Emergency Response to Extreme Heat: Federal Financial Assistance and Considerations for Congress
Congressional research reportApr 19, 2024
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Emergency Response to Extreme Heat:
Federal Financial Assistance and
Considerations for Congress
Updated April 19, 2024
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R46873
SUMMARY
Emergency Response to Extreme Heat:
Federal Financial Assistance and
Considerations for Congress
R46873
April 19, 2024
Erica A. Lee, Coordinator
Specialist in Emergency
Management and Disaster
Recovery
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reported that several areas of
the United States experienced record heat during the summer of 2023. In August alone, 130
million Americans in 22 states were subject to heat alerts. Arizona and New Mexico also
experienced their hottest months on record, with temperatures exceeding previous highs by
nearly two degrees Fahrenheit. Previously, extreme heat during the summers and autumns of
2021 and 2022 had set heat records in multiple states. Government and academic experts generally expect these trends to
continue as the planet warms; the U.S. Global Change Research Program’s Fifth National Climate Assessment (2023)
reported that “it is very likely that heatwaves will increase in frequency, severity, and duration as warming continues.”
Meteorologically, extreme heat is assessed relative to each specific climate. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) defines extreme heat as air temperature that is much hotter and/or humid than average for a particular time and place.
For the purposes of emergency preparedness, the Federal Emergency Management Agency defines extreme heat as a period
of temperatures above 90 degrees Fahrenheit and high humidity for at least two to three days. During these events, affected
communities frequently report excess deaths, overwhelmed health care systems and increased rates of hospitalization, and
power supply strains that may affect access to air-conditioning or other services. Socially vulnerable populations, including
individuals with medical conditions and disabilities, children, older adults, unhoused persons, agricultural and other outdoor
workers, lower-income persons, people of color, incarcerated persons, and persons without air-conditioning, may be at
particular risk of heat-related illness or death.
CDC and NOAA report that extreme heat is one of the leading weather-related causes of death in the United States. CDC
identified 10,527 heat-related deaths from 2004 to 2018 in the United States (averaging 702 deaths annually). Annual
fatalities in more recent years are higher: in 2022, the CDC reported that 3,066 heat-related deaths occurred between 2018
and 2020 (averaging 767 per year), and in 2023, the agency reported that 1,600 heat-related deaths occurred in 2021 alone.
Given actuarial challenges with attributing deaths to heat, researchers estimate that the actual number of heat-associated
deaths is higher, ranging from 1,300 to 5,000 annually in the United States in recent decades.
Given these impacts, state, local, tribal, and territorial governments (SLTTs) have taken an interest in responding to extreme
heat events. CDC and the Environmental Protection Agency have highlighted emergency response measures that
governments and communities may undertake to protect residents, including
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developing heat health action plans;
communicating risks to the public;
cancelling outdoor events;
expanding surveillance of health effects;
increasing emergency medical staff;
expanding services and distributing water to vulnerable populations;
providing emergency energy assistance; and
opening cooling centers.
Some SLTTs have taken additional measures, such as issuing rules or guidance requiring rest, water, and access to climatecontrolled environments for workers, students, and other people. Some SLTTs have also undertaken long-term measures to
reduce the risks that extreme heat poses to human health, including measures to reduce the effect of urban “heat islands” – or
areas where buildings, roads, and other built features absorb and intensify heat. Some experts and stakeholders have raised
concern that nonfederal measures do not provide sufficient protection to affected populations.
The federal government has also taken action to manage risks associated with extreme heat, including (1) establishing the
National Integrated Heat Health Information System, an interagency information system providing data and tools to protect
the public from heat; (2) launching Heat.gov, a centralized webpage on federal resources to help the public understand, plan
for, and manage the risks of extreme heat; and (3) creating an Interagency Working Group on Extreme Heat, which is to
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Emergency Response to Extreme Heat: Federal Financial Assistance and Considerations
publish a National Heat Strategy. Congress has also introduced several bills authorizing assistance to nonfederal entities to
mitigate and/or respond to the health impacts of extreme heat events.
This report summarizes federal resources that may be available to facilitate emergency preparedness and response to extreme
heat, as well as considerations for Congress on the federal government’s past response to extreme heat and challenges
adapting existing federal relief programs to extreme heat episodes, among other topics.
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Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Extreme Heat: Snapshot of Health Effects on Humans ................................................................... 4
Managing Extreme Heat: Nonfederal Authorities and Efforts .................................................. 6
Gaps in Nonfederal Authorities and Resources for Extreme Heat Response ..................... 8
Federal Financial Assistance by Agency ......................................................................................... 9
Department of Homeland Security—FEMA ...................................................................... 9
Department of Health and Human Services ............................................................................ 13
Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response (ASPR) ................................... 13
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) ......................................................... 14
Administration for Children and Families ........................................................................ 15
Department of Housing and Urban Development ................................................................... 16
Community Development Block Grant Program (CDBG) ............................................... 16
CDBG—Disaster Recovery (CDBG-DR) ........................................................................ 17
The Indian Community Development Block Grant (ICDBG) .......................................... 17
Department of Agriculture ...................................................................................................... 17
Department of Commerce ....................................................................................................... 18
Economic Development Administration (EDA)—Disaster Recovery .............................. 18
Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities ..................................................................... 18
Defense Production Act of 1950 (DPA) .................................................................................. 19
Congressional Considerations ....................................................................................................... 19
Clarifying the Federal Role in Managing Extreme Heat .................................................. 19
Adapting Existing Grant Programs to Extreme Heat Response........................................ 21
Stafford Act Declarations for Extreme Heat ..................................................................... 22
Designing Federal Assistance for Emergency Response to Extreme Heat ....................... 24
Communicating and Increasing Public Understanding of Health Risks of Extreme
Heat ................................................................................................................................ 25
Insurance for Extreme Heat .............................................................................................. 26
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 27
Figures
Figure 1. June, July, and August 2023 Global Temperature Anomaly ............................................ 2
Appendixes
Appendix A. Department of Energy Assistance for Energy Access Relevant to Extreme
Heat Events ................................................................................................................................ 28
Appendix B. Selected Past Federal Assistance for Emergency Response to Extreme Heat.......... 30
Contacts
Author Information........................................................................................................................ 33
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Introduction
In recent years, parts of the United States have experienced record episodes of extreme heat. For
instance, in 2021, a historic “heat dome” set temperature records in multiple states,1 and became
the deadliest weather-related incident in recorded Washington state history.2 Extreme heat across
the United States during September 2022 broke nearly 1,000 heat records.3 In the wake of some
of these incidents, several governors (including those in Louisiana, Arizona, California,
Washington, and Oregon) declared emergencies for extreme heat.4 According to the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), July 2023 was the globe’s hottest month in 174
years of records, and unusual heat continued to set records in the fall.5 NASA further reported that
the summer of 2023 was the hottest summer—and 2023 the hottest year—recorded to date (see
Figure 1).6 Government authorities and scientific organizations expect the United States to
experience extreme heat episodes of greater frequency, duration, and intensity due to climate
change, among other factors.7
1 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Centers for Environmental Information
(NCEI), “U.S. Climate Summary for June 2021: Hottest June on Record,” July 9, 2021, https://www.climate.gov/newsfeatures/understanding-climate/us-climate-summary-june-2021-hottest-june-record.
2 University of Washington Climate Impacts Group et al., In the Hot Seat: Saving Lives from Extreme Heat in
Washington State, June 2023, p. 1, https://cig.uw.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/2/2023/06/CIG-Report-Heat-202pages.pdf.
3 NOAA NCEI, “National Overview: National Climate Report 2022,” January 12, 2023, https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/
access/monitoring/monthly-report/national/202213.
4 Governor of Louisiana Jon Bel Edwards, Proclamation No. 141 JBE2023, “State of Emergency—Heat-Related
Emergencies,” August 11, 2023, https://gov.louisiana.gov/assets/141JBE2023.pdf; Governor of Arizona Katie Hobbs,
“2023 Record Excessive Heat Risk,” August 11, 2023, https://azgovernor.gov/sites/default/files/
2023.08.11_doe_record_excessive_heat_risk.pdf; Governor of California Gavin Newsom, “Proclamation of a State of
Emergency,” June 17, 2021, https://www.gov.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/6.17.21-Extreme-Heatproclamation.pdf, and “Proclamation of a State of Emergency,” August 21, 2022, GSS_9534-1E-20220831133826
(ca.gov); Governor of Washington Jay Inslee, Emergency Proclamation 21-12, “WSDOT Heat Damage,” July 16,
2021, https://governor.wa.gov/sites/default/files/proclamations/21-12%20%20WSDOT%20Heat%20Damage%20%28tmp%29.pdf; Governor of Oregon Kate Brown, Executive Order No. 2213, “Determinate of State of Emergency ... Due to Excessive High Temperatures Causing a Threat to Life, Health, and
Infrastructure,” July 25, 2022, https://www.oregon.gov/gov/eo/eo_22-13.pdf.
5 NASA, “NASA Clocks July 2023 as Hottest Month on Record Ever Since 1880,” August 14, 2023,
https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-clocks-july-2023-as-hottest-month-on-record-ever-since-1880/; NOAA,
“Topping the Charts: September 2023 Was Earth’s Warmest September in 174-Year Record,” October 13, 2023,
https://www.noaa.gov/news/topping-charts-september-2023-was-earths-warmest-september-in-174-year-record.
6 NASA, “NASA Analysis Confirms 2023 as Warmest Year on Record,” January 12, 2024, https://www.nasa.gov/
news-release/nasa-analysis-confirms-2023-as-warmest-year-on-record/.
7 For further discussion, see CRS Insight IN12250, Climate Change and Extreme Heat, by Jonathan D. Haskett. NASA,
“NASA Analysis Confirms 2023 as Warmest Year on Record,” January 12, 2024, https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/
nasa-analysis-confirms-2023-as-warmest-year-on-record/; K. Marvel et al., “Climate Trends,” Chapter 2 of Fifth
National Climate Assessment, A.R. Crimmins et al., eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2023, pp. 2-17, 2-24,
2-38, https://doi.org/10.7930/NCA5.2023.CH2; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Climate Change 2023:
Synthesis Report, 2023, pp. 46, 98, https://www.ipcc.ch/report/sixth-assessment-report-cycle/.
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Figure 1. June, July, and August 2023 Global Temperature Anomaly
According to NASA
Source: NASA, “NASA Announces Summer 2023 Hottest on Record,” September 14, 2023,
https://climate.nasa.gov/news/3282/nasa-announces-summer-2023-hottest-on-record/.
Notes: For more information about the probabilities represented in the image, see National Weather Service,
Climate Prediction Center, “How to Read the 3-class Three-Month Outlook maps,”
https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/predictions/long_range/seasonal_info.php.
Congress has recently taken action to respond to the threat that extreme heat poses to U.S. public
health. Several bills in the 118th Congress would authorize assistance to nonfederal entities to
mitigate and/or respond to the health impacts of extreme heat events (e.g., H.R. 4953/S. 2645;
H.R. 4733/ S. 2383; H.R. 4314; H.R. 3965; H.R. 2945/S. 1379; H.R. 662/S. 180). Others (e.g.,
H.R. 4256/S. 2081) would introduce heat-related requirements for federal program participants.8
The 118th Congress has further examined the threat extreme heat poses to communities and the
built environment through several hearings.9
The executive branch has also responded to extreme heat. Since 2015, the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the Centers of Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
have led the National Integrated Heat Health Information System (NIHHIS), an interagency
information system “to develop and provide actionable, science-based information to help protect
people from heat.”10 In 2022, the Administration of Joe Biden launched Heat.gov, where NIHHIS
shares tools and research to support planning, mitigation, and response to extreme heat.11 In 2021,
8 Other heat-related legislation concerns private business heat standards (e.g., H.R. 4897/S. 2501) or to provide
assistance to businesses with losses due to extreme heat, among other weather events (e.g., H.R. 662/S. 180).
9 For example, see U.S. Senate, Committee on Environment and Public Works, Examining the Effects of Extreme Heat
and Weather on Transportation, 118th Cong., 1st sess., September 13, 2023), https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/
index.cfm/2023/9/examining-the-effects-of-extreme-heat-and-weather-on-transportation.
10 National Integrated Heat Health Information System (NIHHIS), National Integrated Heat Health Information
System, 2022, https://cpo.noaa.gov/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/NIHHIS-2-Pager-2022.pdf; Heat.gov, “About
Heat.gov,” https://www.heat.gov/pages/about-heat-gov.
11 Heat.gov, “About Heat.gov,” https://www.heat.gov/pages/about-heat-gov. Climate.gov, “Biden Administration
(continued...)
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President Biden announced new initiatives in several federal agencies to respond to the health
impacts of extreme heat, including the establishment of the Interagency Working Group on
Extreme Heat and the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) Office of Climate
Change and Health Equity.12 In July 2023, President Biden additionally announced that federal
partners were at work on a National Heat Strategy in consultation with local and tribal officials to
understand how the federal government could assist communities coping with extreme heat.13
This report provides an overview of the health effects of extreme heat on humans, existing federal
resources available to respond to such consequences, and measures some nonfederal governments
are taking in response to extreme heat.14 The final section offers considerations for Congress
regarding the past and present role of the federal government in response to episodes of extreme
heat, and challenges in adapting existing federal authorities to the threat of extreme heat.
Defining Extreme Heat
What constitutes “extreme” heat meteorologically is relative to each region’s climate.15 Federal agencies have
defined extreme heat in various ways.
For the purposes of helping communities prepare, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) explains
that extreme heat may be generally defined as a period of temperatures above 90 degrees Fahrenheit and high
humidity for at least two to three days.16
For the purposes of understanding the impacts of extreme heat on human health, the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) defines an extreme heat event or a heat wave as “a period of two or more consecutive days when
the daily minimum apparent temperature (the actual temperature adjusted for humidity) in a particular city
exceeds the 85th percentile of historical July and August temperatures (1981–2010) for that city.”17 The EPA
Launches Heat.gov ... ” July 27, 2022, https://www.climate.gov/news-features/feed/biden-administration-launchesheatgov-tools-communities-facing-extreme-heat.
12 The White House, “FACT SHEET: Biden Administration Mobilizes to Protect Workers and Communities from
Extreme Heat,” September 20, 2021, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/09/20/factsheet-biden-administration-mobilizes-to-protect-workers-and-communities-from-extreme-heat/; Executive Order
14008, “Tackling the Climate Crisis at Home and Abroad,” January 27, 2021. For more information on the Department
of Labor’s Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA’s) initiatives, see CRS Insight IN11701,
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Regulation of Employee Exposure to Heat, by Scott D.
Szymendera.
13 The White House, “Biden Harris Administration Takes Action to Protect Communities From Extreme Heat Fueled
by the Climate Crisis,” July 11, 2023, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2023/07/11/factsheet-biden-harris-administration-takes-action-to-protect-communities-from-extreme-heat-fueled-by-the-climate-crisis/
.
14 For federal grants that may assist with research on the effects of extreme heat on local populations, long-term
regional planning to mitigate the effects of extreme heat, and management of urban forests to mitigate heat, among
other uses, see Sara Hoverter and Laura Dziorny, “Federal Funding Compendium for Urban Heart Adaptation,”
Georgetown Climate Center, December 2013, https://www.georgetownclimate.org/files/report/
Federal%20Funding%20Compendium%20for%20Urban%20Heat%20Adaptation.pdf. This report does not discuss the
effects of extreme heat on workers; see CRS Insight IN11701, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
Regulation of Employee Exposure to Heat, by Scott D. Szymendera.
15 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), “Extreme Heat,” https://community.fema.gov/ProtectiveActions/
s/article/Extreme-Heat. By contrast, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines extreme heat as
“summertime temperatures that are much hotter and/or humid than average.” CDC, “About Extreme Heat,”
https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/extremeheat/heat_guide.html. NOAA uses the term “excessive heat” rather than extreme
heat in its forecast watches and warnings. NOAA, “Heat Watch vs. Warning,” https://www.weather.gov/safety/heatww.
16 Ready.gov, “Extreme Heat,” last updated July 20, 2021, https://www.ready.gov/heat.
17 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), “Climate Change Indicators: Heat Waves,” https://www.epa.gov/climateindicators/climate-change-indicators-heat-waves.
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analyzes historic trends in extreme heat by analyzing the frequency, duration, intensity, and season length of
extreme heat episodes.18
Separately, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has established a “heat index”—a
combined measure of temperature and relative humidity designed to capture how heat feels to the human body.19
NOAA generally issues excessive heat warnings, advising individuals to take protective actions, when the
maximum heat index is expected to exceed 105 degrees Fahrenheit for at least two days and night time air
temperatures are not expected to drop below 75 degrees Fahrenheit.20 However, the agency notes that “these
criteria vary across the country, especially for areas not used to extreme heat conditions.”21
The CDC defines extreme heat as “summertime temperatures that are much hotter and/or humid than average,”
noting that extreme heat “depends on what’s considered average for a particular location at that time of year.”22
Extreme Heat: Snapshot of Health Effects on
Humans
Since 2021, U.S. communities affected by extreme heat events have experienced heat-related
deaths,23 spikes in heat-related emergency room visits that overwhelm health care systems,24 and
power supply strains,25 among other consequences. In some cases, insufficient cooling and/or
power outages in hospitals, nursing homes, and operating rooms have required emergency
18 EPA, “Climate Change Indicators: Heat Waves,” https://www.epa.gov/climate-indicators/climate-change-indicators-
heat-waves.
19 NOAA National Weather Service (NWS), “Heat Forecast Tools,” https://www.weather.gov/safety/heat-index.
20 NOAA NWS, “Heat Watch vs. Warning,” https://www.weather.gov/safety/heat-ww.
21 Ibid.
22 CDC, “About Extreme Heat,” https://www.cdc.gov/disasters/extremeheat/heat_guide.html.
23 See, for example, Joan Casey et al, “Excess Injury Mortality in Washington State During the 2021 Heat Wave,”
American Journal of Public Health, vol. 113, no. 6 (June 1, 2023), pp. 657-660; Oregon Military Department Office of
Emergency Management, State of Oregon, “Initial After-Action Review (AAR) of the June 2021 Excessive Heat
Event,” July 27, 2021, https://www.oregon.gov/oem/Documents/2021_June_Excessive_Heat_Event_AAR.pdf;
Multnomah County, “News Release: Multnomah County Medical Examiner Finds 45 Deaths Related to Historic Heat
Wave,” June 30, 2021; California Department of Public Health, “Excess Mortality During the September 2022 Heat
Wave in California,” August 2023, https://www.cdph.ca.gov/Programs/OHE/CDPH%20Document%20Library/
Climate-Health-Equity/CDPH-2022-Heat-Wave-Excess-Mortality-Report.pdf; and Maricopa County Department of
Public Health, “2023 Weekly Heat Report,” November 2023, https://www.maricopa.gov/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/
Item/5734.
24 Paul J. Scramm et al., “Heat-Related Emergency Department Visits During the Northwestern Heat Wave—United
States, June 2021,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 70, no. 29, July 23, 2021. Orla McCaffrey, Ian Lovett,
and Paul Vieira, “Deadly Heat Wave in Pacific Northwest Overwhelmed Healthcare System,” Wall Street Journal, July
5, 2021, https://www.wsj.com/articles/deadly-heat-wave-in-pacific-northwest-overwhelmed-healthcare-system11625493601; Oregon Health Authority, “Climate and Health in Oregon: 2021-2022 Report,” Summer 2022,
https://www.oregon.gov/oha/PH/HEALTHYENVIRONMENTS/CLIMATECHANGE/Documents/le-105251_23.pdf;
Maricopa County Department of Public Health, “2023 Weekly Heat Report,” November 2023,
https://www.maricopa.gov/ArchiveCenter/ViewFile/Item/5734.
25 Dale Kasler, “‘Risk of Further Outages’: California Warns of Blackouts as Another Hot Summer Looms,”
Sacramento Bee, May 6, 2022; Dalie Faheid, “Texas Heat Wave Explained: What Does It Have to Do with the ERCOT
Power Grid?” Fort Worth Star Telegram, May 6, 2022; Anne C. Mulkern, “Spikes in Air-Conditioning Use with
Warming Could Tax Electric Grid,” E&E News, February 7, 2022.
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evacuations and compounded health risks.26 Some experts have found that extreme heat
additionally poses risks to student learning, food security, and other measures of social welfare.27
Socially vulnerable populations face particular risk of heat-related illness or death. Such
populations include individuals with medical conditions and disabilities, as well as children, older
adults, unhoused persons, agricultural and other outdoor workers, marginalized racial groups,
pregnant persons, lower-income persons, incarcerated persons, persons without air-conditioning
due to access or affordability, and athletes.28 Certain living situations—including living in urban
environments, living alone, or living on higher floors of buildings—have also been found to
increase risk of heat-related death.29
The CDC and the National Weather Service report that extreme heat is one of the leading
weather-related causes of death in the United States.30 CDC identified 10,527 heat-related deaths
from 2004 to 2018 in the United States based on information reported on death certificates
(averaging approximately 700 deaths annually).31 Annual fatalities in more recent years are
higher. In 2022, the CDC reported that 3,066 heat-related deaths occurred between 2018 and 2020
(averaging 767 per year), and in 2023, the agency reported that 1,600 heat-related deaths occurred
in 2021 alone.32 Other scholars and methods estimate that in recent decades, the United States has
26 Health and Human Services, Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response, Technical Resources,
Assistance Center, and Information Exchange, Extreme Heat Events: Lessons from Seattle’s Record-Breaking
Summers, https://files.asprtracie.hhs.gov/documents/extreme-heat-events-lessons-from-seattles-record-breakingsummers.pdf.
27 See Travis Roach, “Heat and Learning In Elementary and Middle School,” Education Economics, vol. 30, no. 1
(2022); Caroline Kroeger, “Heat Is Associated with Short-Term Increases in Household Food Insecurity in 150
Countries and This Is Mediated by Income,” Nature Human Behavior, vol. 7 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562023-01684-9; Kun Hou et al., “High Ambient Temperatures Are Associated with Urban Crime Risk in Chicago,”
Science of the Total Environment, vol. 865, part 1, January 2023.
28 EPA, “Climate Change and Social Vulnerability in the United States: A Focus on Six Impacts,” September 2021;
Leah Schinasi et al., “Associations Between Historical Redlining and Present-Day Heat Vulnerability Housing and
Land Cover Characteristics in Philadelphia, PA,” Journal of Urban Health, vol. 99, no. 1 (2022), pp. 134-145; Roger
Renteria et al., “Social Disparities in Neighborhood Heat in the Northeast United States,” Environmental Research, vol.
203, January 2022, p. 111805; Jessica Abbinett, et al., CDC, “Heat Response Plans: Summary of Evidence and
Strategies for Collaboration and Implementation,” p. 11, https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/docs/
HeatResponsePlans_508.pdf; Julianne Skarha et al., “An Overlooked Crisis: Extreme Temperature Exposures in
Incarceration Settings,” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 110, January 2020, S41-S42; Rebecca Marx and Jorge
Morales-Burnett, Urban Institute, Centering Equity to Address Extreme Heat, February 2022, https://www.urban.org/
sites/default/files/2022-02/centering-equity-to-address-extreme-heat_1.pdf; CDC “Heat—Reproductive Health,”
https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/repro/heat.html#:~:text=
If%20you%20are%20pregnant%2C%20you,more%20likely%20to%20become%20dehydrated.
29 Jan C. Semenza et al., “Heat-Related Deaths During the July 1995 Heat Wave in Chicago,” New England Journal of
Medicine, vol. 335, no. 2 (1996), pp. 84-90.
30 CDC, “CDC’s Tracking Network in Action: Extreme Heat,” last reviewed June 1, 2021, https://www.cdc.gov/nceh/
features/trackingheat/index.html; National Weather Service, Weather Related Fatality and Injury Statistics,
https://www.weather.gov/hazstat/.
31 Ambarish Vaidyanathan et al., “Heat-Related Deaths—United States, 2004-2018,” CDC Morbidity and Mortality
Weekly Report, vol. 69, no. 24 (June 19, 2020), p. 1. In this study, heat-related deaths include listing exposure to
excessive natural heat, environmental hyperthermia of newborn, effects of heat and light as the underlying cause of
death, or as one of the contributing causes, but do not include those listing exposure to excessive heat of man-made
origin (e.g., an electrical fire).
32 CDC, “QuickStats: Percentage Distribution of Heat-Related Deaths, by Age Group—National Vital Statistics
System, United States, 2018–2020,” CDC Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, vol. 71, no. 24, June 17, 2022,
https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/71/wr/mm7124a6.htm; CDC, “QuickStats: Age-Adjusted Rates of Death
Involving Exposure to Excessive Heat Among States with the Highest Numbers of Deaths—National Vital Statistics
System, United States, 2021,” vol. 72, no. 35, September 1, 2023, https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/72/wr/
mm7235a7.htm.
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experienced 1,300 to 5,000 heat-related deaths annually.33 Heat-related death counts, including
CDC figures, are generally understood to underestimate the true number of deaths linked to heat
events due to inconsistency in diagnosis and reporting on death certificates.34 The National
Climate Assessment anticipates that the number of heat-related fatalities in the United States will
increase unless greenhouse gas emissions decline and adaptation measures are implemented.35
Certain demographic trends (including population aging) may increase the risk of heat-related
illness and death.36
Managing Extreme Heat: Nonfederal Authorities and Efforts
The CDC37 and EPA38 highlight response measures that state, local, tribal, and territorial
governments (SLTTs) and communities may undertake to protect residents and manage episodes
of extreme heat, including
•
•
•
•
•
developing heat health action plans;39
communicating risks to the public, including through “early warning” systems;40
suspending outdoor events;
expanding surveillance of health effects;
increasing emergency medical staff;
33 Sameed Ahmed M. Khatana et al., “Association of Extreme Heat with All-Cause Mortality in the Contiguous US
2008-2017,” JAMA Network, vol. 5, no. 5, May 19, 2022, 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2022.12957; Laurence S.
Kalkstein et al., “An Evaluation of the Progress in Reducing Heat-Related Human Mortality in Major U.S. Cities,”
Natural Hazards, vol. 56 (2011), pp. 113-129, https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11069-010-9552-3; Kate
Weinberger, “Estimating the Number of Excess Deaths Attributable to Heat in 297 United States Counties,”
Environmental Epidemiology, vol. 4, no. 3 (April 2020), e096.
34 M.C. Sarofim et al., “Temperature-Related Death and Illness,” Chapter 2, The Impacts of Climate Change on Human
Health in the United States: A Scientific Assessment, U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2016, pp. 43-68,
http://dx.doi.org/10.7930/J0MG7MDX.
35 M.H. Hayden et al., “Human Health,” Chapter 15, Fifth National Climate Assessment, A.R. Crimmins et al., eds.,
U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2023. See also Union of Concerned Scientists, Killer Heat in the United States:
Climate Choices and the Future of Dangerously Hot Days, July 2019, https://www.ucsusa.org/sites/default/files/202012/UCS_extreme_heat_report_190712b_low-res_corrected12-20.pdf.
36 Deborah Carr, Giacomo Falchetta, and Ian Sue Wing, “Population Aging and Heat Exposure in the 21st Century:
Which U.S. Regions Area at Greatest Risk and Why?” The Gerontologist, vol. 64, no. 3 (March 2024), pp. 1-10; M.H.
Hayden et al, “Human Health,” Chapter 15 of Fifth National Climate Assessment, 2023. Other trends (like increased
access to air-conditioning) may mitigate immediate risk to human health but may also contribute to emissions and the
urban heat-island effect. (Ibid.)
37 Jessica, Abbinett, Paul J. Schramm, Stasia Widerynski, et al., CDC, “Heat Response Plans: Summary of Evidence
and Strategies for Collaboration and Implementation,” https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/docs/
HeatResponsePlans_508.pdf.
38 EPA, “Excessive Heat Events Guidebook,” June 2006, https://www.epa.gov/sites/default/files/2016-03/documents/
eheguide_final.pdf.
39 Nicole Errett et al., “Survey of Extreme Heat Public Health Preparedness Plans and Response Activities in the Most
Populous Jurisdictions in the United States,” BMC Public Health, vol 23, no. 811 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1186/
s12889-023-15757-x. For discussion of content, see Juliette Randazza et al., “Planning to Reduce the Health Impacts of
Extreme Heat: A Content Analysis of Heat Action Plans in Local United States Jurisdictions,” American Journal of
Public Health, vol. 113, no. 5,May 2023, pp. 559-567, https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/
AJPH.2022.307217.
40 CDC, “Climate Change and Extreme Heat Events,” https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/pubs/
ClimateChangeandExtremeHeatEvents.pdf.
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•
•
•
expanding services and distributing water to vulnerable populations;41
providing emergency energy assistance;42 and
opening cooling centers.43
Experts have found that some cities that executed such measures observed fewer casualties and
hospitalizations during extreme heat.44 Some affected state and local governments have taken
additional measures, including proposing and sometimes adopting emergency protocols or safety
measures for businesses,45 elementary and secondary schools,46 and other facilities47 to protect
health and safety in the workplace and greater public. Other state and local governments provide
transportation to cooling centers or other safe areas to individuals at risk,48 which may reduce
access barriers for some vulnerable populations.49 Several states require or advise utility
companies to suspend service disconnections during specified episodes of extreme heat.50 In the
past several years, a handful of cities have established offices and positions dedicated to the issue
41 Jessica Abbinett, Paul J. Schramm, Stasia Widerynski, et al., CDC, “Heat Response Plans: Summary of Evidence and
Strategies for Collaboration and Implementation,” p. 34, https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/docs/
HeatResponsePlans_508.pdf.
42 Ibid., p. 36.
43 Ibid., p. 33.
44 Marc Weisskop et al., “Heat Wave Morbidity and Mortality, Milwaukee, Wis., 1999 vs 1995: An Improved
Response?” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 92, no. 5 (May 2002), pp. 830-833; Karen Smoyer, “A
Comparative Analysis of Heat Waves and Associated Mortality in St. Louis, Missouri—1980 and 1995,” International
Journal of Biometerology, vol. 42 (1998), pp. 44-50.
45 See, for example, State of Nevada Division of Industrial Relations, “Revised Adopted Regulation of the Division of
Industrial Relations of the Department of Business and Industry,” LCB Fil No. R053-20, https://www.leg.state.nv.us/
Register/RegsReviewed/$R053-20RA. Further efforts are described at the National Agriculture Law Center, “Recent
Federal and State Heat Safety Proposals,” September 21, 2023, https://nationalaglawcenter.org/recent-federal-andstate-heat-safety-proposals/. For further discussion of federal requirements for occupational safety related to extreme
heat, see CRS Insight IN11701, Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Regulation of Employee
Exposure to Heat, by Scott D. Szymendera.
46 See, for example, Arizona Department of Health Services, Managing Extreme Heat Recommendations for Schools:
Pilot Version, April 2021, https://www.azdhs.gov/documents/preparedness/epidemiology-disease-control/extremeweather/heat/managing-extreme-heat-recommendations-for-schools.pdf; and Alex Herrera, “Water, breaks, and limits:
Miami-Dade schools will enforce temperature protocols for athletes,” Health News Florida, August 23, 2023,
https://health.wusf.usf.edu/health-news-florida/2023-08-23/water-breaks-and-limits-miami-dade-schools-will-enforcetemperature-protocols-for-athlete. Further proposals are available in UCLA Luskin Center for Innovation, “Protecting
Californians with Heat-Resilient Schools,” policy brief, May 2023, https://innovation.luskin.ucla.edu/wp-content/
uploads/2023/05/Protecting-Californians-with-Heat-Resilient-Schools.pdf.
47 Tim Henderson, “Some States Act to Protect Residents from Extreme Heat—With a Focus on Young People,
Missouri Independent, November 27, 2023, https://missouriindependent.com/2023/11/27/some-states-act-to-protectresidents-from-extreme-heat-with-a-new-focus-on-young-people/.
48 For example, see Executive Office of the Mayor, “Mayor Bowser Activates Hot Weather Emergency for Wednesday,
July 26-Sunday, July 30,” July 25, 2023, https://mayor.dc.gov/release/mayor-bowser-activates-hot-weather-emergencywednesday-july-26-%E2%80%93-sunday-july-30; and City of Los Angeles Emergency Management Department,
“Extreme Heat,” https://emergency.lacity.gov/la-responds/heat#:~:text=
Rides%20to%20City%20Cooling%20Centers,LADOT%20Transit%20connections%20City%20facilities.
49 Stasia Widerynski et al., “The Use of Cooling Centers to Prevent Heat-Related Illness: Summary of Evidence and
Strategies for Implementation,” Climate and Health Technical Report Series, CDC, pp. 11-14, 17,
https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/docs/UseOfCoolingCenters.pdf.
50 Wesley Muller, “State Regulator Will Ask Louisiana Power Companies to Pause Shut-Offs in Extreme Heat,”
Louisiana Illuminator, August 15, 2023, https://lailluminator.com/2023/08/15/state-regulator-will-ask-louisiana-powercompanies-to-pause-shut-offs-in-extreme-heat/; Texas Administrative Code Title 16, Part II, Public Utility Commission
of Texas Substantive Rules Applicable to Electric Service Providers, Chapter §25.29(i); HHS Low Income Home
Energy Assistance Program Clearinghouse, “State Disconnect Policies,” https://liheapch.acf.hhs.gov/disconnect. For
more discussion, see CRS Report R47417, Electric Utility Disconnections, by Ashley J. Lawson and Claire Mills.
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of extreme heat—for example, the City of Phoenix’s Office of Heat Response and Mitigation.51 In
March 2024, the State of Arizona became the first to appoint a Chief Heat Officer.52
In addition to urgent response measures, some state and local agencies have also identified and
implemented long-term projects to reduce health risks posed by extreme heat, including
•
•
•
Providing shade cover (including tree canopy) for pedestrians, particularly in
urban areas;53
Providing chilled drinking water access in schools and public places;54 and
Increasing tree and vegetative cover over built surfaces (e.g., roofs and
pavement).55
These strategies may particularly benefit urban “heat islands”56 where built surfaces absorb and
re-emit heat in the absence of cooling, shade-creating vegetation.57
Gaps in Nonfederal Authorities and Resources for Extreme Heat Response
Despite some of the recent initiatives discussed above, most states do not have specific laws,
standards, or plans addressing extreme heat.58 Identified gaps or disparities in relevant state and
local emergency procedures and authorities include
•
Lack of a clearly identified party responsible for extreme heat preparedness,
response, and mitigation;59
51 See also The City of Los Angeles, “The City of LA’s First Chief Heat Officer and CEMO Director,”
https://www.climate4la.org/about/#chief-heat-officer; and City of Miami, “Chief Heat Officer,”
https://www.miamidade.gov/global/economy/environment/chief-heat-officer.page.
52 Office of Governor Katie Hobbs, “Governor Hobbs Announces Extreme Heat Preparedness Plan,” March 1, 2024,
https://azgovernor.gov/office-arizona-governor/news/2024/03/governor-hobbs-announces-extreme-heat-preparednessplan.
53 V. Kelly Turner et al., “Shade is an Essential Solution for Hotter Cities,” Nature, vol. 619, July 27, 2023, pp. 694697, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02311-3.
54 Testimony of David Hondula, Director of the Office of Heat Response and Mitigation, City of Phoenix, in U.S.
Senate, Committee on Environment and Public Works, Examining the Effects of Extreme Heat and Weather on
Transportation, hearing, 118th Cong., 1st sess., September 13, 2023, https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/
2023/9/examining-the-effects-of-extreme-heat-and-weather-on-transportation; Brian Stone Jr. et al., “How Blackouts
during Heat Waves Amplify Mortality Risk, Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 57 (2023), p. 8253.
55 See Nyla Holland, “Five Ways to Combat Extreme Temperatures on Urban Heat Islands,” Urban Institute,
September 7, 2022, https://housingmatters.urban.org/articles/five-ways-combat-extreme-temperatures-urban-heatislands.
56 See EPA, “Reduce Urban Heat Island Effect,” https://www.epa.gov/green-infrastructure/reduce-urban-heat-islandeffect.
57 EPA, “Heat Island Effect,” https://www.epa.gov/heatislands; Jeff Goodell, The Heat Will Kill You First, Chapter 3,
New York: Little, Brown, and Company, July 2023.
58 Ladd Keith et al, “Urban Heat Governance: Examining the Role of Urban Planning,” Journal of Environmental
Policy & Planning, vol. 25, no. 5, (2023), [[/ 642-662, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/
1523908X.2023.2244446.
59 See, for example, comments by David Hondula in FEMA, “Extreme Heat,” resilience webinar, July 12, 2023,
https://femahmawebinars.vfairs.com/en/ondemand-recordings; Sara Meerow and Ladd Keith, “Planning for Extreme
Heat: A National Survey of U.S. Planners,” Journal of the American Planning Association, vol. 88, no. 3 (2022), pp.
319-334, https://doi.org/10.1080/01944363.2021.1977682.
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•
•
Lack of insurance or other financial means to cover costs incurred by
governments or community healthcare systems for emergency response during an
episode of extreme heat;60
Insufficient focus on heat safety and a patchwork of relevant standards;61 and
Energy disconnection policies that vary widely across state and local
governments, posing risks that individuals may face disconnection—and lack of
access to climate control—during an episode of extreme heat.62
Federal Financial Assistance by Agency
The next section identifies select federal assistance potentially available through the Department
of Homeland Security (DHS), HHS, the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD),
the Department of Agriculture (USDA), the Department of Commerce, and other authorities for
certain extreme heat response and mitigation costs incurred by SLTTs, eligible community
organizations (e.g., nonprofit hospitals), and individuals. However, none of the federal assistance
programs listed below were specifically designed to provide assistance for extreme heat. Given
evolving and flexible program and grant guidelines, the information provided in this report may
not be comprehensive. Program applicability to each applicant or incident may vary.
Federal assistance for other costs related to extreme heat (e.g., infrastructure improvements,
assistance to individual survivors) may be available from other programs and agencies. Selected
programs through the Department of Energy to assist with electricity reliability and efficiency
that may reduce risks related to extreme heat events are summarized in Appendix A.63 Technical
assistance may also be available to communities for the purposes of extreme heat emergency
response, such as that provided by the EPA to develop cooling centers in public school facilities.64
Department of Homeland Security—FEMA
FEMA’s response, recovery, and Hazard Mitigation Assistance (HMA) programs could provide
funding to address risks from extreme heat.65
FEMA may provide assistance for heat-related response costs if the President issues an
emergency or major disaster declaration for extreme heat under the Robert T. Stafford Disaster
60 Berkeley Law Center for Law, Energy, and the Environment, Insuring Extreme Heat Risks, December 2020, pp. 13-
14, https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Insuring-Extreme-Heat-Risks-Dec-2020.pdf. Most
entities and individuals are not well insured against extreme heat according to broker Patrick Kelly, “Understanding
Extreme Heat: An Increasing Risk for People, Businesses, and Society,” Aon Insights, November 2, 2023,
https://www.aon.com/en/insights/articles/understanding-extreme-heat.
61 For more information on the federal role in establishing heat standards, see CRS Report R43969, OSHA State Plans:
In Brief, with Examples from California and Arizona, by Scott D. Szymendera.
62 See CRS Report R47417, Electric Utility Disconnections, by Ashley J. Lawson and Claire Mills; Matthew Flaherty,
Sanya Carley, and David M. Konisky, “Electric Utility Disconnection Policy and Vulnerable Populations,” The
Electricity Journal, vol. 33, no.10 (December 2020) 106859, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/
S1040619020301512?via%3Dihub.
63 See CRS In Focus IF11921, Surface Transportation and Climate Change: Provisions in the Infrastructure
Investment and Jobs Act (P.L. 117-58), by William J. Mallett; and CRS Insight IN11988, FEMA IHP Assistance for
Extreme Heat: Considerations and Limitations, by Elizabeth M. Webster.
64 EPA, “EPA to Help Schools in Four Communities Become Cleaner Air and Cooling Centers,” October 29, 2021,
https://www.epa.gov/newsreleases/epa-help-schools-four-communities-become-cleaner-air-and-cooling-centers.
65 See related discussion in FEMA, “Hazard Mitigation Assistance Guidance,” February 27, 2015,
https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/2020-07/fy15_HMA_Guidance.pdf.
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Relief and Emergency Assistance Act (the Stafford Act; P.L. 93-288, as amended).66 However,
past Presidents have denied all requests for Stafford Act declarations for extreme heat:67
•
•
In 1980, Governor Joseph Teasdale of Missouri requested two major disaster
declarations for extreme heat and drought. A FEMA representative reported that
the initial request was denied because “‘the severity and magnitude of the
situation did not warrant a declaration under the Disaster Relief Act’ and
explained that the severity must be beyond the ability of state government to
handle before the federal government [would] step in.”68
In 1995, Governor Jim Edgar requested a major disaster declaration for a
Chicago heat wave that had directly caused over 500 deaths (scholars have since
put the number above 700).69 FEMA, state, and local officials conducted a
preliminary damage assessment that tallied costs incurred due to the fatalities and
emergency response costs, as well as some structural damage to O’Hare
International Airport.70 President Clinton denied the request; FEMA’s thenAdministrator explained that the event was “not of a severity and magnitude”
required of a major disaster.71
Additionally, governors have requested Stafford Act declarations for incidents caused or
exacerbated by extreme heat. For example, in October 2022, Governor Gavin Newsom requested
a major disaster declaration for the 2022 heat dome and resulting wildfires.72 FEMA denied the
request,73 and subsequent appeal,74 finding that “the damage from this event was not of such
severity and magnitude” to warrant a major disaster declaration.75 FEMA further reported to CRS
that the agency does not consider the request to be for the heat dome, as the wildfires caused the
damage for which the state sought assistance and “FEMA precedent is to evaluate discrete events
and impacts, not seasonal or general atmospheric conditions.”76
66 42 U.S.C. §§5121 et seq.
67 FEMA email to CRS, January 26, 2024 and April 8, 2024.
68 “Carter Rejects Initial Bid for Heat Aid,” Associated Press, July 29, 1980; “Heat and Drought Conditions in the
United States,” in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1980-81, Book 2—May 24 to
September 26, 1980 (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1982), pp. 1345-1346 and 1421-1423.
69 Letter from Illinois Governor Jim Edgar to President William J. Clinton, July 24, 1995, provided to CRS by FEMA
Congressional Affairs Division.
70 Letter from FEMA Administrator James Lee Witt to Illinois Governor Jim Edgar, August 7, 1995, provided to CRS
by FEMA Congressional Affairs Division..
71 Letter from FEMA Administrator James Lee Witt to Illinois Governor Jim Edgar, August 7, 1995, provided to CRS
by FEMA Congressional Affairs Division..
72 Letter from California Governor Gavin Newsom to President Joseph R. Biden, Jr, October 26, 2022,
https://www.gov.ca.gov/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/Heat-Dome-Fires-Request.pdf?emrc=a4a383.
73 Letter from FEMA Administrator Deanne Criswell to California Governor Gavin Newsom, February 3, 2023,
provided to CRS from FEMA Congressional Affairs Division.
74 Letter from FEMA Administrator Deanne Criswell to California Governor Gavin Newsom, May 9, 2023, provided to
CRS from FEMA Congressional Affairs Division.
75 Additional examples of Stafford Act declaration requests citing heat as an underlying factor in a disaster include
Letter from Washington Governor Jay Inslee to President Joseph R. Biden, Jr., October 4, 2023,
https://content.govdelivery.com/attachments/WAGOV/2023/10/04/file_attachments/2637406/
Spokane%20County%20Fires%20Major%20Disaster%20Declaration%20Request%2010.04.2023.pdf, and Letter from
California Governor Gavin Newsom to President Donald J. Trump, September 28, 2020.
76 FEMA Congressional Affairs Division, email correspondence to CRS, April 9, 2024.
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For more information on federal assistance provided in past episodes of extreme heat, see
Appendix B.
Despite this history, past Presidents and recent FEMA officials have affirmed the potential
relevance of the Stafford Act to extreme heat. President George W. Bush did declare emergencies
for several states for power outages in August 2003 following supply strains attributed, in part, to
air-conditioning use during extreme heat.77 In September 2023, FEMA Administrator Deanne
Criswell testified before Congress that the Stafford Act could be activated to provide assistance
for extreme heat if warranted, after being asked whether the statue required amending for this
purpose:
The Stafford Act does not need to be amended to include extreme heat. We base our
decisions on a number of factors, mostly on what—does it exceed the capacity of the state
and local jurisdictions. If the response to an extreme heat incident exceeds the capacity of
a state and local jurisdiction, they are very open to submit a disaster declaration request.
And we will consider that based on whether or not it exceeds their capacity.78
Five FEMA programs could offer assistance for costs associated with extreme heat response, if
authorized.
Public Assistance (PA)79
CRS Expert: Erica Lee
•
FEMA’s Public Assistance program provides financial and direct assistance (e.g.,
materials, operational support, personnel) to SLTTs and eligible nonprofits when
authorized by the President through a Stafford Act declaration.80 Subject to
agency discretion, FEMA may provide reimbursement or direct assistance for
emergency protective measures, including “sheltering,” which could potentially
include cooling centers, as well as emergency food, water, or medical care, and
risk communication.81
77 See “Ohio Power Outage (EM-3187-OH),” “New Jersey Power Outage (EM-3188-NJ),” “Michigan Power Outage
(EM_3189-MI),” “New York Power Outage (EM-3186-NY),” at FEMA, “Declared Disasters,” https://www.fema.gov/
disaster/declarations?field_dv2_state_territory_tribal_value=All&field_year_value=2003&
field_dv2_declaration_type_value=All&field_dv2_incident_type_target_id_selective=49142; Jeremy Dillon and
Edward Klump, “Heat Wave Slams the Grid. Here’s What to Know,” Politico Pro, July 22, 2019,
https://subscriber.politicopro.com/article/eenews/1060771407; and JR Minkel, “The 2003 Northeast Blackout—Five
Years Later,” Scientific American, August 13, 2008, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/2003-blackout-fiveyears-later/; U.S.-Canada Power System Outage Task Force, “Final Report on the August 14, 2003 Blackout in the
United States and Canada: Causes and Recommendations,” March 2004, pp. 25, D:\0myfiles\DOE Policy (LBL)
Blackout Final\final-blackout-body-xx.vp (energy.gov).
78 FEMA Administrator Deanne Criswell, testimony, U.S. Congress, House Transportation and Infrastructure,
Subcommittee on Economic Development, Public Buildings and Emergency Management, FEMA: The Current State
of Disaster Readiness, Response, and Recovery, 118th Cong., 1st sess., September 19, 2023,
https://transportation.house.gov/calendar/eventsingle.aspx?EventID=406854.
79 FEMA, “Assistance for Governments and Private Non-Profits After a Disaster,” last updated August 7, 2020,
https://www.fema.gov/assistance/public.
80 For more information, see CRS Report R46749, FEMA’s Public Assistance Program: A Primer and Considerations
for Congress, by Erica A. Lee.
81 FEMA, Public Assistance Program and Policy Guide V. 4.0, June 1, 2020, pp. 120-121, https://www.fema.gov/sites/
default/files/documents/fema_pappg-v4-updated-links_policy_6-1-2020.pdf.
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Individual Assistance (IA)
CRS Expert: Elizabeth Webster
•
When the Individual Assistance program is authorized by the President pursuant
a Stafford Act declaration, FEMA may provide financial assistance for housing
and/or other needs (referred to as Other Needs Assistance or ONA) to disaster
survivors through the Individuals and Households Program (IHP). In certain
cases, FEMA may be able to provide Assistance for Miscellaneous Items, a form
of IHP-ONA, to eligible individuals to reimburse the costs of purchasing new AC
units and/or electrical fans to assist their disaster recovery. Other forms of IHP
assistance only permit FEMA to provide funding to repair or replace an HVAC,
air conditioning (AC) units, and/or electric fans that were owned prior to, and
were damaged by, the declared emergency or major disaster, including through
Home Repair Assistance and Personal Property Assistance.82
Hazard Mitigation Grant Program (HMGP)83
CRS Expert: Diane Horn
•
Following a declaration of any Stafford Act major disaster84 or Fire Management
Assistance Grant (FMAG),85 HMGP is awarded as a formula grant to states based
on estimated federal assistance per declaration or FMAG, subject to a sliding
scale.86 Funds may be used for eligible activities irrespective of the hazard or
area for which the grant was awarded. For example, while one county may use
funding allocated following a flooding incident in one county, another county
could use funding for eligible mitigation measures of extreme heat.87 FEMA has
clarified that HMGP can be used for mitigation planning and projects that reduce
risk of extreme heat.88
82 For more information on assistance FEMA may provide to individuals and households through the Individuals and
Households Program (IHP) that may help address the threat of extreme heat, see CRS Insight IN11988, FEMA IHP
Assistance for Extreme Heat: Considerations and Limitations, by Elizabeth M. Webster. For specific assistance
requirements, including related to IHP program eligibility and limitations, see FEMA’s Individual Assistance Program
and Policy Guide, v. 1.1, FP 104-009-03, May 2021, https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_iappg1.1.pdf.
83 FEMA, “Hazard Mitigation Grant Program,” last updated May 4, 2022, https://www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation/
hazard-mitigation. For more information, see CRS Insight IN11187, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
Hazard Mitigation Assistance, by Diane P. Horn.
84 FEMA, “How a Disaster Gets Declared,” last updated January 4, 2022, https://www.fema.gov/disaster/how-declared.
85 FEMA, “Fire Management Assistance Grants,” last updated April 8, 2022, https://www.fema.gov/assistance/public/
fire-management-assistance.
86 42 U.S.C. §5170c.
87 FEMA, “Hazard Mitigation Assistance Guidance,” February 27, 2015, https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/
2020-07/fy15_HMA_Guidance.pdf.
88 FEMA, “Mitigating the Risk of Extreme Temperatures with Hazard Mitigation Assistance Funds,” fact sheet,
Mitigating the Risk of Extreme Temperatures with Hazard Mitigation Assistance Funds (fema.gov).
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Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC)89
CRS Expert: Diane Horn
•
The Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC) program provides
financial and direct assistance (e.g., personnel) to SLTTs undertaking risk
mitigation activities to reduce the threat of future disaster-related losses of life
and property. BRIC is a pre-disaster mitigation grant and, as such, does not
require a declaration. It is awarded competitively to communities on an annual
basis. FEMA guidance notes that BRIC funds may be available to cover the cost
of plans to mitigate the effects of extreme heat, providing emergency power to
cooling centers, and implementing long-term building projects to reduce the risk
of extreme heat (e.g., providing shade in public places).90
Emergency Management Performance Grant (EMPG)91
CRS Expert: Shawn Reese
•
Emergency Management Performance Grant (EMPG) funds are available on a
formula basis to all states, territories, and the District of Columbia, and do not
require a Stafford Act declaration.92 EMPG provides federal funds to states to
assist SLTTs in preparing for all hazards in accordance with the National
Preparedness System.93 FEMA says the EMPG program for FY2023 will support
the agency’s focus on preparedness for all hazards, including evolving threats and
risks associated with climate change.94 As in 2022, the 2023 EMPG Notice of
Funding Opportunity states that “emergency managers must learn to manage and
support climate-related emergencies such as drought and extreme heat.”95
Department of Health and Human Services
Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response (ASPR)
The Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response (ASPR) administers a suite of
programs that aim to bolster the ability of hospitals, health care facilities, and health care systems
89 FEMA, “Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC),” last updated April 25, 2022,
https://www.fema.gov/grants/mitigation/building-resilient-infrastructure-communities. For more information, see CRS
Insight IN11515, FEMA Pre-Disaster Mitigation: The Building Resilient Infrastructure and Communities (BRIC)
Program, by Diane P. Horn.
90 FEMA, “Mitigating the Risk of Extreme Temperatures with Hazard Mitigation Assistance Funds,” October 2022,
https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_extreme-heat-fact-sheet_102022.pdf.
91 FEMA, “Emergency Management Performance Grant,” last updated May 13, 2022, https://www.fema.gov/grants/
preparedness/emergency-management-performance.
92 For more information, see CRS Report R44669, Department of Homeland Security Preparedness Grants: A
Summary and Issues, by Shawn Reese.
93 See CRS Report R46696, National Preparedness: A Summary and Select Issues, by Shawn Reese and Lauren R.
Stienstra.
94 FEMA, Manual (FM) 207-22-0001 Fiscal Year 2023 Preparedness Grants, p. H-33, https://www.fema.gov/sites/
default/files/documents/fema_gpd-fy-23-preparedness-grants-manual.pdf.
95 FEMA, “The Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Notice of Funding Opportunity (NOFO) Fiscal Year 2023
Emergency Management Performance Grant (EMPG) Program,” February 27, 2023, https://www.fema.gov/grants/
preparedness/emergency-management-performance/fy-23-nofo.
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to prepare for and respond to public health emergencies.96 In addition to providing technical
assistance and education, ASPR also provides funds through grants and cooperative agreements.
While these funds are generally designed to bolster the preparedness and response capacities of
recipients, they can sometimes be used to respond to emergencies. Specifically, certain ASPR
programs may cover emergency response costs associated with extreme heat.
Hospital Preparedness Program97
CRS Expert: Hassan Sheikh
•
The Hospital Preparedness Program (HPP) provides assistance to all 50 states,
eight territories and freely associated states, three metropolitan areas and the
District of Columbia. Recipients are to use these funds to support health care
preparedness capabilities for disasters and the development and enhancement of
health care coalitions within their jurisdictions. These funds can be used to
support preparedness efforts for extreme weather events, including extreme
heat.98 In certain instances, these funds can also be used to support emergency
response efforts.99
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
Recipients of certain CDC grants may use some funds to prepare for or respond to extreme heat.
These funds are generally designed to increase public health planning or preparedness capacity.
However, in certain circumstances, funds can be used for response costs. Depending on the grant,
funded activities can include emergency planning, health communication, data surveillance and
analysis, and efforts to identify and assist at-risk individuals. The following provides an overview
of selected relevant CDC grant programs.
Public Health Emergency Preparedness (PHEP) Cooperative Agreement100
CRS Expert: Hassan Sheikh
•
The Public Health Emergency Preparedness (PHEP) Cooperative Agreement
provides assistance to 62 state, local, and territorial public health departments101
to strengthen public health preparedness and response capacity. PHEP
Cooperative Agreement recipients engage in activities that align with the Public
Health Emergency Preparedness and Response Capabilities, which allow for an
all-hazards approach to responding to public health emergencies and the public
96 Administration for Strategic Preparedness and Response (ASPR), “ASPR Health Care Readiness Programs
Portfolio,” last reviewed August 15, 2023, https://aspr.hhs.gov/_catalogs/masterpage/ASPR/Documents/
Health%20Care%20Readiness%20Programs/HCRP-Portfolio-Fact-Sheet-508.pdf.
97 ASPR, “About the Hospital Preparedness Program,” last reviewed August 15, 2023, https://aspr.hhs.gov/
HealthCareReadiness/HPP/Pages/about-hpp.aspx.
98 Ibid., pp. 58-59.
99 ASPR, “U.S. Department of Health and Human services, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and
Response, Hospital Preparedness Program (HPP), Funding Opportunity Announcement and Grant Application
Instructions,” 2019, p. 21, https://www.grantsolutions.gov/gs/preaward/previewPublicAnnouncement.do?id=63163.
100 CDC, “Public Health Emergency Preparedness (PHEP) Cooperative Agreement,” last reviewed April 22, 2022,
https://www.cdc.gov/cpr/readiness/phep.htm.
101 CDC, PHEP Budget Period 2 (Fiscal Year 2020) Funding, https://www.cdc.gov/cpr/readiness/00_docs/
CDC_PHEP-FY-2020_Budget-Period-2_Funding-Table_final.pdf.
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health consequences of traditional disasters.102 Recipients can use funds to
prepare for and respond to extreme weather, including heat events.103
Climate-Ready States & Cities Initiative104
CRS Expert: Kavya Sekar
•
The Climate-Ready States & Cities Initiative funds grantees’ efforts to identify
local climate change effects, potential health effects, at-risk populations, and
potential mitigating interventions. Funds may be used for climate-related health
planning activities. Currently, the Initiative funds 11 jurisdictions, including state,
county, and local governmental agencies.105 A separate but related Climate-Ready
Tribes Program funds a similar grant for three American Indian and Alaska
Native (AI/AN) tribes (administered by the National Indian Health Board and
funded by CDC).106
Preventive Health and Health Services (PHHS) Block Grant107
CRS Expert: Kavya Sekar
•
The Preventive Health and Health Services (PHHS) Block Grant is a flexible
block grant to 61 health jurisdictions that allows grantees to address the unique
and emerging public health needs of their communities, which could include
those related to extreme heat.108
Administration for Children and Families
Community Services Block Grant (CSBG)109
CRS Expert: Conor Boyle
•
The Community Services Block Grant (CSBG) provides flexible funding to
states, territories, and tribes for distribution to local agencies to support
102 CDC, Public Health Emergency Preparedness and Response Capabilities: National Standards for State, Local,
Tribal, and Territorial Public Health, Atlanta, GA, October 2018, https://www.cdc.gov/cpr/readiness/00_docs/
CDC_PreparednesResponseCapabilities_October2018_Final_508.pdf.
103 See, for example, CDC, Public Health Emergency Preparedness Cooperative Agreement Budget Period 1
Performance Measure Specifications and Implementation Guidance Version 1, https://www.cdc.gov/cpr/readiness/
00_docs/PHEP_BP1-2017PerformanceMeasureGuidance_508-FINAL.PDF.
104 CDC, “CDC’s Climate-Ready States and Cities Initiative,” last reviewed November 4, 2021, https://www.cdc.gov/
climateandhealth/climate_ready.htm.
105 CDC, “Climate-Ready States and Cities Initiative Grant Recipients,” last reviewed September 30, 2021,
https://www.cdc.gov/climateandhealth/crsci_grantees.htm.
106 National Indian Health Board, “Climate Ready Tribes,” https://www.nihb.org/public_health/
climate_ready_tribes.php.
107 CDC, “Public Health Professionals Gateway: Preventive Health and Health Services (PHHS) Block Grant,” last
reviewed March 1, 2022, https://www.cdc.gov/phhsblockgrant/index.htm.
108 CDC, “PHHS Block Grant Program Contacts,” last reviewed March 4, 2022, https://www.cdc.gov/phhsblockgrant/
phhscontacts.htm.
109 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS), Office of Community Services, “Community Services
Block Grant (CSBG),” last reviewed April 27, 2022, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ocs/programs/community-servicesblock-grant-csbg.
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community-based activities to reduce poverty.110 Funds may be used for
emergency assistance, which may include cooling center operations.
Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP)111
CRS Expert: Libby Perl
•
The Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) is a flexible block
grant to states, tribes, and territories for operating home energy assistance
programs for low-income households.112 Grantees113 may use funds to pay for
heating and cooling costs, crisis assistance, weatherization assistance, and
services to reduce the need for energy assistance. HHS has issued memoranda
stating that grantees may use funds to establish and operate cooling centers and
provide air-conditioning units to eligible households, among other activities to
prevent heat stress.114 In addition, HHS has established a LIHEAP and Heat
Stress Geographic Information System Dashboard, which includes historical
temperature data, information on the effects of extreme heat on health, and ways
in which LIHEAP can help.115 Several Presidents have used LIHEAP to deliver
emergency assistance for extreme heat, as detailed in Appendix B.
Department of Housing and Urban Development
Community Development Block Grant Program (CDBG)116
CRS Expert: Joe Jaroscak
•
The Community Development Block Grant Program (CDBG) provides flexible
federal funding to states and localities to support economic development,
community development, and infrastructure.117 In some cases, CDBG grantees
could target or reprogram funds to prepare for or respond to extreme heat events.
In particular CDBG funds could support the development or rehabilitation of
110 HHS Office of Community Services, “CSBG Map State and Territory Grantee Contact Information,” last reviewed
April 27, 2022, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ocs/map/csbg-map-state-and-territory-grantee-contact-information.
111 HHS Office of Community Services, “Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP),” last reviewed
February 13, 2024, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ocs/low-income-home-energy-assistance-program-liheap.
112 For more information on LIHEAP, see CRS Report RL31865, LIHEAP: Program and Funding, by Libby Perl.
113 HHS Office of Community Services, “LIHEAP Map State and Territory Contact Listing,” last reviewed February
13, 2024, https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ocs/map/liheap-map-state-and-territory-contact-listing.
114 HHS Office of Community Services, “LIHEAP IM-2022-06 Heat Stress Flexibilities and Resources,” July 19, 2022,
https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ocs/policy-guidance/liheap-im-2022-06-heat-stress-flexibilities-and-resources-fy2022.
115 HHS Office of Community Services, “LIHEAP DC-2022-11 Heat Stress FY2022,” April 22, 2022,
https://www.acf.hhs.gov/ocs/policy-guidance/liheap-dcl-2022-11-heat-stress-fy2022. The dashboard is available at
https://liheap-and-extreme-heat-hhs-acf.hub.arcgis.com/, last reviewed February 13, 2024.
116 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), “Community Development Block Grant Program,”
content current as of June 8, 2021, https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/comm_planning/cdbg.
117 HUD Exchange, “Community Development Block Grant Program,” https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/cdbg/.
For more information, see CRS Report R43520, Community Development Block Grants and Related Programs: A
Primer, by Joseph V. Jaroscak.
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public facilities,118 or the provision of public services119 to meet specific
community needs related to heat events, if compliant with one of the program’s
three national objectives and all relevant requirements.120
CDBG—Disaster Recovery (CDBG-DR)121
CRS Expert: Joe Jaroscak
•
Congress has provided for supplemental appropriations using CDBG authorities
for disaster recovery (CDBG-DR), or in response to other emergency events.
Emergencies may potentially include extreme heat. In February 2018, Congress
dedicated funds to mitigate against future disaster risk (CDBG-MIT) following
some incidents; this could serve as a model for extreme heat mitigation
resilience.122
The Indian Community Development Block Grant (ICDBG)123
CRS Expert: Joe Jaroscak
•
The Indian Community Development Block Grant (ICDBG) provides economic
development and urgent needs funding to federally recognized tribal nations and
Alaska Native villages. ICDBG funding is awarded in two categories: (1)
competitive community and economic development grants allow for a variety of
uses, including potentially extreme heat mitigation; and (2) noncompetitive
imminent threat grants address issues posing an urgent threat to the public health
or safety of tribal residents, which could also respond to extreme heat incidents
or their aftermath.
Department of Agriculture
CRS Expert: Lisa Benson
•
USDA Rural Development may provide assistance for certain kinds of projects in
qualifying rural areas.124 For example, USDA Community Facilities Programs
118 HUD, Guide to National Objectives and Eligible Activities for CDBG Entitlement Communities, “Chapter 2:
Categories of Eligible Activities,” February 2001, pp. 2-11 through 2-12, https://www.hudexchange.info/sites/onecpd/
assets/File/CDBG-National-Objectives-Eligible-Activities-Chapter-2.pdf.
119 Ibid., p. 2-22.
120 HUD Exchange, “Guide to National Objectives and Eligible Activities for CDBG Entitlement Communities,”
February 2001, https://www.hudexchange.info/resource/89/community-development-block-grant-program-cdbg-guideto-national-objectives-and-eligible-activities-for-entitlement-communities/.
121 HUD Exchange, “Community Development Block Grant Disaster Recovery Program,”
https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/cdbg-dr/. For more information, see CRS Report R46475, The Community
Development Block Grant’s Disaster Recovery (CDBG-DR) Component: Background and Issues, by Joseph V.
Jaroscak.
122 See CRS In Focus IF11814, Disaster Resilience Investments: Community Development Block Grant Authorities for
Mitigation (CDBG-MIT), by Joseph V. Jaroscak; and HUD Exchange, “Community Development Block Grant
Mitigation Program,” https://www.hudexchange.info/programs/cdbg-mit/.
123 HUD, “Indian Community Development Block Grant Program,” https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/
public_indian_housing/ih/grants/icdbg.
124 U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), “Rural Development,” https://www.rd.usda.gov/.
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(such as Community Facilities Direct Loans and Grants)125 assist with developing
or improving essential public services and facilities; these funds might be used
for efforts related to community emergency shelters and cooling centers.126 The
USDA Disaster Resource Center also gives timely information on assistance to
communities affected by severe weather events and other disasters and
emergencies.127 (See Rural Development State Offices for contacts.128)
Department of Commerce
Economic Development Administration (EDA)—Disaster Recovery129
CRS Expert: Julie Lawhorn
•
In response to some major disasters and emergencies, Congress has provided
supplemental funding for long-term disaster recovery for selected incidents under
the Economic Development Administration’s (EDA’s) economic adjustment
assistance (EAA) program. The EAA program supports a variety of activities,
including expenses related to disaster relief, the restoration of infrastructure,
flood mitigation, and other forms of assistance for specific areas. EDA directs
prospective applicants to demonstrate how projects may facilitate resilience to
future disruptions including extreme heat. For instance, funding could be used for
the development and construction of resilient infrastructure and buildings to
mitigate future risk and vulnerability, including from impacts of climate
change.130
Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities131
CRS Expert: Julie Lawhorn
•
Congress authorized eight federal regional commissions and authorities to
address instances of major economic distress in certain defined socioeconomic
regions. Of the eight authorized federal regional commissions and authorities,
five could be considered active and functioning as of the date of publication:
125 USDA, “Community Facilities Direct Loan & Grant Program,” https://www.rd.usda.gov/programs-services/
community-facilities/community-facilities-direct-loan-grant-program.
126 USDA, “Community Facilities Programs,” https://www.rd.usda.gov/programs-services/all-programs/communityfacilities-programs.
127 USDA, “Disaster Resource Center,” https://www.usda.gov/topics/disaster-resource-center.
128 USDA, “State Offices,” https://www.rd.usda.gov/about-rd/state-offices#.
129 U.S. Department of Commerce Economic Development Administration (EDA), “Disaster Recovery,”
https://www.eda.gov/strategic-initiatives/disaster-recovery. See also 42 U.S.C. §§3149(c)(2), 3233. EDA grants are
awarded on a competitive basis to states, cities, counties, tribal governments, economic development districts (EDDs),
and other political subdivisions of states, as well as institutions of higher education or a consortium of such institutions,
and not-for-profit organizations acting in cooperation with officials of a political subdivision of a state (i.e., eligible
recipients). For the authorization of appropriations for EDA’s disaster economic recovery activities, see section 703 of
the Public Works and Economic Development Act of 1965, as amended (PWEDA, 42 U.S.C. §3233).
130 See, for example, EDA, “FY 2023 Disaster Supplemental NOFO,” https://www.grants.gov/web/grants/viewopportunity.html?oppId=347414.
131 See CRS Report R45997, Federal Regional Commissions and Authorities: Structural Features and Function, by
Julie M. Lawhorn.
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Appalachian Regional Commission (ARC);132 Delta Regional Authority
(DRA);133 Denali Commission;134 Northern Border Regional Commission
(NBRC);135 and Southeast Crescent Regional Commission (SCRC).136 As
chartered federal-state partnerships, the federal regional commissions receive
appropriated funds, which they sub-allocate for community and economic
development purposes in their respective service areas. These funds are generally
flexible, and can be used to address a variety of community and economic
development purposes, including pre- and post-disaster hazard mitigation uses
related to extreme heat or other climate-related issues. Previously, grant funding
has been used to respond to natural disasters and the COVID-19 pandemic.
Defense Production Act of 1950 (DPA)137
CRS Experts: Luke Nicastro, Alex Neenan, and Adam Levin
•
The Defense Production Act of 1950 (DPA) provides the President with the
authority to mobilize the domestic economy in service of the national defense,
broadly defined, which may include emergency management and disaster
recovery purposes. The DPA generally does not provide direct financial
assistance to SLTTs. However, it does allow the federal government to intervene
in the civilian economy to facilitate the provision, movement, and expanded
production of critical goods, materials, and services. During an extreme heat
event, DPA authorities could be used to procure and distribute supplies, or
provide resources to SLTTs to mitigate adverse effects.
Congressional Considerations
As the United States faces another projected season of extreme heat, Congress may consider the
following policy issues, among others.
Clarifying the Federal Role in Managing Extreme Heat
“Who is in charge of extreme heat?” is an ongoing question asked by emergency managers,
government officials, and members of the public.138 At least one recent study found that SLTT
public health entities like hospitals, health departments, and emergency services often end up
bearing the greatest responsibility for managing extreme heat response, planning, and costs.139
However, most jurisdictions do not designate a branch or official specifically responsible for
132 Appalachian Regional Commission, “Investing in Appalachia’s economic future,” https://www.arc.gov/.
133 Delta Regional Authority, “Delta Regional Authority,” https://dra.gov/.
134 Denali Commission, “Denali Commission,” https://www.denali.gov/.
135 Northern Border Regional Commission, “Northern Border Regional Commission,” https://www.nbrc.gov/.
136 Southeast Crescent Regional Commission, “Southeast Crescent Regional Commission,” https://scrc.gov/.
137 FEMA, “Defense Production Act,” last updated July 6, 2021, https://www.fema.gov/disaster/defense-production-
act.
138 See, for example, comments by David Hondula in FEMA, “Extreme Heat,” resilience webinar, July 12, 2023,
https://femahmawebinars.vfairs.com/en/ondemand-recordings.
139 Berkeley Law Center for Law, Energy, and the Environment, Insuring Extreme Heat Risks, December 2020, pp. 2627, https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Insuring-Extreme-Heat-Risks-Dec-2020.pdf.
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extreme heat response and/or mitigation.140 No federal agency claims responsibility for managing
emergency preparedness and response to extreme heat, raising additional concern.141
According to a range of experts and advocates, this “governance gap” has confused response
efforts and increased risk to workers, students, and other members of the public.142 It may also
inhibit the design of new authorities, funds, or insurance policies to assist governments at all
levels in covering the costs associated with heatwaves.
Since at least the early 1980s, experts and some Members of Congress have called on the federal
government to assume a larger role in a national response program for extreme heat and
establishing standards to determine a heat-related death.143 The establishment of NIHHIS in 2015
cohered federal existing efforts to provide information on risks associated with extreme heat. Yet
some experts raise concern that the federal government’s role in extreme heat response remains
unclear.144 For example, in fall 2023, the Federation of American Scientists (FAS) launched a call
for policy ideas to support a coordinated federal role in managing risks from extreme heat; FAS
held a summit among participants in March 2024 that has put forth new ideas for Congress to
monitor.145
Amid these debates, Congress may clarify what—if any—role the federal government should
take in extreme heat events. Should Congress affirm the federal government’s role in assisting
with extreme heat response, it may seek to clearly delineate a lead agency, key authorities, and
relevant funding mechanisms to avoid confusion seen around federal interventions in other public
health incidents, including the COVID-19 pandemic.146 However, some may argue that scarce
federal resources may become overburdened should the federal government assume a larger role
in such incidents—both due to the expected frequency of extreme heat events, and because
federal emergency response funding and personnel have been strained in recent years.147
140 Ladd Keith et al, “Urban Heat Governance: Examining the Role of Urban Planning,” Journal of Environmental
Policy & Planning, vol. 25, no. 5 (2023), pp. 642-662, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/
1523908X.2023.2244446.
141 See, for example, Ladd Keith et al., “Deploy Heat Officers, Polices, and Metrics,” October 5, 2021, comment,
Nature, vol. 598, pp. 39-31, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02677-2; Ladd Keith et al, “Urban Heat
Governance: Examining the Role of Urban Planning,” Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, vol. 25, no. 5
(2023), pp. 642-662, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1523908X.2023.2244446. Extreme heat is not
referenced in the National Response Framework, the federal government’s doctrine for all types of incidents.
142 Barbara Barrett, “States Decline Outdoor Workers’ Breaks Despite Heat,” Governing, June 22, 2023;
https://www.governing.com/work/states-decline-outdoor-workers-breaks-despite-extreme-heat.
143 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Aging, Heat Stress and Older Americans: Problems and Solutions, S.Prt. 9876, 98th Cong., 1st sess., July 1983, p. 7; Stanley Changnon, Kenneth Kunkel and Beth Reinke, “Impacts and Responses
to the 1995 Heat Wave: A Call to Action,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, vol. 77, no. 7, July 1996.
144 Ladd Keith et al., “Ladd Keith et al., “Deploy Heat Officers, Polices, and Metrics,” October 5, 2021, comment,
Nature, vol. 598, pp. 39-31, https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-02677-2; Doug Parsons, “Climate Change
and Extreme Heat End of Summer Episode with Dr. Kelly Turner and Dr. Ladd Keith,” America Adapts Podcast,
September 11, 2023, https://www.americaadapts.org/episodes/climate-change-and-extreme-heat-end-of-summerepisode-with-dr-kelly-turner-and-dr-ladd-keith.
145 Federation of American Scientists, “An Open Call for Policy Ideas to Tackle the Extreme Heat Crisis,” August 14,
2023, https://fas.org/accelerator/extreme-heat-policy-challenge/; and “Hot Policy Ideas to Tackle the Extreme Heat
Crisis,” March 31, 2024, https://fas.org/accelerator/extreme-heat-policy-challenge/.
146 For example, oversight bodies and stakeholders confused the roles of FEMA and HHS in the response to the
COVID-19 pandemic, another slow-onset, large-scale public health incident. See CRS Report R47048, FEMA’s Role in
the COVID-19 Federal Pandemic Response, coordinated by Erica A. Lee.
147 See, for example, GAO, “FEMA Disaster Workforce: Actions Needed to Improve Hiring Data and Address Staffing
Gaps,” GAO-23-105663, May 2, 2023; and CRS Report R47676, Disaster Relief Fund State of Play: In Brief, by
William L. Painter.
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For more information on federal assistance that has been provided for past episodes of extreme
heat, see Appendix B.
Adapting Existing Grant Programs to Extreme Heat Response
None of the federal assistance programs summarized in this report were specifically designed to
provide assistance for the impacts of extreme heat events.148 Further, previous uses of the above
programs for extreme heat response that CRS could identify were relatively limited in scope and
frequency. For example, while the LIHEAP statute authorizes “emergency contingency funds” for
distribution to one or more grantees in cases of “natural disaster and other emergency”149 (a
natural disaster includes “a weather event (relating to hot or cold weather)”),150 Congress has not
appropriated emergency contingency funds since FY2011, and FY2007 was the last year in which
funds were awarded to grantees (two states and tribes within those states) due to extreme heat.151
For more information on federal assistance that has been provided for past episodes of extreme
heat, see Appendix B.
Despite the relatively limited known use of federal assistance for extreme heat response, some
agencies appear to be directing existing programs more deliberately towards extreme heat
emergencies by modifying policies, guidance documents, and grantee communications. For
example, HUD released new guidance on the use of CDBG funds to assist during the Pacific
Northwest 2021 episode of extreme heat,152 and in late 2022 FEMA released guidance on how
communities could use existing mitigation funds to support resilience to extreme heat.153 In fall
2023, FEMA also launched a series of events publicizing potential mitigation resources for
extreme heat.154
These adaptations may enhance nonfederal capacity to respond to extreme heat. However, some
raise concerns that such actions divert resources away from the efforts for which these programs
were originally designed, or introduce undesirable competition for scarce funds.155 Some grant
programs may also be difficult for certain jurisdictions to access. For example, some local health
148 Given the lack of readily available data, it is unclear how the other listed programs have been consistently utilized
for extreme heat, despite their potential relevance. The absence of reporting and tracking requirements for some grants
hinder efforts to measure federal assistance historically provided for extreme heat response. For example, Community
Service Block Grant funds may fund subgrants to local organizations that do not require consistent reporting. For more
information, see CRS Report RL32872, Community Services Block Grants (CSBG): Background and Funding, by
Conor F. Boyle.
149 42 U.S.C. §8621(e).
150 42 U.S.C. §8622(7).
151 See the LIHEAP Clearinghouse compilation of emergency contingency fund awards, https://liheapch.acf.hhs.gov/
Funding/emrgfund.htm, last reviewed May 18, 2022. The LIHEAP Clearinghouse compiles and makes available
LIHEAP information via a contract with HHS.
152 HUD, “FAQs: CDBG Resources and Authorities to Help Pacific Northwest Communities Respond to Heat Waves
and Extreme Temperature Events,” June 29, 2021, https://www.hud.gov/sites/dfiles/CPD/documents/CDBG-FAQ-forheat-wave-support-v2.pdf.
153 FEMA, “Mitigating the Risk of Extreme Temperatures with Hazard Mitigation Assistance Funds,” October 2022,
https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_extreme-heat-fact-sheet_102022.pdf.
154 FEMA “Extreme Heat,” resilience webinar, July-August 2023, https://femahmawebinars.vfairs.com/en/ondemandrecordings.
155 For research on emergency preparedness funding, resource scarcity and competition, see Justeen Hyde et al., “Better
Prepared but Spread Too Thin: The Impact of Emergency Preparedness Funding on Local Public Health,” Disaster
Management & Response, vol. 4, no. 4, (Fall 2006), pp. 106-113; and Aaron Katz, Andrea Staiti and Kelly McKenzie,
“Preparing for the Unknown, Responding to the Known: Communities and Public Health Preparedness,” Health
Affairs, vol. 25, no. 4 (July 2006).
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jurisdictions may lack the workforce capacity and subject matter expertise to contend with an
increased focus on heat emergencies amid other public health threats.156
Congress may consider monitoring agency modifications to existing funding sources to
communicate such changes to nonfederal partners and potential grant recipients. Congress may
also consider appropriating new funds to support the expanded scope of existing programs.
Alternatively, Congress could discourage agencies from adapting existing grant programs given
the risk of resource competition, and instead address extreme heat through other means.
Stafford Act Declarations for Extreme Heat
Presidents have denied past requests for Stafford Act declarations for extreme heat (for further
discussion see “Department of Homeland Security—FEMA”). These denials align with historical
trends: Presidents generally have issued Stafford Act declarations for sudden-onset hazards that
caused structural damage (e.g., hurricanes and tornadoes).157 This pattern may be attributable to
regulatory authorities that primarily rely upon the costs of structural damages as thresholds for
particular forms of federal assistance,158 the applicability of assistance available under the
Stafford Act for extreme heat, and existing interpretations of events that qualify as major disasters
under the Stafford Act.159
Some recent declarations suggest these trends—and understandings of the scope of the Stafford
Act—are changing. For example, prior to 2020, the Stafford Act was rarely invoked for public
health incidents.160 In such instances, the President declared an emergency—a broadly defined
event eligible for less assistance than a major disaster.161 In 2020, President Donald J. Trump
issued 59 major disaster declarations for the COVID-19 pandemic, the first major disasters
declared for a public health incident under current law.162 Since then, President Biden has issued
Stafford Act emergency declarations for an influx of sargassum in the U.S. Virgin Islands,163 the
Mississippi water crisis,164 an intrusion of seawater into freshwater sources in Louisiana,165 and
lead and copper contamination of the water supply of the U.S. Virgin Islands,166 all which are
fairly novel declarations for ongoing incidents without extraordinary physical damage.
156 Justeen Hyde et al., “Better Prepared but Spread Too Thin: The Impact of Emergency Preparedness Funding on
Local Public Health,” Disaster Management & Response, vol. 4, no. 4, (Fall 2006), pp. 106-113.
157 See CRS Report R46749, FEMA’s Public Assistance Program: A Primer and Considerations for Congress, by Erica
A. Lee.
158 See CRS Insight IN11534, Will FEMA Recommend Public Assistance Following a Disaster? Proposed Rulemaking,
by Erica A. Lee. While FEMA’s Individual Assistance program does not use set damage “thresholds” that must be met
in order for assistance to become available, consideration is given to the uninsured and underinsured home and personal
property losses resulting from the incident that are eligible for certain forms of assistance, as well as certain measures
of the affected state or territory’s capacity and resources to manage the incident. See CRS Report R46014, FEMA
Individual Assistance Programs: An Overview, by Elizabeth M. Webster.
159 The Stafford Act defines a major disaster in part with a non-exclusive list of qualifying events that does not
currently include extreme heat, as well as other public health hazards. For further discussion, see CRS Insight IN11229,
Stafford Act Assistance for Public Health Incidents, by Erica A. Lee and Bruce R. Lindsay.
160 Ibid.
161 Ibid.
162 FEMA, “COVID-19 Declarations,” https://www.fema.gov/covid-19.
163 FEMA, “Virgin Islands; Emergency and Related Determinations,” 87 Federal Register 75059, December 7, 2022.
164
FEMA, “Mississippi: Emergency and Related Determinations,” 87 Federal Register 64510, October 25, 2022.
165 FEMA, “Louisiana: Emergency and Related Determinations,” 88 Federal Register 83566, November 30, 2023.
166 FEMA, “Virgin Islands; Emergency and Related Determinations,” 89 Federal Register 1114, January 9, 2024.
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The relevance of Stafford Act declaration for extreme heat has also attracted new attention. In
September 2023, FEMA Administrator Deanne Criswell affirmed that extreme heat was eligible
for Stafford Act assistance if an incident exceeded state and local capacity to respond and
recover.167 If Congress determines that the Stafford Act should be more clearly available for
extreme heat response, Congress could consider directing FEMA to give greater consideration to
casualties and other nonstructural losses when evaluating the need for Stafford Act declarations
and associated financial assistance for emergency response for hazards like extreme heat.168
Congress could also consider legislation introduced in the 118th Congress amending the definition
of a major disaster to explicitly include extreme heat events.169
Members of Congress concerned about how Stafford Act declarations for extreme heat could
strain FEMA’s existing response and recovery capacity and funding may consider other ways that
FEMA does and could reduce risks related to extreme heat.170
For example, FEMA could further incorporate extreme heat into hazard mitigation assistance and
requirements. In 2022, FEMA clarified that mitigation assistance available outside of a specific
incident or declaration could support heat-related preparedness and adaptation measures (e.g.,
development of heat emergency communications and response plans,171 installation of cool roofs
and shade structures)172 into existing requirements for governments applying for federal
assistance.173 This may encourage more nonfederal governments to prepare for and reduce future
costs and casualties associated with extreme heat. FEMA could take additional actions, for
example, requiring jurisdictions to incorporate heat health action plans into mitigation plans
required to be in place to access certain forms of Public Assistance and Hazard Mitigation
Assistance.174 Such a requirement could reorient attention towards the threat of extreme heat,
which most state hazard mitigation plans do not sufficiently consider.175 Similarly, Congress
could encourage FEMA to expand the forms of reasonable hazard mitigation measures it will
167 Testimony of David Hondula, Director of the Office of Heat Response and Mitigation, City of Phoenix, in U.S.
Senate, Committee on Environment and Public Works, Examining the Effects of Extreme Heat and Weather on
Transportation, hearing, 118th Cong., 1st sess., September 13, 2023, https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/
2023/9/examining-the-effects-of-extreme-heat-and-weather-on-transportation.
168 For discussion, see CRS Insight IN11696, Climate Change, Slow-Onset Disasters, and the Federal Emergency
Management Agency, by Diane P. Horn, Erica A. Lee, and Elizabeth M. Webster.
169 H.R. 3965
170 See, for example, concerns raised in U.S. Congress, House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure,
Disaster Readiness: Examining the Propriety of the Expanded Use of FEMA Resources, hearing, 118th Cong., 2nd sess.,
February 14, 2024, https://democrats-transportation.house.gov/committee-activity/hearings/03/05/2024/disasterreadiness-examining-the-propriety-of-the-expanded-use-of-fema-resources.
171 Lisa Zottarelli, Starla Blake, and Michelle Garza, “Communicating Heat-Health Information to the Public:
Assessing Municipal Government Extreme Heat Event Website Content,” Weather, Climate, and Society, vol. 14, no. 1
(February 2022).
172 Department of Energy, “Cool Roofs,” https://www.energy.gov/energysaver/cool-roofs; Ladd Keith and Sara
Meerow, Planning for Urban Heat Resilience, American Planning Association, PAS Report 600, April 2022,
https://planning-org-uploaded-media.s3.amazonaws.com/publication/download_pdf/PAS-Report-600-r1.pdf.
173 FEMA, “Mitigating the Risk of Extreme Temperatures with Hazard Mitigation Assistance Funds,” September 2022,
https://www.fema.gov/sites/default/files/documents/fema_extreme-heat-fact-sheet_102022.pdf.
174 44 C.F.R. §206.226. Sample heat emergency response plans include State of California, Protecting Californians
From Extreme Heat: A State Action Plan to Build Community Resilience, https://resources.ca.gov/-/media/CNRAWebsite/Files/Initiatives/Climate-Resilience/2022-Final-Extreme-Heat-Action-Plan.pdf, April 2022.
175 Jordan Clark and Ashley Ward, Defining Extreme Heat as a Hazard: A Review of Current State Hazard Mitigation
Plans, Duke University Nicholas Institute for Energy, Environment, and Sustainability, 2023,
https://nicholasinstitute.duke.edu/sites/default/files/publications/defining-extreme-heat-hazard-review-current-statehazard-mitigation-plans_0.pdf.
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fund through the Individuals and Households Program to include assistance for eligible extreme
heat measures (e.g., installing an air-conditioner in a disaster survivor’s home).176
Designing Federal Assistance for Emergency Response to Extreme Heat
An increase in heat-related deaths is among the first dangers to human health discussed in the
U.S. Global Change Research Program’s Fifth National Climate Assessment.177 Further, experts
project that extreme heat events are likely to become more frequent, severe, and longer in
duration, placing particular stress on populations living in urban areas.178
Extreme heat may also compound or increase risks of other hazards. For example, federal
officials have recently warned that extreme heat episodes may strain certain power supply
systems in the United States, leading to rolling blackouts or power losses.179 This could
precipitate additional threats to human health and safety as people lose access to air-conditioning
and critical electricity-dependent medical equipment.180 Some experts have underscored the
particular vulnerability of low-income residents who experience extreme heat as they may forgo
air-conditioning to avoid high energy costs, or experience electricity disconnection due to
nonpayment of electricity costs.181 These compound hazards are not easily incorporated into
federal incident management procedures designed to evaluate and manage discrete incidents.182
For these reasons, Congress may consider revising existing statutory authorities providing federal
assistance available for emergency response, or creating new authorities, to explicitly provide
assistance for emergency response to extreme heat. Under current law and practice, requests for
federal assistance for extreme heat response may compete with demands for emergency
assistance or preparedness for hazards that more commonly receive federal attention and
assistance; for example, hurricanes, terrorist attacks, or infectious disease incidents.
Congress could clarify the applicability of existing authorities to ensure the availability of federal
assistance for extreme heat. It could, for example, incorporate specific language directing or
176 Currently FEMA’s IHP Home Repair Assistance includes eligible hazard mitigation measures to withstand high
winds and prevent water infiltration and flood damage, as well as mitigation for individuals affected by wildfire
damage. In June 2021, FEMA announced initial mitigation measures that are eligible for Home Repair Assistance, and
in July 2022, FEMA announced additional eligible wildfire mitigation measures (FEMA, “Hazard Mitigation Under the
Individuals and Households Program,” press release, June 10, 2021, https://www.fema.gov/fact-sheet/hazardmitigation-under-individuals-and-households-program; FEMA, “FEMA to Provide Additional Hazard Mitigation
Funds to Help Homeowners Affected by Wildfires,” press release, HQ-22-089, July 28, 2022, https://www.fema.gov/
press-release/20220728/fema-provide-additional-hazard-mitigation-funds-help-homeowners-affected).
177 M.H. Hayden et al., “Human Health,” Chapter 15, Fifth National Climate Assessment, A.R. Crimmins et al., eds.,
U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2023.
178 David Dodman et al., “Cities, Settlements, and Key Infrastructure,” International Panel on Climate Change, Climate
Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability: Summary for Policymakers, Chapter 6, pp. 6-21–6-24.
179 North American Electric Reliability Corporation, “2023 Summer Reliability Assessment,” May 2023,
https://www.nerc.com/pa/RAPA/ra/Reliability%20Assessments%20DL/NERC_SRA_2023.pdf; U.S. Energy
Information Administration, “Two-Thirds of North America Is at Risk of Energy Shortfalls in High Summer Heat,
NERC Says,” June 26, 2023, https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=56920.
180 Brian Stone Jr. et al., “How Blackouts During Heat Waves Amplify Mortality and Morbidity Risk,” Environmental
Science and Technology, May 2023, https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.est.2c09588; Joan Casey et al., “Power
Outages and Community Health: A Narrative Review,” Current Environmental Health Reports, vol. 7, no. 4
(December 2020).
181 See Emmanuel Proussaloglou, Joseph Kane, and Adie Tomer, “Data Shows 23 Million Americans Live in Places
Most at Risk of Extreme Heat,” Brookings Institution, November 2, 2022, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/datashows-23-million-americans-live-in-places-most-at-risk-of-extreme-heat/.
182 For more information, see CRS In Focus IF12307, Understanding Linked Climate and Weather Hazards and the
Challenges to Federal Emergency Management, by Katie Hoover et al.
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incentivizing recipients to undertake measures for heat response, preparedness, and mitigation
into appropriations for HHS’s PHEP Cooperative Agreement. Alternatively, Congress could
provide new financial or operational assistance programs specifically designed to enhance the
ability of jurisdictions to respond to the threat of extreme heat and reduce the future risks to
public health and safety to avoid creating competition for resources in existing programs. For
example, Congress could authorize and appropriate an emergency fund deployed to provide
advance assistance for extreme heat incidents that meet a pre-determined severity or duration,
thereby eliminating the delays of assistance programs which depend upon damage assessments
and/or reimbursements. Alternatively, Congress could authorize a program providing direct
federal assistance (e.g., personnel, expertise) for nonfederal jurisdictions launching their own
extreme heat operations.
Congress may also weigh the potential fiscal demands of such new or clarified authorities to
provide assistance for extreme heat and the potential burdens placed on federal, state, and local
emergency response offices to execute such authorities. Some may prefer to retain existing
flexibilities so as to allow nonfederal governments and public health authorities to determine the
best use of existing grant funds.
Communicating and Increasing Public Understanding of Health Risks of
Extreme Heat
State and local governments’ preparedness and response to extreme heat has sometimes garnered
criticism, with some researchers finding that governments do not adequately plan, neglect plans
and previous experiences, and thus begin “from ‘scratch’” in each new incident.183 This may
result, in part, from officials’ lack of understanding of the human experience of and vulnerability
to heat,184 which many individuals lack as well.185 Without such understanding, individuals and
communities may fail to recognize and respond to the dangers of extreme heat until it is too late.
As a result, some stakeholders have called upon the federal government to enhance risk
awareness and “heat literacy” at the local level:
[E]ducation is a really important role that the Federal Government can play in supporting
resilience efforts at the local scale for heat or other hazards…. [A]gencies like NOAA, like
the CDC and others can be very helpful in building heat literacy at the local level,
understanding the design vocabulary, the specifications. What is the difference between air
temperature and surface temperature, for example? These are critical concepts that our
local leaders need to have ... to help our residents.186
Heat.gov aims to address this need by providing a central repository of tools and information on
heat health risks to vulnerable communities intended, in part, for emergency managers. Congress
183 R.S. Allexenberg, “Combatting the Heat Wave of 1980: Lessons for the Future,” Urban Health, vol. 10, no. 7,
(1981), https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10253341/; Michael T. Schemltz, “Extreme Heat Governance: A Critical
Analysis of Heat Action Plans in California,” American Journal of Public Health, vol. 113, no. 1, January 2023.
184 C. Wobus et al, “Reframing Future Risks of Extreme Heat in the United States, Earth’s Future, vol. 6, no. 9 (2018);
V. Kelly Turner et al., “Shade Is an Essential Solution for Hotter Cities,” Nature, July 26, 2023,
https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02311-3.
185 Peter Howe et al., “Public Perceptions of the Health Risks of Extreme Heat Across US States, Counties, and
Neighborhoods,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 116, no. 14 (March 12, 2019).
186 Testimony of David Hondula, Director of the Office of Heat Response and Mitigation, City of Phoenix, in U.S.
Senate, Committee on Environment and Public Works, Examining the Effects of Extreme Heat and Weather on
Transportation, 118th Cong., 1st sess., September 13, 2023, https://www.epw.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/2023/9/
examining-the-effects-of-extreme-heat-and-weather-on-transportation.
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may evaluate how affected communities use the resource, particularly during the 2024 summer
months.
Congress may consider whether, and how, federal agencies and experts could play additional
roles in ensuring members of the public are aware of their risk—for example, by establishing a
national information campaign about the risks of extreme heat, prioritizing heat-related projects
in competitive grant programs, providing training to nonfederal government officials, or
supporting mutual aid or other heat information-sharing mechanisms across local governments.
The federal government could, separately, establish a measure of extreme heat around which
emergency managers and governments may construct their own authorities or guidelines to
protect public health, or which could help individuals understand their own risk. Some recent
research suggests that extreme heat is a rising concern among many state and local jurisdictions
in the United States,187 perhaps precluding a more robust need for risk communication from the
federal government.
Insurance for Extreme Heat
Despite the costs they may incur due to extreme heat, state and local governments have few
relevant insurance policy options.188 For this reason, governments (and public and nonprofit
hospitals and other medical services) generally pay related costs on their own (e.g., uninsured
patient care, energy costs, structural damages, mortuary operations), particularly given the lack of
federal assistance generally available for extreme heat. The resulting costs could become
unmanageable in the face of more intense and frequent hot days.189
Insuring a government against extreme heat presents several difficulties, according to insurers
and policymakers.190 First, there is not always a clear party responsible for the effects of extreme
heat, as noted above.191 Second, exactly what is being insured in a government’s policy for
extreme heat is not as clearly defined as it may be for other hazards. While a city insures real
property against the risk of damages from hurricanes or tornados, how could it insure the welfare
and health of local residents against extreme heat?192
Amid these difficulties, insurers are exploring different ways for governments to protect
themselves against certain risks associated with extreme heat. For example, some have considered
187 For different perspectives on the incorporation of extreme heat in nonfederal emergency plans and the development
of heat action plans, see Ladd Keith et al., “Planning for Extreme Heat: A Review,” Journal of Extreme Events, vol. 6,
nos. 3-4 (2019); and V Kelly Turner et al., “How are Cities Planning for Heat? Analysis of United States Municipal
Plans,” Environmental Research Letters, vol. 17, no. 6 (2022).
188 Berkeley Law Center for Law, Energy, and the Environment, Insuring Extreme Heat Risks, December 2020, pp. 1314, https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Insuring-Extreme-Heat-Risks-Dec-2020.pdf. Most
entities and individuals are not well insured against extreme heat according to broker Patrick Kelly, “Understanding
Extreme Heat: An Increasing Risk for People, Businesses, and Society,” Aon Insights, November 2, 2023,
https://www.aon.com/en/insights/articles/understanding-extreme-heat.
189 California Department of Insurance, Climate Insurance Working Group, Protecting Communities, Preserving
Nature, and Building Resiliency, p. 53, https://www.insurance.ca.gov/cci/docs/climate-insurance-report.pdf.
190 Laurie Goering, “How Heatwave Insurance Can Help Cities Adapt to Climate Change,” October 14, 2020, Global
Center on Adaptation, https://gca.org/how-heatwave-insurance-can-help-cities-adapt-to-climate-change/.
191 Berkeley Law Center for Law, Energy, and the Environment, Insuring Extreme Heat Risks, December 2020, pp. 1314, https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Insuring-Extreme-Heat-Risks-Dec-2020.pdf.
192 Berkeley Law Center for Law, Energy, and the Environment, Insuring Extreme Heat Risks, December 2020, pp. 2627, https://www.law.berkeley.edu/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/Insuring-Extreme-Heat-Risks-Dec-2020.pdf; remarks
by Jackie Higgins, Swiss Re, “Reducing Inequities in Recovery,” 2023 Climate Risk and Insurance Conference,
American University School of Public Affairs, September 14, 2023, https://www.american.edu/spa/cep/climate-riskand-insurance.cfm.
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covering activities covered in a jurisdiction’s heat action plan (e.g., the cost of operating cooling
center during a heatwave).193 Others have conceived of policies wherein payments are triggered
during certain well-defined heatwaves, without the need to make a claim (known as parametric
insurance).194 Some insurance experts have called upon industry stakeholders to model policies
that could insure governments against certain losses incurred during extreme heat for costs
including emergency communications, transportation, cooling centers, and increased electricity
use; other proposals include pooling risks among cities in a given state, or issuing supplemental
coverage to public hospitals for the operational costs of extreme heat response.195
Congress may monitor developments in private insurance that may help nonfederal governments
manage the risks and costs of extreme heat. New policies could help Congress to understand how
the private sector may help jurisdictions cope during widespread or persistent heat emergencies.
At the same time, Congress may note that nonfederal governments are particularly likely to be
bearing the costs of extreme heat incidents on their own.196 This could make future extreme heat
events particularly burdensome for certain communities that may be coping with high casualties
and high costs without many resources to draw upon.
Conclusion
The 118th Congress has experienced the hottest year in U.S. history. As the United States enters
the summer months of 2024, Congress may consider how American communities will cope, how
the federal government may be called upon to assist, and whether and how Congress seeks such
help to be provided.
193 Remarks by Jackie Higgins, Swiss Re, “Reducing Inequities in Recovery,” 2023 Climate Risk and Insurance
Conference, American University School of Public Affairs, September 14, 2023, https://www.american.edu/spa/cep/
climate-risk-and-insurance.cfm.
194 See, for example, Karl Larsson, “Parametric Heat Wave Insurance,” Journal of Commodity Markets, no. 31 (2023);
California Department of Insurance, Climate Insurance Working Group, Protecting Communities, Preserving Nature,
and Building Resiliency, https://www.insurance.ca.gov/cci/docs/climate-insurance-report.pdf, pp. 61-62.
195 California Department of Insurance, Climate Insurance Working Group, Protecting Communities, Preserving
Nature, and Building Resiliency, https://www.insurance.ca.gov/cci/docs/climate-insurance-report.pdf, pp. 52-62, 82.
196 For an overview of the state use of insurance for disasters, see Colin Foard, How States Pay for Natural Disasters in
an Era of Rising Costs, Pew Charitable Trusts, May 2020, pp. 22-23.
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Appendix A. Department of Energy Assistance for
Energy Access Relevant to Extreme Heat Events
The following programs offer assistance for energy access that could promote community or
individual resilience to extreme heat.
Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant Program
DOE’s Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant (EECBG) program provides funding to
local governments, states, territories, and tribes to reduce energy use and carbon emissions and to
increase energy efficiency at the local and regional level.197 An eligible entity may use the
funding to carry out 14 types of activities including strategy development, energy efficiency
building retrofits, and clean energy deployment, among others. In addition to the identified
activities, the Secretary of Energy in consultation with the Administrator of the EPA, the
Secretary of Transportation, and the Secretary of Housing and Urban Development also may
approve any other appropriate activity. Eligibility requirements include payment of prevailing
wage rates, submission of a strategic plan, and sharing of information.
Weatherization Assistance Program
DOE’s Weatherization Assistance Program (WAP) provides funding to states, tribes, and
territories to enable low-income families to permanently reduce their energy consumption by
making their households more energy efficient. DOE program guidelines specify that a variety of
energy efficiency measures are eligible for support under the program. The measures include
insulation, space-heating equipment, energy-efficient windows, water heaters, and efficient airconditioners. The Energy Act of 2020 (Division Z, P.L. 116-260) amended the program, included
a clarification that renewable energy technologies and other advanced technologies are considered
to be weatherization materials, and authorized DOE to account for the non-energy benefits of
weatherization improvements—such as improvements to health and safety—when determining
appropriate standards and procedures for WAP.198
State Energy Program
DOE’s State Energy Program (SEP) provides funding and technical assistance to states, the
District of Columbia, and territories to promote the efficient use of energy and reduce the rate of
growth of energy demand through the development and implementation of specific state energy
programs. In order to be eligible for financial assistance through the SEP, grantees are required to
develop energy plans with mandatory and optional features. Grantees may use the funds to
support a range of activities including energy efficiency upgrades and retrofits of public facilities,
piloting of innovative energy projects, installation of renewable energy systems, and
implementation of energy security, resiliency, and emergency preparedness plans.199
197 For more information, see the Department of Energy, Office of State and Community Energy Programs, “Energy
Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant Program,” https://www.energy.gov/scep/energy-efficiency-and-conservationblock-grant-program.
198 For more information, see CRS Report R46418, The Weatherization Assistance Program Formula, by Corrie E.
Clark and Lynn J. Cunningham.
199 For more information, see the Department of Energy, Office of State and Community Energy Programs, “State
Energy Program,” https://www.energy.gov/scep/state-energy-program.
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Home Energy Rebates Programs
DOE’s Home Energy Performance-Based, Whole-House Rebates, also known as a HOMES
(Home Owner Managing Energy Savings), authorizes state energy offices (SEOs) to provide
rebates for energy efficiency upgrades that improve the overall energy performance of a singlefamily home (SFH) or multi-family building (MFB). The types of eligible upgrades are not
specified but could include efficient windows, doors, and insulation materials.200 DOE’s HighEfficiency Electric Home Rebate (HEEHR) Program authorizes SEOs to provide point-of-sale
rebates to eligible entities for qualified electrification projects. This can include rebates for
purchase and installation of space heating/cooling equipment of up to $8,000 for households that
satisfy income means-testing requirements. Both programs were authorized and funded through
P.L. 117-169, commonly known as the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (IRA).
200 For more information, see CRS In Focus IF12258, The Inflation Reduction Act: Financial Incentives for Residential
Energy Efficiency and Electrification Projects, by Martin C. Offutt.
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Appendix B. Selected Past Federal Assistance for
Emergency Response to Extreme Heat
The federal government has never responded to an extreme heat event through the Stafford Act.
However, federal assistance for emergency response has been provided through other federal
relief programs for certain heatwaves; selected examples are provided below. This list may not be
comprehensive.
1980 Extreme Heat in Multiple States
In 1980, drought conditions exacerbated the effects of an episode of extreme heat in parts of the
Central and Southern Plains region of the United States.201 NOAA scientists estimated that
extreme heat directly caused up to 1,300 deaths and $16 billion in economic losses in the most
severe episode of extreme heat in the United States since 1954, according to the agency.202
Governor Joseph Teasdale of Missouri requested a major disaster declaration under the Stafford
Act for extreme heat early in the summer of 1980, and submitted a second request for extreme
heat and drought later that year.203 President Jimmy Carter denied both requests; however, he
directed then-FEMA Administrator John Macy “to coordinate the Federal response to this
situation,” in conjunction with state governments of affected areas.204
Congress passed P.L. 96-321, authorizing the transfer of funds to support assistance for the
incident.205 The President directed the then-Community Services Administration (CSA) to
provide approximately $6.7 million to six states to assist low-income individuals and senior
populations at risk, for measures including transportation to cooling centers, acquisition of airconditioning units, payment of utility bills, and other services.206 Additionally, the President
directed both CSA and HHS to reprogram up to $21 million of existing Energy Crisis Assistance
Program funds to assist affected areas. Several affected hospitals lacking air-conditioning
requested emergency assistance from the U.S. Air Force and Army reserve to secure portable
units, and the mayor of St. Louis testified that the National Guard flew in air-conditioners from
New York.207
201 Thomas Karl and Robert Quayle, NOAA National Climatic Center, “The 1980 Summer Heat Wave and Drought in
Historical Perspective,” Monthly Weather Review, vol. 109, no. 10, October 1981.
202 Thomas Karl and Robert Quayle, NOAA National Climatic Center, “The 1980 Summer Heat Wave and Drought in
Historical Perspective,” Monthly Weather Review, vol. 109, no. 10, October 1981.
203 FEMA Congressional Affairs Division, email to CRS January 26, 2024.
204 Administration of Jimmy Carter, “Heat and Drought Conditions in the United States,” published July 15, 1980, as
reprinted in Presidential Papers, pp. 1345-1346.
205 P.L. 96-321.
206 Administration of Jimmy Carter, “Heat and Drought Conditions in the United States,” published July 15, 1980, as
reprinted in Presidential Papers, pp. 1345-1346. The President also directed the Secretary of Agriculture to provide
economic relief for agricultural entities.
207 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Aging, Heat Stress and Older Americans: Problems and Solutions, 98th Cong.,
1st sess., S.Prt. 98-76, July 1983, p. 4.
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1995 Extreme Heat in Illinois and Midwest
In July 1995, several states in the Midwest experienced extreme heat; the CDC and certain
medical scholars estimated that the incident caused at least 700 excess deaths in Chicago.208
President William J. Clinton denied Governor Edgar’s request for a major disaster declaration for
the 1995 Chicago heat wave. However, he announced the provision of $100 million through the
Low Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP) to assist with low-income residents’
electricity bills in 19 states, including tribes within the states.209 Awards were based on
temperatures during the July heat wave and the amount of low-income housing in the state, with
Illinois receiving the most funding ($15.7 million).210 The Department of Health and Human
Services also provided technical assistance to local governments in Illinois coping with the
effects of the heat wave in Cook County and Chicago, according to FEMA’s Administrator James
Lee Witt.211
1998 Extreme Heat in South and Southwestern United States
Abnormally hot temperatures affected Texas and several states in the southern and southwestern
United States during the summer months of 1998.212 President Clinton released $150 million in
emergency LIHEAP funds to the 11 southern and southwestern states that were hit hardest by the
heat wave, including tribes within those states,213 explaining that “those who cannot afford airconditioning are at real peril of further health risks as the heat wave goes on.”214
1999 Extreme Heat in Multiple States
In July 1999, several weeks of extreme heat affected multiple states across the country and
ultimately resulted in several hundred heat-related deaths.215 Officials in Chicago, one of the
hardest-hit localities, estimated that the heat wave cost the city approximately $100,000 a day,
and media reported that the Governor of Illinois requested emergency assistance to assist lowincome individuals and elderly residents with electricity costs.216 On July 12, 1999, President
Clinton released $100 million in emergency funds through LIHEAP for 17 states (and tribes
208 Jan Semenza et al., “Heat-Related Deaths During the July 1995 Heat Wave in Chicago,” New England Journal of
Medicine, vol. 335, July 11, 1996; CDC, “Heat-Related Mortality—Chicago, July 1995,” MMWR Weekly, vol. 44,
August 11, 1995.
209
Stanley Changnon, Kenneth Kunkel and Beth Reinke, “Impacts and Responses to the 1995 Heat Wave: A Call to
Action,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, vol. 77, no. 7, July 1996.
210 Ibid.; letter from FEMA Administrator James Lee Witt to Illinois Governor Jim Edgar, August 7, 1995, provided to
CRS by FEMA Congressional Affairs Division.
211 Letter from FEMA Administrator James Lee Witt to Illinois Governor Jim Edgar, August 7, 1995, provided to CRS
by FEMA Congressional Affairs Division.
212 NOAA, “Special Climate Summary: Atmospheric Conditions and Impacts Affecting the United States During July
and Early August 1998,” https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/special_summaries/98_2/#section2.
213 President Clinton, “Statement on Announcing Assistance to Heat-Stricken Areas in South and Southwest,” August
14, 1998, available at UCSB American Presidency Project, https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/statementannouncing-assistance-heat-stricken-areas-the-south-and-southwest.
214 “Clinton OKs Heat Wave Relief of $100 Million,” Los Angeles Times, July 24, 1998.
215 Michael Palecki, Stanley Changnon, and Kenneth Kunkel, “The Nature and Impacts of the July 1999 Heat Wave in
the Midwestern United States: Learning from the Lessons of 1995,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society,
vol. 82, no. 7, July 2001.
216 Jeremy Manier, “Heat Wave Gets Serious,” Chicago Tribune, July 30, 1999.
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within those states) experiencing extreme heat. He released an additional $55 million in August
1999 to nine other states and tribes.217
2000 Extreme Heat in Southern United States
A severe drought and prolonged heat wave affected south-central and southeastern states, which
NOAA estimated contributed to 140 deaths nationwide.218 On July 25, 2000, President Clinton
released $41.75 million in LIHEAP funds to nine states, most of which was directed to southern
states experiencing extreme heat.219
2002 Extreme Heat
Following extreme summer heat, HHS released $100 million in LIHEAP contingency funds to 34
states based on the severity of extreme heat between June and August, as well as the number of
households with incomes below 125% of the federal poverty level.220
2007 Extreme Heat
HHS released $50 million in LIHEAP funds to 12 states and tribes within those states that
experienced hotter than average temperatures during the month of August.221
217 See CRS Report 94-211, The Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program: A Fact Sheet, August 3, 1999 (out of
print; available to congressional clients upon request).
218 Tom Ross and Neal Lott, “A Climatology of 1980-2003 Extreme Weather and Climate Events,” NOAA Technical
Report 2003-01, p. 3, https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/monitoring-content/billions/docs/lott-and-ross-2003.pdf.
219 See CRS Report RS20893, The Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program: How Are State Allotments
Determined?, April 17, 2001 (out of print; available to congressional clients upon request).
220 CRS Report 94-211, The Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program, by Emilie Stoltzfus, March 13, 2003 (out
of print; available to congressional clients upon request); HHS, Administration for Children and Families, LIHEAP
Report to Congress for Fiscal Year 2002, December 29, 2004, p. 44.
221 See CRS Report RL31865, LIHEAP: Program and Funding, by Libby Perl, updated August 30, 2007, p. 3.
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Author Information
Erica A. Lee, Coordinator
Specialist in Emergency Management and Disaster
Recovery
Julie M. Lawhorn
Analyst in Economic Development Policy
Conor F. Boyle
Analyst in Social Policy
Libby Perl
Specialist in Housing Policy
Corrie E. Clark
Specialist in Energy Policy
Kavya Sekar
Analyst in Health Policy
Diane P. Horn
Specialist in Flood Insurance and Emergency
Management
Hassan Z. Sheikh
Analyst in Health Policy
Joseph V. Jaroscak
Analyst in Economic Development Policy
Elizabeth M. Webster
Specialist in Emergency Management and Disaster
Recovery
Maria Kreiser
Senior Research Librarian
Acknowledgments
Former CRS Analyst Taylor Wyatt co-coordinated the original version of this report. Ben Leubsdorf
provided research support for this request.
Eva Lipiec, Specialist in Natural Resources Policy; Kavya Sekar, Analyst in Health Policy; Lauren R.
Stienstra, Federalism and Emergency Management Section Research Manager; and Matthew B. Barry,
Health Services and Research Section Research Manager, provided structural and editorial comments and
suggestions, and advised the authors throughout the report’s development.
CRS is grateful to FEMA for providing information for this report.
Congressional Research Service
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Emergency Response to Extreme Heat: Federal Financial Assistance and Considerations
Disclaimer
This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan
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under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other
than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in
connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not
subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in
its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or
material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to
copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.
Congressional Research Service
R46873 · VERSION 12 · UPDATED
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This is a copy of a public record, reproduced as it was published. It is not legal advice, and it may not be the version a court would rely on. Check the official source before you cite it.