Infrastructure Codes, Standards, and Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

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Infrastructure Codes, Standards, and

Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

August 29, 2023

Congressional Research Service

https://crsreports.congress.gov

R47666

SUMMARY

Infrastructure Codes, Standards, and

Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

Ensuring the safe operation of and uninterrupted services provided by infrastructure, as well as

resiliency, efficiency, environmental protection, and other aspects of infrastructure performance,

may raise issues of congressional interest. Given that codes, standards, and regulations and their

implementation affect infrastructure performance, Congress may consider the role of the federal

government and nonfederal stakeholders in developing, adopting, and enforcing infrastructure

codes, standards, and regulations.

R47666

August 29, 2023

Linda R. Rowan,

Coordinator

Analyst in Natural

Resources and Earth

Sciences

Infrastructure consists of physical networks (systems and facilities) that provide functions and

services to the community. Federal agencies and some nonfederal organizations provide codes, standards, and/or regulations

for various type of infrastructure, including those related to transportation, energy, communications, and water. Adoption and

enforcement of infrastructure codes or standards varies across the United States.

Transportation infrastructure is divided into five groups: (1) roads, bridges, highways, and road tunnels; (2) rail; (3) air; (4)

ports, harbors, and waterways; and (5) pipelines for the transport of fuel alone (e.g., a natural gas pipeline). The Federal

Highway Administration (FHWA), the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, and other

organizations provide codes, standards, and/or regulations for some aspects of roads, bridges, highways, and road tunnels.

The Federal Transit Administration, the Federal Railroad Administration, and other organizations provide codes, standards,

and/or regulations for some aspects of rail transportation infrastructure. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and

other organizations provide codes, standards, and/or regulations for some aspects of air transportation infrastructure.

Pipelines delivering natural gas, crude oil, refined products (e.g., gasoline, diesel), and natural gas liquids (e.g., ethane,

propane) are part of the transportation infrastructure because they transport fuels. The U.S. Department of Transportation’s

Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) oversees the design, construction, operation, and

maintenance of pipelines that carry natural gas or hazardous liquids.

Energy infrastructure includes electric power systems, natural gas, and liquid fuels systems as they relate to the generation,

transmission, and distribution of electric power and emergency and standby power systems. For electric power systems, the

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) regulates the interstate transmission and wholesale sale of electricity. FERC

is also responsible for regulating the reliability of the bulk power system.

Communications infrastructure includes wireline, wireless, cable and broadcast, and satellite networks. The Federal

Communications Commission (FCC) regulates interstate and international communication services and has jurisdiction over

communications by telephone, cable, radio, wireless, wireline, and internet. State agencies have authority over local wireline

telephone services, and most often a public service commission (PSC) oversees communications infrastructure at the state

level.

Water infrastructure includes drinking water, wastewater, dam, and levee infrastructure. The U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA) establishes requirements for drinking water quality under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act

(SDWA; codified generally as 42 U.S.C. §§300f-300j) and for wastewater effluent quality under the authority of the Federal

Water Pollution Control Act or Clean Water Act (codified generally as 33 U.S.C. §§1251-1387). The Federal Emergency

Management Agency (FEMA) administers a National Dam Safety Program (NDSP) to facilitate dam safety. Every state

except Alabama has established a state regulatory program for dam safety. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and FEMA are

developing levee safety guidelines to serve as voluntary best practices.

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Infrastructure Codes, Standards, and Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1

Infrastructure ................................................................................................................................... 1

What Is Infrastructure? .............................................................................................................. 1

What Is the Purpose of Codes, Standards, and Regulations for Infrastructure?........................ 1

What Types of Infrastructure Are Discussed in This FAQ? ...................................................... 2

Do Building Codes Apply to Infrastructure?............................................................................. 3

What Is Transportation Infrastructure? ..................................................................................... 3

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Transportation Infrastructure? .......... 4

What Is Energy Infrastructure? ................................................................................................. 7

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Energy Infrastructure?...................... 7

What Is Communications Infrastructure? ................................................................................. 8

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Communications

Infrastructure? ........................................................................................................................ 9

What Is Drinking Water and Wastewater Infrastructure? ......................................................... 11

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Drinking Water and

Wastewater Infrastructure?.................................................................................................... 11

What Are Dams and Levees? .................................................................................................. 12

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Dams? ............................................ 13

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Levees? .......................................... 14

What Is the Federal Flood Risk Management Standard? ........................................................ 15

Figures

Figure 1. Examples of Communications Infrastructure................................................................... 9

Tables

Table 1. Selected Types of Infrastructure Systems and Categories of Infrastructure ...................... 2

Table 2. Transportation Infrastructure: Examples of Responsible Organizations and

Codes, Standards, or Guidelines................................................................................................... 6

Table 3. Electric Power Infrastructure: Examples of Responsible Organizations and

Codes, Standards, or Guidelines................................................................................................... 8

Table 4. Communications Infrastructure: Examples of Responsible Organizations and

Codes, Standards, or Guidelines................................................................................................. 10

Table 5. Drinking Water and Wastewater Infrastructure: Examples of Responsible

Organizations and Codes, Standards, or Guidelines ................................................................... 11

Table A-1. Abbreviations Used in This Product ............................................................................ 17

Appendixes

Appendix. Abbreviation Table ....................................................................................................... 17

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Contacts

Author Information........................................................................................................................ 18

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Infrastructure Codes, Standards, and Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

Introduction

Members of Congress may be interested in ensuring the safe operation and uninterrupted services

provided by infrastructure, as well as in improving infrastructure performance.1 Performance

objectives may include reliability, resiliency, efficiency, sustainability, and environmental

protection. Given that codes, standards, and regulations may impact infrastructure performance,

Congress may consider the role of the federal government and nonfederal stakeholders in

developing, guiding, adopting, and enforcing infrastructure codes, standards, and regulations.

This report addresses some frequently asked questions about federal and nonfederal activities to

develop, guide, adopt, or enforce codes, standards, and/or regulations related to infrastructure.

In this report, infrastructure does not include buildings, although some building codes, standards,

and regulations influence infrastructure performance. Additional information about building

codes, standards, and regulations that may influence infrastructure are described in CRS Report

Buildings Codes, Standards, and Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions (hereinafter Building

Codes FAQ).

Infrastructure

What Is Infrastructure?

For purposes of this report, infrastructure is defined as physical networks (systems and facilities)

that provide functions and services to the community.2 Some definitions of infrastructure include

buildings, but this report does not. For information about codes, standards, and guidelines for

buildings and some that may also relate to infrastructure, see the Building Codes FAQ.

Infrastructure is a distributed service involving structures or systems that may cross over large

regions of different jurisdictions and may be owned, operated, and regulated by different

stakeholders.3 Likewise, different stakeholders may develop codes, standards, guidelines, or

certifications for the planning, construction, repair, or renovation of infrastructure.4

What Is the Purpose of Codes, Standards, and Regulations for

Infrastructure?

Codes, standards, and regulations for the planning, design, materials, construction, operation and

maintenance, repair, and renovation of infrastructure promote a minimum level of safety, public

1 For example, the Federal Power Act (16 U.S.C. §§791 et seq.) authorized the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

(FERC) to certify a national Electric Reliability Organization, which is the North American Electric Reliability

Corporation (NERC). NERC is a nonprofit entity whose mission is to ensure the reliability of the power grid in North

America. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-58) directed FERC to oversee mandatory and enforceable reliability

standards for the nation’s wholesale power grid.

2 National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Community Resilience Planning Guide for Buildings and

Infrastructure Systems, NIST SP 1190GB-16, October 2020, p. 3, at https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/

SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.1190GB-16.pdf.

3 Stakeholders may include federal agencies; state, local, tribal, or territorial agencies; private companies; and other

organizations.

4 Stakeholders may include federal agencies; state, local, tribal, or territorial agencies; private companies; standards

developing organizations; engineering and other professional societies; architects; designers; engineers; and other

professionals.

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health, welfare, function, and operation. Codes, standards, and regulations seek to provide a

consistent, transparent, and systematic approach to constructing and operating infrastructure that

facilitates compatibility, interoperability, safety, quality, and reliability. In addition, the use of

codes, standards, and guidelines may make it more efficient to implement infrastructure

performance improvements, such as increasing resiliency and energy efficiency. Stakeholders can

suggest modifications to existing codes, standards, or guidelines using an existing method based

on transparency and consensus-building.5 (See the Building Codes FAQ for more general

information on codes, standards, and guidelines.)

What Types of Infrastructure Are Discussed in This FAQ?

The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) created the Community Resilience

Planning Guide for Buildings and Infrastructure System, which divides infrastructure in the

United States into the categories and subcategories shown in Table 1.6 The rest of this report is

organized using these categories and subcategories. The infrastructure systems discussed, as well

as the codes, standards, and regulations, are examples rather and do not constitute a

comprehensive overview.

Table 1. Selected Types of Infrastructure Systems and Categories of Infrastructure

Infrastructure Systems

Categories Within Infrastructure Systems

Transportation

Highways, including roads, bridges, and tunnels

Rail, including public transportation, intercity passenger,

and freight

Air

Ports, harbors, and waterways

Pipelines used to move fuel alone (e.g., natural gas

pipeline)

Energy and Electric Power

Electric power—generation, transmission, and

distribution

Fuel supply for electric power (except fuel pipelines

covered in transportation)

Emergency and standby power

5 Stakeholders are listed in footnote 3. NIST, Community Resilience Planning Guide for Buildings and Infrastructure

Systems, Volume II, NIST Special Publication 1190, 2016, doi: 10.6028/NIST.SP.1190v2 (hereinafter, NIST,

Resilience Guide II). For example, various entities are working on ways to incorporate climate change-related hazard

considerations into infrastructure design and management. In 2018, the American Society of Civil Engineers’ (ASCE’s)

Committee on Adaptation to a Changing Climate released a manual of practice to provide guidance on methods for

infrastructure analysis and design (Bilal M. Ayyub, ed., Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Adaptive Design and Risk

Management, Committee on Adaptation to a Changing Climate, ASCE (Reston, VA: American Society of Civil

Engineers, 2018); for more information about the chapters of this book, see https://ascelibrary.org/doi/book/10.1061/

9780784415191.

6 NIST, Resilience Guide II. The NIST guide uses the same categories of infrastructure as defined under the term

lifeline infrastructure to include “public works and utilities, including transportation facilities and infrastructure, oil and

gas pipelines, electrical power and communication facilities and infrastructure, and water supply and sewage treatment

facilities” (42 U.S.C. §7703(6)).

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Infrastructure Systems

Categories Within Infrastructure Systems

Communication

Landline telephone

Cellular and mobile

Internet and voice over internet protocol

Cable television and radio

Broadcast television and radio

Water

Drinking water—supply, transmission, treatment,

pumping, storage, and distribution

Wastewater and stormwater—collection, conveyance,

pumping, treatment, and discharge

Dams

Levees

Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) using National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),

Guide for Buildings and Infrastructure Systems, Volume II, NIST Special Publication 1190, 2016, doi:

10.6028/NIST.SP.1190v2 (hereinafter, NIST, Resilience Guide II). Dams and levees categories added by CRS.

Do Building Codes Apply to Infrastructure?

In general, state or local building codes and model building codes do not apply to infrastructure

(see the Building Codes FAQ). Where infrastructure connects to or runs through a building, some

building codes and standards may apply to some components of infrastructure. For example,

electrical, plumbing, parking, and building access have building codes and standards, because

these components are part of the building structure.

What Is Transportation Infrastructure?

The NIST Community Resilience Planning Guide divides transportation infrastructure into five

categories: (1) roads, bridges, highways, and road tunnels; (2) rail; (3) air; (4) ports, harbors, and

waterways; and (5) pipelines for the transport of fuel alone, such as a natural gas pipeline.7

The category of roadways includes roads, bridges, highways, and road tunnels. According to

NIST, roads and highways serve as the primary transportation infrastructure used by the most

people and businesses in the United States. The road network needs to consider vehicles,

bicycles, and pedestrians as the most common methods of transportation and may consider

restrictions, such as the size of vehicles on certain roads or alternative methods of transportation,

such as scooters.8

The category of air includes airports and heliports. As defined in statute (49 U.S.C. §47102), an

airport includes (1) an area of land or water used or intended to be used for the landing and taking

off of aircraft, (2) an appurtenant area used or intended to be used for airport buildings or other

airport facilities or rights of way, and (3) airport buildings and facilities located in any of those

areas. Almost all commercial service airports in the United States are owned by local and state

governments or by public entities, such as airport authorities or multipurpose port authorities.

The category of rail, as defined by NIST, includes public transportation (e.g., commuter rail,

subways, light-rail), intercity passenger rail (e.g., rail operated by Amtrak), and freight rail.

7 NIST, Resilience Guide II, p. 81.

8 Ibid., p. 88.

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Passenger rail systems are predominantly owned and operated by the public sector, and freight

rail systems are predominantly owned and operated by the private sector.

The category of waterways includes ports, harbors, and waterways. According to NIST,

waterways are primarily used to import or export goods and materials. The U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers (USACE) estimates that over 95% of U.S. trade, by volume, moves through ports.9

Pipelines delivering natural gas; crude oil; refined products, such as gasoline and diesel; and

natural gas liquids, such as ethane and propane, are part of the transportation infrastructure,

because they transport fuels. Pipeline infrastructure includes gathering (small-diameter, shortlength pipelines that gather oil and gas in production areas), transmission (larger, longer pipelines

that transport products from supply areas to market areas), and distribution (pipelines delivering

product to residential, commercial, or industrial end users). The U.S. Department of

Transportation’s Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration oversees the design,

construction, operation, and maintenance of pipelines carrying natural gas or hazardous liquids.

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to

Transportation Infrastructure?

According to NIST, several federal agencies, many organizations (e.g., American Society of Civil

Engineers, American Concrete Institute), and others may provide codes, standards, or guidelines

for the construction or repair of different types of transportation infrastructure.10 Table 2 lists

different categories of transportation infrastructure and some of the organizations that may

provide codes, standards, or guidelines. In general, these organizations are not responsible for

regulation or enforcement of these codes, standards, or guidelines. The adoption and enforcement

of infrastructure codes or standards varies. In some cases, a federal agency may regulate and

enforce some codes or standards for construction, repair, or operation and maintenance of some

types of transportation infrastructure.

The application of standards to transportation is complex. For example, highway design and

construction standards vary depending on the type of highway, its ownership, and its funding

source.11 Federal standards apply only to roads, bridges, and tunnels on the National Highway

System (NHS). The NHS is a nationwide designated network of 220,000 miles of arterial

highways and includes the Interstate System highways.12 No matter the source of funding, federal

standards apply to all work, other than routine maintenance, on NHS roads.13 Projects on other

roads and bridges that are eligible for federal highway aid under 23 U.S.C. Chapter I are federally

required to adhere to state standards—but only if the projects use federal highway funds. On any

non-NHS road projects that do not use federal highway funds, the federal standards do not apply,

and the projects adhere to state or local standards as set forth under state and local law.

9 Ibid., p. 94.

10 See the Building Codes FAQ for information about standards related to engineering design and materials, such as

concrete and steel; these standards may apply to buildings and infrastructure.

11 23 U.S.C. §§103, 109, 315, 402. 23 C.F.R. §625. For general materials requirements, see 23 C.F.R. §635 subpart D.

A Federal-Aid Highway is a public highway eligible for assistance under 23 U.S.C. Chapter I. Currently, about

1 million miles of the 4.2 million total miles of U.S. public access highways are Federal-Aid Highways. All bridges

listed in the National Bridge Inventory are eligible for federal aid, as well.

12 See 23 U.S.C. §109(b). See also 23 C.F.R §625.4(a)(2). For documents incorporated by reference, see 23 C.F.R.

§625.4(d).

13 23 C.F.R. §§625.2-625.4. Design documents incorporated by reference are listed in 23 C.F.R. §625(b)-(d).

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The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) develops engineering, design, and construction

standards for civil airports.14 For example, the FAA develops standards for airfield pavement;

airport visual aids, such as lighting and signs; deicing and other facilities; and fencing.15 In

addition, through FAA-sponsored airport security research programs, there are security guidelines

for airport planning, design, and construction.16

Port infrastructure can generally be divided into two main divisions that dictate the federal

involvement in terms of codes or standards for construction of such facilities: waterside and

landside infrastructure. Waterside infrastructure includes the navigation channels and the

breakwaters and jetties that form a harbor or waterway. These facilities are largely constructed by

USACE, which sets the guidance for their construction in various engineering manuals.17 The

U.S. Coast Guard sets standards and maintains the channel marker buoys and navigation aids

(sounds and lights) on federal waterways to guide mariners.

Landside port infrastructure, such as wharfs and docks where ships tie up, is primarily a state or

local government endeavor, and the standards are largely established by the American Society of

Civil Engineers, specifically the Coasts, Oceans, Ports, and Rivers Institute.18 Port land itself is

owned by state and local governments and is often administered by a public port authority, but

some marine terminals are privately owned. The International Organization for Standardization is

particularly relevant to international container shipping; this body sets standards for the

construction of shipping containers and the gantry cranes that load and unload containers.19 The

World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure is an international body providing

guidance and technical assistance in both landside and waterside port construction.20

14 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), “Airport Engineering, Design, & Construction,” at https://www.faa.gov/

airports/engineering.

15 FAA, “Airport Design and Engineering Standards,” at https://www.faa.gov/airports/engineering/design_standards.

16 National Safe Skies Alliance, Inc., Program for Applied Research in Airport Security (PARAS), Recommended

Security Guidelines for Airport Planning, Design, and Construction, February 2021.

17 Among the examples for ports and waterways, the manuals cover coastal engineering, deep draft navigation projects,

and designs for seawalls. See U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, “Official Publications of the Headquarters,” at

https://www.publications.usace.army.mil/.

18 ASCE, “Coasts, Oceans, Ports & Rivers Institute (COPRI),” at https://www.asce.org/communities/institutes-andtechnical-groups/coasts-oceans-ports-rivers-institute.

19 International Organization for Standardization, at https://www.iso.org/home.html.

20 World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure, “The World Association for Waterborne Transport

Infrastructure,” at https://www.pianc.org/about.

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Table 2. Transportation Infrastructure: Examples of Responsible Organizations and

Codes, Standards, or Guidelines

Category

Air

Purpose

Examples

New construction

Federal Aviation Administration

(FAA); FAA may comply with state

or local codes, standards, or

guidelines

Security

TSA

Hazards and emergency plans

FAA

Maintenance of pavement and visual

aid facilities

FAA

Wildlife hazards

FAA

Preconstruction environmental

review

Environmental Protection Agency

Ports, harbors, and waterways

New construction and natural

hazards, such as earthquakes or

tsunamis

AASHTO, World Association for

Waterborne Transport

Infrastructure, American Society of

Civil Engineers, American Concrete

Institute, U.S. Department of

Defense, U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers, American Institute of

Steel Construction, British

Standards Institution, International

Organization for Standardization,

and Overseas Coastal Area

Development Institute of Japan

Pipelines

New construction and natural

hazards, such as earthquakes

Pipeline and Hazardous Materials

Safety Administration, American

Society of Mechanical Engineers,

American Petroleum Institute,

American Gas Association, National

Fire Protection Association, and

ASTM International

Source: NIST, Resilience Guide II, p. 81.

What Is Energy Infrastructure?

According to NIST, energy infrastructure includes electric power systems, natural gas and liquid

fuels systems as they relate to electric power, and emergency and standby power systems.

Pipelines that transport natural gas and liquid fuels are discussed as part of transportation

infrastructure because the engineering standards for pipeline safety and design are administered

by the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration.

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Energy

Infrastructure?

According to NIST, a few organizations may provide codes, standards, or guidelines for the

construction, repair, or operation of different types of energy infrastructure related to electric

power systems (Table 3). The adoption and enforcement of most electric power infrastructure

codes or standards varies and depends on state regulations. Except for the federal reliability

standards, the organizations listed in Table 3 are not responsible for regulation or enforcement of

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Infrastructure Codes, Standards, and Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

the codes, standards, or guidelines. Instead, these industry-led organizations develop standards,

and state or local utility regulators oversee adoption and enforcement of the standards.

The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) regulates the interstate trading and

transmission of electric energy and services.21 FERC is also responsible for regulating the

reliability of the bulk power system.22 States have jurisdiction over the retail sale of electricity

and the reliability of the distribution systems of investor-owned utilities by setting standards for

and controlling the investments in distribution networks.23

Table 3. Electric Power Infrastructure: Examples of Responsible Organizations and

Codes, Standards, or Guidelines

Purpose

Examples

New Construction

National Electric Safety Code and Rural Utilities Service office of the U.S. Department of

Agriculture

Hazards

American Society of Civil Engineers and American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

Materials

ANSI 05 (2008) for wood poles and ANSI C29 (2013) for insulators

Planning and

Operations

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission and North American Electric Reliability Corporation

Source: NIST, Resilience Guide II, pp. 149-157.

Notes: Electric power infrastructure includes electric power systems, natural gas and liquid fuels systems as they

relate to electric power, and emergency and standby power systems.

What Is Communications Infrastructure?

According to NIST, communications infrastructure includes wireline, wireless, cable and

broadcast, and satellite networks (Figure 1). Wireline and cable communications include wireline

and cable for voice, video, and/or data transfers. Distribution centers and network hubs, typically

with their own power supplies, provide services through wires (e.g., copper, coaxial cable, fiberoptic cable) that are deployed underground or overhead. Wireless communications for voice,

video, and/or data rely on a cellular tower and radio tower network, typically with their own

facilities and power supplies, to communicate information via radio waves. Broadcast

communications rely on a radio tower network to communicate information via radio waves.

Emergency communications include the Federal Emergency Management Agency’s (FEMA’s)

911 services through wireline infrastructure and Integrated Public Alert and Warning System

through wireline, wireless, cable, broadcast, and satellite communications infrastructure.24

FERC does not regulate electric power infrastructure in Alaska or Hawaii because there is no interstate trading or

transmission.

22 For an overview of the reliability standards overseen by FERC, see CRS Report R45764, Maintaining Electric

Reliability with Wind and Solar Sources: Background and Issues for Congress, by Ashley J. Lawson.

23 For more information about the regulation of rates, services, and reliability of electrical systems, see National

Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine, The Future of Electric Power in the United States, 2021, Chapter 3

and Table 3.1.

24 FirstNet Authority, “9-1-1/Emergency Communications,” at https://www.firstnet.gov/public-safety/firstnet-for/9-1-1emergency-communications; Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), “Integrated Public Alert & Warning

System,” at https://www.fema.gov/emergency-managers/practitioners/integrated-public-alert-warning-system; and CRS

Report R47521, Electricity: Overview and Issues for Congress, by Ashley J. Lawson.

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Figure 1. Examples of Communications Infrastructure

Source: NIST, Resilience Guide II, Figure 15-2. Modified by CRS.

Notes: The Services and Applications in the top panel list some of the services and applications available via

voice, video, or data. The Core Network in the middle panel refers to the high-capacity communications facilities

that connect primary nodes. Core or backbone networks provide paths to exchange information between subnetworks. The Access Networks in the bottom panel connect the end customers to the core network. Access

networks use different technologies. For broadcasting, the network uses radio towers, satellites, and buildings

for equipment and power supplies. For cable, the network uses wirelines. For satellite, the network uses satellite

dishes and satellites. For wireless, the network uses cell towers, radio towers, and buildings for equipment and

power supplies. For wireline, the network uses wirelines. This graphic approximates communications

infrastructure and does not show all components. VoIP stands for voice over Internet Protocol.

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to

Communications Infrastructure?

Codes and standards for communications infrastructure may establish minimum acceptable

criteria for design and construction (Table 4). In particular, the American National Standards

Institute/Telecommunications Industry Association, the Network Equipment Building Standards,

and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’ National Electrical Safety Code provide

codes and standards for communications infrastructure.25 The American Society of Civil

25 Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA), “Standards,” at https://tiaonline.org/what-we-do/standards/; and

(continued...)

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Engineers in their all hazards resistant standard, ASCE 7, sets minimum design loads and

associated criteria for buildings and other structures used by communications infrastructure (see

the Building Codes FAQ).26

Multiple regulatory entities (federal, state, and local) have authority over communications

infrastructure, and evolving technologies have led to changes in regulatory jurisdiction.27 The

Federal Communications Commission (FCC) regulates interstate and international

communication services and has jurisdiction over communications by telephone, cable, radio,

wireless, wireline, and internet.28 The FCC advisory group on Communications Security,

Reliability, and Interoperability Council promotes best practices for reliability and resilience, but

the FCC does not enforce any codes or standards for communications infrastructure.29

State agencies have authority over local wireline telephone services, and most often a public

service commission oversees communications infrastructure at the state level. In addition, state

departments of transportation may have jurisdiction over communications infrastructure

constructed within rights-of-way adjacent to roads. Local agencies may have jurisdiction for

enforcing local building codes and may regulate placement or construction of radio towers, cell

towers, electrical equipment, standby power, and fuel storage at communications facilities. Large

cities may regulate the construction and location of communications infrastructure through city

transportation departments or other city agencies.

Table 4. Communications Infrastructure: Examples of Responsible Organizations

and Codes, Standards, or Guidelines

Purpose

Examples

Specifies loading and strength requirements for antennae and

their supporting structures (e.g., cell and broadcast towers)

TIA-222-G Structural Standards for Antennae

Supporting Structures and Antennae

Provides minimum loading criteria for buildings housing critical

communications equipment (i.e., communications buildings) and

loading criteria for towers

ASCE 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings

and Other Structures

Standard providing requirements for safe installation, operation,

and maintenance of electrical power, standby power, and

communication systems (overhead and underground wiring)

IEEE National Electrical Safety Code

Source: NIST, Resilience Guide II, Table 15-2.

Notes: TIA = Telecommunications Industry Association; ASCE = American Society of Civil Engineers; IEEE =

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, The National Electrical Safety Code (NESC), 092-1-22, 2022, at

https://standards.ieee.org/wp-content/uploads/import/documents/other/NESC_overview.pdf.

26 ASCE, “ASCE 7,” at https://www.asce.org/publications-and-news/asce-7.

27 NIST, Resilience Guide II.

28 Federal Communications Commission, “Federal Communications Commission Homepage,” at https://www.fcc.gov/.

29 See Table 15-3 in NIST, Resilience Guide II, for examples of best practices for communications infrastructure.

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What Is Drinking Water and Wastewater Infrastructure?

Water for drinking, cooking, hygiene, flushing toilets, laundry, and other purposes is supplied

through water infrastructure from surface or ground waters.30 Wastewater or used water from

residential, commercial, government, or other sources is removed through wastewater

infrastructure—typically pipes, pumps, and treatment facilities—before discharge into the

environment.31 In general, water infrastructure consists of supply, transmission, treatment,

pumping, storage, and distribution, and wastewater infrastructure consists of collection,

conveyance, pumping, treatment, and discharge.32 In addition, wastewater infrastructure can

include infrastructure for stormwater.

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Drinking

Water and Wastewater Infrastructure?

Codes, standards, and guidelines for drinking water and wastewater infrastructure may be

provided by state and local building codes, the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE),

American Concrete Institute, American Water Works Association, American Lifeline Alliance,

Water Environment Federation, Water Research Foundation, and Multidisciplinary Center for

Earthquake Engineering Research, among others (see the Building Codes FAQ).33 Table 5 lists

examples of some such organizations and the standards or guidelines they provide for different

parts of the water or wastewater infrastructure.

Table 5. Drinking Water and Wastewater Infrastructure: Examples of Responsible

Organizations and Codes, Standards, or Guidelines

Purpose

Examples

Design loads for buildings and related structures and guidelines for earthquake

design for pipelines

American Society of Civil

Engineers (ASCE 7)

Standards for storage and treatment facilities constructed with concrete

American Concrete Institute

Standards for storage, facilities operation and management, and emergency

preparedness practices; guidelines for buried steel pipes, emergency power,

drought and earthquake preparedness and response, and business continuity plans

for water utilities

American Water Works

Association

Guidelines for facility performance, design of buried steel pipes, earthquake design

of pumping and treatment systems

American Lifeline Alliance

Guidelines for emergency planning, response, and recovery; municipal wet

weather strategies; municipal wastewater treatment systems; upgrades for

treatment systems; and prevention and control of sewer system overflows

Water Environment

Federation

NIST, Resilience Guide II, p. 198. For a definition of groundwater, see U.S. Geological Survey, “Groundwater:

What Is Groundwater?,” at https://www.usgs.gov/special-topics/water-science-school/science/groundwater-whatgroundwater.

31 NIST, Resilience Guide II, p. 198. Some wastewater may be recycled for reuse. See Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA), “Basic Information About Water Reuse,” at https://www.epa.gov/waterreuse/basic-information-aboutwater-reuse.

32 NIST, Resilience Guide II, pp. 202 and 209.

33 ASCE, “American Society of Civil Engineers,” at https://www.asce.org/; American Concrete Institute, at

https://www.concrete.org/; Water Research Foundation, at https://www.waterrf.org/; American Water Works

Association, at https://www.awwa.org/; and Multidisciplinary Center for Earthquake Engineering Research (MCEER),

“Engineering solutions for earthquake loss reduction,” at https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/2000/nsf00137/nsf00137m.htm.

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Purpose

Examples

Guidelines for fragility analysis of water supply systems and for earthquake design

of pipelines

Multidisciplinary Center for

Earthquake Engineering

Research

Guidelines for emergency drinking water supply and business continuity planning

for water utilities

Environmental Protection

Agency

Source: NIST, Resilience Guide II, Table 16-4.

Notes: For more about ASCE 7 see ASCE, “ASCE 7,” at https://www.asce.org/publications-and-news/asce-7.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes requirements for drinking water

quality under the authority of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA; codified generally as 42

U.S.C. et seq. §§300f-300j) and for wastewater effluent quality under the authority of the Federal

Water Pollution Control Act or Clean Water Act (CWA; codified generally as 33 U.S.C. §§12511387).34 A state agency that meets certain criteria may be granted primary enforcement

responsibility for these requirements. In addition to meeting SDWA and CWA requirements,

water or wastewater systems may have to comply with state or local requirements such as

regulations, codes, standards, or guidelines, or such systems may voluntarily adopt codes from

other organizations.

What Are Dams and Levees?

The nation’s dams were constructed for various and sometimes multiple purposes. The most

common type of dam is an earthen dam, which is made from natural soil or rock or from mining

waste materials. Other dams include concrete dams, tailings dams (i.e., dams that store mining

byproducts), overflow dams (i.e., dams regulating downstream flow), and dikes (i.e., dams

constructed at a low point of a reservoir of water).35 The National Inventory of Dams (NID), a

database of dams in the United States that is maintained by USACE, lists over 91,000 dams.36 For

the purposes of inclusion in the NID, a dam is defined as any artificial barrier that has the ability

to impound water, wastewater, or any liquid-borne material, for the purpose of storage or control

of water that (1) is at least 25 feet in height with a storage capacity of more than 15 acre-feet; (2)

is greater than 6 feet in height with a storage capacity of at least 50 acre-feet; or (3) poses a

significant threat to human life or property, should it fail (i.e., high or significant hazard

dams).37 Thousands of dams do not meet these criteria; therefore, they are not included in the

NID. Most dams in the United States are owned by private entities, state or local governments, or

public utilities. Federal agencies reported owning 3% of dams listed in the NID, including some

of the largest dams in the United States.

The United States has approximately 100,000 miles of built urban, rural, and agricultural

engineered earthen embankments, often referred to as levees, floodwalls (which are constructed

of metal or reinforced concrete), and engineered coastal dunes and berms. These structures

collectively are often referred to as levees when discussing types of infrastructure, because they

share the purpose of excluding water from a landscape to protect property and infrastructure from

34 EPA, “Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA),” at https://www.epa.gov/sdwa; and EPA, “Summary of the Clean Water

Act,” at https://www.epa.gov/laws-regulations/summary-clean-water-act.

35 United States Society on Dams, “Types of Dams,” at https://www.ussdams.org/dam-levee-education/overview/typesof-dams/.

36 U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), “National Inventory of Dams (NID),” at https://nid.usace.army.mil/#/. NID

data in this report were accessed on November 14, 2022, with NID showing data as of November 3, 2022.

37 33 U.S.C. §467.

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flooding. Some of these levees are being repaired after damage or rehabilitated to sustain their

performance. Federal, state, local, and private entities also continue to plan and construct new

levees.

Historically, engineering practices for levee design and construction have varied across the

United States, with original construction of many levees predating modern engineering practices.

Municipalities and agricultural districts are responsible for the operation and maintenance of

many of these structures; other levees may be privately owned. USACE maintains 4,200 miles of

levees, and a few other federal agencies (e.g., Bureau of Reclamation, National Park Service)

maintain an unknown number of levees.

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Dams?

Dams were built to engineering and construction standards and regulations corresponding to the

time of their construction. Although construction of some dams may predate modern engineering

practices (approximately 2,300 National Inventory of Dams [NID] dams were built before 1900),

over 43,000 dams—nearly half of the dams in the NID—were built between 1950 and 1980.38

After this period, construction of new dams slowed (e.g., the NID lists approximately 4,700 dams

built since 2000). Some dams, including older dams, may not meet current dam safety standards,

which have evolved as scientific data and engineering have improved over time.39 Dam owners

generally are responsible for operation and maintenance of these structures and for investing in

dam rehabilitation (i.e., bringing a dam up to current safety standards) and repair. FEMA, federal

agencies with large portfolios of sizable dams (e.g., USACE, Bureau of Reclamation), and the

Association of State Dam Safety Officials also publish various federal guidelines, technical

manuals, and factsheets that other dam owners may use for operation and maintenance and

rehabilitation and repair projects.40

No single agency regulates all dams. The National Dam Safety Program Act, as amended (Section

215 of the Water Resources Development Act of 1996; P.L. 104-303; 33 U.S.C. §§467f et seq.),

established the National Dam Safety Program (NDSP) as a federal program, administered by

FEMA, to facilitate dam safety activities and collaboration among the various federal agencies,

states, and owners with responsibility for dam safety.41 Each federal dam is regulated according to

the policies and guidance of the individual federal agency that owns the dam, and

FEMA’s Federal Guidelines for Dam Safety provide basic guidance for federal agencies’ dam

safety programs.42 Every state (except Alabama) in the United States has established a regulatory

program for dam safety, as has Puerto Rico.43 Collectively, these programs have regulatory

38 NID as of a November 3, 2022, update.

39 National Research Council (NRC), Dam and Levee Safety and Community Resilience: A Vision for Future Practice,

2012, at https://doi.org/10.17226/13393.

For example, see FEMA, “National Dam Safety Program Publications,” at https://www.fema.gov/emergencymanagers/risk-management/dam-safety/publications; Key Documents at USACE, “Dam Safety Program,” at

https://www.usace.army.mil/Missions/Civil-Works/Dam-Safety-Program/; Association of State Dam Safety Officials

(ASDSO), “Dam Safety Resource Database,” at https://www.damsafety.org/resource-center.

41 For more information on dam safety, see CRS Report R45981, Dam Safety Overview and the Federal Role, by Anna

E. Normand. For information on the National Dam Safety Program, see FEMA, “National Dam Safety Program,” at

https://www.fema.gov/national-dam-safety-program.

42 FEMA, Federal Guidelines for Dam Safety Risk Management, FEMA P-1025, 2015, at https://www.fema.gov/sites/

default/files/2020-08/fema_dam-safety_risk-management_P-1025.pdf.

43 FEMA, The National Dam Safety Program: Biennial Report to the United States Congress, Fiscal Years 2018-2019,

November 2022, at https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_ndsp-report-congress-fy18-fy19.pdf.

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authority over 71% of NID dams.44 The NDSP does not mandate uniform standards across dam

safety programs but has developed the Model State Dam Safety Program, a guideline for

developing state dam safety programs.45 Congress also has enacted legislation for certain federal

agencies to regulate activities that may use dams, such as hydropower projects, certain mining

activities, and nuclear facilities.46

Federal agencies traditionally approached dam safety through a deterministic, standards-based

approach by mainly considering structural integrity to withstand maximum probable floods and

maximum credible earthquakes. Many agencies with large dam portfolios (e.g., Bureau of

Reclamation, USACE, FERC) have since moved from this solely standards-based approach for

their dam safety programs to a portfolio risk management approach. According to FEMA, “a riskmanagement approach seeks to improve the resilience of dam infrastructure and mitigate failure

of dams and related structures through inspection programs, risk reduction measures, and

rehabilitation and repair.”47 This approach prioritizes rehabilitation and repair efforts for

structures where failure would pose the greatest threat to life and property. Some state dam safety

agencies also are working to incorporate a risk management approach (e.g., Colorado).48

What Codes, Standards, and Regulations May Apply to Levees?

There is no broadly applicable national standard or requirement for levee construction or

maintenance. Pursuant to direction in P.L. 113-121 in 2014, USACE and FEMA are working on

developing national levee safety guidelines to serve as voluntary best practices.49 Ultimately,

levee owners are responsible for maintaining their levees.

USACE has developed regulations and guidance documents for levee design, construction,

evaluation, operation, and maintenance. USACE provides for some regional differences tailored

to different water-loading conditions (e.g., riverine versus coastal levees), geologic variability,

climate, and hydrology (e.g., arid versus temperate environments), as well as environmental

factors (e.g., vegetation management).50 USACE and some other federal agencies use these

documents to guide their work on levees. Other federal agencies also have developed guidance

44 NID as of a November 3, 2022, update. States define their own regulatory jurisdiction (the height, volume, and type

of dams to be regulated): state laws may exclude the regulation of certain dams in the NID. Personal correspondence

between CRS and ASDSO on August 30, 2019. ASDSO, Summary of State Laws and Regulations on Dam Safety, May

2022, at https://damsafety-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/files/FINAL%20%202020%20Update%20State%20Laws%20and%20Regulations%20Summary_0.pdf.

45 ASDSO notes that a task force has updated the Model Dam Safety Program and has provided FEMA the draft update

for final review. Personal correspondence between CRS and ASDSO on October 17, 2022. FEMA, Model State Dam

Safety Program, 2007, at https://damsafety-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/files/

FEMA%20316_%20Model%20State%20Dam%20Safety%20Program_2007.pdf.

46 For example, under the Federal Power Act (16 U.S.C. §§791a-828c), FERC has the authority to issue licenses for the

construction and operation of hydroelectric projects, among other things. Many of these projects involve dams, some of

which may be owned by a state or local government.

FEMA, The National Dam Safety Program: Biennial Report to the United States Congress, Fiscal Years 2018-2019,

November 2022, at https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_ndsp-report-congress-fy18-fy19.pdf.

48 State of Colorado, Department of Natural Resources, Guidelines for Comprehensive Dam Safety Evaluation (CDSE)

Risk Assessments & Risk Informed Decision Making (RIDM), March 8, 2021, at https://dnrweblink.state.co.us/dwr/

ElectronicFile.aspx?docid=3566811&dbid=0.

49 For more information on development of the levee safety guidelines, see USACE and FEMA, “National Levee

Safety Program,” at https://www.leveesafety.org/pages/nlsg.

50 European Club of International Commission on Large Dams, Working Group on Levees and Flood Defences,

European and U.S. Levees and Flood Defences: Characteristics, Risks and Governance, July 1, 2018, Chapter 12, at

https://www.barrages-cfbr.eu/IMG/pdf/

lfd_inventory_of_characteristics_risks_and_governance_full_report_final_20190308.pdf.

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for their own levee-related programs, such as the Dike and Levee practice standard for the U.S.

Department of Agriculture’s Natural Resources Conservation Service. Some states use the

USACE documents to guide levee construction in their states, whereas other states maintain their

own documents and criteria or adopt other guidance. A few states, such as California, have

established design and safety criteria or standards for levees.51

In P.L. 113-121, Congress authorized FEMA to support the establishment or improvement of state

and tribal levee safety programs. Although this initiative has remained largely unfunded, federal

agencies have advanced related efforts to improve levee safety, such as the release of a National

Levee Database and the 2019 publication for emergency managers of a Guide to Public Alerts

and Warning for Dam and Levee Emergencies. USACE and representatives from five other

countries launched in 2013 an International Levee Handbook identifying good practice on levees

based on current knowledge and experience from six countries.

Federal flood insurance regulations may shape how some levees are designed, operated, and

maintained, because levees can reduce flood insurance requirements (see the Building Codes

FAQ).52 For a levee, floodwall, or coastal dune or berm to appear on a National Flood Insurance

Program (NFIP) Flood Insurance Rate Map, the levee owner is required to obtain a certification

consisting of documentation, signed and sealed by a registered professional engineer, that the

levee meets the NFIP requirements at 44 C.F.R. §65.10, “Mapping of Areas Protected by Levee

Systems.”53

What Is the Federal Flood Risk Management Standard?

The Federal Flood Risk Management Standard (FFRMS) is a flood resilience standard that is

required for federally funded projects, which are defined as actions where federal funds are used

for new construction, for substantial improvement, or to address substantial damage to structures

and facilities, including infrastructure.54 The floodplain management policy for the FFRMS was

first set forth in 2015 by President Obama’s Executive Order (E.O.) 13690, revoked in 2017 by

President Trump’s E.O. 13807, and reinstated in 2021 by President Biden’s E.O. 13990. For

51 For example, in the early 2010s, California developed Urban Levee Design Criteria and Urban Level of Protection

Criteria. The state also encourages levee designers and owners to review and consider the USACE documents.

California relies on the due diligence of local governments; that is, the state does not enforce the Urban Level of

Protection Criteria.

52 Another federal program that may shape how participating nonfederal levees are operated and maintained is referred

to as the P.L. 84-99 Rehabilitation Program, operated by USACE. The program provides federal funding for repairs of

participating levees. The participating levees must pass an inspection of various components of the levee system to be

eligible for assistance. The program’s regulations are published at 33 C.F.R. §§203.41-203.52. For more information on

this program and other federal levee safety activities, see CRS In Focus IF12404, Nonfederal Levee Safety: Primer,

Status, and Considerations, by Nicole T. Carter and Diane P. Horn.

53 These requirements include levee design and operation and maintenance criteria related to reducing the risk of

flooding from a 1%-annual-chance flood, such as foundation stability criteria and operational plan criteria for closures

in a levee system. FEMA uses the certification to accredit a levee for purposes of appearing on a Flood Insurance Rate

Map as providing a specified level of protection and for the area behind the levee to not be mapped into the special

flood hazard area. Properties in a special flood hazard area are required to purchase flood insurance as a condition of

receiving a federally backed mortgage.

54 See CRS Insight IN12193, The Federal Flood Risk Management Standard (FFRMS), by Diane P. Horn and Nicole

T. Carter, for a summary of the FFRMS. FEMA, Guidelines for Implementing Executive Order 11988, Floodplain

Management, and Executive Order 13690, Establishing a Federal Flood Risk Management Standard and a Process for

Further Soliciting and Considering Stakeholder Input, October 8, 2018, p. 16, at https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/

files/documents/fema_implementing-guidelines-EO11988-13690_10082015.pdf (hereinafter, Guidelines for

Establishing an FFRMS). Note that the FEMA guidelines do not require the use of the National Flood Insurance

Program’s definitions of substantial damage and substantial improvement (footnotes 98 and 99).

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Infrastructure Codes, Standards, and Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

FFRMS compliance, the floodplain for federally funded projects is determined using one of three

currently available approaches: (1) the freeboard value approach;55 (2) the 500-year floodplain;56

or (3) the climate-informed science approach (CISA).57 Individual federal agencies may develop

or update procedures and regulations tailored to their programs to account for the reinstated

FFRMS. For example, the EPA determined the FFRMS would go into effect starting in FY2022,

applying to certain projects funded by State Revolving Fund capitalization grants (including

funding from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act [P.L. 117-58]).58 For its implementation

of the FFRMS, USACE is using CISA methods set out in agency guidance to evaluate climate

change impacts on coastal and inland flood hazard. USACE indicates that it infers the FFMRS to

apply to vertical infrastructure, such as buildings, rather than horizontal infrastructure, such as

levees or walls.59 As of July 2023, the various other agencies providing federal funding to

infrastructure projects discussed herein had not made publicly available information on the

progress they have made implementing or otherwise complying with the FFRMS.

55 The floodplain obtained through the freeboard value approach in the FFRMS is defined as the elevation and flood

hazard area that result from adding an additional 2 feet to base flood elevation (BFE) for noncritical actions and adding

an additional 3 feet to BFE for critical actions, which are defined as any activity for which even a slight chance of

flooding would be too great. FEMA, Guidelines for Establishing an FFRMS, provides additional guidance to assist

agencies in determining whether an action is critical.

56 The 500-year floodplain is defined as the area subject to flooding by the 0.2%-annual-chance flood.

57 Defined as the elevation and flood hazard area that result from using a climate-informed science approach that uses

the best-available, actionable hydrologic and hydraulic data and methods that integrate current and future changes in

flooding based on climate science.

58 Memorandum from Anita Maria Thompkins, Director, Drinking Water Protection Division, Office of Ground and

Drinking Water, and Raffael Stein, Director, Water Infrastructure Division, Office of Wastewater Management, to

Water Division Directors, Regions I-X, “Re-instatement of Federal Flood Risk Management Standard for State

Revolving Fund Programs,” EPA, September 15, 2022, at https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2022-09/

Federal%20Flood%20Risk%20Managment%20Standard%20.pdf.

59 USACE, “Federal Flood Risk Management Standard,” at https://www.iwr.usace.army.mil/Missions/Flood-RiskManagement/Flood-Risk-Management-Program/About-the-Program/Policy-and-Guidance/Federal-Flood-RiskManagement-Standard/.

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Appendix. Abbreviation Table

Table A-1 contains a list of abbreviations used in this report.

Table A-1. Abbreviations Used in This Product

Abbreviation

Full Name

AASHTO

American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials

ANSI

American National Standards Institute

AREMA

American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way

Association

ASCE

American Society of Civil Engineers

BFE

Base Flood Elevation

DOT

Department of Transportation

EPA

Environmental Protection Agency

FAA

Federal Aviation Administration

FAQ

Frequently asked question

FCC

Federal Communications Commission

FEMA

Federal Emergency Management Agency

FERC

Federal Energy Regulatory Commission

FFRMS

Federal Flood Risk Management Standard

FHWA

Federal Highway Administration

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

NDSP

National Dam Safety Program

NFIP

National Flood Insurance Program

NID

National Inventory of Dams

NIST

National Institute of Standards and Technology

SDWA

Safe Drinking Water Act (P.L. 93-523)

USACE

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

USGCRP

U.S. Global Change Research Program

TIA

Telecommunications Industry Association

TSA

Transportation Security Administration

Source: Congressional Research Service.

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Infrastructure Codes, Standards, and Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

Author Information

Linda R. Rowan, Coordinator

Analyst in Natural Resources and Earth Sciences

Robert S. Kirk

Specialist in Transportation Policy

Nicole T. Carter

Specialist in Natural Resources Policy

Ashley J. Lawson

Specialist Energy Policy

Corrie E. Clark

Specialist in Energy Policy

William J. Mallett

Specialist in Transportation Policy

John Frittelli

Specialist in Transportation Policy

Anna E. Normand

Analyst in Natural Resources Policy

Jill C. Gallagher

Analyst in Telecommunications Policy

Paul W. Parfomak

Specialist in Energy Policy

Diane P. Horn

Specialist in Flood Insurance and Emergency

Management

Jonathan L. Ramseur

Specialist in Environmental Policy

Elena H. Humphreys

Analyst in Environmental Policy

Rachel Y. Tang

Analyst in Transportation and Industry

Key Policy Staff

Area of Expertise

Name

Phone

Air—Transportation Infrastructure

Rachel Y. Tang

202-707-7875

rtang@crs.loc.gov

Codes—General, Science and

Technology, Resilience

Linda R. Rowan

202-707-0602

lrowan@crs.loc.gov

Communications Infrastructure

Jill C. Gallagher

202-707-1024

jgallagher@crs.loc.gov

Dams—Water Infrastructure

Anna E. Normand

202-707-9846

anormand@crs.loc.gov

Drinking Water—Water

Infrastructure

Elena H. Humphreys

202-707-2054

ehumphreys@crs.loc.gov

Electric Power—Energy

Infrastructure

Ashley J. Lawson

202-707-2596

alawson@crs.loc.gov

Energy Infrastructure

Corrie E. Clark

202-707-7213

cclark@crs.loc.gov

Flood Insurance

Diane P. Horn

202-707-3472

dhorn@crs.loc.gov

Levees—Water Infrastructure

Nicole T. Carter

202-707-0854

ncarter@crs.loc.gov

Pipelines—Transportation

Infrastructure

Paul W. Parfomak

202-707-0030

pparfomak@crs.loc.gov

Ports, Harbors, and Waterways—

Transportation Infrastructure

John Frittelli

202-707-7033

jfrittelli@crs.loc.gov

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Infrastructure Codes, Standards, and Regulations: Frequently Asked Questions

Roads and Rails—Transportation

Infrastructure

Robert S. Kirk

William J. Mallett

202-707-7769

202-707-2216

rkirk@crs.loc.gov

wmallett@crs.loc.gov

Wastewater—Water Infrastructure

Jonathan L. Ramseur

202-707-7919

rramseur@crs.loc.gov

Disclaimer

This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan

shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and

under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other

than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in

connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not

subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in

its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or

material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to

copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

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R47666 · VERSION 1 · NEW

This is a copy of a public record, reproduced as it was published. It is not legal advice, and it may not be the version a court would rely on. Check the official source before you cite it.