Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations: Funding History and Agency Descriptions
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Energy and Water Development and Related
Agencies Appropriations: Funding History
and Agency Descriptions
July 27, 2026
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R49046
SUMMARY
Energy and Water Development and Related
Agencies Appropriations: Funding History and
Agency Descriptions
The Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies appropriations (E&W) bill, typically
enacted on an annual basis, funds civil works activities of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE) in the Department of Defense; the Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Reclamation
(Reclamation) and Central Utah Project (CUP); the Department of Energy (DOE); the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC); the Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC); and several
other independent agencies. E&W regular appropriations acts are typically accompanied by an
explanatory statement or report providing more explanation and direction, which is sometimes
incorporated by reference into the act. In some fiscal years, other acts have provided additional
funding to these agencies.
R49046
July 27, 2026
Anna E. Normand,
Coordinator
Specialist in Natural
Resources Policy
Mark Holt, Coordinator
Specialist in Energy Policy
Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in billions of nominal dollars)
FY2019
FY2020
FY2021
FY2022
FY2023
FY2024
FY2025
FY2026
44.7
48.3
49.5
55.6
59.2
61.4
61.3
61.7
Source: Compiled by CRS from totals provided by enacted laws.
Notes: Excludes permanent budget authorities, scorekeeping adjustments, rescissions, and additional funding.
USACE. USACE civil works activities include planning and constructing projects for coastal and inland navigation, riverine
and coastal flood risk reduction, and aquatic ecosystem restoration. USACE operates and maintains some of these
constructed water resource facilities. Regular appropriations for USACE have generally increased from $7.0 billion (nominal
dollars) in FY2019 to $10.4 billion in FY2026. Across these years, USACE received a total of $29.2 billion in additional
appropriations, such as the $17.1 billion provided by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (IIJA; P.L. 117-58).
CUP and Reclamation. Reclamation manages hundreds of dams and diversion projects in 17 western states. These projects
provide water to approximately 10 million acres of farmland and 31 million people. The CUP, a water resources project in
Utah that was originally built by Reclamation, is managed by DOI. Regular appropriations for DOI and CUP increased in
nominal dollars from $1.6 billion in FY2019 to around $1.9 billion in FY2022 through FY2025. For FY2026, appropriations
were $1.7 billion. Reclamation has also received additional appropriations in some of these fiscal years, totaling $12.6
billion.
DOE. Major DOE activities include research and development on renewable energy, energy efficiency, nuclear power, fossil
energy, and electricity; nuclear weapons and nonproliferation; general science related to energy; environmental cleanup;
energy statistics, projections, and analysis; loan programs for energy projects; the Strategic Petroleum Reserve; and power
marketing administrations. DOE funding generally encompasses roughly 80% of E&W regular appropriations. Regular
appropriations for DOE increased in nominal dollars from FY2019 ($35.7 billion) to FY2024 ($50.2 billion) and decreased to
$49.1 billion for FY2026. From FY2020 through FY2025, DOE received $105.2 billion in additional appropriations.
Independent Agencies. Independent agencies that receive E&W funding include the NRC, boards related to nuclear
activities, and select federal regional commissions and authorities (FRCAs) such as the Appalachian Regional Commission,
Delta Regional Authority, and Northern Border Regional Commission. Regular appropriations for these independent
agencies have increased in nominal dollars from $390 million in FY2019 to $566 million in FY2026 (excluding NRC
revenues). The IIJA provided $1.4 billion in additional appropriations for a number of FRCAs, including $1.0 billion for
ARC.
Congressional Research Service
Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies (E&W) Appropriations............................. 1
Description of E&W Agencies and Activities ................................................................................. 4
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers .................................................................................................. 4
Central Utah Project (CUP) and Bureau of Reclamation .......................................................... 8
Department of Energy ............................................................................................................. 10
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy........................................................................ 16
Electricity Delivery, Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Energy Reliability.................. 17
Nuclear Energy ................................................................................................................. 18
Fossil Energy and Geothermal Energy ............................................................................. 18
Strategic Petroleum Reserve ............................................................................................. 19
Science .............................................................................................................................. 20
Advanced Research Projects Agency—Energy (ARPA-E)............................................... 23
Clean Energy Demonstrations .......................................................................................... 23
Office of Energy Dominance Financing ........................................................................... 23
Energy Information Administration .................................................................................. 25
Nuclear Weapons Activities .............................................................................................. 25
Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation .................................................................................... 26
Cleanup of Former Nuclear Weapons Production and Research Sites ............................. 27
Power Marketing Administrations .................................................................................... 28
Independent Agencies ............................................................................................................. 28
Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities (FRCAs) ............................................... 31
Nuclear Regulatory Commission ...................................................................................... 32
Figures
Figure 1. Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Regular Appropriations,
FY2019-FY2026 .......................................................................................................................... 2
Figure 2. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026..................... 6
Figure 3. Central Utah Project and Bureau of Reclamation Regular Appropriations,
FY2019-FY2026 .......................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 4. Department of Energy Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026 ................................. 11
Figure 5. Independent Agencies Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026 ................................ 29
Tables
Table 1. Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Regular Appropriations,
FY2019-FY2026 .......................................................................................................................... 1
Table 2. Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Regular Appropriations
by Title, FY2019-FY2026 ............................................................................................................ 3
Table 3. Additional Funding for Agencies Funded by Energy and Water Development and
Related Agencies Acts, FY2019-FY2026 .................................................................................... 3
Table 4. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regular Appropriations by Account, FY2019FY2026 ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Congressional Research Service
Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
Table 5. Central Utah Project and Bureau of Reclamation Regular Appropriations by
Account, FY2019-FY2026 ........................................................................................................... 9
Table 6. Department of Energy Regular Appropriations by Account, FY2019-FY2026 ............... 11
Table 7. Additional Department of Energy Appropriations Provided by P.L. 117-169 ................. 14
Table 8. Additional FY2023 Department of Energy Appropriations Provided by
Divisions M and N of P.L. 117-328 ............................................................................................ 15
Table 9. FY2023-FY2026 Department of Energy Appropriations Provided by the
Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act ...................................................................................... 15
Table 10. Independent Agencies Regular Appropriations by Account, FY2019-FY2026............. 30
Table 11. IIJA Appropriations for Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities ..................... 30
Table 12. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Funding Categories .................................................. 32
Contacts
Author Information........................................................................................................................ 33
Congressional Research Service
Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
Introduction
Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies (E&W) regular appropriations acts,
considered annually, typically include funding for the Department of Energy (DOE), two water
resources agencies, and a number of independent agencies.1 Other acts, such as supplemental
appropriations acts and reconciliation measures, have at times provided additional funding for
these agencies. This report presents enacted E&W appropriations levels from FY2019 through
FY2026, including for E&W accounts. The report further provides background information about
the agencies and selected accounts, and notes any changes to various accounts and their programs
during the period.2 For action regarding FY2027, see CRS Report R48944, Energy and Water
Development: FY2027 Appropriations.
Energy and Water Development and Related
Agencies (E&W) Appropriations
Table 1 and Figure 1 show budget totals for E&W regular appropriations enacted for FY2019
through FY2026 (excluding additional funding).3
Table 1. Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Regular
Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in billions of nominal dollars)
Fiscal Year
FY2019
FY2020
FY2021
FY2022
FY2023
FY2024
FY2025
FY2026
Total
44.7
48.3
49.5
55.6
59.2
61.4
61.3
61.7
Source: Compiled by CRS from totals provided by enacted laws.
Notes: Figures exclude permanent budget authorities, scorekeeping adjustments, rescissions, and additional
appropriations. See Table 3 for additional funding for these fiscal years. Figures are not adjusted for inflation.
1 In some instances, continuing appropriations acts have been used to provide funding for the entire remainder of a
fiscal year, such as for FY2025 (P.L. 119-4).
2 Some sections detailing accounts and programs may mention recent proposals (e.g., proposals in the FY2027 budget
request) to make changes to those accounts and programs for awareness; however, the report focuses on funding for
accounts and programs through FY2026.
3 For FY2025, a continuing appropriations act provided funding for Energy and Water (E&W) agencies instead of a
regular appropriations act. The figures exclude permanent budget authorities, scorekeeping adjustments, rescissions,
and additional funding.
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
Figure 1. Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Regular
Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in billions of dollars)
Source: Compiled by CRS from totals provided by enacted laws.
Notes: Figures exclude permanent budget authorities, scorekeeping adjustments, rescissions, and additional
funding. See Table 3 for additional funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted
amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026 is not
adjusted.
E&W regular appropriations acts provide funding across four titles: Title I—Corps of
Engineers—Civil in the Department of the Army (i.e., U.S. Army Corps of Engineers); Title II—
Central Utah Project and Reclamation in the Department of the Interior; Title III—Department of
Energy; and Title IV—Independent Agencies. (See Table 2 for regular appropriations enacted for
these titles from FY2019 through FY2026.) Each E&W title includes appropriations for various
accounts that fund certain activities. In addition, E&W regular appropriations acts typically have
an accompanying explanatory statement or report. This accompanying document provides more
explanation and direction for the appropriations in the act, and is sometimes incorporated by
reference with the act to give it the force of law.
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
Table 2. Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Regular
Appropriations by Title, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
FY2019 FY2020 FY2021 FY2022
Approp. Approp. Approp. Approp.
Title
FY2023 FY2024 FY2025 FY2026
Approp. Approp. Approp. Approp.
Title 1: U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers
6,999
7,650
7,795
8,343
8,310
8,703
8,703
10,435
Title II: CUP and
Reclamation
1,565
1,680
1,691
1,924
1,954
1,923
1,889
1,650
Title III: Department
of Energy
35,709
38,657
39,625
44,856
48,445
50,247
50,170
49,124
Title IV:
Independent
Agencies
390
407
414
454
494
502
502
522
General Provisions
21
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
44,684
48,395
49,525
55,576
59,204
61,375
61,264
61,731
-24
-71
-73
-2,704
-2,202
-22
-22
-3,692
44,660
48,324
49,452
52,872
57,002
61,353
61,242
58,039
Subtotal
Rescissions,
Transfers, and
Scorekeeping
Adjustments
E&W Total with
Adjustments
Sources: Enacted laws. Excludes additional appropriations. Subtotals may include other adjustments.
Notes: Columns may not sum to totals because of rounding and adjustments. CUP = Central Utah Project.
FY2026 House scorekeeping offsets are the sum of the appropriations accounts minus the officially scored
(adjusted) total. Budget “scorekeeping” refers to determinations of spending amounts for congressional budget
enforcement purposes. These scorekeeping adjustments may include rescissions and offsetting revenues from
various sources.
In some fiscal years, other acts, such as supplemental appropriations acts or budget reconciliation
measures, have provided funding to these agencies in addition to regular appropriations. Table 3
shows such appropriations provided to these agencies (organized by title) from FY2019 through
FY2026. For some fiscal years, the appropriations from these acts contribute significant funding
to E&W agency accounts and programs; for example, see the series of three acts enacted in
FY2022. The FY2025 budget reconciliation act, P.L. 119-21, rescinded certain unobligated
advance appropriations provided by a previous budget reconciliation act, P.L. 117-169.4
Table 3. Additional Funding for Agencies Funded by Energy and Water Development
and Related Agencies Acts, FY2019-FY2026
(in millions of nominal dollars)
Fiscal Year
Funds First
Available
Act
Title I:
U.S. Army
Corps of
Engineers
Title II:
CUP and
Bureau of
Reclamation
Title III:
Department
of Energy
Title IV:
Independent
Agencies
FY2019
P.L. 116-20
3,258
16
—
—
FY2020
P.L. 116-136
70
21
128
3
4 See Section 50402 of P.L. 119-21, Title V, Subtitle D.
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
Fiscal Year
Funds First
Available
Act
Title I:
U.S. Army
Corps of
Engineers
Title II:
CUP and
Bureau of
Reclamation
Title III:
Department
of Energy
—
—
—
—
Title IV:
Independent
Agencies
FY2021
—
FY2022
P.L. 117-43
5,711
220
43
—
P.L. 117-58
14,969
1,710
18,687
581
P.L. 117-169
—
4,588
35,067
—
P.L. 117-58
1,080
1,660
13,100
200
P.L. 117-180
20
—
—
—
P.L. 117-328
1,480
—
1,945
—
P.L. 117-58
1,050
1,660
10,778
200
P.L. 118-50
—
—
247
—
P.L. 117-58
—
1,660
10,831
200
P.L. 118-158
1,515
74
64
10
P.L. 119-21
—
1,000
5,274
—
—
—
—
—
—
FY2023
FY2024
FY2025
FY2026
Source: Based on CRS analysis of enacted laws providing funding for E&W agencies outside of the regular
appropriations process from FY2019 through FY2026.
Notes: Fiscal year shown is when funds are first available. Amounts are shown as initially enacted, excluding any
subsequent transfers or rescissions. All funds are available until expended except for funds from P.L. 117-169,
which are available through various fiscal years from FY2026 to FY2031; funds for Defense Nuclear
Nonproliferation and Salaries and Expenses in P.L. 118-50, which are available through FY2025; and funds from
P.L. 119-21, available through various years from FY2029 to FY2034. For FY2025, the American Relief Act (P.L.
118-158) provided $1.510 billion to the U.S. Economic Development Administration (EDA) for disaster
economic recovery, with $10 million of that amount to be transferred to the Delta Regional Authority. P.L. 11921 rescinded certain unobligated advance appropriations provided by P.L. 117-169. CUP = Central Utah Project.
Description of E&W Agencies and Activities
The following sections describe E&W agencies and selected accounts and programs. Tables in
these sections provide regular appropriations amounts for accounts from FY2019 through
FY2026. For detailed information on these topics, contact CRS analysts listed at the end of this
report. For discussion of E&W appropriations action for FY2027 and related issues for Congress,
see CRS Report R48944, Energy and Water Development: FY2027 Appropriations.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
USACE is an agency in the Department of Defense (currently using the secondary title
Department of War) with both military and civilian responsibilities. Under its civil works
program, which is funded by E&W appropriations acts, USACE plans, builds, operates, and in
some cases maintains water resource facilities for coastal and inland navigation, riverine and
coastal flood risk reduction, and aquatic ecosystem restoration.5
5 Military responsibilities are funded through the Military Construction, Veterans Affairs, and Related Agencies
appropriations acts.
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
For more than 50 years, Congress has generally authorized USACE studies, construction projects,
and other activities in omnibus water authorization bills, typically titled as Water Resources
Development Acts (WRDAs), prior to funding them through appropriations legislation. Recent
Congresses passed omnibus USACE water resources authorization acts in 2014, 2016, 2018,
2020, and 2022. The latest enacted WRDA, the Water Resources Development Act of 2024, was
Division A of the Thomas R. Carper Water Resources Development Act of 2024 (P.L. 118-272).
These acts consisted largely of authorizations for new USACE studies and projects, and they
altered numerous USACE policies and procedures.6
Unlike for highways and in municipal water infrastructure programs, federal funds for USACE
are not distributed to states or projects based on formulas or delivered via competitive grants.
Instead, USACE generally directly plans, designs, and constructs authorized projects that are cost
shared with nonfederal project sponsors. Each year, some USACE projects receive study and
construction appropriations from E&W acts or from additional funding; however, many
authorized USACE studies and construction projects have not been federally funded for years
after their authorizations. USACE funding also supports operations and maintenance (O&M)
costs associated with some authorized projects after their construction.7
Accounts funding project-specific work include the Investigations (funding most studies),
Construction, O&M, and Mississippi River and Tributaries (funding study, construction, and
O&M for certain projects) accounts.8 Explanatory statements accompanying E&W acts designate
funding to specific studies and projects, which generally include those listed in the budget request
and those requested by Members (sometimes referred to as earmarks).9 The explanatory
statements also have included funds not assigned to specific studies or projects (referred to in
those statements as “additional funding”) for USACE to allocate to studies and projects in a work
plan that is to be developed after enactment.10
6 For more information on USACE authorization legislation, see CRS In Focus IF13112, Water Resources
Development Acts: Primer and Action in the 119th Congress, and CRS Report R47946, Process for U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers (USACE) Projects.
7 Generally, operation and maintenance (O&M) of flood risk reduction and aquatic ecosystem restoration projects are a
nonfederal responsibility, though there are exceptions (e.g., multipurpose flood control dams).
8 These accounts also fund some programs, such as research and monitoring and inspection of completed works. The
Construction account also funds environmental infrastructure assistance for certain nonfederal projects generally
related to water supply and wastewater; most are listed by authorization or project in the accompanying explanatory
statement. The Mississippi River and Tributaries (MR&T) account funds studies and projects as part of the larger
MR&T project.
9 For FY2022 through FY2024 and for FY2026, Congress approved earmarks (community project funding [CPF] in the
House and congressionally directed spending [CDS] in the Senate) in specified categories. In FY2025, however,
Section 1111 of P.L. 119-4 established that the act did not provide for earmarks. FY2025 did not have an
accompanying explanatory statement specifying funding for specific projects, so funding from USACE accounts was
allocated by the Trump Administration. For more information on FY2025, see CRS In Focus IF12648, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers: FY2025 Appropriations.
10 Earmarks were limited during the 112th through 116th Congresses. During this time, the procedure was that after
congressional enactment of the appropriations legislation and accompanying explanatory statement on priorities and
other guidance for use of the additional funding, the Administration developed a work plan that reported on the specific
studies and projects receiving additional funds. Congress has since continued to provide additional funding and
associated direction in this way, resulting in subsequent work plans developed by USACE. USACE work plans are
available at USACE, “Civil Works Budget and Performance,” https://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/Civil-Works/
Budget/#Work-Plans.
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
In addition to funding the agency’s water resource activities, Congress has provided funding to
USACE for regulatory activities,11 the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program,12 flood
preparedness and response, administrative expenses, and the Corps Water Infrastructure
Financing Program (CWIFP).13
Figure 2 shows annual appropriations for USACE from FY2019 through FY2026, and Table 4
lists appropriations by account.
Figure 2. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in billions of dollars)
Source: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements.
Notes: See Table 3 for supplemental funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted
amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026 is not
adjusted.
11 USACE’s regulatory responsibilities for navigable waters extend to issuing permits for private actions that may
affect navigation, wetlands, and other waters of the United States. Prominent among these responsibilities is USACE
administration of Section 404 of the Clean Water Act. For more information on these permitting responsibilities, see
CRS Report R47408, Waters of the United States (WOTUS): Frequently Asked Questions About the Scope of the Clean
Water Act, and CRS In Focus IF13202, Section 408 Permission to Alter Army Corps Works: Developments and
Congressional Considerations.
12 The Atomic Energy Commission established the Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP) in
1974 under the Atomic Energy Act (42 U.S.C. §§2011 et seq.) to investigate the need for remediation at privately
owned or operated sites that supported the development of U.S. nuclear weapons from the 1940s to the 1960s. USACE
became responsible for the remediation of FUSRAP sites. After USACE completes the remediation of a site,
jurisdiction is transferred back to DOE for long-term stewardship. For information on the status of FUSRAP, see
USACE, “Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program,”
https://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/Environmental/FUSRAP.aspx. Lance Larson, CRS analyst in environmental
policy, covers FUSRAP activities.
13 CWIFP is funded through the Water Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Program account. For more information
on CWIFP, see CRS Insight IN12021, Corps Water Infrastructure Financing Program (CWIFP).
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
Table 4. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Regular Appropriations by Account, FY2019FY2026
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
FY2019
Approp.
FY2020
Approp.
Investigations
125.0
151.0
153.0
143.0
172.5
143.0
143.0
150.4
Construction
2,183.0
2,681.0
2,692.6
2,492.8
1,808.8
1,854.7
1,854.7
3,170.0
Mississippi River and
Tributaries (MR&T)
368.0
375.0
380.0
370.0
370.0
368.0
368.0
531.6
Operation and
Maintenance (O&M)
3,739.5
3,790.0
3,849.7
4,570.0
5,078.5
5,552.8
5,552.8
6,013.2
Regulatory
200.0
210.0
210.0
212.0
218.0
221.0
221.0
221.0
General Expenses
193.0
203.0
206.0
208.0
215.0
216.0
216.0
220.0
FUSRAP
150.0
200.0
250.0
300.0
400.0
300.0
300.0
75.0
Flood Control and
Coastal
Emergencies
(FCCE)
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0
35.0
40.0
Office of the Asst.
Secretary of the
Army
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
7.0
WIFIP Account
—
—
14.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
7.2
Total Approp
6,998.5
7,650.0
7,795.5
8,343.0
8,310.0
8,702.7
8,702.7
10,435.4
—
—
-0.5
—
—
-22.2
-22.2
—
6,998.5
7,650.0
7,795.0
8,343.0
8,310.0
8,680.5
8,680.5
10,435.4
Program
Rescissions
Total Title I
FY2021 FY2022
Approp. Approp.
FY2023
Approp.
FY2024 FY2025
Approp. Approp.
FY2026
Approp.
Sources: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements and reports.
Notes: FUSRAP = Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program; WIFIP = Water Infrastructure Finance and
Innovation Program. Columns may not sum to totals because of rounding.
In addition to the regular appropriations for FY2019 through FY2026, USACE received the
following funds separately from the annual appropriations process:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
$3.258 billion in P.L. 116-20;
$70 million in P.L. 116-136;
$5.711 billion in Division B of P.L. 117-43;
$14.969 billion for FY2022, $1.080 billion for FY2023, and $1.050 billion for
FY2024 in the IIJA (P.L. 117-58);
$20 million in the FY2023 continuing resolution (P.L. 117-180);
$1.480 billion in Division N of P.L. 117-328; and
$1.515 billion in the American Relief Act, FY2025 (P.L. 118-158).
For more information on USACE supplemental funding, see CRS Report R48572, U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers: Supplemental Appropriations, and CRS Insight IN11723, Infrastructure
Investment and Jobs Act Funding for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) Civil Works.
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Central Utah Project (CUP) and Bureau of Reclamation
Most of the large dams and water diversion structures in the West were built by, or with the
assistance of, Reclamation in the Department of the Interior (DOI). While USACE has built
hundreds of flood control and navigation water resource projects, Reclamation’s original mission
was to develop, through its water resource projects, water supplies, primarily for irrigation to
reclaim arid lands in the West for farming and ranching. Reclamation has evolved into an agency
that assists in meeting the water demands in the West while working to protect the environment
and the public’s investment in Reclamation infrastructure.
Today, Reclamation manages hundreds of dams and diversion projects, including more than 300
storage reservoirs, in 17 western states. These projects provide water to approximately 10 million
acres of farmland and 31 million people. Reclamation is the largest wholesale supplier of water in
the 17 western states and the second-largest hydroelectric power producer in the nation.
Reclamation facilities also provide substantial flood control, recreation, and other benefits.
Reclamation facility operations are often controversial, particularly for their effect on fish and
wildlife species and because of conflicts among competing water users during drought conditions.
As with USACE, the Reclamation budget is made up largely of individual project funding lines.
Therefore, as with USACE, these Reclamation projects have often been subject to earmark
disclosure rules. The moratorium on earmarks through FY2021 restricted Congress from directing
funds toward specific Reclamation projects. For FY2022 through FY2026, the House and Senate
rules allowed congressionally directed funding for specific Reclamation projects. For FY2025,
Section 1111 of P.L. 119-4 did not provide for earmarks.
Water and Related Resources, Reclamation’s single largest account, funds the agency’s traditional
programs and projects, including water project construction, operations and maintenance, dam
safety, and ecosystem restoration, among other activities.14 Reclamation also typically requests
funds for three other smaller accounts: the Policy and Administration Account, which funds
Reclamation’s administrative expenses; the California Bay-Delta Restoration Account, which
funds collaborative state and federal water supply and habitat restoration in the Bay-Delta region
of California; and the Central Valley Project Restoration Fund (CVPRF), which funds fish and
wildlife habitat restoration in California’s Central Valley.15 CVPRF expenditures are offset by
fees on Central Valley water contractors. For more information on annual appropriations for
Reclamation, see CRS In Focus IF13066, Bureau of Reclamation: FY2026 Budget and
Appropriations, by Charles V. Stern.
Implementation and oversight of CUP, a project originally constructed by Reclamation that
continues to be funded by Title II, is conducted by the Central Utah Project Completion Act
Office (i.e., a separate office within the DOI).16
Figure 3 shows regular appropriations for CUP and Reclamation from FY2019 through FY2026,
and Table 4 lists appropriations by account.
14 The Water and Related Resources Account is largely funded by the Reclamation Fund, which receives and
distributes receipts related to a number of federal activities (including royalties received from oil and gas leasing on
federal lands). For more on this fund and financing of selected Reclamation projects, see CRS Report R41844, The
Reclamation Fund: A Primer, by Charles V. Stern.
15 For more information on these activities see CRS Report R44456, Central Valley Project Operations: Background
and Legislation, by Charles V. Stern and Pervaze A. Sheikh.
16 The Central Utah Project (CUP) moves water from the Colorado River basin in eastern Utah to the western slopes of
the Wasatch Mountain range. It was authorized in 1956 under the Colorado River Storage Project Act (P.L. 84-485).
For more information, see the CUP website at https://www.usbr.gov/projects/index.php?id=498.
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Figure 3. Central Utah Project and Bureau of Reclamation Regular Appropriations,
FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in billions of dollars)
Source: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements.
Notes: See Table 3 for additional funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted
amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026
is not adjusted.
Table 5. Central Utah Project and Bureau of Reclamation Regular Appropriations by
Account, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
FY2019
Approp.
FY2020
Approp.
FY2021
Approp.
FY2022
Approp.
FY2023
Approp.
FY2024
Approp.
FY2025
Approp.
FY2026
Approp.
15.0
20.0
21.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
1,392.0
1,512.2
1,521.1
1,747.1
1,787.2
1,751.7
1,710.7
1,465.6
Policy and
Administration
61.0
60.0
60.0
64.4
65.1
66.8
66.8
64.0
CVP Restoration
Fund (CVPRF)
62.0
54.8
55.9
56.5
45.8
48.5
55.7
65.4
Calif. Bay-Delta
(CALFED)
35.0
33.0
33.0
33.0
33.0
33.0
33.0
32.0
CUP and
Reclamation
1,565.0
1,680.0
1,691.0
1,924.0
1,954.0
1,923.0
1,889.3
1,650.0
—
—
—
—
-45.8
—
—
—
1,565.0
1,680.0
1,691.0
1,924.0
1,908.2
1,923.0
1,889.3
1,650.0
Program
Central Utah
Project (CUP)
Completion
Water and Related
Resources
Offsets, Transfers,
and Adjustments
Total
Sources: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements.
Notes: Columns may not sum to totals because of rounding. CVP = Central Valley Project.
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
Reclamation has also received additional appropriations in recent fiscal years. For FY2019, P.L.
116-20 provided $16 million total to Reclamation and CUP to carry out fire remediation
activities, and P.L. 116-136 provided Reclamation $21 million to prevent, prepare for, and
respond to coronavirus.
The IIJA provided $1.660 billion in additional funding for each of FY2022 through FY2026 for
various activities in Reclamation’s Water and Related Resources account.17 P.L. 117-169,
popularly known as the Inflation Reduction Act (IRA), appropriated $4.588 billion in additional
funds for Reclamation, including $4.000 billion for drought mitigation in the 17 western
reclamation states, remaining available through FY2026.18
In FY2025, the American Relief Act, 2025 (P.L. 118-158), included $74 million for multiple
Reclamation activities, including expenditures related to canal failures. Most recently, the
FY2025 budget reconciliation measure (P.L. 119-21) appropriated $1.000 billion in funding for
surface water storage and conveyance projects that restore or increase the capacity of existing
Reclamation facilities, available through FY2034.19
Department of Energy
The E&W regular appropriations acts typically have funded nearly all DOE programs.20 Major
DOE activities are authorized under multiple energy statutes and include the following:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
research and development (R&D) on renewable energy, energy efficiency,
nuclear power, fossil energy, and electricity;
nuclear weapons and nonproliferation;
general science;
environmental cleanup;
energy statistics, projections, and analysis;
loan programs;
the Strategic Petroleum Reserve; and
power marketing administrations.
Figure 4 shows regular appropriations for DOE from FY2019 through FY2026, and Table 6 lists
appropriations by account.
17 For more information, see CRS Report R47032, Bureau of Reclamation Provisions in the Infrastructure Investment
and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58), by Charles V. Stern and Anna E. Normand.
18 For more information, see CRS In Focus IF12437, Bureau of Reclamation Funding in the Inflation Reduction Act
(P.L. 117-169), by Charles V. Stern and Anna E. Normand.
19 For more information, see CRS Report R47987, Bureau of Reclamation Support for Water Storage Projects, by
Charles V. Stern.
20 The DOE Office of Intelligence and Counterintelligence is funded as part of the National Intelligence Program in the
Defense Appropriations bill.
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Figure 4. Department of Energy Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in billions of dollars)
Source: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements.
Notes: See Table 3 for supplemental funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted
amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026 is not
adjusted.
Table 6. Department of Energy Regular Appropriations by Account, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
FY2019
Approp.
FY2020
Approp.
FY2021
Approp.
FY2022 FY2023 FY2024
Approp. Approp. Approp.
FY2025 FY2026
Approp. Approp.
2,379.0
2,790.0
2,861.8
3,200.0
3,460.0
3,460.0
3,460.0
1,950.0
Electricitya
156.0
190.0
211.7
277.0
350.0
280.0
280.0
235.0
Cybersecurity,
Energy Security, and
Emergency
Response
120.0
156.0
156.0
185.8
200.0
200.0
200.0
190.0
Nuclear Energy
1,326.1
1,493.4
1,507.6
1,654.8
1,473.0
1,685.0
1,685.0
1,685.0
Fossil Energyb
740.0
750.0
750.0
825.0
890.0
865.0
865.0
580.0
Energy Projects
—
—
—
—
222.0
83.7
—
97.6
Naval Petroleum
and Oil Shale
Reserves
10.0
14.0
13.0
13.7
13.0
13.0
13.0
13.0
Strategic Petroleum
Reserve (SPR)c
245.0
205.0
189.0
226.4
207.3
213.4
213.5
206.6
Northeast Home
Heating Oil Reserve
10.0
10.0
6.5
6.5
7.0
7.2
7.2
7.2
Energy Information
Administration
125.0
126.8
126.8
129.1
135.0
135.0
135.0
135.0
Energy Programs
Energy Efficiency
and Renewable
Energy
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
FY2019
Approp.
FY2020
Approp.
FY2021
Approp.
Non-Defense
Environmental
Cleanup
310.0
319.2
319.2
333.9
358.6
342.0
342.0
322.4
Uranium
Enrichment
Decontamination &
Decommissioning
(D&D) Fund
841.1
881.0
841.0
860.0
879.1
855.0
855.0
865.0
6,585.0
7,000.0
7,026.0
7,475.0
8,100.0
8,240.0
8,240.0
8,250.0
Technology
Transitions
—
—
—
19.5
22.1
20.0
20.0
—
Clean Energy
Demonstrations
—
—
—
20.0
89.0
50.0
50.0
—
Grid Deployment
—
—
—
—
—
60.0
60.0
25.0
Advanced Research
Projects Agency—
Energy (ARPA-E)
366.0
425.0
427.0
450.0
470.0
460.0
460.0
350.0
Nuclear Waste
Disposal
—
—
27.5
27.5
10.2
12.0
12.0
12.0
Departmental
Admin. (net)
165.9
161.0
166.0
240.0
283.0
286.5
286.5
200.0
Office of the
Inspector General
51.3
54.2
57.7
78.0
86.0
86.0
86.0
90.0
Indian Energy Policy
and Programsd
18.0
22.0
22.0
58.0
75.0
70.0
70.0
75.0
Advanced
Technology
Vehicles
Manufacturing
(ATVM) Loan
Program
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
9.8
13.0
13.0
9.5
ATVM Rescission of
Emergency Funding
—
—
-1,908.0
—
—
—
—
—
Title 17 Innovated
Technology and
Loan Guarantee
Program
18.0
29.0
29.0
29.0
181.2
—
-115.0
-205.0
Title 17 Rescission
of Emergency
Funding
—
—
-392.0
—
—
—
—
—
Tribal Energy Loan
Guarantee Program
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
4.0
6.3
6.3
6.3
13,472.4
14,633.6
12,444.8
16,116.0 17,525.2
17,443.2 17,244.5 15,099.3
11,100.0
12,457.1
15,345.0
15,920.0
19,108.0
Science
Total, Energy
Programs
FY2022 FY2023 FY2024
Approp. Approp. Approp.
FY2025 FY2026
Approp. Approp.
National Nuclear
Security Admin.
Weapons Activities
Congressional Research Service
17,116.1
19,293.0
20,378.0
12
Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
FY2019
Approp.
FY2020
Approp.
FY2021
Approp.
Defense Nuclear
Nonproliferation
1,930.0
2,164.4
2,260.0
2,354.0
2,490.0
2,581.0
2,396.0
2,367.0
Naval Reactors
1,788.6
1,648.4
1,684.0
1,918.0
2,081.5
1,946.0
1,946.0
2,134.0
410.0
434.7
443.2
464.0
475.0
500.0
500.0
525.0
16,704.6 19,732.2 20,656.0
22,162.6
Federal Salaries and
Expenses
FY2022 FY2023 FY2024
Approp. Approp. Approp.
FY2025 FY2026
Approp. Approp.
Total, NNSA
15,228.6
Defense
Environmental
Cleanup
6,024.0
6,255.0
6,426.0
6,710.0
7,025.0
7,285.0
7,285.0
7,375.0
Defense Uranium
Enrichment D&D
—
—
—
573.3
586.0
285.0
285.0
—
Other Defense
Activities
860.3
906.0
920.0
985.0
1,035.0
1,080.0
1,107.0
1,170.0
Total, Defense
Activities
22,112.9
23,865.6
27,078.2
Southwestern
10.4
10.4
10.4
10.4
10.6
11.4
11.4
10.4
Western
89.4
89.2
89.4
90.8
98.7
99.9
99.9
63.3
Falcon and Amistad
O&M
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
100.0
99.8
100.0
101.4
109.6
111.5
111.5
74.0
—
-12.7
-2.0
-286.1
2.0
-93.0
2.0
2.0
39,625.0 44,855.6
48,445.4
28,924.3 30,808.6
24,135.0 24,135.0 25,404.0
32,785.0 32,812.0 33,949.0
Power Marketing
Administrations
Total, PMAs
General Provisions
DOE Total
Appropriations
Offsets, Transfers,
and Adjustments
Total, DOE
35,708.9e 38,657.2e
-23.6
-70.9
35,685.3
38,586.3
—
—
-2,202.0
39,625.0 44,855.6
46,243.4
50,246.8 50,170.3 49,124.3
—
—
—
50,246.8 50,170.3 49,124.3
Sources: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements and reports.
Notes: Columns may not sum to totals because of rounding. Table includes some category adjustments for
comparability. Excludes rescissions and supplementals in subsequent acts.
a. For FY2019, this account was titled Electricity Delivery.
b. This account was titled Fossil Energy Research and Development for FY2019-FY2021 and Fossil Energy and
Carbon Management for FY2022-FY2025. For FY2026, the account is Fossil Energy.
c. Includes SPR Petroleum Account and rescissions.
d. This account was titled Office of Indian Energy Policy and Programs from FY2019-FY2021.
e. Excludes rescissions.
In addition to the regular appropriations shown in Table 6, DOE has also received additional
appropriations in recent fiscal years. P.L. 116-136 provided DOE $28 million to prevent, prepare
for, and respond to coronavirus, and another $100 million to its Science account to provide
support and access to scientific user facilities in the Office of Science and the National Nuclear
Security Administration (NNSA).
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
Additional appropriations became available to DOE from the IRA beginning in FY2022, as
shown in Table 7. Additional amounts for FY2023 were appropriated by Divisions M and N of
P.L. 117-328, as shown in Table 8. DOE received appropriations from IIJA; these additional
amounts for FY2023, FY2024, FY2025, and FY2026 are shown in Table 9. Unobligated balances
for certain IRA activities were rescinded by P.L. 119-21.
Table 7. Additional Department of Energy Appropriations Provided by P.L. 117-169
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
IRA Section
Appropriations
Fiscal Years
Available to
Be Expended
Home Energy Efficiency Rebates
50121
4,300
FY2022-FY2031
Home Electric Efficiency Rebates, States
50122
4,275
FY2022-FY2031
Home Electric Efficiency Rebates, Tribes
50122
225
FY2022-FY2031
Home Energy Efficiency Contractor Training Grants
50123
200
FY2022-FY2031
Building Energy Code Adoption
50131(b)
330
FY2022-FY2029
Building Energy Code Adoption
50131(c)
670
FY2022-FY2029
Title 17 Loan Guarantees
50141
3,600
FY2022-FY2026
ATVM Loans
50142
3,000
FY2022-FY2028
Domestic Manufacturing Conversion Grants
50143
2,000
FY2022-FY2031
Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment
50144
5,000
FY2022-FY2026
Tribal Energy Loan Guarantees
50145
75
FY2022-FY2028
Electric Transmission Facility Financing
50151
2,000
FY2022-FY2030
Transmission Line Siting Grants
50152
760
FY2022-FY2029
Offshore Wind Planning
50153
100
FY2022-FY2031
Advanced Industrial Facilities Deployment
50161
5,812
FY2022-FY2026
Inspector General
50171
20
FY2022-FY2031
National Laboratory Infrastructure
50172
Program
Office of Science
FY2022-FY2027
50172(a)
Science Laboratory Infrastructure Projects
133
High Energy Physics Construction and Equipment
304
Fusion Energy Construction and Equipment
280
Nuclear Physics Construction and Equipment
217
Advanced Scientific Computing Facilities
164
Basic Energy Sciences Projects
295
Isotope Research and Development Facilities
158
Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management
50172(b)
150
Office of Nuclear Energy
50172(c)
150
Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
50172(d)
150
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Program
IRA Section
Appropriations
Fiscal Years
Available to
Be Expended
50173
700
FY2022-FY2026
Availability of High-Assay Low-Enriched Uranium
DOE Total
35,068
Source: Appropriations for items in Section 50172 are for the same fiscal year period.
Note: The FY2025 reconciliation measure (P.L. 119-21) rescinded unobligated appropriations for some
programs. The figures above do not reflect the rescissions.
Table 8. Additional FY2023 Department of Energy Appropriations Provided by
Divisions M and N of P.L. 117-328
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
Program
Division M
Division N
Total
Advanced Nuclear Fuel Availability
100.0
—
100.0
Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program
60.0
—
60.0
National Reactor Innovation Center
20.0
—
20.0
Risk Reduction for Future Demonstrations
120.0
—
120.0
125.3
—
125.3
Electricity (Puerto Rico electricity grid resilience)
—
1,000.0
1,000.0
Western Area Power Administration
—
520.0
520.0
425.3
1,520.0
1,945.3
Nuclear Energy
Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation (Ukraine-related activities)
Total
Source: P.L. 117-328, Divisions M and N.
Table 9. FY2023-FY2026 Department of Energy Appropriations Provided by the
Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
IIJA
FY2023
IIJA
FY2024
IIJA
FY2025
IIJA
FY2026
2,221.8
1,945.0
1,945.0
1,945.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Electricity
1,610.0
1,610.0
1,610.0
1,610.0
Nuclear Energy
1,200.0
1,200.0
1,200.0
1,200.0
Fossil Energy and Carbon Management
1,444.5
1,447.0
1,449.5
1,317.0
Carbon Dioxide Transportation Infrastructure Finance and
Innovation Program Account
2,097.0
—
—
—
Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations
4,426.3
4,476.3
4,526.3
2,900.0
13,099.6
10,778.3
10,830.8
9,072.0
Program
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Emergency Response
Total
Sources: Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58); H.Rept. 117-394; Department of Energy FY2024
and FY2025 congressional budget justifications.
Notes: Section 311 of P.L. 119-74 transferred $5.165 billion of unobligated IIJA appropriations from Energy
Efficiency and Renewable Energy, civil nuclear credits, and carbon capture and removal to small reactor
Congressional Research Service
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Energy and Water Development and Related Agencies Appropriations
demonstrations and other nuclear programs, grid deployment, other EERE activities, fossil energy, science, and
Title XVI loan guarantees.
For FY2024, DOE’s Science account received $98 million for development and production of
medical, stable, and radioactive isotopes, and the NNSA received $149 million to respond to the
Ukrainian conflict. In response to natural disasters, including Hurricanes Helene and Milton,
Congress provided $60 million for the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, $2 million for weapons
activities, and $2 million for environmental cleanup in P.L. 118-158.
The FY2025 budget reconciliation measure (P.L. 119-21) provided additional mandatory
appropriations for several DOE programs. The act expanded the scope of DOE’s Energy
Infrastructure Reinvestment (Section 1706) loan program and appropriated $1.000 billion to
cover the Section 1706 program's subsidy costs (potential losses). The SPR account received
$171 million in supplemental appropriations for purchasing crude oil for the SPR and $218
million for maintenance, both to remain available through FY2029. P.L. 119-21 also appropriated
$3.885 billion for FY2025, to remain available through FY2029, for the following NNSA
activities:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
$200 million for Phase 1 studies;
$540 million for deferred maintenance and repair;
$1.000 billion for construction;
$400 million for the sea-launched cruise missile nuclear warhead;
$750 million for modernization of facilities for nuclear warhead primary stages;
$750 million for modernization of facilities for nuclear warhead secondary
stages;
$120 million for uranium enrichment centrifuge deployment;
$10 million for spent nuclear fuel reprocessing evaluation; and
$115 million for artificial intelligence.
Separately, P.L. 119-21 rescinded all unobligated balances of IRA appropriations for these
programs:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
State Home Energy Efficiency Training Grants (IRA Section 50123);
DOE loan programs (IRA Section 50141);
tribal energy loan guarantees (IRA Section 50145);
electric transmission facility loans (IRA Section 50151);
grants for electricity transmission project siting studies (IRA Section 50152);
offshore wind electricity transmission planning (IRA Section 50153); and
grants for advanced industrial facilities deployment (IRA Section 50161).
The act also repealed the Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing program (IRA Section
50142).
Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
The Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy account has funded DOE’s Office of Critical
Minerals and Energy Innovation (CMEI).21 CMEI was created from the former Office of Energy
21 For FY2027, the Trump Administration proposed the Critical Minerals and Energy Innovation account for funding
(continued...)
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Efficiency and Renewable Energy by adding critical minerals programs and moving geothermal
research to the Office of Hydrocarbons and Geothermal Energy (formerly the Office of Fossil
Energy).22
CMEI addresses three energy and national security objectives: supply of critical minerals; energy
security and reliability; and affordable access to energy, including allowing manufacturers to
make appliances that use different fuels.23 The CMEI organization includes the Office of Critical
Minerals, Materials, and Manufacturing; the Office of Energy Technology; and the Office of
Innovation, Affordability, and Consumer Choice. The Office of Critical Minerals, Materials, and
Manufacturing covers advanced mining and mineral production, which had previously been in the
Office of Fossil Energy and Carbon Management and known there as the Office of Mineral
Production and Processing Technologies.
The DOE programs in CMEI encompass electric power generation; transportation technologies;
alternative fuels for vehicles and feedstocks for chemical products, addressing supply chain costs
and other objectives; materials and manufacturing for improvements across the energy value
chain; industrial technologies for improved energy efficiency; and building technologies for
lower-cost energy end uses. In addition, CMEI includes realigned program elements on the
following: state and community energy, including weatherization assistance; federal energy
management in federal facilities; and manufacturing and energy supply chain—all three of which
were being executed in separate offices in prior years.24
Electricity Delivery, Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Energy Reliability
The Office of Electricity (OE) “leads the Department of Energy’s research, development, and
demonstration programs to strengthen and modernize our nation’s power grid so that our nation
maintains a reliable, resilient, and secure electricity delivery infrastructure,” according to the OE
website.25
OE uses a model of North American energy vulnerabilities for analyzing transmission and other
energy infrastructure needs. Other activities include pursuing megawatt-scale electricity storage,
integrating electric power system sensing technology, and analyzing electricity-related policy
issues. A separate DOE Grid Deployment Office supports modernization of the nation’s
electricity transmission system and critical generating facilities through planning and financial
assistance.
The Office of Cybersecurity, Energy Security, and Emergency Response (CESER) is the federal
government’s lead entity for energy sector-specific responses to energy security emergencies—
whether caused by physical infrastructure problems or by cybersecurity issues. The office
conducts R&D on energy infrastructure security technology; provides energy sector security
guidelines, training, and technical assistance; and enhances energy sector emergency
preparedness and response.
DOE’s Office of Critical Minerals and Energy Innovation (CMEI). Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the
U.S. Government: Appendix, Fiscal Year 2027, p. 390; and H.Rept. 119-667.
22 DOE, “Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American
Energy,” press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announcesorganizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
23 Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the U.S. Government: Appendix, Fiscal Year 2027, p. 391.
24 DOE, Office of the Chief Financial Officer, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Volume 2: Critical Minerals and
Energy Innovation, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-2-cmei.
25 DOE Office of Electricity, “Mission,” https://www.energy.gov/oe/office-electricity.
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Nuclear Energy
DOE’s Office of Nuclear Energy (NE) supports R&D on technologies to improve the efficiency
and economic viability of existing U.S. nuclear power plants, development and demonstration of
advanced reactor technologies, and R&D on nuclear fuel cycle technologies. NE also supports
growth of the U.S. nuclear fuel supply chain, including uranium mining, conversion to uranium
hexafluoride, and enrichment.
The Reactor Concepts program area comprises research on advanced reactors, including
advanced small modular reactors, and research to enhance the “sustainability” of existing
commercial light water reactors. Advanced reactor research focuses on “Generation IV” reactors,
as opposed to the existing fleet of commercial light water reactors, which are generally classified
as Generations II and III.
The Advanced Reactors Demonstration Program supports the new reactor demonstration projects
and fuel cycle facilities, as well as technologies for potential future demonstration. DOE can
authorize and regulate reactors under its own programs that are being developed as potential
commercial reactors for NRC licensing and regulation.
The Fuel Cycle Research and Development program includes generic research on nuclear waste
management and disposal. One of the program’s primary activities is the development of
technologies to separate the radioactive constituents of spent fuel for reuse or solidifying into
stable waste forms. Other major research areas in the Fuel Cycle R&D program include the
development of accident-tolerant fuels for existing commercial reactors, evaluation of fuel cycle
options, and development of improved technologies to prevent diversion of nuclear materials for
weapons. The program is also developing sources of high-assay low-enriched uranium (HALEU),
in which uranium is enriched to between 5% and 20% in the fissile isotope U-235, for potential
use in advanced reactors. HALEU would be required for several designs currently receiving costshared support by DOE’s Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program.
Fossil Energy and Geothermal Energy
The Office of Fossil Energy (FE) has historically supported research related to coal, natural gas,
and petroleum, including a major focus area on the development of carbon capture and storage
technologies for use with coal-fired power plants. The office also supports operations at the
National Energy Technology Laboratory.
The Biden Administration changed the office’s name to Fossil Energy and Carbon Management,
reflecting a focus on development of carbon capture, utilization, and storage technologies;
hydrogen technologies; and options to reduce methane emissions from fossil fuel infrastructure. A
DOE reorganization on November 20, 2025, changed the name of FECM to the Hydrocarbons
and Geothermal Energy Office (HGEO) and moved geothermal research from the former Office
of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy into HGEO.26 According to the office website, the
office’s mission is to “unleash the full potential of America’s hydrocarbon and geothermal
resources to provide affordable, reliable, and secure energy.”27 For FY2026 appropriations,
“Fossil Energy” remained the line item name for expenses for fossil energy research and
development.
26 DOE, “Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American
Energy,” press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announcesorganizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
27 DOE Hydrocarbons and Geothermal Energy Office, “Mission,” accessed June 8, 2026,
https://www.energy.gov/hgeo/mission.
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Additionally, HGEO is involved in a number of programs funded by IIJA, either managing the
programs directly or consulting with other DOE offices that have the lead management role.
These programs include Regional Direct Air Capture Hubs; Carbon Storage Validation and
Testing; Critical Materials Innovation, Efficiency, and Alternatives; and the Carbon Dioxide
Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (CIFIA).
HGEO’s carbon capture research focuses on natural gas-fired power plants and applications
outside the power sector, in line with congressional direction provided in the Energy Act of 2020
(Division Z of P.L. 116-260) and other recent laws. HGEO also conducts research on producing
hydrogen from fossil fuels and using hydrogen in the power sector.
Strategic Petroleum Reserve
Authorized in 1975 by the Energy Policy and Conservation Act (P.L. 94-163, as amended; 42
U.S.C. §§6201 et seq.), the SPR fulfills two statutory policy objectives: (1) reduce the economic
impact of oil supply disruptions, and (2) carry out U.S. obligations under the Agreement on an
International Energy Program (IEP)—a multilateral, voluntary agreement subject to international
law. Currently, the SPR consists of a government-owned crude oil reserve in Texas and
Louisiana.28
Since the SPR was established, various Administrations have directed crude oil drawdowns and
sales on five occasions in response to emergency oil supply disruptions. During FY2022 and
FY2023, emergency SPR authorities addressed anticipated oil supply disruptions following
Russia’s military invasion of Ukraine. The Biden Administration sold approximately 180 million
barrels between March 2022 and January 2023, the largest-ever emergency SPR release.29 More
frequently, DOE uses SPR authorities to exchange crude oil with refiners and traders following
natural disasters (i.e., hurricanes) and other regional supply disruption events. From time to time,
DOE also activates exchange authorities to temporarily store crude oil during low-price periods
and provide additional supply during high-price periods.30 In response to oil supply and trade
disruptions linked to military conflict in Iran, DOE announced plans in March 2026 to release 172
million barrels of crude oil from the SPR. This release is part of an International Energy Agency
(IEA) coordinated release plan totaling 400 million barrels. DOE is releasing barrels using
exchange authorities.31
Because of limited utilization in response to emergency oil supply disruptions prior to the 2022
Ukraine war, growing U.S. crude oil production, and rapidly declining net petroleum imports—
the basis for determining IEP emergency oil stock obligations—Congress began mandating SPR
crude oil sales to pay for other legislative priorities. Between 2015 and 2021, Congress passed
28 Congress directed DOE to sell and close the 1-million-barrel Northeast Gasoline Supply Reserve (NGSR) during
FY2024 (P.L. 118-42, §308). DOE issued an NGSR notice of sale in May 2024 and awarded contracts to complete the
sale in July 2024. DOE, “DOE Awards Contracts for the Sale of Northeast Gasoline Supply Reserve as Americans Hit
the Road for Summer Driving Season,” July 2, 2024, https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-awards-contracts-salenortheast-gasoline-supply-reserve-americans-hit-road-summer.
29 CRS Insight IN11916, Strategic Petroleum Reserve Oil Releases: October 2021 Through October 2022, by Phillip
Brown; DOE, “SPR Quick Facts,” https://www.energy.gov/ceser/spr-quick-facts.
30 For additional information about SPR releases, see DOE, “History of SPR Releases,” https://www.energy.gov/fe/
services/petroleum-reserves/strategic-petroleum-reserve/releasing-oil-spr, accessed February 27, 2023.
31 DOE, “Energy Department Begins Delivering SPR Barrels at Record Speeds,” March 20, 2026,
https://www.energy.gov/hgeo/articles/energy-department-begins-delivering-spr-barrels-record-speeds; and
International Energy Agency, “IEA Member Countries to Carry out Largest Ever Oil Stock Release amid Market
Disruptions from Middle East Conflict,” March 11, 2026, https://www.iea.org/news/iea-member-countries-to-carryout-largest-ever-oil-stock-release-amid-market-disruptions-from-middle-east-conflict.
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eight laws mandating the sale of 358.6 million barrels of crude oil. Congress cancelled 140
million barrels of these mandated sales in the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 (P.L. 117328) by rescinding some proceeds from emergency sales in FY2022 and FY2023. Additionally,
Congress required DOE to sell approximately $1.4 billion of SPR crude oil to pay for an SPR
modernization program.32 A February 2025 DOE secretarial order includes “Refill the Strategic
Petroleum Reserve” as a department-level priority.
For additional information, see CRS Insight IN12542, Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Inventory
Outlook and Policy Considerations, by Phillip Brown.
Science
The DOE Office of Science conducts basic research across eight programs: accelerator R&D and
production, advanced scientific computing research, basic energy sciences, biological and
environmental research, fusion energy sciences, high-energy physics, isotope R&D and
production, and nuclear physics. According to DOE’s FY2026 budget justification, the Office of
Science “is the nation’s largest Federal supporter of basic research in the physical sciences.”33
DOE has a system of 17 national laboratories, mostly operated by contractors, around the country.
Ten of these labs are overseen by the Office of Science.34
On November 20, 2025, DOE announced an organizational realignment that made several
changes to the offices overseen by the Under Secretary for Science, which includes the Office of
Science.35 Compared to the current (FY2026) DOE structure, new offices within the
responsibilities of the Under Secretary for Science include the Office of Fusion, the Office of
Artificial Intelligence and Quantum, and the Office of Technology Commercialization (previously
the Office of Technology Transfer under the Energy Secretary). Additionally, Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy, Fossil Energy and Carbon Management, and Manufacturing and Energy
Supply Chains offices have been reorganized into newly created offices: the Office of
Hydrocarbons and Geothermal Energy Office (HGEO) and the Office of Critical Minerals and
Energy Innovation (CMEI).
The Accelerator R&D and Production Program conducts research related to particle accelerators
that support science across multiple sectors: medicine, industry, and national security. According
to DOE, particle accelerators are fundamental tools enabling discovery science across DOE
facilities and research programs, supporting roughly 20,000 users per year.36
The Advanced Scientific Computing Research (ASCR) Program focuses on developing and
maintaining computing and networking capabilities for science and research in computational
science, applied mathematics, computer science, networking, and software research, as well as
development and operation of multiple large, high-performance computing and networking user
facilities. The program plays a key role in the DOE-wide effort to advance the development of
artificial intelligence and quantum computing. Under the 2025 DOE reorganization discussed
32 For additional information about congressionally required SPR oil sales, see Strategic Petroleum Reserve: Mandated
and Modernization Sales, by Phillip Brown, a congressional distribution memorandum available to congressional
clients by request from the author.
33 DOE, FY2027 Congressional Justification: Budget in Brief, p. 26, https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027budget-brief.
34 DOE, “National Laboratories,” https://www.energy.gov/national-laboratories.
35 DOE, “Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American
Energy,” press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announcesorganizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
36 DOE, “Accelerator R&D and Production,” https://www.energy.gov/science/ardap/accelerator-rd-and-production.
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above, CRS is unable to determine whether, or how, the new Office of Artificial Intelligence and
Quantum (AIQ) will coordinate with or be responsible for future funding and programmatic
activities related to AI and quantum currently undertaken by ASCR. According to DOE, the stated
mission of the AIQ is “to oversee the Department’s Genesis Mission through collaboration and
coordination of federal government, national laboratories, and industry in support of the U.S. AI
and quantum research investments.”37
Basic Energy Sciences (BES), the largest program in the Office of Science, focuses on research
related to the discovery, design, and control of materials and chemical systems across wide scales
of time and space, such as next-generation microelectronics and qubit platforms, fusion, advanced
nuclear fission, and enhanced geothermal energy, as well as critical minerals and materials needed
for these technologies.38 The program supports research in disciplines such as condensed matter
and materials physics, chemistry, geosciences, and aspects of biosciences that establish the
foundation of knowledge required to advance artificial intelligence, critical materials,
microelectronics, and quantum information science. BES also provides funding for scientific user
facilities (e.g., the National Synchrotron Light Source II, and the Linac Coherent Light Source-II)
and certain DOE research centers and hubs (e.g., the Critical Materials Innovation Hub, National
Quantum Information Science Research Centers, and Energy Frontier Research Centers).
Biological and Environmental Research (BER) supports scientific research and facilities to
analyze and understand complex biological, earth, and environmental systems with the aim of
advancing the nation’s energy and infrastructure security.39 BER supports three user facilities: the
Atmospheric Radiation Measurement user facility (proposed for closure in the President’s
FY2027 request), the Environmental Molecular Sciences Laboratory, and the Joint Genome
Institute.40
Fusion Energy Sciences (FES) seeks to increase understanding of the behavior of matter at very
high temperatures and to establish the science needed to develop a fusion energy source. FES also
provides funding for the ITER project, a multinational effort to design and build an experimental
fusion reactor.41 As part of its organizational realignment, DOE established a new Office of
Fusion under the responsibilities of the Under Secretary for Science. According to DOE, the
Office of Fusion will coordinate all fusion-related activities within DOE and lead DOE “in
advancing a set of national priorities that establishes a national strategy to close scientific and
technological gaps on the critical path toward developing, deploying and commercializing fusion
37 DOE’s Genesis Mission, launched in 2025, is “a national initiative to build the world’s most powerful scientific
platform to accelerate discovery science, strengthen national security, and drive energy innovation” by developing “an
integrated platform that connects the world’s best supercomputers, experimental facilities, AI systems, and unique
datasets across every major scientific domain to double the productivity and impact of American research and
innovation within a decade.” The mission is focused on three overarching challenge areas: energy dominance, scientific
discovery, and national security. For additional information see DOE, “Genesis Mission,” https://genesis.energy.gov/.
Department of Energy, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Office of Artificial Intelligence and Quantum, 2026, p. 2,
https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-vol-4-artificial-intelligence-and-quantum.
38 DOE, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Volume 4, Science, 2026, p. 31,
https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-4-sc.
39 DOE, “Biological and Environmental Research,” https://www.energy.gov/science/ber/biological-and-environmentalresearch.
40 Department of Energy, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Office of Science, 2026, p. 119,
https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-4-sc.
41 The name “ITER” was derived from “international thermonuclear experimental reactor,” but is referred to as the
ITER Project by the international organization that is building it. See ITER, “What Is ITER?,” https://www.iter.org/
proj/inafewlines. Also see CRS Report R48362, ITER—An International Nuclear Fusion Research and Development
Facility, coordinated by Todd Kuiken.
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energy.”42 For FY2027, the Administration requested $10 million to support “a new office with
funding for personnel, travel, and advisory and assistance.” CRS is unable to determine whether,
or to what extent, the new Office of Fusion will be responsible for future funding and
programmatic activities currently undertaken by FES.43 For more information, see CRS Report
R48866, Toward Commercial Fusion Energy: Considerations for Congress, by Todd Kuiken.
High Energy Physics (HEP) conducts research on the fundamental constituents of matter and
energy, including studies of dark energy and the search for dark matter. This work is conducted to
better understand how the universe works at its most fundamental level.44 One example is the
Sanford Underground Research Facility, which enables researchers to study how the universe was
formed and how organisms survive in extreme conditions.45
Isotope R&D and Production’s mission is to produce critical radioactive and stable isotopes that
are in short supply domestically or that no domestic entity has the infrastructure or core
competency to produce. The program is the only producer of approximately 300 isotopes needed
across various scientific, technological, medical, and industrial processes (e.g., cancer therapy
and oil/gas exploration).46
Nuclear Physics (NP) supports research on the nature of matter, including its basic constituents
and their interactions. One NP project is the construction of the Electron-Ion Collider at
Brookhaven National Laboratory in Upton, NY. The program also supports user facilities: the
Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility at Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator
Facility; the Argonne Tandem Linac Accelerator System at Argonne National Laboratory; and the
Facility for Rare Isotope Beams at Michigan State University.47
Two research efforts in the Office of Science cut across multiple program areas: quantum
information science, which aims to use quantum physics to process information, and artificial
intelligence and machine learning, which use computerized systems that work and react in ways
commonly thought to require intelligence. As part of its organizational realignment, DOE
established a new Office of Artificial Intelligence and Quantum (AIQ) under the Under Secretary
for Science.48 The stated mission of the AIQ is “to oversee the Department’s Genesis Mission
through collaboration and coordination of federal government, national laboratories, and industry
in support of the U.S. AI and quantum research investments.”49
42 Department of Energy, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Office of Fusion, 2026, p. 2,
https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-4-fusion.
43 DOE, “Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American
Energy,” press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announcesorganizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
44 DOE, “HEP Mission,” https://science.osti.gov/hep/About.
45 Sanford Underground Research Facility, “Areas of Research,” https://sanfordlab.org/areas-of-research.
46 DOE, “Isotope R&D and Production,” https://www.energy.gov/science/ip/isotope-rd-and-production-doe-ip. See also
https://science.osti.gov/-/media/Isotope-Research-Development-and-Production/pdf/brochures/IRP-FactSheet_approved.pdf.
47 DOE, “Nuclear Physics,” https://www.energy.gov/science/np/nuclear-physics.
48 DOE, “Energy Department Announces Organizational Realignment to Strengthen Efficiency and Unleash American
Energy,” press release, November 20, 2025, https://www.energy.gov/articles/energy-department-announcesorganizational-realignment-strengthen-efficiency-and-unleash.
49 DOE’s Genesis Mission, launched in 2025, is “a national initiative to build the world’s most powerful scientific
platform to accelerate discovery science, strengthen national security, and drive energy innovation” by developing “an
integrated platform that connects the world’s best supercomputers, experimental facilities, AI systems, and unique
datasets across every major scientific domain to double the productivity and impact of American research and
(continued...)
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Advanced Research Projects Agency—Energy (ARPA-E)
ARPA-E is a DOE office authorized by the America COMPETES Act (P.L. 110-69) to support
transformational technological advances in energy technology research “in areas where industry
by itself is not likely to invest due to technical and financial uncertainty.”50 According to DOE,
since 2009 ARPA-E has provided $4.29 billion in R&D funding to more than 1,750 projects, of
which 282 projects have attracted more than $16.3 billion in follow-on funding from the private
sector.51
Clean Energy Demonstrations
DOE’s Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations (OCED) funded cost-shared demonstrations of
clean energy technologies, including “clean hydrogen, carbon management, industrial
decarbonization, advanced nuclear reactors, long-duration energy storage, demonstration projects
in rural or remote areas and on current and former mine land, and more.”52 OCED’s portfolio
included the Advanced Reactor Demonstration Program (transferred from the Office of Nuclear
Energy), which provided funding to two 50% cost-shared advanced reactor demonstrations in
Wyoming and Texas. OCED also supported the regional Hydrogen Hubs established by IIJA to
establish hydrogen supply chains for industrial, transportation, and other decarbonization uses.
DOE’s November 2025 reorganization eliminated OCED and divided its responsibilities among
other offices.
Office of Energy Dominance Financing
DOE’s Office of Energy Dominance Financing, formerly the Loan Programs Office (LPO),
administers several authorized programs that provide direct loans and loan guarantees to eligible
projects, including the following:
•
•
•
•
•
Title 17 Incentives for Innovative Technologies;
Title 17 Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment Financing;
Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing;
Tribal Energy Financing; and
Carbon Dioxide Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act
(CIFIA) financing (loan guarantees and direct loans).
As with all federal credit programs, estimated costs to the federal government must be calculated
for each approved project and paid for prior to financial closing. Commonly referred to as “credit
subsidy costs,” estimated costs are typically paid using congressionally appropriated funds, but in
some cases can be wholly or partially paid by the project applicant. Most LPO programs have
available appropriations for credit subsidy costs from previously enacted legislation.
innovation within a decade.” The mission is focused on three overarching challenge areas: energy dominance, scientific
discovery, and national security. For additional information, see DOE, “Genesis Mission,” https://genesis.energy.gov/.
Department of Energy, Artificial Intelligence and Quantum FY 2027 Congressional Justification, 2026, p. 2,
https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-vol-4-artificial-intelligence-and-quantum.
50 DOE, FY 2027 Congressional Justification, Advanced Research Projects Agency—Energy, 2026, p. 2,
https://www.energy.gov/documents/doe-fy-2027-volume-2-arpa-e.
51 ARPA-E, “Impact,” accessed April 15, 2026, https://arpa-e.energy.gov/about/our-impact.
52 DOE, “Office of Clean Energy Demonstrations,” https://www.energy.gov/cmei/oced/office-clean-energydemonstrations.
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Title 17 Incentives for Innovative Technologies
Title XVII of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPACT 2005, P.L. 109-58) established the clean
energy loan guarantee program by authorizing DOE to guarantee loans for projects located in the
United States that (1) generally avoid or reduce air pollutants or greenhouse gas emissions and (2)
incorporate new or significantly improved technology. As amended at 42 U.S.C. §§16511 et seq.,
the original Title 17 program (Section 1703) includes an expanded list of eligible project
categories (see 42 U.S.C. §16513). Projects that employ commercially available technologies can
qualify for the 1703 program, if they receive support from a qualified State Energy Financing
Institution.
The IRA provided $40 billion of new lending authority for Section 1703 and appropriated $3.6
billion for credit subsidy and other program-related costs. The 2025 reconciliation measure
rescinded unobligated IRA balances.
Title 17 Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment Financing
The IRA amended EPACT 2005 by establishing a new loan guarantee authority (Section 1706)
for Energy Infrastructure Reinvestment (EIR) Financing. Generally, EIR aimed to provide debt
capital for projects that reduce emissions from operating energy infrastructure and in energy
infrastructure that had ceased operations. The IRA provided $250 billion of commitment
authority for Section 1706 and appropriated $5 billion to pay for credit subsidy and other related
program costs. For additional background about Title 17 and IRA amendments to the program,
see CRS Insight IN11984, Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (IRA): Department of Energy Loan
Guarantee Programs, by Phillip Brown.
Section 50403—"Energy Dominance Financing”—of the FY2025 reconciliation measure
amended the Section 1706 authority. Generally, amendments included eliminating requirements
to reduce emissions, expanding eligibility for projects that provide electric supply that “maintain
or enhance grid reliability,” and amending the definition of energy infrastructure to include
facilities “used for enabling the identification, leasing, development, production, processing,
transportation, transmission, refining, and generation needed for energy and critical minerals.”
Further, the reconciliation measure rescinded all unobligated balances provided by IRA
appropriations and appropriated $1 billion to pay for credit subsidy and other program costs.
Section 1706 commitment authority and appropriations are available until September 30, 2028.
Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing
Section 136 of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (P.L. 110-140) established an
incentive program for manufacturing advanced technology light-duty vehicles, including direct
loans for qualified facilities in the United States that manufacture advanced technology vehicles,
components for those vehicles, and engineering integration of qualifying vehicles and
components. As amended at 42 U.S.C. §17013, advanced technology vehicles currently include
medium- and heavy-duty vehicles, trains and locomotives, maritime vessels, aircraft, and
hyperloop technology. The IRA appropriated $3 billion to pay for the costs of providing ATVM
direct loans. The IRA made the funds available until the end of FY2028. The FY2025 budget
reconciliation measure repealed the ATVM changes made by the IRA and rescinded unobligated
appropriations for the program.
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Tribal Energy Financing
Section 2602 of the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (P.L. 102-46), as amended by EPACT 2005 (P.L.
109-58), authorized DOE to provide loan guarantees for tribal energy development, including
conventional and clean energy projects. As further amended at 25 U.S.C. §3502(d), borrowers are
permitted to receive loan guarantees directly from the U.S. Treasury’s Federal Financing Bank.
The IRA permanently increased lending authority for this program to $20 billion and appropriated
$75 million to carry out the program. However, unobligated balances for the program were
rescinded by the FY2025 budget reconciliation measure, P.L. 119-21. For more information, see
CRS In Focus IF11793, Indian Energy Programs at the Department of Energy, by Corrie E.
Clark, Mark Holt, and Lexie Ryan.
Carbon Dioxide Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act
(CIFIA) Financing
Section 40304 of the IIJA (as amended at 42 U.S.C. §16371) established the CIFIA program to
provide grants and federal credit (i.e., direct loans or loan guarantees) for common carrier
infrastructure projects or associated equipment that will transport carbon dioxide captured from
anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions sources or from ambient air. LPO coordinates with FE to
execute the CIFIA program. The IIJA appropriated $2 billion for the CIFIA program.
Energy Information Administration
The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) was established within DOE as the lead
federal agency for collecting, analyzing, and disseminating data on U.S. and world energy supply
and consumption. EIA data collection spans the energy system from supply and transport to
consumption. All energy sources are included in EIA’s data and analysis products, though some
(e.g., petroleum) are more detailed than others (e.g., renewables). Recent areas of congressional
interest include improvements to EIA’s computer models used to project U.S. energy supply and
demand over time, and EIA’s data collection related to energy consumption in residential and
commercial buildings and by data centers.
Nuclear Weapons Activities
In the absence of explosive testing of nuclear weapons, the United States has adopted a sciencebased program to maintain and sustain confidence in the reliability of the U.S. nuclear stockpile.
Congress established the Stockpile Stewardship Program in the National Defense Authorization
Act for Fiscal Year 1994 (P.L. 103-160). The goal of the program, as amended by the National
Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 (P.L. 111-84, §3111), is to ensure “that the
nuclear weapons stockpile is safe, secure, and reliable without the use of underground nuclear
weapons testing.” The program is operated by NNSA, a semiautonomous agency within DOE
established by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2000 (P.L. 106-65, Title
XXXII). NNSA implements the Stockpile Stewardship Program through the activities funded by
the Weapons Activities account in the NNSA budget.
Most of NNSA’s weapons activities take place at the nuclear weapons complex, which consists of
three nuclear laboratories (Los Alamos National Laboratory, NM; Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory, CA; and Sandia National Laboratories, NM and CA); four production sites (Kansas
City National Security Campus, MO; Pantex Plant, TX; Savannah River Site, SC; and Y-12
National Security Complex, TN); and the Nevada National Security Site (formerly the Nevada
Test Site). NNSA manages and sets policy for the weapons complex; contractors to NNSA
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operate the facilities. Radiological activities at these sites are subject to oversight and
recommendations by the independent Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board, funded by Title IV
of regular E&W appropriations acts.
NNSA’s budget has four major Weapons Activities program areas:
•
•
•
•
Stockpile Management supports work directly on nuclear weapons. These include
warhead modernization, sustainment, and dismantlement.
Production Modernization programs focus on modernizing the production
capabilities for materials and components of nuclear weapons that are critical to
weapons performance, as well as warhead assembly and disassembly. According
to NNSA, these include primaries, secondaries, tritium, and nonnuclear
components.
Stockpile Research, Technology, and Engineering involves warhead design,
certification, and assessment activities that provide the scientific and technical
foundation for science-based stockpile decisions.
Infrastructure and Operations maintains, operates, and modernizes the NNSA
infrastructure. It supports construction of some new facilities and funds deferred
maintenance in older facilities.
Nuclear Weapons Activities also has several smaller programs, including the following:
•
•
•
Secure Transportation Asset, providing for safe and secure transport of nuclear
weapons, components, and materials;
Defense Nuclear Security, providing operations, maintenance, and construction
funds for protective forces, physical security systems, personnel security, and
related activities; and
Information Technology and Cybersecurity, elements of which include
cybersecurity, secure enterprise computing, and Federal Unclassified Information
Technology.
For more information, see CRS Report R48194, The U.S. Nuclear Security Enterprise:
Background and Possible Issues for Congress, by Anya L. Fink.
Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation
DOE’s nonproliferation and national security programs provide technical capabilities to support
U.S. efforts to prevent, detect, and counter the spread of nuclear weapons worldwide. These
programs are administered by NNSA’s Office of Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation (DNN).
•
•
•
The Materials Management and Minimization subprogram conducts activities to
minimize and, where possible, eliminate stockpiles of weapons-useable material
around the world, such as conversion of reactors that use highly enriched
uranium (useable for weapons) to low-enriched uranium.
Global Materials Security works to increase the security of vulnerable stockpiles
of nuclear material in other countries; promotes the worldwide removal,
reduction, and security of radioactive sources (typically used in medical and
industrial devices), including in the United States; and improves the capability of
other countries to halt illicit trafficking of nuclear materials.
The Nonproliferation and Arms Control subprogram conducts reviews of nuclear
export applications and technology transfer authorizations, implements treaty
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•
•
obligations, and develops technology for treaty verification and safeguards
monitoring.
Defense Nuclear Nonproliferation Research and Development (DNN R&D)
advances U.S. capabilities to detect and characterize threats, such as foreign
nuclear material and weapons production, diversion of special nuclear material,
and nuclear detonations.
The Nonproliferation Construction program aimed to dispose of excess U.S.
weapons plutonium through a “dilute and dispose” strategy until May 2025,
when Executive Order 14302 halted the program.53
This account also includes the Nuclear Counterterrorism and Incident Response Program
(NCTIR), which evaluates nuclear and radiological threats and develops emergency preparedness
plans, including organizing scientific teams to provide rapid response to nuclear or radiological
incidents or accidents worldwide.
For more information, see CRS Report R48946, National Nuclear Security Administration
(NNSA) FY2027 Budget and Policy Issues: In Brief, by Anya L. Fink and Mary Beth D. Nikitin.
Cleanup of Former Nuclear Weapons Production and Research Sites
The development and production of nuclear weapons since the beginning of the Manhattan
Project during World War II resulted in a waste and contamination legacy managed by DOE that
continues to present substantial challenges.54 DOE also manages legacy waste and environmental
contamination at sites used for nondefense nuclear research. In 1989, DOE established the Office
of Environmental Management primarily to consolidate its responsibilities for the cleanup of
former nuclear weapons production sites that had been administered under multiple offices.55
DOE reported 92 separate sites that historically were involved in the production of nuclear
weapons and nuclear energy research for civilian purposes.56 Responsibility for long-term
stewardship at sites where remediation is complete or remedies are in place is transferred from
EM to the separate DOE Office of Legacy Management (LM) and other offices within DOE.57
DOE-LM is also responsible for administering the long-term stewardship of Formerly Utilized
Sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP) sites after the completion of remedial activities (i.e.,
53 Executive Order 14302 of May 23, 2025, “Reinvigorating the Nuclear Industrial Base,” 90 Federal Register 22595,
May 29, 2025, https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-2025-05-29/pdf/2025-09801.pdf; see also, “Surplus
Plutonium Disposition Program” in CRS Report R44413, Energy and Water Development Appropriations for Defense
Nuclear Nonproliferation: In Brief, by Mary Beth D. Nikitin.
54
As described by the Manhattan Project National Historical Park, “The Manhattan Project was a massive, top secret
national mobilization of scientists, engineers, technicians, and military personnel charged with producing a deployable
atomic weapon during World War II.… Coordinated by the US Army, Manhattan Project activities were located in
numerous locations across the United States.” The nuclear weapons activities begun by the Manhattan Project are now
the responsibility of DOE. See National Park Service, “Manhattan Project National Historical Park, History and
Culture,” https://www.nps.gov/mapr/learn/historyculture/index.htm.
55 In 1989, DOE created the Office of Environmental Restoration and Waste Management, which later was renamed the
Office of Environmental Management.
56 For a list of completed sites, see the Office of Environmental Management “Completed Cleanup Sites” web page and
interactive map at https://www.energy.gov/em/completed-cleanup-sites .
57 The Office of Legacy Management administers the long-term stewardship of DOE sites that do not have a continuing
mission once cleanup remedies are in place. Sites that have a continuing mission are transferred to the DOE offices that
administer those missions, which are responsible for their long-term stewardship.
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cleanup) by USACE.58 Once USACE completes the cleanup of a FUSRAP site, control is
transferred to LM, which has its own DOE funding subaccount within Other Defense Activities.
Power Marketing Administrations
DOE’s four Power Marketing Administrations (PMAs) were established to sell the power
generated by various federal dams. The PMAs operate in 34 states; their assets consist primarily
of transmission infrastructure in the form of more than 33,000 miles of high voltage transmission
lines and 587 substations. PMA customers are responsible for repaying all power program
expenses, plus the interest on capital projects. Since FY2011, power revenues associated with the
PMAs have been classified as discretionary offsetting receipts (i.e., receipts that are available for
spending by the PMAs), thus the agencies are sometimes noted as having a “net-zero” spending
authority (e.g., Southeastern PMA). Only the capital expenses of the Western Area Power
Administration (WAPA) and Southwestern Power Administration (SWPA) are supported by
appropriations from Congress.
Independent Agencies
Independent agencies that receive funding in Title IV of the E&W acts include the Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC), federal regional commissions and authorities (FRCAs; e.g.,
Appalachian Regional Commission [ARC], Delta Regional Authority [DRA], and Northern
Border Regional Commission [NBRC]), the Nuclear Waste Technical Review Board, and the
Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board. NRC receives the largest funding of these independent
agencies. However, about 85% of NRC’s budget is offset by fees, so the agency’s net
appropriation is less than a third of the total funding in Title IV. NRC, the FRCAs, the Nuclear
Waste Technical Review Board, and the Defense Nuclear Facilities Safety Board are discussed in
more detail below.
Figure 5 shows regular appropriations for Independent Agencies in E&W measures from FY2019
through FY2026, and Table 10 lists appropriations by account.
58 USACE, “Formerly Utilized Sites Remedial Action Program,”
https://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/Environmental/FUSRAP/.
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Figure 5. Independent Agencies Regular Appropriations, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in millions of dollars)
Source: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements.
Notes: See Table 3 for supplemental funding for these fiscal years. The yellow line shows inflation-adjusted
amounts in FY2025 dollars using FY2027 Budget of the U.S. Government, Historical Tables, Table 10.1. FY2026 is not
adjusted.
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Table 10. Independent Agencies Regular Appropriations by Account, FY2019-FY2026
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
Program
FY2019 FY2020
FY2021
FY2022
FY2023 FY2024 FY2025 FY2026
Appalachian Regional
Commission
165.0
175.0
180.0
195.0
200.0
200.0
200.0
200.0
Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC)
911.0
855.6
844.4
887.7
927.2
944.1
944.1
971.5
(Revenues)
-780.8
-728.1
-721.4
-756.7
-790.2
-807.0
-807.0
-819.4
Net NRC (including
Inspector General)
130.1
127.5
123.0
131.0
137.0
137.1
137.1
152.1
Defense Nuclear
Facilities Safety Board
31.0
31.0
31.0
36.0
41.4
42.0
42.0
42.0
Nuclear Waste
Technical Review Board
3.6
3.6
3.6
3.8
3.9
4.1
4.1
4.0
Denali Commission
15.0
15.0
15.0
15.1
17.0
17.0
17.0
18.0
Delta Regional Authority
25.0
30.0
30.0
30.1
30.1
31.1
31.1
32.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
Great Lakes Authority
Northern Border
Regional Commission
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
40.0
41.0
41.0
42.0
Northwest Regional
Commission
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1.0
Southeast Crescent
Regional Commission
0.3
0.3
1.0
5.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
Southwest Border
Regional Commission
—
—
0.3
2.5
5.0
5.0
5.0
5.5
390.0
407.3
413.9
453.5
494.4
502.3
502.3
521.6
Total
Sources: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements and reports.
Notes: Columns may not sum to totals because of rounding. NRC is required to collect annual fees equal to
100% of its appropriations, minus excluded activities.
Some independent agencies have also received additional appropriations in recent fiscal years.
P.L. 116-136 provided NRC $3 million to prevent, prepare for, and respond to coronavirus. The
IIJA provided appropriations for ARC and other regional commissions and authorities as shown
in Table 11.
Table 11. IIJA Appropriations for Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
Regional Commission or Authority
IIJA
FY2022
IIJA
FY2023
IIJA
FY2024
IIJA
FY2025
IIJA
FY2026
Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC)
200.0
200.0
200.0
200.0
200.0
Delta Regional Authority (DRA)
150.0
—
—
—
—
Denali Commission
75.0
—
—
—
—
Northern Border Regional Commission
(NBRC)
150.0
—
—
—
—
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IIJA
FY2022
IIJA
FY2023
IIJA
FY2024
IIJA
FY2025
IIJA
FY2026
Southeast Crescent Regional Commission
(SCRC)
5.0
—
—
—
—
Southwest Border Regional Commission
(SBRC)
1.3
—
—
—
—
581.3
200.0
200.0
200.0
200.0
Regional Commission or Authority
Total
Sources: S.Rept. 118-205, H.Rept. 118-126, S.Rept. 118-72, and H.Rept. 117-394.
Notes: Funding for the federal regional commissions and authorities in the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs
Act (IIJA) has varying periods of availability. Appropriations for ARC are available through FY2026, with $200
million to be allocated each fiscal year starting in FY2022 and continuing through FY2026. Appropriations for the
DRA, Denali Commission, NBRC, SCRC, and SBRC are available until expended.
Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities (FRCAs)
The FRCAs are quasigovernmental partnerships between the federal government and the
constituent state or states of the given authority or commission. The first such entity, the
Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC), was established in 1965.59 Since 1965, Congress has
established 10 additional FRCAs to address instances of economic distress in geographically
defined regions. FRCAs share similar structures and functions, but vary in terms of
appropriations, programs, staff sizes, service regions, and other authorities and features.60
Six FRCAs are currently active, meaning they are engaged in economic development activities in
their service areas, have received recent appropriations, and have a Senate-confirmed federal
cochair (or equivalent) in place. These are the ARC, Delta Regional Authority (DRA), Denali
Commission, Northern Border Regional Commission (NBRC), Southeast Crescent Regional
Commission (SCRC), and Southwest Border Regional Commission (SBRC). Five FRCAs are
currently inactive, and do not have all of those features: the Great Lakes Authority (GLA), MidAtlantic Regional Commission (MARC), Northern Great Plains Regional Authority (NGPRA),
Northwest Regional Commission, and Southern New England Regional Commission
(SNERC).61
As state-federal partnership entities, FRCAs integrate federal and state economic development
priorities alongside regional and local considerations. FRCAs use congressional appropriations to
provide economic development, infrastructure, and energy reliability and security grants in their
59 Appalachian Regional Development Act of 1965, P.L. 89-4.
The Appalachian region is defined as the whole of West
Virginia and parts of 12 other states: Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina,
Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia (40 U.S.C. §14102(a)(1)).
60 As one example of a distinct FRCA authority or feature, the Denali Commission is a single-state entity, whereas the
other 10 federal regional commissions and authorities (FRCAs) cover all or parts of multiple states. As another
example, Congress authorized construction of the Appalachian Development Highway System (ADHS) as part of the
Appalachian Regional Commission’s (ARC’s) original enabling legislation in 1965. The ARC continues to collaborate
with federal, state, and local agencies to develop the ADHS, a planned 3,000-mile system of highways that connect
with the U.S. Interstate Highway System. According to ARC, as of FY2025, 92.1% of ADHS was “under construction
or open to traffic.” Appropriations for the ADHS are provided separately from the appropriations provided for the
programs and expenses of the ARC. See ARC, “Appalachian Development Highway System,” https://www.arc.gov/
appalachian-development-highway-system.
61 With the exception of the Denali Commission, an FRCA federal cochair is a presidentially nominated and Senateconfirmed position. The appointment of a federal cochair, unless otherwise provided, is essential for most FRCAs’
operations. For example, the Southeast Crescent Regional Commission (SCRC) consistently received appropriations
each fiscal year beginning in FY2010, but was unable to begin its operations until a federal cochair was appointed by
the President and confirmed by the Senate in December 2021, more than 13 years after it was authorized.
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respective regions. With the exception of the Denali Commission, FRCAs’ administrative costs
are shared equally by the federal government and member states.62 Eight of the FRCAs each
received between $1 million and $200 million in annual appropriations in FY2026 for their
various activities (see Table 10).63
Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NRC is an independent agency that establishes and enforces safety and security standards for
nuclear power plants and users of nuclear materials. Major appropriations categories for NRC are
shown in Table 12. Nuclear Reactor Safety is NRC’s largest program and is responsible for
licensing and regulating the 94 power reactors in the United States. NRC is also responsible for
licensing and regulating nuclear waste facilities, such as the proposed underground nuclear waste
repository at Yucca Mountain, NV (which has received no new appropriations since FY2010).
NRC is required by law to offset its total annual appropriation, excluding specified items, through
fees charged to nuclear reactor owners and other holders of NRC licenses. NRC does not retain
the fee revenue, but instead sends it to the U.S. Treasury. Budget items excluded from fee
recovery include prior-year balances, development of advanced reactor regulations, international
activities, and non-site-specific homeland security. As a result, NRC’s net appropriation is about
15% of the agency’s total budget.
Table 12. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Funding Categories
(budget authority in millions of nominal dollars)
Funding Category
FY2019 FY2020 FY2021 FY2022 FY2023 FY2024 FY2025 FY2026
Approp. Approp. Approp. Approp. Approp. Approp. Approp. Approp.
Nuclear Reactor
Safety
469.8
433.4
452.8
477.4
490.7
522.0
484.9
502.3
Nuclear Materials
and Waste Safety
108.6
103.2
102.9
107.3
111.6
124.2
117.2
113.5
Decommissioning
and Low-Level
Waste
25.4
21.4
22.8
22.9
23.9
26.5
24.7
27.9
Corporate Support
299.6
289.1
271.4
266.3
285.3
301.6
301.6
309.0
Integrated University
Program
15.0
2.5
16.0
16.0
16.0
16.0
—
12.4
Prior-Year Balances
-20
-38.4
-35.0
-16.0
-16.0
—
—
-12.4
Inspector General
12.6
12.1
13.5
13.8
15.8
15.8
15.8
18.8
911.0
823.1
844.4
887.7
927.2
1,006.1
944.1
971.5
—
—
—
—
—
-62.0
—
—
911.0
823.1
844.4
887.7
927.2
944.1
944.1
971.5
Total
Carryover
Total Minus
Carryover
Sources: Enacted laws and accompanying explanatory statements.
62 See CRS In Focus IF12165, Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities: Administrative Expenses, by Julie M.
Lawhorn.
63 For a detailed funding history of all FRCAs since 1986, see “Appendix C. Historical Appropriations” in CRS Report
R45997, Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities: Structural Features and Function, by Julie M. Lawhorn.
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Notes: Fee offsets and some adjustments are excluded.
Author Information
Anna E. Normand, Coordinator
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Julie M. Lawhorn
Analyst in Economic Development Policy
Mark Holt, Coordinator
Specialist in Energy Policy
Mary Beth D. Nikitin
Specialist in Nonproliferation
Phillip Brown
Specialist in Energy Policy
Lexie Ryan
Analyst in Energy Policy
Anya L. Fink
Analyst in U.S. Defense Policy
Morgan Smith
Analyst in Energy Policy
Todd Kuiken
Analyst in Science and Technology Policy
Charles V. Stern
Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Lance N. Larson
Analyst in Environmental Policy
Key Policy Staff
Area of Expertise
Name
General (Coordinators)
Mark Holt
Anna Normand
Corps of Engineers
Anna Normand
Nicole Carter
Bureau of Reclamation
Charles V. Stern
Renewable energy
Martin Offutt
Energy efficiency
Martin Offutt
Geothermal energy
Morgan Smith
Fossil energy research
Lexie Ryan
Hydrogen
Martin Offutt
Strategic Petroleum Reserve
Phillip Brown
Nuclear energy
Mark Holt
Science and ARPA-E
Quantum Information Science
Artificial intelligence
Todd Kuiken
Ling Zhu
Laurie A. Harris
Loan programs
Phillip Brown
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Nuclear weapons stewardship
Anya L. Fink
Nonproliferation
Mary Beth Nikitin
DOE Environmental Management
Lance Larson
Power Marketing Administrations
Charles V. Stern
Bonneville Power Administration
Charles V. Stern
Federal regional commissions and
authorities
Julie Lawhorn
Appropriations legislative procedures
James V. Saturno
Bill Heniff
Megan Lynch
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R49046 · VERSION 1 · NEW
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