hour. Since the electricity is being made inefficiently from fuel that’s mainly
delivered by “oiler” ships, the answer is an eye-popping 27 cents, six times a typical
industrial tariff ashore. This high cost makes “negawatts” really juicy. For example, each
percentage point of improved efficiency in a single 100-horsepower always-on motor is
worth $1,000 a year. Each chiller could be improved to save its own capital cost’s worth of
electricity (about $120,000) every eight months. About $400,000 a year could be saved if—
under noncritical, low-threat conditions—certain backup systems were set to come on
automatically when needed rather than running all the time. Half that saving could come just
from two 125-horsepower firepumps that currently pump seawater continuously aboard,
around the ship, and back overboard. In a critical civilian facility like a refinery, where one
wanted to be equally certain the firefighting water was always ready, one would instead
pressurize the pipes (usually with freshwater) with a 2-hp pump, and rig the main pumps to
spring into action the instant the pressure dropped.
Princeton’s total electricity-saving potential could probably cut her energy costs by nearly $1
million a year, or about $10 million in present value [over the ship’s life cycle], while
improving her warfighting capability.7
5
DSB report, p. 53.
Ibid.
7
Amory B. Lovins, “All Energy Experts on Deck!” available online at http://www.rmi.org/sitepages/pid955.php.
6
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Bulbous Bows
A bulbous bow (Figure 1) can reduce a ship’s wavemaking resistance and thereby increase its
fuel efficiency. The Taylor Bow—an early form of the bulbous bow developed by U.S. naval
architect and engineer David W. Taylor—was installed on the battleship Delaware (BB-28),
which entered service in 1910, and subsequently on other large, higher-powered U.S.-built ships.
The Inui Bow—a new form of the bulbous bow developed by Takao Inui of Japan in the late
1950s and early 1960s—is widely used on large commercial ships, where it typically reduces fuel
consumption by about 5% at cruising speeds, 8 and is now being applied to smaller commercial
ships. Navy aircraft carriers, amphibious ships, and auxiliary ships and DOD sealift ships now
feature bulbous bows, and the Navy has examined the idea of incorporating them into other ships,
such as surface combatants.
Figure 1. Bulbous Bow Section for CVN-77
A study by the Navy’s David Taylor Model Basin estimated that fitting a bow bulb onto an
Arleigh Burke (DDG-51) class destroyer could reduce its fuel use by 3.9%, saving 2,400 barrels
of fuel per year.9 An earlier (1994) study by the same organization estimated that 79 existing
Navy cruisers and destroyers could be fitted with bow bulbs for a total development and
installation cost of less than $30 million, and that the constant-dollar life-cycle fuel savings of
the 79 ships would be $250 million.10 DOD stated in 2000 that fitting bulbous bows onto 50
8
Thomas C. Gillmer and Bruce Johnson, Introduction to Naval Architecture, Annapolis (MD), U.S. Naval Institute,
1982; Patrick J. Bray, “The Bulbous Bow, What Is It, and Why?” available online at http://www.dieselduck.ca/library/
articles/bulbous_bows.htm and “The Basics of Bulbous Bows,” available online at http://www.brayyachtdesign.bc.ca/
article_bbows.html.
9
Dominic S. Cusanelli, “Stern Flaps and Bow Bulbs for Existing Vessels, Reducing Shipboard Fuel Consumption and
Emissions,” available online at http://www.unep.fr/ozonaction/events/military/proceedings/Presentation%20Material/
24%20-%20Cusanelli%20-%20SternFlaps.doc. The study is undated but refers to a test that was “recently completed in
Dec. 2000.”DOD in September 2006 similarly testified that installing a bulbous bow could reduce a ship’s fuel use by
almost 4%, reducing the ship’s fuel consumption by about 100,000 barrels per year. (Source: Joint Statement [of]
Honorable John J. Young, Jr., Director, Defense Research and Engineering, [and] Mr. Philip W. Grone, Deputy Under
Secretary of Defense (Installations and Environment), Before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Unconventional Threats
and Capabilities and Readiness of the House Armed Services Committee, September 26, 2006, p. 13.)
10
Dominic S. Cusanelli, “Development of a Bow for a Naval Surface Combatant which Combines a Hydrodynamic
Bulb and a Sonar Dome,” paper presented at the American Society of Naval Engineers Technical Innovation
(continued...)
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DDG-51s (a total of 62 DDG-51s have been procured) could save $200 million in life-cycle fuel
costs.11 The near-surface bow bulb designed for the DDG-51 (Figure 2) accommodates the ship’s
existing bow sonar dome. A developer of the bow bulb stated that “Due to funding cut backs, the
[DDG-51] bow bulb has not yet been transitioned to sea.”12
Figure 2. Bulbous Bow Design for DDG-51
(bulb above, existing sonar dome below)
Stern Flaps
A stern flap (Figure 3) is a relatively small plate that extends behind a ship’s transom,
lengthening the bottom surface of the hull. A stern flap alters the water flow at the stern in ways
that reduce the ship’s resistance and increase fuel efficiency by a few or several percent. A stern
flap for a Navy surface combatant in 2000 cost about $170,000 to fabricate and install.13
Preliminary tests of stern flaps on DDG-51s showed an annual fuel reduction of 3,800 to
4,700 barrels, or about 6.0% to 7.5%, per ship.14 DOD testified in September 2006 that the
savings for DDG-51s would be about 7.5%, resulting in a potential savings of almost $195,000
per year per ship.15
(...continued)
Symposium, September 1994.
11
U.S. Department of Defense, Climate Change, Energy Efficiency, and Ozone Protection, Protecting National
Security and the Environment. Washington, 2000. (Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Environmental
Security), November 2000) p. 5. Available online at https://www.denix.osd.mil/denix/Public/Library/Air/
Climate_Change/dodclimatechange.pdf.
12
“Stern Flaps and Bow Bulbs for Existing Vessels, Reducing Shipboard Fuel Consumption and Emissions,” op. cit.
13
“Stern Flaps and Bow Bulbs for Existing Vessels, Reducing Shipboard Fuel Consumption and Emissions,” op. cit.,
and Climate Change, Energy Efficiency, and Ozone Protection, Protecting National Security and the Environment,
op. cit.
14
“Stern Flaps and Bow Bulbs for Existing Vessels, Reducing Shipboard Fuel Consumption and Emissions,” op. cit.
See also William L. Cave, III and Dominic S. Cusanelli, “Effect of Stern Flaps on Powering Performance of the FFG-7
Class,” available on the Internet at http://www50.dt.navy.mil/reports/ffg7flap/.
15
Joint Statement [of] Honorable John J. Young, Jr., Director, Defense Research and Engineering, [and] Mr. Philip W.
(continued...)
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As of November 2004, the Navy had installed stern flaps on 98 ships (primarily surface
combatants) and planned to install them on an additional 85. The 98 ships equipped as of
November 2004 had accumulated 403 ship-years of service and saved $44 million in fuel costs.16
The Department of Energy stated in 2003 that by 2005, stern flap installations on Navy ships
would save 446,000 barrels of fuel, or $18 million, per year.17 DOD testified in September 2006
that the use of bulbous bows and stern flaps on surface ships has resulted in a 15% increase in
fuel efficiency on selected ships.18
Figure 3. Stern Flap on DDG-51 Class Destroyer
Propeller Coatings
DOD testified in September 2006 that applying special coatings to Navy ship propellers might
reduce ship fuel use by 4% to 5%, and possibly also reduce maintenance requirements. The
change, DOD testified, might pay for itself within about one year.19 The U.S. Navy and other
navies, as well as commercial ship operators, have experimented in the past with such coatings,
which can reduce a propeller’s friction and prevent corrosion of its surface (helping to maintain
higher efficiency and reduce maintenance requirements).20 At least one maker of such a coating
states the Navy intends to test its product on scale models of Navy ships.21
(...continued)
Grone, Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations and Environment), Before the Subcommittee on Terrorism,
Unconventional Threats and Capabilities and Readiness of the House Armed Services Committee, September 26, 2006,
p. 13.
16
Carderock Division press release, November 17, 2004, “Navy Researcher Patents Ship Geometry,” available online
at http://www.dt.navy.mil/pressreleases/archives/000129.html. An earlier (2003) Department of Energy publication
stated that stern flaps had been installed on 61 ships, resulting in estimated savings of 203,000 barrels of fuel, and that
when fully implemented in 2005, stern flap installations on Navy ships would save 446,000 barrels of fuel, or $18
million, per year. U.S. Department of Energy, “Leading By Example to Improve Energy Security,” March 2003,
available online at http://www1.eere.energy.gov/office_eere/pdfs/federal_fs.pdf.
17
“Leading By Example to Improve Energy Security,” op. cit.
18
Joint Statement [of] Honorable John J. Young, Jr., Director, Defense Research and Engineering, [and] Mr. Philip W.
Grone, Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations and Environment), Before the Subcommittee on Terrorism,
Unconventional Threats and Capabilities and Readiness of the House Armed Services Committee, September 26, 2006,
page 13.
19
Spoken testimony, as reflected in hearing transcript, of John J. Young, Jr., Director, Defense Research and
Engineering, before the Subcommittee on Terrorism, Unconventional Threats and Capabilities and Readiness of the
(continued...)
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Higher-Efficiency Gas Turbines
Gas turbines with greater efficiencies than the simple-cycle gas turbines currently used in Navy
ships could substantially reduce Navy ship fuel use. An example of such an engine is the WR-21
intercooled recuperated (ICR) gas turbine engine, which was jointly developed between 1991 and
2000 by the U.S., UK, and French governments for potential use on future warships at a shared
total cost of $400 million. The industry team for the project included Northrop Grumman Marine
Systems as the prime contractor, Rolls-Royce as the major subcontractor responsible for the
design of the gas turbine, and other firms. Compared to the simple-cycle General Electric
LM-2500 gas turbine used in Navy surface combatants, the WR-21 is bulkier and more expensive
to procure, but could reduce fuel use on a mechanical-drive surface combatant by an estimated
25%-30%.22
The Navy in the late 1990s considered the WR-21 for the DD-21 destroyer program (now the
DDG-1000 destroyer program).23 A 1998 article stated that with the WR-21:
Each DD-21 vessel, for example, would save about $1.5 million a year in fuel and operating
costs, [Northrop Grumman’s ICR program manager] said. The savings provided by the new
technology could pay back the premium on the original purchase of [the] WR-21 in two to
six years.
Improved fuel economy can translate into a range of enhanced mission capabilities as well.
These benefits could include a 30-percent increase in weapons payload for the DD-21, a 27to 30-percent reduction in fuel tankage, increased speed, additional days on station, or
greater range.24
(...continued)
House Armed Services Committee, September 26, 2006.
20
See, for example, pages 71-74 of 91-page slide lecture (with two slides per page)available online at
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/marine/assets/docs/NclUni_Lect3_1203.pdf. For additional information on propeller coatings,
seethe remainder of this slide lecture, plus the discussions available online athttp://www.imarest.org/proceedings/
samples/candries_coatings.pdf and http://www.ecospeed.be/web/doc/Newsletter_februari05.pdf.
21
Source: The firm’s webpage, available online at http://www.xurex.com/productPages/proglide.html.
22
See, for example, Colin R. English, “The WR-21 Intercooled Recuperated Gas Turbine Engine—Integration Into
Future Warships,” Proceedings of the International Gas Turbine Congress 2003, Tokyo, November 2-7, 2003, available
online at http://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2003/00916/pdf/igtc2003tokyo_os203.pdf; U.S. Department of Defense,
Developing Science and Technologies List, Section 13: Marine Systems Technology. Defense threat Reduction Agency,
July 2002, pp. 13-11. See also pp. 13-11 to 13-15. Available online at http://www.dtic.mil/mctl/DSTL/Sec13.pdf;
“WR-21 Propulsion Module,” Rolls-Royce Fact Sheet, available online at http://www.rolls-royce.com/marine/
downloads/pdf/gasturbine/wr21_prop.pdf; “Northrop Grumman Readies New Gas Turbine for Market,”
MarineLink.com, December 7, 1999, available online at http://www.marinelink.com/Story/
ShowStory.aspx?StoryID=2141; and Joseph Lawton, presentation entitled “Gas Turbine Engine R&D for
Shipboard Applications,” undated but apparently 1999, available at http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/
99/99ats/3-5.pdf.
23
For more on the DDG-1000 program, see CRS Report RL32109, Navy DDG-1000 and DDG-51 Destroyer
Programs: Background, Oversight Issues, and Options for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
24
Steven Ashley, “Fuel-Saving Warship Drives,” Mechanical Engineering, August 1998. Available at
http://www.memagazine.org/backissues/aug98/features/fuelsav/fuelsav.html.
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Supporters of the WR-21 also argued that the ICR engine would result in a lower exhaust
temperature, which could reduce the ship’s infrared signature.
The Navy ultimately selected a design for the DDG-1000 whose propulsion system employed the
LM-2500. The UK in 2000 selected the WR-21 for its new 7,500-ton Type 45 destroyer, which,
like the DDG-1000, will employ an integrated electric drive system (see discussion below).
Other advanced turbines with even higher efficiencies are viewed as technically possible. 25
Integrated Electric-Drive Propulsion
Compared to a traditional mechanical-drive propulsion system with two separate sets of turbines
(one for propulsion, the other for generating electricity for shipboard use), an integrated electricdrive propulsion system can reduce a ship’s fuel use by permitting the ship’s single combined set
of turbines to be run more often at their most fuel-efficient speeds. A 2000 CRS report that
surveyed electric-drive propulsion technology stated:
Depending on the kind of ship in question and its operating profile (the amount of time that
the ship spends traveling at various speeds), a Navy ship with an integrated electric-drive
system may consume 10 percent to 25 percent less fuel than a similar ship with a
mechanical-drive system. The Navy estimates a savings of 15 to 19 percent for a ship like a
surface combatant.
In addition, electric drive makes possible the use of new propeller/stern configurations, such
as a podded propulsor ... that can reduce ship fuel consumption further due to their improved
hydrodynamic efficiency. Estimates of additional savings range from 4 percent to 15 percent,
depending on the ship type and the exact propeller/stern configuration used.26
The Navy’s TAKE-1 class cargo ships use an integrated electric-drive system derived from a
commercially available system that has been installed on ships such as cruise ships. The
Navy’s lead DDG-1000 destroyers are to use an integrated electric-drive system with a more
advanced motor type known as the advanced induction motor (AIM). The Navy submarine
community has expressed an interest in shifting from mechanical-drive to electric-drive
technology but requires a technology that is more torque-dense (i.e., more power-dense) than the
AIM technology to be used on the lead DDG-1000s. Candidates for a more torque-dense
technology include a permanent magnet motor (PMM) and a high-temperature superconducting
(HTS) synchronous motor.
25
See Alfonso (Al) Wei, “Technologies for Next Generation Turbine Systems,” presentation at Turbine Power Systems
Conference and Condition Monitoring Workshop, February 25-27, 2002, Galveston, Texas, available online at
http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/02/turbines/wei.pdf, and Roger Anderson and Ronald
Bischoff, ”Mobile Propulsion and Fixed Power Production With Near-Zero Atmospheric Emissions,” Tri-Service
Power Expo 2003, Norfolk Waterside Marriott, 15-17 July 2003, available online at http://www.dtic.mil/ndia/
2003triservice/bis1.pdf.
26
CRS Report RL30622, Electric-Drive Propulsion for U.S. Navy Ships: Background and Issues for Congress, by
Ronald O’Rourke. A 2002 DOD report similarly states that integrated electric drive propulsion can achieve “[g]reater
than 15-19 percent savings over existing gas-turbine combatants when operating a minimum of two generator sets.”
Developing Science and Technologies List, Section 13: Marine Systems Technology, op. cit., pp. 13-25.
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DRS Technologies, a maker of electric-drive propulsion equipment, has proposed increasing the
planned scope of the Navy’s program for modernizing its DDG-51s to include the adding some
electric-drive propulsion equipment to the ships’ existing mechanical-drive propulsion plants. The
added equipment, which would include permanent magnet auxiliary motor-generators, would
more fully interconnect the mechanical-drive components on each ship. Supporters of the
proposal argue that the modification would reduce DDG-51 fuel use by about 15%, increase the
ship’s electrical power, permit electrical power from the ship’s main engines to be used for other
purposes, reduce maintenance on the ship’s engines, increase the propulsion plant’s ability to
continue working after being damaged by attack, and reduce the ship’s susceptibility to attack by
reducing the ship’s infrared signatures. DRS estimates that the proposal would have a nonrecurring design and engineering cost of about $15.5 million, and a recurring procurement and
installation cost of about $11.5 million per ship. DRS estimates that installation costs on each ship
would be recovered by reduced fuel costs in about three years, and that installing the equipment
on 20 of the Navy’s 62 DDG-51s would generate a net-present-value (NPV) life-cycle savings of
about $200 million.27
Fuel Cells
Fuel cell technology, 28 if successfully developed for Navy shipboard application, could reduce
Navy ship fuel use substantially by generating electricity much more efficiently than is possible
through combustion. Figure 4 is a Navy briefing slide comparing the relative efficiency of
combustion and fuel cell electric power plants.29
27
Source: DRS briefing to CRS, January 12, 2007.
28
For basic information on fuel cell technology, see CRS Report RL32196, A Hydrogen Economy and Fuel Cells: An
Overview, by (name redacted) and Aimee E. Curtright. Additional information is available online at
http://www.fuelcells.org.
29
Source for Figure 4: “Marine Fuel Cells,” presentation at Marine Vessel and Air Quality Conference, 1-2 February
2001, Hyatt Regency Hotel, San Francisco, CA, available online at http://www.epa.gov/region9/air/marinevessel/pdfs/
hoffman.pdf. This slide can also be found in the two other Navy briefings cited in the next footnote.
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Figure 4. Electric Power Plants
The Navy states that “the Navy’s shipboard gas turbine engines typically operate at 16 to 18
percent efficiency, because Navy ships usually sail at low to medium speeds that don’t require
peak use of the power plant. The fuel cell system that ONR [the Office of Naval Research] is
developing will be capable of between 37 to 52 percent efficiency.”30 As a result of these relative
efficiencies, the Navy states that a DDG-51 gas turbine generator operating for 3,000 hours would
consume 641,465 gallons of fuel while ship-service fuel cell plant with a built-in fuel processor
(i.e., a fuel reformer) for forming hydrogen from Navy diesel fuel would, if operated for the same
period, consume 214,315 gallons, or 33% as much.31 The Navy has estimated, using past fuel
prices, that shifting to fuel cell technology could save more than $1 million per ship per year in
ship-service fuel costs.32 Other potential advantages of fuel cell technology include reduced
maintenance costs, reduced emissions (and thus reduced infrared signature), reduced acoustic
signature, reduced radar cross section (perhaps because of reduced-size exhaust stack structures),
increased ship survivability due to distributed power reduction, and greater ship design flexibility.
There is strong interest in Europe, Japan, and the United States in developing shipboard fuel cell
technology for both powering shipboard equipment and ship propulsion. In Europe, fuel cell
technology has been incorporated into non-nuclear-powered submarines, such as the German
30
ONR program officer Anthony Nickens, as quoted in Ed Walsh, “Hybrids on the High Seas: Fuel Cells for Future
Ships,” Navy Newsstand, March 8, 2004, available online at http://www.news.navy.mil/search/
display.asp?story_id=12221.
31
Ibid. The same comparison can be found in “US Navy Shipboard Fuel Cell Program,” briefing presentation for
ShipTech 2003, January 2003, Biloxi, MS, available online at http://www.nsrp.org/st2003/presentations/hoffman.pdf
and in “U.S. Navy Shipboard Fuel Cell Program,” presentation for U.S. Maritime Administration Workshop on
Maritime Energy and Clean Emissions, 29-30 January 2002, The St. Regis, Washington, DC, available online at
http://www.marad.dot.gov/nmrec/conferences_workshops/jan%2029-30%202002/house.pdf.
32
Presentation for U.S. Maritime Administration Workshop on Maritime Energy and Clean Emissions, op. cit.
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Type 212 submarine, and is starting to be applied to civilian surface ships. ONR and the Naval
Sea Systems Command (NAVSEA) have a shipboard fuel cell program for developing fuel cell
power systems for Navy ships with an acquisition cost, weight, and volume comparable to other
market options. A July 2006 GAO report states:
Office of Naval Research officials stated that fuel cell technology is promising for naval
application and has already completed some prototype testing. However, officials stated that
the technology is at least 3 to 5 years away from acquisition consideration.33
Alternative Hydrocarbon Fuels
A second strategy for reducing the Navy’s dependence on oil would be to shift to alternative
hydrocarbon fuels.
Navy Ground Vehicles And Installations
The Department of the Navy (DON) in recent years has taken steps to increase its use of
alternative hydrocarbon fuels, particularly biodiesel—an alternative diesel fuel produced from
vegetable oils or animal fats—at installations and in non-tactical ground vehicles.
•
In May 2000, the federal government opened its first alternative-fuel service
station at the Navy Exchange at Arlington, VA, near the Pentagon. The station
initially provided E85 fuel—a blend of 85% ethanol (i.e., grain alcohol) and 15%
gasoline—and compressed natural gas.34
•
In 2001-2002, the services began using B20 fuel (a blend of 20% biodiesel and
80% petroleum diesel) to fuel non-tactical vehicles and other equipment at
various bases and installations.
•
In late 2003, the Navy started making its own biodiesel fuel in a demonstration
project at the Naval Facilities Engineering Services Center, Port Hueneme, CA. 35
•
In December 2004, the Navy added biodiesel to the list of fuels provided at the
alternative-fuel service station at the Navy Exchange, Arlington, VA. 36
•
On January 18, 2005, DON issued a memorandum requiring all Navy and
Marine Corps non-tactical diesel vehicles to operate on B20 fuel by June 1, 2005,
where B20 can be supplied by the Defense Energy Support Center, adequate fuel
33
Government Accountability Office, Propulsion Systems for Navy Ships and Submarines, GAO-06-789R, July 6,
2006, p. 7.
34
U.S. Department of Defense News Release, “Department of Defense Opens First Federal Multi-Alternative Fuel
Service Station,” May 1, 2000, available online at http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/2000/b05012000_bt21800.html.
35
“From Use Cooking Oil to Biodiesel,” Fall West Bulletin, Fall/Winter 2003, available online at http://www.zyn.com/
flcfw/fwnews/fwarch/fw032a.htm, Catherine Saillant, “Navy Vehicles Will Need an Order of Fries to Go,” Los Angeles
Times, October 21, 2003, available online at http://www.worldenergy.net/pdfs/newsstories/102103_russ_teal.pdf, and
Presentation by Kurt Buehler, Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center, entitled “Production of Biodiesel from Used
Vegetable Oil,” available online at http://www.federalsustainability.org/events/GGasperinoFNSDenver1.pdf.
36
Kristine M. Sturkie, “Navy Exchange Quaters K Gas Station Offers Alternative Fuels,” Navy Newsstand, December
23, 2004, available online at http://www.news.navy.mil/search/display.asp?story_id=16425.
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tanks are available, and the use of biodiesel is allowable and practical in light of
local, state, and federal regulations. The requirement does not apply to tactical
military equipment or deployable commercial equipment intended to support
contingency operations. 37
In June 2005, the National Biodiesel Board presented the Navy with an award for its leadership in
the use of biodiesel. 38
National Park Service Boat
Since about 2001, the Channel Islands National Park has been using B100 (100% biodiesel fuel)
to fuel its 56-foot boat Pacific Ranger.39
2005 NRAC Study
The 2005 NRAC study cited at the start of this report was sponsored by the Marine Corps
Combat Development Command40 and was tasked to “Identify, review, and assess technologies
for reducing fuel consumption and for militarily useful alternative fuels, with a focus on tactical
ground mobility.... Two main focus areas to be considered in this effort are alternative fuels, and
improving fuel efficiency (to include examination of alternative engine technologies).”41 The
study recommended making a long-term commitment to manufactured liquid hydrocarbon fuels
made from domestically abundant feedstocks.42 The briefing referenced “Hubbert’s Peak,” also
known as the peak oil theory,43 and included a discussion of the German-discovered FischerTropsch (FT) process for converting coal into manufactured liquid hydrocarbon fuels.44
37
Memorandum from Department of the Navy Office of the Assistant Secretary (Installations and Environment), dated
January 18, 2005, for Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Readiness and Logistics (N4) [and] Deputy Commandant
of the Marine Corps for Logistics (L), on Department of the Navy Environmental Policy Memorandum 05-01;
Biodiesel Fuel Use In Diesel Engines, available online at http://www.federalsustainability.org/initiatives/biodiesel/
NavyBiodieselPolicy.pdf.
38
National Biodiesel Board new release, “U.S. Navy Presented with Energy Security Award,” June 13, 2005, available
online at http://www.biodiesel.org/resources/pressreleases/fle/20050613_navyaward.pdf.
39
See “The Pacific Ranger,” available online at http://www.nps.gov/chis/pacranger.htm, and “Alternative Fuel
Vehicles,” available online at http://www.ofee.gov/wpr/altfuel.htm.
40
Zachary M. Peterson, “NRAC Panel Offers Proposals For Breaking ‘The Tether of Fuel,’” Inside the Navy,
October 17, 2005.
41
Terms of Reference, Future Fuels, NRAC Summer Study 2005, available online at http://www.onr.navy.mil/nrac/
docs/2005_tor_future_fuels.pdf.
42
“Future Fuels, [presented to] Flag Officers & Senior Executive Service, 4 October 2005, The Pentagon Auditorium,”
op. cit., slide 5.
43
Ibid., slide 28.
44
Ibid., slide 29. Descriptions of the FT process, which was discovered by Franz Fischer and Hans Tropsch in 1923,
are available online at http://www.tntech.edu/chemistry/Inorganic/Chem4110/Student/01%20The%20FischerTropsch%20Process.ppt#256,1,TheFischer-TropschProcess, http://www.answers.com/topic/fischer-tropsch-process,
http://www.fischer-tropsch.org/primary_documents/presentations/presentationstoc.htm, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Fischer-Tropsch_process, and http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0818760.html. See also the archive of FischerTropsch documents available online at http://www.fischer-tropsch.org/.
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The NRAC study concluded the following regarding manufactured fuels:
•
“Liquid hydrocarbon fuel production using domestic energy sources is feasible
•
“Commercial financing and infrastructure development will drive this process
•
“DoD action needed to catalyze development & ensure US military takes
advantage of manufactured fuels
•
“Need to ensure military platforms can use manufactured fuels.”45
As recommended actions for the longer term (defined in the study as 2015 and beyond), the
NRAC study said that DOD should catalyze a manufactured liquid hydrocarbon fuels
infrastructure, and characterize the compatibility of manufactured liquid hydrocarbon fuels with
DON equipment. 46 Among the specific steps to be taken, the study recommended that the
Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Research, Development and Acquisition (ASN [RDA])
should, with the Services, advocate the use of multiyear procurement [MYP] authority that was
granted to the Secretary of Defense in the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (H.R. 6, P.L. 109-58 of
August 8, 2005) to catalyze commercial financing of large-scale FT plants for producing
transportation fuels. 47 The study also recommended that the Chief of Naval Research (CNR)
monitor the status of the FT plant authorized by P.L. 109-58 and use fuel produced by the plant to
conduct tests on current and future vehicles.48
ONR Interest In Synthetic Fuels
In October 2005, an official from the Office of Naval Research (ONR) stated that ONR intends to
explore methods for producing synthetic fuels, perhaps at sea. A press report stated:
ONR would like to explore how [Germany’s World War II fuel] processing technology
could be miniaturized for land- and sea-based platforms, [George Solhan, ONR’s director of
naval expeditionary maneuver warfare and combating terrorism science and technology] said
Oct. 26 at the National Defense Industrial Association’s expeditionary warfare conference in
Panama City, FL.
“We can’t predict energy availability in an operational sea base in a construct that’s far away
from home,” he said. “This is something we’re investigating right now. We’re in the
preliminary stages but this may well end up being one of the programs in our” Innovative
Naval Prototype effort.
The idea originated from recommendations the Naval Research Advisory Committee made
in a recent study, Solhan told Inside the Navy in a brief interview....
“We know that this can be done,” Solhan said of synthetic fuel production. “The Germans
did it. They did it in a big physical plant. Can you miniaturize it? Can you do it in an
environment where gravity doesn’t always point straight down,” where choppy waters could
affect a ship-based processing system.
45
Ibid., slide 30.
Ibid., slide 32.
47
Ibid., slide 33.
48
Ibid., slide 34.
46
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ONR would also investigate whether such a processing system could be scalable, so that
several miniaturized systems could be linked for expanded production capacity, he added. A
notional demonstration project could start with a land-based pilot project and eventually
move to a sea-based system, perhaps on an offshore drilling platform or a ship, he
speculated. But there is no program now, he pointed out.
“I wouldn’t call it [being in] the planning phase,” Solhan said. “I’d call it just the idea, brainstorm phase.”
In the event petroleum supplies or refining capacity is disrupted, synthetic fuel could be
produced from sources, such as methane and coal, he noted. And a worldwide infrastructure
for coal mining and delivery already exists, he said. Ships carrying 500,000 metric tons of
coal sail around the world on a regular basis.
“So diverting one of those haulers into the sea base and offloading the coal in bulk onto this
plant would probably be doable,” he said. “One thing that is readily available is coal. There
is a huge global industry in coal.”49
2006 Air Force Scientific Advisory Board Study
A January 2006 “quick look” study by the Air Force Scientific Advisory Board examined several
potential alternative fuels for Air Force use.50 The one option it listed as available in the near term
(defined as the next 0 to 5 years) was conversion of coal into synthetic fuel using the FT process.
Other options—oil shale, liquified natural gas, ethanol blends, and biodiesel—were presented as
mid-term options (defined in the study as the next 5 to 15 years). Two more options—biomass
black liquor fuels51 and hydrogen fuel for turbine engines—were presented as far-term options
(defined as more than 15 years from now).
The study noted that FT fuels offered certain “significant benefits” in terms of their technical
properties, and stated that the “Air Force has [the] ability to catalyze large-scale transition to
alternative fuels.”52 As one of its recommendations for the near term, the study said the Air Force
should “Ramp up development and utilization of F-T fuels” and “take the lead in DOD’s
transition to new fuels via blends. 53 One of its recommendations for the mid- and far-term was
“Alternative fuels, e.g., ethanol, [and] alternative HC [hydrocarbon] fuel blends.”54
49
Jason Ma, “ONR To Explore Synthetic Fuel Production For Seabasing Operations,” Inside the Navy, November 7,
2005. Bracketed material as in the original.
50
Briefing by Air Force Scientific Advisory Board, entitled “Technology Options for Improved Air Vehicle Fuel
Efficiency, A ‘Quick Look’ Study, January 26, 2006.
51
Black liquor fuel is “a by-product of the papermaking process, is an important liquid fuel in the pulp and paper
industry. It consists of the remaining substances after the digestive process where the cellulose fibres have been cooked
out from the wood.” Source: Magnus Marklund, “Black Liquor Recovery: How Does It Work?” available online at
http://etcpitea.se/blg/document/PBLG_or_RB.pdf. See also the discussions available online at
http://eereweb.ee.doe.gov/biomass/fy04/fuel_chemistry_bed_performance.pdf, http://eereweb.ee.doe.gov/industry/
bestpractices/fall2001_black_liquor.html, http://www.eng.utah.edu/~whitty/utah_blg/.
52
Ibid., slide 33.
53
Ibid., slide 35.
54
Ibid., slide 36.
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Nuclear Propulsion
A third strategy for reducing the Navy’s dependence on oil would be to shift to a greater reliance
on nuclear propulsion.
2005 Naval Reactors Quick Look Analysis
A 2005 “quick look analysis” conducted by the Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program, also known
as Naval Reactors, concluded that total life-cycle costs (i.e., procurement plus life-cycle operating
and support costs) for nuclear- and fossil-fueled versions of large-deck aircraft carriers would
equalize when the price of diesel fuel marine (DFM) delivered to the Navy reached $55. The
break-even figures for LHA/LHD-type large-deck amphibious assault ships and large surface
combatants (i.e., cruisers and destroyers) were $80 and $205 per barrel, respectively. 55 As of
February 2006, the price of DFM delivered to the Navy was $84 per barrel. Since the cost of
DFM delivered to the Navy is roughly 15% greater than that of crude oil, these figures
correspond to crude-oil costs of about $48, $70, and $178 per barrel, respectively. The difference
in the break-even points results in part from the different amounts of energy used by each type of
ship over its life time.
The Naval Reactors study was based on a 40-year ship life, which is roughly consistent with the
expected service life of an amphibious assault ship, but five years longer than the 35-year life the
Navy now plans for its cruisers and destroyers. If the calculation were done on a 35-year basis for
the surface combatants, the break-even figure for those ships might shift somewhat.
The results for the surface combatants are for a ship roughly equal in size to the Navy’s past
nuclear-powered cruisers (CGNs). Since most of these CGNs were smaller than the 14,500-ton
DDG-1000/CG(X) design, the break-even point for a nuclear-powered version of the DDG1000/CG(X) design might be somewhat different, and perhaps somewhat lower.
The study did not attempt to quantify the mobility-related operational advantages of nuclear
propulsion. These include the ability to transit long distances at high speeds (so as to respond
quickly to distant contingencies) without having to slow down for refueling, the ability to
commence combat operations immediately upon arrival in the theater of operations without
having to first refuel, and the ability to maneuver at high speeds within the theater of operations
without having to refuel. Nuclear-powered ships also lack the hot exhaust gasses that contribute
to the infrared detectability of fossil-fueled ships.
55
U.S. Naval Nuclear Propulsion Program, briefing entitled “Nuclear and Fossil Fuel Powered Surface Ships, Quick
Look Analysis,” presented to CRS on March 22, 2006. The briefers explained that the study was originally conducted
in 2005.
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Since this was a “quick look” study that excluded or made simplifying assumptions about certain
factors, a more comprehensive analysis might be required to decide whether to shift from fossilfueled large-deck amphibious assault ships or large surface combatants to nuclear-powered
versions of these ships. The results of the quick look study, however, suggest that the option may
be worth further exploration, at least for the large-deck amphibious assault ships. It may also be
worth exploring the option for large surface combatants, particularly if oil prices are expected to
rise from current levels, and if the operational advantages of nuclear propulsion are also taken
into account.
Past Nuclear Ships Other than Carriers and Submarines
The Navy has not previously built nuclear-powered large-deck amphibious assault ships. One
approach for doing so would be to take one-half of the twin reactor plant designed for the new
CVN-21 class aircraft carriers and install it on an LHA/LHD-type hull. Another option would be
to design a new plant specifically for this type of hull. 56
Table 1 shows the nine nuclear-powered cruisers (CGNs) previously built by the Navy. The ships
include three one-of-a-kind designs followed by the two-ship California (CGN-36) class and the
four-ship Virginia (CGN-38) class.
Procurement of nuclear-powered cruisers was halted after FY1975 due largely to a desire to
constrain the procurement costs of future cruisers. In deciding in the late 1970s on the design for
the new cruiser that would carry the Aegis defense system, two nuclear-powered Aegis-equipped
options—a 17,200-ton nuclear-powered strike cruiser (CSGN) and a 12,100-ton derivative of the
CGN-38 class design—were rejected in favor of the option of placing the Aegis system onto the
smaller, conventionally powered hull developed for the Spruance (DD-963) class destroyer. The
CSGN was estimated to have a procurement cost twice that of the DD-963 option, while the
CGN-42 was estimated to have a procurement cost 30%-50% greater than that of the DD-963
option. The option based on the DD-963 hull became the 9,500-ton Ticonderoga (CG-47) class
Aegis cruiser. The first Aegis cruiser was procured in FY1978.
Since one-half of the CVN-21 class twin reactor plant might be too large to install in the hull of a
cruiser or destroyer, even one as large as the DDG-1000/CG(X), a nuclear-powered cruiser or
destroyer might be likely to incorporate a new-design reactor plant. This plant could incorporate
many of the cost-reducing features of the Virginia (SSN-774) and CVN-21 class reactor plants.
Table 1. Navy Nuclear-Powered Cruisers (CGNs)
Hull
number
Name
Builder
Displacement (tons)
Procured
Entered
service
Decommissioned
CGN-9
Long Beach
Bethlehema
17,100
FY57
1961
1995
CGN-25
Bainbridge
Bethlehema
8,580
FY59
1962
1996
CGN-35
Truxtun
New Yorkb
8,800
FY62
1967
1995
CGN-36
California
NGNNc
10,530
FY67
1974
1999
56
A nuclear-powered version of an LHA(R) is discussed briefly in CRS Report RL32914, Navy Ship Acquisition:
Options for Lower-Cost Ship Designs—Issues for Congress, by Ronald O’Rourke.
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Hull
number
Name
Builder
Displacement (tons)
Procured
Entered
service
Decommissioned
CGN-37
South Carolina
NGNNc
10,530
FY68
1975
1999
CGN-38
Virginia
NGNNc
11,300
FY70
1976
1994
CGN-39
Texas
NGNNc
11,300
FY71
1977
1993
CGN-40
Mississippi
NGNNc
11,300
FY72
1978
1997
Arkansas
NGNNc
11,300
FY75
1980
1998
CGN-41
Source: Prepared by CRS based on Navy data and Norman Polmar, The Ships and Aircraft of the U.S. Fleet.
a.
Bethlehem Steel, Quincy, MA.
b.
New York Shipbuilding, Camden, NJ.
c.
Newport News Shipbuilding, now known as Northrop Grumman Newport News (NGNN).
Implications for Procurement Costs of Other Ships
Naval Reactors estimates that building a nuclear-powered amphibious assault ship every three
years or so could reduce the procurement cost of each nuclear-powered carrier (CVN) by about
$65 million and each nuclear-powered attack submarine (SSN) by about $20 million due to
increased economies of scale in the production of nuclear propulsion components. Naval Reactors
further estimates that if nuclear-powered surface combatants were then added to this mix of
nuclear-powered ships, it would reduce the cost of each CVN by an additional $80 million or so,
and each SSN by an additional $25 million or so. Naval Reactors also states that the additional
work in building nuclear-propulsion components could help stabilize the nuclear-propulsion
component industrial base by providing extra work to certain component makers whose business
situation is somewhat fragile. 57
If nuclear-powered amphibious assault ships or surface combatants are built partially or entirely
by the two nuclear-construction yards—Northrop Grumman Newport News (NGNN) and General
Dynamics’ Electric Boat division (GD/EB); see discussion below—it might further reduce the
cost of CVNs and SSNs built at those yards by spreading the fixed overhead costs at those yards
over a wider workload and enabling more efficient rollover of workers from one ship to another.
By the same token, it might increase the cost of other ships being built at Ingalls and GD/BIW by
having the obverse effects in those yards.
Implications for Construction Shipyards
Large-deck amphibious assault ships are currently built by the Ingalls shipyard that forms part of
Northrop Grumman Ship Systems (NGSS), and large surface combatants are currently built by
Ingalls and General Dynamics’ Bath Iron Works (GD/BIW). These yards, however, are not
certified to build nuclear-powered ships. Shifting amphibious assault ships or large surface
combatants from fossil-fuel propulsion to nuclear-propulsion might therefore shift at least some
of the construction work for these ships away from these yards and toward one or both of the
nuclear-construction yards.
57
Telephone conversation with Naval Reactors, March 24, 2006.
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If Ingalls or GD/BIW do not become certified to build nuclear-powered ships, then future
nuclear-powered amphibious assault ships or nuclear-powered large surface combatants might be
partially built by Ingalls or GD/BIW. Under this scenario, non-nuclear portions of the ships would
be built by Ingalls or GD/BIW, while the reactor compartment would be built by NGNN or
possibly GD/EB. Naval Reactors is currently uncertain whether final assembly would occur at
NGNN or at the yard that built the non-nuclear portions of the ship.58
Alternatively, if Ingalls (which built nuclear-powered submarines until the early 1970s at its East
Bank facility) or GD/BIW became certified to build nuclear-powered ships, then future nuclearpowered amphibious assault ships or nuclear-powered large surface combatants could be built
entirely at Ingalls or GD/BIW.59
Implications for Ship Maintenance
Shifting large-deck amphibious assault ships or large surface combatants from fossil-fuel
propulsion to nuclear-propulsion would shift some portion of the maintenance work for these
ships away from non-nuclear-certified yards and toward the nuclear-certified yards, which
include NGNN, GD/EB, and the four government-operated naval shipyards.
Implications for Port Calls and Forward Homeporting
Shifting large-deck amphibious assault ships or large surface combatants from fossil-fuel
propulsion to nuclear-propulsion might make them potentially less welcome in the ports of
countries with strong anti-nuclear sentiments. The Navy works to minimize this issue in
connection with its CVNs and SSNs, and these ships make calls at numerous foreign ports each
year. Given their occasional need for access to nuclear-qualified maintenance facilities, shifting
large-deck amphibious assault ships or large surface combatants from fossil-fuel propulsion to
nuclear-propulsion might reduce the number of potentially suitable locations for forwardhomeporting the ships, should the Navy decide that forward homeporting them would be
desirable for purposes of shortening transit times to and from operating areas. The Navy plans
to homeport the George Washington (CVN-73) at Yokosuka, Japan, the Navy’s principal
forward homeporting location, in 2008. In light of this decision, Yokosuka might be suitable
as a potential forward homeporting location for nuclear-powered amphibious assault ships or
surface combatants.
Sail and Solar Power
A fourth strategy for reducing the Navy’s dependence on oil would be to make use of sail and
solar power, perhaps particularly on Navy auxiliaries and DOD sealift ships.
58
Ibid.
At an April 6, 2006, hearing before the Projection Forces Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee,
Representative Gene Taylor asked how long it might take for a shipyard to become certified to build a nuclear-powered
ship. One witness—Dr. Norman Friedman—replied that he thought the process might take three or four years. Another
witness—Ronald O’Rourke—noted that in addition to the regulatory steps involved, an additional potential issue for
yards seeking to become nuclear-certified could be local political support for the idea. Dr. Friedman stated that, in the
case of Ingalls, this likely would not be a significant issue.
59
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Sails and Wingsails
Sails on masts include both traditional sails and wingsails, which are airfoil-like structures that
are similar to airplane wings that have been stood on end. A November 2004 magazine editorial
notes that:
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, huge oil price hikes stimulated much interest in windassistance for merchant ships, and several interesting vessels were built from new or
converted. These include a 1600dwt tanker Shin Aitoku Maru and a 26,000dwt bulk/log
carrier Usuki Pioneer [Figure 5]. In Denmark, Knud E Hansen has designed a 50,000dwtclass bulk carrier, and today in Germany, more research is being handled by Sail Log into a
50,000dwt Panamax bulker with 20,000m2 of sail. Traditional square rigs have been chosen
by this company because they are known to work satisfactorily, but alternatives do exist,
including the more revolutionary Walker Wingsail [Figure 6].
The long-haul bulk trades (traditionally not in need of express service) have been identified
by the German team as most suitable for sail assistance, or even full sail, because the
principal bulk trades run more or less in a north-south direction in parallel with the globe’s
principal wind systems. Sail Log is part of Schwab-Orga GmbH, which holds the patent to a
modern square-rigged design with automated sails....
Sail Log claims that the running costs of an automated sail-assisted bulk carrier could be
22% lower than those of a fully diesel-powered vessel, although in general, it has to be said
that figures appear to vary quite dramatically, depending on the source. Sail Log estimates
that sails could normally be used for two-thirds of a voyage. A model has been built and has
confirmed all propulsive predictions.60
Figure 5. Shin Aitoku Maru (left) and Usuki Pioneer (right)
Cooke Associates, an engineering consulting firm in Cambridge, England, that has worked with
wingsail developers, states that in evaluations conducted between 1984 and 1993, the Usuki
Pioneer and another sail-equipped ship called the Aqua City claimed a fuel reduction of 30%-40%
in ideal wind conditions, but that the projects were terminated due to falling oil prices and high
maintenance costs.61
60
“Time to Seek Fossil-Free Propulsion?” The Naval Architect, November 2004, p. 3, available online at
http://www.rina.org.uk/rfiles/navalarchitect/editorialnov04.pdf.
61
“Commercial History, Walker Wingsail and the MV Ashington,” available online at
http://www.cookeassociates.com/commercial.html. Cooke states that this information is from an article in the May
1996 issue of Pacific Maritime magazine.
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An 8-ton version of the Walker wingsail, Cooke states, was evaluated in 1986-1988 aboard the
MV Ashington, a small commercial vessel. Due to low fuel costs at the time and limits on usable
wind in the ship’s trading routes, Cooke, states, the firm that operated the ship decided that
wingsail did not meet the firm’s payback criteria.62 Cooke states that the “Collapse of world oil
prices destroyed the economic case for use of wingsails in commercial shipping....”63 Cooke also
states that “Wingsails could in the future be used to drive large commercial ships.”64
Figure 6. Pleasure Craft Equipped with Walker Wingsails
A 1982 study examined the idea of converting a 245-foot Melville (AGOR-14) class
oceanographic research ship into a wingsail-assisted ship. An abstract from the report states:
Operating statistics indicate that the AGOR-14 CLASS R/V KNORR spends 30% of her
time in transit. Conventional research vessel cruise planning leads to wind statistics which
are favorable to sail assist. A 3610 square foot wing sail retrofit to the KNORR would save
90 LT of fuel per year, and would not interfere with mission performance. Greater fuel
savings would result for voyage scenarios with more time in transit. Potential benefits to
oceanographic operations include increased fuel endurance, quiet propulsion, improved
station keeping, motion reduction, and schedule reliability. Further consideration of sailassist retrofit and/or new building is recommended.65
In 1995, the Danish Ministry of Environment and Energy funded a study by Consulting Naval
Architects and Marine Engineers Knud E. Hansen A/S to explore possibilities for sail-assisted
commercial ships. In response, the firm between 1995 and 1999 developed a concept, called
Modern Windship, for a 200-meter (656-foot), 50,000-ton, sail-assisted dwt product carrier. The
design is shown in Figure 7.
62
Ibid.
“Wingsail History,” available online at http://www.cookeassociates.com/history.html.
64
Wingsails, Wingsail Technology, available online at http://www.cookeassociates.com/wingsails.html.
65
“Analysis of Sail-Assist for Navy Oceanographic Research Ships of the AGOR-14 Class,” abstract available online
at http://www.stormingmedia.us/19/1963/A196311.html.
63
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Figure 7. Project Windship 50,000-ton DWT Product Carrier
The firm’s report on the project stated:
A feasibility study was carried out. The impact of variations in fuel prices was stressed. The
effect of varying the average speed was investigated. A product carrier was chosen as study
example. The study pointed out some of the commercial limitations of WindShip-application
at present time. It proved uneconomical to use WindShips on typical product carrier routes.
A cost increase of approximately 10% was calculated when comparing the WindShip with an
equal-sized conventional product carrier.
The results showed that by lowering the average speed of a conventional ship by 1 knot a
reduction of approximately 25% in fuel consumption could be achieved. However, by adding
the rig of the WindShip on average an additional three tons of fuel per 24 hrs could be saved
in the more windy areas. This corresponded to 10-15% of the total fuel consumption....
On the economical side the results may be less inspiring at first sight. There is no doubt that
the results were both reliable and realistic. However, the main conclusion that emerged was
that a product carrier is not the preferred choice for a modern WindShip. There was no
economical advantage in using a WindShip, instead it cost 10% more to sail with. Worse yet,
the fuel savings were marginal, under certain assumptions and conditions a WindShip even
consumed more fuel than a conventional ship.
However, on the route between Rotterdam, Holland and New York, USA an average HFO
[heavy fuel oil] saving of 20.5 to 27% was shown, depending on average speed. It was only
here that the average wind speed of 8 m/s initially estimated during phase 1 could be found.
Decisions on sail area etc. were based on this estimate early on in phase 2 [1998-1999] of
the project.
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At the same time the feasibility study showed that the comparison had been made at a suboptimal speed for a WindShip. Calculations using 11 knots instead of 13 lowered the
required freight rate with up to 5%. Due to the special requirements of the product carrier
trade the larger internal volume of a WindShip was not used to its advantage in the study.
Taking the above issues into account we see the potential of modern WindShips concept. If
speed is reduced, but same productivity is maintained due to the larger volumes carried,
money will be saved. It is in this market segment that the WindShip should operate. Careful
routing, including effects of seasonal weather variations could then prove the WindShip both
environmentally beneficial and economically favourable.66
As of 2003, there was continued interest, at least among maritime researchers in Japan, in
developing oceangoing commercial ships with high-performance hybrid-sails similar to those on
the Windship.67
Kites
Sails on masts have certain potential disadvantages. One article states:
In unfavourable winds, large masts create a lot of drag. In gales, masts cause ships to heel,
sometimes dangerously. Masts and their pivoting sails take up valuable container space on
the deck. Loading and unloading is more expensive, since the cranes that lift containers must
work around the masts. Engineers designed taller (and more expensive) masts, some
exceeding 100 metres in height, to reduce their number and limit the loss of storage space.
But the Panama Canal limits masts to 60 metres, and collapsable masts would be
prohibitively expensive to build, operate and service....
The cost of retrofitting a cargo ship with a row of masts, and strengthening its hull and deck
to dissipate the additional stress, was estimated at euro10m ($12.5m). So the sails would
have taken around 15 years to recoup their costs through fuel savings.68
The aim of kite-assisted propulsion is to reduce or avoid these issues while taking advantage of
the stronger winds that are available at heights greater than those attainable by sails on masts. At
least two firms—the U.S.-based firm KiteShip and the German-based firm SkySails—have
developed kite-assist systems for potential application to commercial cargo ships and thus, by
extension, perhaps commercial-like Navy auxiliary and DOD sealift ships.
66
Martin Rosander and Jens O.V. Bloch, Modern Windships, 2000 report, pp. 117-118, available at http://www.mst.dk/
default.asp?Sub=[http://www.mst.dk/udgiv/publications/2000/87-7944-019-3/ html/default_eng.htm]. For an earlier
report on the project, see also Jens V. Bloch, et al., “Modern Windship,” available at http://www.eceee.org/
library_links/proceedings/1997/pdf97/97p5-136.pdf
67
See Toshifumi Fujiwara, et al., “On Aerodynamic Characteristics of a Hybrid-Sail with Square Soft Sail,”
Proceedings of The Thirteenth (2003) International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii,
May 25-30, 3003, available online at http://www.nmri.go.jp/trans/Staff/fujiwara/ISOPE03_fujiwara.pdf, and Toshifumi
Fujiwara et al., “On Development Of High Performance Sails for an Oceangoing Commercial Ship,” available online at
http://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2003/00574/contents/0405.htm.
68
“Sailing Ships with a New Twist,” The Economist, September 15, 2005, as posted online at http://www.skysails.info/
fileadmin/user_upload/Upload_Pressespiegel/2005/05-09_Economist.pdf.
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KiteShip69
Figure 8 depicts a commercial ship equipped with KiteShip’s system. KiteShip states:
When fuel costs become sufficiently high and/or governmental air and water quality
regulations became sufficiently heinous, the commercial shipping industry will look to sail
power as an assist to petroleum powered vessels. The industry has done this before, and will
do so again. These worldwide economic and political conditions are upon us today. This
time, there is strong evidence that recent fuel cost increases aren’t going to be temporary, and
environmental restrictions will become increasingly draconian.
Conventional masted sail solutions have inherent limitations which will continue to delay
their application long past the point where wind-assist can become cost effective. The ability
to design massive sail power without need for ballast, without fixed masts interfering with
loading and unloading procedures, without adding hundreds of tons and tens of millions of
dollars to build costs is critical. The ability to retrofit existing vessels cheaply and efficiently
is paramount. The ability to build, repair and maintain systems remote from shipboard,
eliminating downtime is an important asset; KiteShip has understood these advantages for
decades. We have been readying appropriate technology for commercial tethered flight
sailing since 1978.70
Figure 8. KiteShip Concept Applied to Commercial Cargo Ship
One of the principals of KiteShip, Dave Culp, stated in a 2003 interview:
69
70
KiteShip’s online site is at http://www.kiteship.com/.
“Commercial Marine,” available online at http://www.kiteship.com/marine.php.
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In studying attempts to bring back commercial sailing ships in the 1980’s, it struck me that
they were doomed to fail for the same reasons commercial sail failed in the 19th century. The
cost of the equipment, expressed as a rate of amortization, was far higher than powered
vessels, even including their fuel. Second, the fundamental inability to schedule wind
power plays havoc with effectively utilizing expensive ships. Motor sailing was and is
possible to fix this, but requires parallel systems on the boat—wind plus diesel—at even
higher total cost.
Kites, on the other hand, can be added to existing ships. They take up no deck space, require
minimal retro-fitting, need no ballast, fit under bridges and can be taken in out of the weather
when not in use. They can be taken off the boat for maintenance and even used on a second
boat when/if adverse or no wind is expected aboard the first. These factors dramatically
decrease the capital cost of the sailing rig, thus the amortization rate. If added to existing
vessels, especially if the vessels are partially depreciated already, it becomes very cost
effective to fit a single ship with both power (which it has) and kites (which are cheap). It
can then pure sail, motor sail or straight motor, as conditions dictate. I wrote a paper on the
subject, http://www.dcss.org/kitetugs.html in which I suggested such an arrangement might
become cost effective when diesel fuel hits about $1/gal.71
KiteShip has just signed a Letter of Intent with the cruise ship company Adventure Spa
Cruises (www.adventurespacruise.com) to design and build an 8000 sq ft kite and to use it to
pull a 200’ commercial cruise ship. The intent is to showcase environmentally friendly fuel[]saving technology, further develop kites and control systems for ever[-]larger applications,
and to demonstrate to Adventure Spa Cruise customers a proactive stance regarding potential
near-term fuel price spikes and shortages. We are excited about the prospects for this
technology and look forward to a joint venture with Adventure Spa Cruises.72
The kite for the cruise ship, measuring about 8,000 square feet, was to be installed on the 187foot, 924-ton Adventurer II.73
SkySails74
Figure 9 depicts a commercial ship equipped with SkySails’ system. SkySails states:
By using a SkySails system ship operation will become more profitable, safer and
independent of declining oil reserves. On annual average fuel costs can be lowered between
10-35% depending on actual wind conditions and achievable operational period. Under
optimal wind conditions, fuel consumptions [sic] can temporarily be reduced up to 50%.
From the second half of 2006 pilot systems for superyachts will be available. In 2007 the
first SkySails-Systems for cargo vessels will be available. In 2007 series production of the
SkySails-Systems for superyachts, in 2008 series production for cargo vessels will start....
Virtually all cargo ships can be retrofitted with the SkySails technology trouble-free.75
71
If the site listed in the article is not available, see also the papers at these online sites: http://www.dcss.org/speedsl/
Whykites.html, http://www.dcss.org/speedsl/KiteTugs.html, and http://www.dcss.org/speedsl/Trans_Sailcraft.html.
72
“High As A Kite,” interview with Dave Culp, available at http://www.sailinganarchy.com/innerview/2003/
daveculp.htm and http://www.kiteship.com/press.php?pid=6.
73
“Largest Kite Ever Built to Power Cruise Ship,” Maritime Global Net, April 6, 2003, posted online by Kiteship at
http://www.kiteship.com/press.php?pid=5.
74
SkySail’s English-language online site is at http://www.skysails.info/index.php?L=1.
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Figure 9. SkySails Concept Applied to Commercial Cargo Ship
A March 2006 article states that for a commercial cargo ship, “The investment in a SkySails
system will normally amortise within 3 to 5 years.”76 A September 2005 article states that
SkySails “says it can outfit a ship with a kite system for between [400,000 euros] and [2.5 million
euros], depending on the vessel’s size. Stephen Wrage, the boss of SkySails, says the fuel savings
will recoup these costs in just four or five years, assuming oil prices of $50 a barrel. 77 Figure 10
shows SkySails’ calculation of potential fuel savings (or increased speed) from using a SkySails
system on a 200-meter (656-foot) commercial ship.78
In January 2006, it was announced that Beluga Shipping of Germany had purchased a SkySails
kite system to be installed on the newly built 140-meter (459-foot) heavy cargo freighter MS
Beluga SkySails, with the first demonstration cruises to take place in 2007. A managing partner of
the Beluga Group stated:
The SkySails technology is ready for market entry exactly at the right time. The rising and
continuously high price of oil is a matter that ship owners are already dealing with in order to
be competitive in the present and future market. Furthermore, significantly tightened
emission regulations, through which increasing costs will accrue, are being put into place.
(...continued)
75
Ibid.
76
“The Economic and Sustainable Utilisation in the Cargo Shipping Industry of Wind Power,” HSB International,
March 2006, as posted on the SkySail site at http://www.skysails.info/fileadmin/user_upload/Upload_Pressespiegel/
2006/060301-HSB_international__The_economic...pdf.
77
“Sailing Ships with a New Twist,” op. cit.
78
See http://www.greencarcongress.com/2006/01/beluga_shipping.html.
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Offshore wind energy is an unbeatable cost-effective propulsion source available in large
quantities, and we expect to gain a considerable competitive advantage by using the
innovative SkySails system as a pioneer in this field. We are convinced that the SkySails
system will revolutionize the cargo shipping industry.79
Figure 10. Potential Fuel Savings from SkySails System
Solar Power
Solar power might offer some potential for augmenting other forms of shipboard power, perhaps
particularly in Navy auxiliaries and DOD sealift ships.
79
Niels Stolsberg, as quoted in “Beluga Shipping to Try ‘Wind Hybrid’ Kite Propulsion Assist for Cargo Vessel,”
Green Car Congress, January 25, 2006, available online at http://www.greencarcongress.com/2006/01/
beluga_shipping.html. See also Geoff Garfield, “Beluga Moves Closer to Sail-Assist Vessel,” TradeWinds, January 27,
2006: 8; posted on the SkySail site at http://www.skysails.info/fileadmin/user_upload/Upload_Pressespiegel/2006/
060127-Trade_Winds-Beluga_moves_closer_to_sailassist_vessel.pdf, and “Beluga Gets First Taste of SkySails
Towing Kite,” Lloyd’s List, January 26, 2006: 2, posted on the SkySail site at http://www.skysails.info/fileadmin/
user_upload/Upload_Pressespiegel/2006/060126-Lloydslist.pdf.
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Solar Sailor Ferry Boat
Figure 11 depicts the Solar Sailor, a small (69-foot, 100-person) catamaran ferry whose eight
maneuverable “solar wing sails” can be used for both sail-assist propulsion and for generating
electricity. The ferry was built in 1999-2000 as a demonstration project and can operate on wind
power, solar power, stored battery power, diesel power, or any combination. The ship was
developed and built by Solar Sailor Holdings Ltd. with assistance from the Australian
government, and operates in Sydney Harbor.80 The firm also has a concept for a hybrid-powered
400-meter (1,312-foot) water-carrying tanker ship that it calls Aquatanker.81
Figure 11. Solar Sailor Hybrid-Powered Ferry Boat
In June 2005, it was announced that UOV LLC, a Virginia-based partially-owned subsidiary of
Solar Sailor Holdings, had
received a Phase 1 US Navy grant for the development of its patented unmanned ocean
vehicles (UOV’s). The automated and networked UOV’s will be used for military and coast
guard purposes, and have commercial and oceanographic applications including tsunami
early warning systems. The US Navy is interested in the Unmanned Ocean Vehicles in order
to meet their need for surveillance vessels to roam the world’s oceans. The UOV’s use of
solar & wind power enables it to act as an autonomous vehicle with almost unlimited range
and endurance.82
80
For more on the Solar Sailor, see the information available online at http://www.solarsailor.com.au/,
http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/renewable/recp/pv/fourteen.html, and http://www.solarnavigator.net/solar_sailor.htm.
81
“Government Solutions,” available online at http://www.solarsailor.com.au/solutions_gov.htm#aquatankers. See also
Andrea Mayes, “Supertanker Plan To Tackle Crisis,” The Australian, June 23, 2005, available online at
http://www.solarsailor.com.au/media_supertankers_230605.htm.
82
“Solar Sailor subsidiary wins US Navy grant for Unmanned Ocean Vehicles,” available online at
(continued...)
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E/S Orcelle Concept Design
Figure 12 shows the E/S Orcelle, a concept design developed in 2005 by the Scandinavian
shipping company Wallenius Wilhelmsen for an almost zero-emissions car carrier capable of
transporting 10,000 cars (about 50% more than today’s car carriers) that uses renewable energy to
meet all propulsion and onboard power requirements. The pentamaran-hulled design employs fuel
cells (which would generate about one-half of the ship’s energy), wind power, solar power, and
wave power, the last captured through 12 horizontal fins that would transform wave energy into
hydrogen (for the fuel cells), electricity, or mechanical power. The fins would also act as
propulsion units in combination with two podded propulsors. The developers believe a ship
containing some of the Orcelle’s features might be possible by 2010, and that a ship with all of its
features might be possible by 2025.83
Figure 12. E/S Orcelle Concept Design
Legislative Activity
FY2007 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 5122/P.L. 109-364)
House
Section 128 of H.R. 5122 of the House version of H.R. 5122 stated:
SEC. 128. SENSE OF CONGRESS THAT THE NAVY MAKE GREATER USE OF
NUCLEAR-POWERED PROPULSION SYSTEMS IN ITS FUTURE FLEET OF
SURFACE COMBATANTS.
(...continued)
http://www.solarsailor.com.au/media_uov_290605.htm. See also the information available online at
http://www.uovehicles.com/.
83
For more information on the E/S Orcelle, see “Sun, Wind, Fuel Cells Power Cargo Ship of the Future,”
Environmental News Service, April 6, 2005, available online at http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/apr2005/2005-0406-03.asp, and “Pollution-Free Ship? Designers Try Their Hand,” MSNBC.com, May 31, 2005, available online at
http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/8037087.
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(a) Findings- Congress makes the following findings:
(1) Securing and maintaining access to affordable and plentiful sources of energy is a vital
national security interest for the United States.
(2) The Nation’s dependence upon foreign oil is a threat to national security due to the
inherently volatile nature of the global oil market and the political instability of some of the
world’s largest oil producing states.
(3) Given the recent increase in the cost of crude oil, which cannot realistically be expected
to improve over the long term, other energy sources must be seriously considered.
(b) Sense of Congress- In light of the findings in subsection (a), it is the sense of Congress
that the Navy should make greater use of alternative technologies, including nuclear power,
as a means of vessel propulsion for its future fleet of surface combatants.
Senate
Section 354 of the Senate-passed version of the FY2007 defense authorization bill (S. 2766)
stated:
SEC. 354. REPORT ON ACTIONS TO REDUCE DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE
CONSUMPTION OF PETROLEUM-BASED FUEL.
(a) Report Required- Not later than one year after the date of the enactment of this Act,
the Secretary of Defense shall submit to the Committees on Armed Services of the Senate
and the House of Representatives a report on the actions taken, and to be taken, by the
Department of Defense to reduce the consumption by the Department of petroleumbased fuel.
(b) Elements- The report shall include the status of implementation by the Department of the
requirements of the following:
(1) The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (Public Law 109-58).
(2) The Energy Policy Act of 1992. (Public Law 102-486)
(3) Executive Order 13123.
(4) Executive Order 13149.
(5) Any other law, regulation, or directive relating to the consumption by the Department of
petroleum-based fuel.
Section 375 of the Senate-passed version of S. 2766 stated:
SEC. 375. ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN WEAPONS PLATFORMS.
(a) Policy- It shall be the policy of the Department of Defense to improve the fuel efficiency
of weapons platforms, consistent with mission requirements, in order to—
(1) enhance platform performance;
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(2) reduce the size of the fuel logistics systems;
(3) reduce the burden high fuel consumption places on agility;
(4) reduce operating costs; and
(5) dampen the financial impact of volatile oil prices.
(b) Report Required(1) IN GENERAL- Not later than one year after the date of the enactment of this Act,
the Secretary of Defense shall submit to the congressional defense committees a report on
the progress of the Department of Defense in implementing the policy established by
subsection (a).
(2) ELEMENTS- The report shall include the following:
(A) An assessment of the feasibility of designating a senior Department of Defense official
to be responsible for implementing the policy established by subsection (a).
(B) A summary of the recommendations made as of the time of the report by—
(i) the Energy Security Integrated Product Team established by the Secretary of Defense in
April 2006;
(ii) the Defense Science Board Task Force on Department of Defense Energy Strategy
established by the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics on
May 2, 2006; and
(iii) the January 2001 Defense Science Board Task Force report on Improving Fuel
Efficiency of Weapons Platforms.
(C) For each recommendation summarized under subparagraph (B)—
(i) the steps that the Department has taken to implement such recommendation;
(ii) any additional steps the Department plans to take to implement such recommendation;
and
(iii) for any recommendation that the Department does not plan to implement, the reasons for
the decision not to implement such recommendation.
(D) An assessment of the extent to which the research, development, acquisition, and
logistics guidance and directives of the Department for weapons platforms are appropriately
designed to address the policy established by subsection (a).
(E) An assessment of the extent to which such guidance and directives are being carried out
in the research, development, acquisition, and logistics programs of the Department.
(F) A description of any additional actions that, in the view of the Secretary, may be needed
to implement the policy established by subsection (a).
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Conference Report
Section 128 of H.R. 5122/P.L. 109-364 (conference report H.Rept. 109-702 of September 29,
2006) states:
SEC. 128. ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGIES FOR FUTURE SURFACE COMBATANTS.
(a) FINDINGS.—Congress makes the following findings:
(1) Securing and maintaining access to affordable and plentiful sources of energy is a vital
national security interest for the United States.
(2) The Nation’s dependence upon foreign oil is a threat to national security due to the
inherently volatile nature of the global oil market and the political instability of some of the
world’s largest oil producing states.
(3) Given the recent increase in the cost of crude oil, which cannot realistically be expected
to improve over the long term, other energy sources must be seriously considered.
(4) Alternate propulsion sources such as nuclear power offer many advantages over
conventional power for major surface combatant ships of the Navy, including—
(A) virtually unlimited high-speed endurance;
(B) elimination of vulnerable refueling; and
(C) reduction in the requirement for replenishment vessels and the need to protect
those vessels.
(b) SENSE OF CONGRESS.—In light of the findings in subsection (a), it is the sense of
Congress that the Navy should make greater use of alternative technologies, including
expanded application of integrated power systems, fuel cells, and nuclear power, for
propulsion of future major surface combatant ships.
(c) REQUIREMENT.—The Secretary of the Navy shall include integrated power systems,
fuel cells, and nuclear power as propulsion alternatives to be evaluated within the analysis of
alternatives for future major surface combatant ships.
Section 360 states:
SEC. 360. ENERGY EFFICIENCY IN WEAPONS PLATFORMS.
(a) Policy- It shall be the policy of the Department of Defense to improve the fuel efficiency
of weapons platforms, consistent with mission requirements, in order to—
(1) enhance platform performance;
(2) reduce the size of the fuel logistics systems;
(3) reduce the burden high fuel consumption places on agility;
(4) reduce operating costs; and
(5) dampen the financial impact of volatile oil prices.
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(b) Report Required(1) IN GENERAL- Not later than one year after the date of the enactment of this Act,
the Secretary of Defense shall submit to the congressional defense committees a report on
the progress of the Department of Defense in implementing the policy established by
subsection (a).
(2) ELEMENTS- The report shall include the following:
(A) An assessment of the feasibility of designating a senior Department of Defense official
to be responsible for implementing the policy established by subsection (a).
(B) A summary of the recommendations made as of the time of the report by—
(i) the Energy Security Integrated Product Team established by the Secretary of Defense in
April 2006;
(ii) the Defense Science Board Task Force on Department of Defense Energy Strategy
established by the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition, Technology and Logistics on
May 2, 2006; and
(iii) the January 2001 Defense Science Board Task Force report on Improving Fuel
Efficiency of Weapons Platforms.
(C) For each recommendation summarized under subparagraph (B)—
(i) the steps that the Department has taken to implement such recommendation;
(ii) any additional steps the Department plans to take to implement such recommendation;
and
(iii) for any recommendation that the Department does not plan to implement, the reasons for
the decision not to implement such recommendation.
(D) An assessment of the extent to which the research, development, acquisition, and
logistics guidance and directives of the Department for weapons platforms are appropriately
designed to address the policy established by subsection (a).
(E) An assessment of the extent to which such guidance and directives are being carried out
in the research, development, acquisition, and logistics programs of the Department.
(F) A description of any additional actions that, in the view of the Secretary, may be needed
to implement the policy established by subsection (a).
The conference report stated:
The Senate amendment contained a provision (sec. 354) that would require the Secretary of
Defense to report on the actions taken, and to be taken, by the Department of Defense to
reduce the consumption of petroleum-based fuels.
The House bill contained no similar provision.
The Senate recedes.
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The conferees note that the implementation of current legislation and regulatory guidance
should facilitate reduction of petroleum-based fuels by the Department. Therefore, the
conferees direct the Secretary to submit a report, not later than September 1, 2007, to the
Committees on Armed Services of the Senate and the House of Representatives on the status
of implementation by the Department of the requirements contained in the following:
(1) Energy Policy Act of 2005 (Public Law 109–58);
(2) Energy Policy Act of 1992 (Public Law 102–486);
(3) Executive Order 13123;
(4) Executive Order 13149; and
(5) other regulations or directions relating to the Department’s consumption of petroleumbased fuels.
Furthermore, the conferees are concerned that although Flexible Fuel Vehicles (FFVs) are
being introduced into the Department’s vehicle inventory, little reduction in petroleum-based
fuel is being realized because operators continue to fuel the FFVs with gasoline rather than
E85 (85 percent ethanol with 15 percent gasoline) or M85 (85 percent methanol and 15
percent gasoline). Therefore, the conferees direct the Secretary to include in the report an
analysis of the reduction of petroleum-based fuels since introduction of FFVs into the
inventory and an assessment of how the Department might increase the consumption of E85
or M85 in FFVs. (Page 700)
FY2007 Defense Appropriations Act (H.R. 5631/P.L. 109-289)
The Senate Appropriations Committee, in its report (S.Rept. 109-292 of July 25, 2006) on H.R.
5631, states:
The Committee notes the recent developments relating to the conversion of coal to liquid
fuels. Demonstration projects in the United States have produced high-quality, ultra clean
synthetic diesel fuels that provide improved efficiency and improved emissions compared to
traditionally produced diesel fuel. The Committee encourages the Department of Defense to
continue to explore the use of Fischer-Tropsch fuels as alternative sources for DOD’s fuel
requirements. Further, the Committee requests that the Under Secretary for Acquisition,
Technology, and Logistics prepare a report for the congressional defense committees on the
Defense Department’s assessment, use, and plans to continue to explore the potential of
synthetic fuels, to include fuels produced through the Fischer-Tropsch process. (Page 157)
Coast Guard and Maritime Transportation Act of 2006 (H.R. 889/
P.L. 109-241)
Section 214 of H.R. 889/P.L. 109-241 of July 12, 2006 (conference report H.Rept. 109-413 of
April 6, 2006) states:
SEC. 214. BIODIESEL FEASIBILITY STUDY.
(a) Study- The Secretary of the department in which the Coast Guard is operating shall
conduct a study that examines the technical feasibility, costs, and potential cost savings of
using biodiesel fuel in new and existing Coast Guard vehicles and vessels and that focuses
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on the use of biodiesel fuel in ports which have a high density of vessel traffic, including
ports for which vessel traffic systems have been established.
(b) Report- Not later than one year after the date of enactment of this Act, the Secretary shall
submit a report containing the findings, conclusions, and recommendations (if any) from the
study to the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation of the Senate and the
Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure of the House of Representatives.
FY2006 Defense Authorization Act (H.R. 1815/P.L. 109-163)
Section 130 of the conference report (H.Rept. 109-360 of December 18, 2005) on the FY2006
defense authorization act (H.R. 1815, P.L. 109-163 of January 6, 2006) requires the Navy to
submit a report by November 1, 2006 on alternative propulsion methods for surface combatants
and amphibious warfare ships. The section states:
SEC. 130. REPORT ON ALTERNATIVE PROPULSION METHODS FOR SURFACE
COMBATANTS AND AMPHIBIOUS WARFARE SHIPS.
(a) ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES.—The Secretary of the Navy shall conduct an
analysis of alternative propulsion methods for surface combatant vessels and amphibious
warfare ships of the Navy.
(b) REPORT.—The Secretary shall submit to the congressional defense committees a report
on the analysis of alternative propulsion systems carried out under subsection (a). The report
shall be submitted not later than November 1, 2006.
(c) MATTERS TO BE INCLUDED.—The report under subsection (b) shall include
the following:
(1) The key assumptions used in carrying out the analysis under subsection (a).
(2) The methodology and techniques used in conducting the analysis.
(3) A description of current and future technology relating to propulsion that has been
incorporated in recently-designed surface combatant vessels and amphibious warfare ships or
that is expected to be available for those types of vessels within the next 10-to-20 years.
(4) A description of each propulsion alternative for surface combatant vessels and
amphibious warfare ships that was considered under the study and an analysis and evaluation
of each such alternative from an operational and cost-effectiveness standpoint.
(5) A comparison of the life-cycle costs of each propulsion alternative.
(6) For each nuclear propulsion alternative, an analysis of when that nuclear propulsion
alternative becomes cost effective as the price of a barrel of crude oil increases for each type
of ship.
(7) The conclusions and recommendations of the study, including those conclusions and
recommendations that could impact the design of future ships or lead to modifications of
existing ships.
(8) The Secretary’s intended actions, if any, for implementation of the conclusions and
recommendations of the study.
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(d) LIFE-CYCLE COSTS.—For purposes of this section, the term “life-cycle costs” includes
those elements of cost that would be considered for a life-cycle cost analysis for a major
defense acquisition program.
Author Contact Information
Ronald O’Rourke
Specialist in Naval Affairs
[redacted]@crs.loc.gov, 7-....
Congressional Research Service
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