Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): Overview and Issues for Congress
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Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA):
Overview and Issues for Congress
Updated February 19, 2026
Congressional Research Service
https://crsreports.congress.gov
R45460
SUMMARY
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA):
Overview and Issues for Congress
R45460
February 19, 2026
Eva Lipiec
Specialist in Natural
The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA; P.L. 92-583, 16 U.S.C. §§1451-1466), enacted in
Resource Policy
1972 and since amended, set up a national framework for states and territories to consider and
manage coastal resources and potential impacts on those resources, and for the federal
government to provide financial assistance to support such efforts. Congress may continue to
consider whether to alter—and if so, how—the focus and implementation of CZMA activities
and CZMA’s federal assistance authorizations and appropriations. Congress also may consider
whether—and if so, how—to modify or codify in statute any executive actions taken by the Trump Administration.
Under CZMA, if a state or territory chooses to develop a coastal management program (CMP) and the Secretary of
Commerce approves such a program, the state or territory becomes a participant and (1) is eligible for federal financial
assistance and (2) can perform consistency determination reviews of federal agency actions in coastal areas. The Secretary of
Commerce has delegated CZMA administration to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA’s)
Office for Coastal Management (OCM). States determine the details of their CMPs, including coastal zone boundaries, issues
of most interest to them, and policies to address these issues, among other factors. Thirty-five states and territories (including
the Great Lakes states, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands) are
eligible to participate. Although all 35 have chosen to participate at some point, 34 are currently part of the National Coastal
Zone Management Program (NCZMP; Alaska has not participated since 2011).
Between FY1974 and FY2024, NOAA allocated over $2.8 billion (nominal dollars) to participants across six coastal zone
management-related financial assistance programs. During this time, participants received amounts ranging from at least
$25.5 million to over $127.0 million in financial assistance, depending on factors such as how long the participant had been a
part of NCZMP, the participant’s population and shoreline length, and the extent of the participant’s success in competitive
CZMA grant programs. Congress provided $81.5 million to NOAA for coastal zone management financial assistance in
FY2026.
CZMA consistency provisions require federal actions that have reasonably foreseeable effects on coastal uses or resources to
be consistent with policies of a participant’s approved CMP. An action may occur in the participant’s approved coastal zone
or in nearby federal or out-of-state waters that may cause interstate coastal effects. Federal agencies or applicants proposing
to perform work in or near coastal zones (e.g., a project developer proposing an activity pursuant to a federal permit or using
federal funds) must submit a consistency determination to the potentially affected participant certifying that the actions are
consistent with participant policies and providing participants the opportunity to review their determinations. Depending on
the federal action, federal agencies may or may not move forward with the activity if the participant finds the action is not
consistent with the participant’s policies.
Congress continues to consider changes to CZMA. For example, some Members in the 119 th Congress have argued for
alterations to CZMA account for continued population and infrastructure growth along the coast, and evolving coastal
environmental conditions. Introduced bills would amend CZMA to address climate change and “working waterfronts” (e.g.,
H.R. 1808; H.R. 2786, H.R. 2990; H.R. 3718 §202; and H.R. 5746 §303), among other topics. Congress has examined how
the Secretary of Commerce and NOAA have implemented CZMA and whether changes to the agency, the law, or the law’s
implementation are necessary. Concerns have focused on specific financial assistance programs, as well as federal
consistency determination reviews of certain activities. Members of Congress have introduced some bills to address these
issues (e.g., H.R. 1874 and H.R. 5342) and may consider additional oversight activities, such as reporting. Additionally,
Congress may consider proposals to reauthorize or modify appropriated amounts for CZMA financial assistance programs.
Various stakeholders have argued for changes to appropriated amounts for the CZMA financial assistance programs to
address changing or additional priorities on and away from the coast. Bills in the 119 th Congress to modify CZMA’s
authorization of appropriations or funding include H.R. 143 and H.R. 2786.
Congressional Research Service
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): Overview and Issues for Congress
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1
Coastal Zone Management Act ....................................................................................................... 2
National Coastal Zone Management Program................................................................................. 2
How States and Territories Become Part of the NCZMP .......................................................... 3
Why States and Territories May Choose to Join the NCZMP................................................... 4
Access to Federal Financial Assistance Programs .............................................................. 4
Federal Consistency Determination Review ....................................................................... 8
Issues for Congress ........................................................................................................................ 12
Changes Along the Coast ........................................................................................................ 13
Effectiveness of CZMA Implementation ................................................................................ 14
Authorization of Appropriations and Funding for CZMA Financial Assistance
Programs .............................................................................................................................. 16
Figures
Figure 1. Amounts Disbursed by CZMA Financial Assistance Programs,
FY1974-FY2024 .......................................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2. CZMA Consistency Determination Objection Appeals to the Secretary of
Commerce, 1972-August 2025 .................................................................................................. 12
Tables
Table 1. Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) Financial Assistance Provisions ....................... 6
Table 2. Summary of CZMA Consistency Determination Review Process by Proposed
Federal Action Type .................................................................................................................... 11
Contacts
Author Information........................................................................................................................ 18
Congressional Research Service
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): Overview and Issues for Congress
Introduction
The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA; P.L. 92-583, 16 U.S.C. §§1451-1466) set up a
national framework for states and territories to consider and manage coastal resources. Congress
passed the act in 1972 and has amended it 11 times, most recently in 2009.1 Congress deliberated
and passed CZMA at a time when concern about environmental degradation spurred passage of
many of the nation’s environmental statutes.2 Under the act, if a state or territory chooses to
develop a coastal management program and the program is approved by the Secretary of
Commerce, the state or territory (1) becomes eligible for several federal financial assistance
programs and (2) can perform reviews of certain federal agency actions in coastal areas (known
as federal consistency determination reviews).
Since 1972, many of the trends that originally called congressional attention to coastal
management have continued. According to the 2020 census, coastal shoreline counties were home
to 129 million people—nearly 40% of the U.S. population.3 Coastal areas also are home to
economic sectors such as fishing, transportation, defense, offshore energy, and tourism and to
natural resources such as estuaries, beach systems, and wetlands. The shoreline likely will
continue to be affected by pressures to both develop and preserve areas, large-scale natural events
(e.g., hurricanes and tsunamis), and long-term environmental changes (to relative sea level,
rainfall, wetland coverage, and air and water temperatures, etc.).4 Congress may continue to
consider whether and how CZMA should respond to these pressures, whether CZMA is being
effectively implemented, and whether changes should be made to CZMA financial assistance
programs, including their authorization of appropriations and funding levels.
This report provides a review of CZMA with a specific focus on the National Coastal Zone
Management Program (NCZMP). The report discusses how and why states and territories may
choose to participate in the national program (namely, to access federal financial assistance and to
review consistency determinations related to federal actions, such as federally implemented or
federally supported projects in coastal areas) and recent issues for Congress. Issues for potential
consideration include addressing changes in the environment and development along the coast
within CZMA, effectiveness of federal implementation of CZMA provisions, and authorization of
appropriations and funding levels for CZMA financial assistance programs.
1 The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA; P.L. 92-583, 16 U.S.C. §§1451-1466) received broad support in both
chambers. The Senate passed its version of the bill (S. 3507, 92nd Congress) by a 68-0 roll-call vote, and the House
passed its version (H.R. 1414, 92nd Congress) by a 376-6 roll-call vote. The conference report was adopted by voice
vote in both chambers. In addition to CZMA, the 92nd Congress considered but did not enact more general national land
use planning legislation. Some Members of Congress concluded that the challenges the general land use legislation was
intending to address were most concentrated in coastal areas and warranted immediate attention. U.S. Congress, Senate
Committee on Commerce, Bill Report on S. 3507, National Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, S. Rpt. 92-753, p.
3. The result was CZMA, with the intent by some Members to fold coastal management into more encompassing
legislation at a later date. U.S. Congress, Conference Committee, Conference Report to Accompany S. 3507, Coastal
Zone Management Act of 1972, H. Rept. 92-1544, p. 13.
2 For example, in 1970, Congress passed the National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190) and President
Nixon created the Environmental Protection Agency. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972
(P.L. 92-500; also known as the Clean Water Act) also were enacted in the early 1970s.
3 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Office for Coastal Management (OCM), “Economics
and Demographics,” https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/economics-and-demographics.html, archived April 1, 2025,
at https://perma.cc/Q85H-YB33.
4 NOAA, “Land Cover Change,” https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/land-cover-change.html, archived December
19, 2025, at https://perma.cc/M5X5-Z8W4https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/land-cover-change.html; and U.S.
Global Change Research Program (USGCRP), “Chapter 9: Coastal Effects,” in Fifth National Climate Assessment,
2023. Hereinafter USGCRP, “Chapter 9: Coastal Effects.”
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Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): Overview and Issues for Congress
Coastal Zone Management Act
Congress enacted CZMA “to establish a national policy and develop a national program for the
management, beneficial use, protection, and development of the land and water resources of the
nation’s coastal zones.”5 Although CZMA has been amended 11 times since enactment, the
national policies as declared by Congress have stayed relatively consistent over time. The
national policies include
•
•
•
•
•
•
to preserve, protect, develop, and, if possible, restore or enhance coastal
resources;
to encourage and assist states and territories to effectively exercise their
development and management responsibilities in the coastal zone, giving full
consideration to ecological, cultural, historic, and aesthetic values as well as the
needs for compatible economic development;
to encourage the preparation of special area management plans to protect
significant natural resources, support reasonable coastal-dependent economic
growth, and improve protection of life and property;
to encourage the participation and cooperation of the public, state and local
governments, interstate and other regional agencies, and federal agencies to carry
out CZMA;
to encourage coordination and cooperation with and among appropriate federal,
state, and local agencies, and international organizations, in collection, analysis,
and dissemination of coastal management information and research; and
to respond to changing circumstances affecting the coastal environment and
resources and their management by encouraging states and territories to consider
ocean uses that may affect the coastal zone.6
Under CZMA, each level of government plays a role in coastal management. At the federal level,
the Secretary of Commerce implements CZMA’s national policies and provisions; the Secretary
has delegated this responsibility to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s
(NOAA’s) Office for Coastal Management (OCM). To participate in the NCZMP, states must
adhere to guidelines as set in federal statute and related regulations. States and territories
determine the details of their coastal management programs (CMPs), including the boundaries of
their coastal zones, issues of most interest to the state, and policies to address these issues, among
other factors. Local governments implement the approved CMPs, often through land use
regulations.
National Coastal Zone Management Program
OCM administers CZMA provisions under two national programs, the NCZMP and the National
Estuarine Research Reserve System (NERRS);7 this report focuses on the NCZMP. The NCZMP
5 P.L. 92-583.
6 16 U.S.C. §1452.
7 The National Estuarine Research Reserve System program funds research and monitoring in 30 protected coastal
areas. The Digital Coast is an online platform with data, tools, and training for U.S. coastal managers and technicians.
OCM houses the NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program, which supports efforts to preserve, sustain, and restore
coral reef ecosystems across NOAA. More information on all of these programs can be found at NOAA, “Learn About
the Programs,” https://coast.noaa.gov/about/, archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/8VNR-3UYH.
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Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): Overview and Issues for Congress
encourages interested coastal states and territories (hereinafter referred to as states) to work with
NOAA to develop and implement coastal management programs.8 To join, states must develop
CMPs pursuant to CZMA and federal regulations. States that join the NCZMP are eligible for
several federal financial assistance programs and have the right to review federal actions for
consistency with state coastal policies.
How States and Territories Become Part of the NCZMP
If a state chooses to become part of the NCZMP, it must develop a CMP pursuant to CZMA
Section 306 and NOAA regulations.9 CMPs must contain “a broad class of policies for ...
resource protection, management of coastal development, and simplification of governmental
processes.”10
The Secretary of Commerce (the Secretary) must conclude that the state has completed certain
tasks (e.g., included required program elements and coordinated with local and regional agencies)
to approve the CMP. Once the Secretary approves the state’s CMP, the state is eligible to receive
the NCZMP’s benefits and is referred to as a participant of the national program.11 The Secretary
is expected to evaluate participants at least once every three years to determine whether they are
working toward their stated plans.12
Thirty-five states and territories (including states surrounding the Great Lakes, American Samoa,
Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands) are eligible to
participate. Although all 35 eligible states and territories have at some point chosen to participate,
34 are currently part of the NCZMP.13
8 Participating in CZMA is voluntary; states and territories (hereinafter states) are not required to submit a coastal
management program to the Secretary of Commerce. However, if and when a state’s coastal management program is
approved by the Secretary of Commerce, the state must implement Section 6217, the Coastal Nonpoint Pollution
Control Program, which requires states with approved coastal management programs to reduce polluted runoff to
coastal waters through specific land-based measures.
9 16 U.S.C. §1455 and 15 C.F.R. Part 923.
10 15 C.F.R. §923.3(c).
11 16 U.S.C. §1455.
12 15 C.F.R. §923.132. Information about evaluation criteria can be found at NOAA, Evaluation Process: Coastal Zone
Management Act Evaluations, June 2021, https://coast.noaa.gov/data/czm/media/guidance-evaluation-process.pdf,
archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/PTT6-VKZ2. Past evaluations can be found at NOAA, “Evaluation
Findings,” https://coast.noaa.gov/czm/evaluations/evaluation_findings/index.html, archived December 19, 2025, at
https://perma.cc/HPS5-MWP7. Information about ongoing evaluations can be found at NOAA, “Program Evaluations,”
https://coast.noaa.gov/czm/evaluations/, archived December 19, 2025, at https://perma.cc/VQY7-VL52.
13 Alaska’s legislature did not renew its coastal management program on July 1, 2011, resulting in its withdrawal from
the National Coastal Zone Management Program (NCZMP) (NOAA, “Alaska Coastal Management Program
Withdrawal from the National Coastal Management Program Under the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA),” 76
Federal Register 39857, July 7, 2011). According to some, Alaska’s choice to discontinue the program was influenced
by natural resource extraction agencies and divisive political discourse. Others argue that legislation to reestablish the
program would have created a larger coastal zone and would have had adverse impacts on the state (Ryan M. Wilson,
Why Did Alaska Eliminate the Alaska Coastal Management Program?, 2018, https://scholarworks.alaska.edu/handle/
11122/8751, and Mark Thiessen, “Coastal Management Initiative Fails by a Heavy Margin,” Alaska Journal of
Commerce, 2012, https://www.proquest.com/trade-journals/coastal-management-initiative-fails-heavy-margin/
docview/1040833201/se-2?accountid=12084).
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Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): Overview and Issues for Congress
Variety Among State Coastal Management Programs
Although the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) and related regulations require states and territories
(hereinafter states) to include specific components and take certain steps in developing their coastal management
programs (CMPs), states have flexibility in their programs’ structure and focus. Once the Secretary of Commerce
approves a state’s CMP, the state becomes known as a participant. CMPs vary in terms of where in each
participant’s government the program is situated, the relationships between state and local levels of government,
and which issues are emphasized.
One major variation among CMPs is a program’s placement in the participant’s governmental structure, which may
indicate how that participant approaches coastal management. NOAA has designated participants as direct or
networked states. Direct states are participants with a single state agency with direct coastal comprehensive permit
or regulatory activities. These states include California, Connecticut, Louisiana, New Jersey, North Carolina,
Northern Marianas, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. Networked states are those
participants with a lead state agency that coordinates with other state agencies and where several state agencies
have CMP responsibilities. These states include the remaining states and territories that are currently part of the
National Coastal Zone Management Program.
A second variation among CMPs is how programs divide responsibilities between the state and local levels of
government. NOAA has identified three main techniques participants use in their CMP organizational structure.
Technique A is where a state establishes criteria and standards for local implementation, subject to state
administrative review and enforcement. While many states use Technique A, no states use only Technique A.
Technique B is where a state implements land and water use planning and regulation. States using Technique B
include American Samoa, Georgia, Guam, Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, Northern
Marianas, Puerto Rico, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and the U.S. Virgin Islands. The remaining states, with the
exception of Michigan, use a mix of Techniques A and B. Finally, Technique C is where a state reviews actions
affecting land and water uses in the CMP on a case-by-case basis. Michigan uses a combination of Techniques A, B,
and C.
A third variation is the selection of program components that participants choose to emphasize, such as the
protection of natural resources and the management of coastal development. A participant’s focus may depend on
characteristics of its coastal zone, major activities in the coastal zone, and associated issues and challenges. A
comparison across the 34 participants is outside the scope of this report. However, as an example, both Illinois
and Indiana are networked programs that use Technique B. Illinois has chosen to focus on habitats and species,
economic development and recreation, and coastal communities. The program in neighboring Indiana has focused
on protection and sustainable use of natural and cultural resources in the Lake Michigan region.
Sources: Personal correspondence with NOAA, Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs,
February 9, 2024; Illinois Department of Natural Resources, “Coastal Management Program,”
https://dnr.illinois.gov/cmp.html; and Indiana Department of Natural Resources, “About the Lake Michigan
Coastal Program,” https://www.in.gov/dnr/lake-michigan-coastal-program/about/.
Why States and Territories May Choose to Join the NCZMP
Participation in the NCZMP provides various benefits to participants, including access to several
federal financial assistance programs and the right to review certain federal actions for
consistency with state coastal policies. These provisions have been mainstays of CZMA since its
congressional consideration and enactment.14
Access to Federal Financial Assistance Programs
Coastal states or territories with approved CMPs are eligible to apply for federal financial
assistance for coastal zone management. Financial assistance programs have changed over time to
reflect congressional priorities and have included funding for program development, coastal
energy impacts, and research and technical assistance. Currently, CZMA authorizes the Secretary
of Commerce to provide funding related to program administration (Section 306),15 coastal
14 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Commerce, Legislative History of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972,
as Amended in 1974 and 1976 with a Section-by-Section Index, committee print, prepared by the Congressional
Research Service, 94th Cong., 2nd sess., 1976, CMP-1976-COM-0021.
15 16 U.S.C. §1455.
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Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): Overview and Issues for Congress
resource improvement (Section 306A),16 coastal and estuarine land conservation (Section
307A),17 coastal enhancement objectives (Section 309),18 technical assistance (Section 310),19 and
coastal nonpoint pollution control (Section 6217) (Table 1).20 The ability to fund activities under
these authorities is subject to the availability of appropriations.
Table 1 shows programs that are a part of CZMA; some, but not all, have received federal
funding in the last few years. For example, Congress appropriated $81.5 million for CZMA
financial assistance for FY2024, of which the agency allocated $71.4 million to Sections 306 and
306A grants and $10.0 million to Section 309 grants.21 Congress provided a total appropriation to
NOAA for FY2025 but did not identify a specific amount for CZMA financial assistance, and the
agency has not released a spending plan detailing its allocations. Congress again provided NOAA
with $81.5 million for CZMA financial assistance in FY2026; details about the allocation of
funds to specific programs were not available at the time of this report.22
According to NOAA, the agency disbursed nearly $2.7 billion to participants between FY1974
and FY2024 (nominal dollars) across the six programs shown in Table 1 (Figure 1).23 The
disbursement total does not include amounts for financial assistance programs discontinued by
Congress (i.e., Section 305 for management program development, Section 308 for impacts of
coastal energy and other coastal uses, and Section 309 for interstate coordinated coastal zone
planning and programs).24 Between FY1974 and FY2024, participants received amounts ranging
from at least $25.5 million to over $134.0 million across the programs in Table 1, depending on
factors such as how long the participant had been a part of NCZMP, the participant’s population
and shoreline length, and the extent of the participant’s success in competitive CZMA grant
programs.25
16 16 U.S.C. §1455a.
17 16 U.S.C. §§1456-1 and 1456d.
18 16 U.S.C. §1456b.
19 16 U.S.C. §1456c.
20 16 U.S.C. §1455b. CZMA also includes 16 U.S.C. 1456a, the Coastal Zone Management Fund (Fund), a mechanism
for NOAA to provide loans to various coastal entities for coastal zone work. The fund was established, operated, and
was amended several times. It is unclear whether the fund could function under the language of the current statute. In
2011, Congress permanently rescinded unobligated or unavailable funding in the Fund, and directed any future loan
repayments to the Fund to be treated in accordance with the Federal Credit Reform Act of 1990 (P.L. 112-55; 16
U.S.C. §1456a note). As such, according to NOAA in 2018, if Congress appropriated dollars to the fund, NOAA would
need a new authority to provide loans and to receive repayments for new loans (personal correspondence with NOAA’s
Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs (OLIA), November 7, 2018).
21 Personal correspondence with NOAA’s OLIA, August 12, 2025. An amount, less than $100,000, was assessed for
the Hollings Scholarship Program.
22 Explanatory Statement Submitted by Mr. Cole, Chair of the House Committee on Appropriations, regarding H.R.
6938, Commerce, Justice, Science; Energy and Water Development; and Interior and Environment Appropriations Act,
2026, Congressional Record, vol. 172, part 2 (January 8, 2026), p. H257.
23 Personal correspondence with NOAA’s OLIA, January 12, 2026. NOAA indicated the funding amounts do not
include funds from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Inflation Reduction Act, and congressionally directed
spending, or through the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (limited to use in Great Lakes states), which may have been
allocated to the CZMA financial assistance programs.
24 The agency has disbursed over $75.0 million for Sections 305 and 309 – Interstate Financial Assistance Programs.
NOAA did not provide an estimate for the Section 308 program (personal correspondence with NOAA’s OLIA,
January 12, 2026).
25 Personal correspondence with NOAA’s OLIA, January 12, 2026. NOAA determines a participant’s annual allocation
for non-competitive financial assistance using a formula which considers the participant’s coastal population and
shoreline mileage, among other factors (15 C.F.R. §923.110). As noted in footnote 23, the disbursement amounts do
not include amounts from several other funding sources.
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Table 1. Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) Financial Assistance Provisions
Provision and Programa
Program Summary
16 U.S.C. §1455
Section 306. Administrative Grants
The Secretary of Commerce may allocate formula grants to coastal states with approved coastal management programs (CMPs) to
administer the program. Grants are allocated based on extent and nature of the shoreline and area covered by the program, population of
the area, and other relevant factors. State cost share is required. Implementing regulation at 15 C.F.R. §923.90-923.96 and 15 C.F.R.
§923.110.
16 U.S.C. §1455a
Section 306A. Coastal Resource
Improvement Program
The Secretary of Commerce may provide grants to eligible coastal states to assist with certain activities. National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has interpreted the statute to mean that coastal states with CMPs may use a portion of their
federal Section 306 funds for Section 306A activities, including (1) preservation or restoration of areas of conservation, recreational,
ecological, and aesthetic value or of national significance; (2) the redevelopment of urban waterfronts and ports identified as areas of
concern; (3) access to public beach and coastal areas; and (4) the development of a coordinated process among state agencies to regulate
and issue permits for aquaculture facilities in the coastal zone. State cost share is required.b
16 U.S.C. §§1456-1 and 1456d
Section 307A. Coastal and Estuarine
Land Conservation Program
The Secretary of Commerce may administer competitive grants to coastal states with CMPs or to National Estuarine Research Reserve
System (NERRS) units to acquire property or interest in property that will further the goals of the CMP, NERRS management plan,
regional or state watershed protection or management plan, or state land acquisition plan that is consistent with an approved CMP. State
cost share is required. b
16 U.S.C. §1456b
Section 309. Coastal Zone
Enhancement Grants
The Secretary of Commerce may allocate formula grants and administer competitive grants for projects of special merit to eligible coastal
states for development and implementation of coastal zone enhancement objectives. The objectives include (1) protecting, restoring, or
enhancing existing coastal wetlands or creating new coastal wetlands; (2) preventing or reducing threats to life and destruction of
property by eliminating or managing development in hazardous areas; (3) providing increased current and future public access; (4)
reducing marine debris; (5) developing and adopting procedures to consider and manage cumulative and secondary impacts of coastal
growth and development; (6) preparing and implementing special area management plans for important coastal areas; (7) planning for the
use of ocean resources; (8) adopting procedures and enforceable policies to facilitate energy facility siting; and (9) adopting procedures
and policies to evaluate and facilitate public and private aquaculture in the coastal zone. Grants are allocated based on evaluation and
ranking of the state’s comprehensive, multiyear statement of goals and methods to achieve priority enhancement objectives, as
determined by NOAA and the state, with a yearly minimum and maximum. No state cost share is required. Implementing regulations at
15 C.F.R. §923.121-923.128.
16 U.S.C. §1456c
Section 310. Technical Assistance
The Secretary of Commerce may enter into contracts or other arrangements with coastal states with CMPs to provide technical
assistance and fund management-related research in support of the development and implementation of coastal zone enhancement-related
amendments to CMPs and international cooperative efforts.b
16 U.S.C. §1455b
Section 6217. Coastal Nonpoint
Pollution Control Program
The Secretary of Commerce, in consultation with the Environmental Protection Agency administrator, may allocate formula grants to
states and territories with approved CMPs for development of state coastal nonpoint pollution control programs. Grants will be allocated
based on regulations pursuant to Section 306 grants and state cost share is required.b
Source: Congressional Research Service (CRS) from 16 U.S.C. §§1451 et seq., regulations, and agency guidance.
CRS-6
a.
b.
CRS-7
The Secretary of Commerce has delegated to the NOAA assistant administrator many of the responsibilities related to the programs described in this table.
NOAA has not promulgated regulations related to §§306A, 307A, 310, or 6217. Instead, NOAA has issued guidance documents for some of these programs (e.g.,
NOAA, Coastal Zone Management Act Section 306A Guidance, April 2025, https://coast.noaa.gov/data/czm/media/guide306a.pdf, archived December 19, 2025, at
https://perma.cc/A3PZ-599V; and NOAA, Funding Guidance for State/Territory Expenditure of Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program Implementation Funds, March
2006, https://coast.noaa.gov/data/czm/media/grantsguidance_fy066217.pdf, archived December 19, 2025, at https://perma.cc/V95U-QQ2X )
Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA): Overview and Issues for Congress
Figure 1. Amounts Disbursed by CZMA Financial Assistance Programs,
FY1974-FY2024
(nominal dollars)
Source: CRS using data from NOAA’s Office of Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, January 12, 2026.
Notes: NOAA combined funding information for Sections 306 and 306A grants. In addition, NOAA indicated
the funding amounts do not include funds from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, Inflation Reduction
Act, and congressionally directed spending, or through the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative (limited to use in
Great Lakes states), which may have been allocated to the CZMA financial assistance programs.
Federal Consistency Determination Review
CZMA Section 307 requires federal actions that have reasonably foreseeable effects on coastal
uses or resources to be consistent with the enforceable policies of a participant’s approved CMP.26
These actions may occur in the state’s approved coastal zone or in federal or out-of-state waters
(which may cause interstate coastal effects). Federal agencies or applicants proposing to perform
certain actions with a federal nexus (e.g., a project developer that would perform work pursuant
to a federal permit or using federal funds) must submit a consistency determination or consistency
certification (hereinafter referred to as a consistency determination), depending on the federal
action, to the potentially affected participant confirming that proposed actions are consistent with
the state’s coastal policies.27 The participant then completes a consistency determination review.
Statutes and NOAA regulation have defined several terms related to consistency determinations
and reviews, including the following:
•
•
Applicant is “any individual, public or private corporation, partnership,
association, or other entity organized or existing under the laws of any nation,
State, or any State, regional, or local government, who, following management
program approval, either files an application for a required individual federal
license or permit, or who files a consistency certification for a required general
federal license or permit … to conduct an activity affecting any coastal use or
resource.”28
Coastal zone is defined as the coastal waters and adjacent shorelands, strongly
influenced by each other, and includes islands, transitional and intertidal areas,
salt marshes, wetlands, and beaches. The zone extends in Great Lakes waters to
26 16 U.S.C. §1456(c)(1)(A).
27 16 U.S.C. §1456(c)(1)(C); 16 U.S.C. §1456(c)(3)(A); 16 U.S.C. §1456(c)(3)(B); and 16 U.S.C. §1456(d).
28 15 C.F.R. §930.52.
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•
•
•
•
the international boundary and in other areas seaward to the outer limit of the
state title and ownership under various acts, such as the Submerged Lands Act.29
The zone extends inland from the shorelines only to the extent necessary to
control shorelands and to control those geographical areas that are likely to be
affected by or vulnerable to sea level rise.30 Identification of the coastal zone
boundaries is a required part of an approved CMP.31
Effect on coastal use or resource refers to “any reasonable foreseeable effect on
any coastal use or resource resulting from a federal agency activity or federal
license or permit activity,” including federal assistance to state and local
governments.32 Effects may be environmental or impact coastal use; may be
direct or secondary; and may result from the incremental impact of past, current,
or future actions.33 The determination of whether the action will have a
reasonably foreseeable effect is also known as the effects test.
Enforceable policies are “state policies which are legally binding through
constitutional provisions, laws, regulations, land use plans, ordinances, or judicial
or administrative decisions, by which a state exerts control over private and
public land and water uses and natural resources of the coastal zone.”34
Federal actions include federal agency activities, federal license or permit
activities, outer continental shelf plans, and federal assistance to state and local
governments.35 NOAA requires participants to submit lists of federal actions that
are subject to consistency determination reviews and their general geographic
areas.36
Interstate coastal effect refers to any reasonably foreseeable effect resulting from
a federal action occurring in one state on any coastal use or resource of another
state that has an approved CMP. Effects may be environmental or impact coastal
use; may be direct or secondary; and may result from the incremental impact of
past, current, or future actions.37 A state must identify a list of federal actions in
29 67 Stat. 29.
30 16 U.S.C. §1453(1).
31 16 U.S.C. §1455(d)(2)(A).
32 15 C.F.R. §930.11(g).
33 15 C.F.R. §930.11(g).
34 16 U.S.C. §1453; 15 C.F.R. §930.11(h).
35 NOAA has defined federal actions in regulation. Federal agency activities means “any functions performed by or on
behalf of a Federal agency in the exercise of its statutory responsibilities” (15 C.F.R. §930.31). Federal license or
permit activities is defined as “any authorization that an applicant is required by law to obtain in order to conduct
activities affecting any land or water use of natural resource of the coastal zone and that any Federal agency is
empowered to issue to an applicant” (15 C.F.R. §930.51). OCS [outer continental shelf] plans means “any plan for the
exploration or development of, or production from, any area which has been leased under the Outer Continental Shelf
Lands Act (43 U.S.C. §§1331 et seq.), and the regulations under that Act, which is submitted to the Secretary of the
Interior or designee following management program approval and which describes in detail federal license or permit
activities” (15 C.F.R. §930.73). Federal assistance is defined as “assistance provided under a federal program to an
applicant agency through grant or contractual arrangements, loans, subsidies, guarantees, insurance, or other form of
financial aid” (15 C.F.R. §930.90-91). 16 U.S.C. §1456(c)(1)(C); 16 U.S.C. §1456(c)(3)(A); 16 U.S.C. §1456(c)(3)(B);
and 16 U.S.C. §1456(d).
36 15 C.F.R. §930.34(b)-(c); 15 C.F.R. §930.53-930.54; 15 C.F.R. §930.74; and 15 C.F.R. §930.95. NOAA has
promulgated regulations for review of unlisted actions. See regulations listed above for more details.
37 15 C.F.R. §930.151.
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other states for approval by NOAA in order to perform interstate consistency
determination reviews.38
Participant reviews of federal actions are context-specific and depend on the location and action
in question, with different rights and responsibilities assigned to the federal agency, applicants,
and participants involved. The consistency determination review process—such as which party
determines the foreseeable effects, the length of the participant review period, the effect of a
participant’s objection to the action, and the available conflict resolution or appeals options—
depends on the federal action in question (Table 2).39
As noted above, resolutions to participant objections to consistency determinations depend on the
federal action in question, as follows:
•
•
Federal agency activities: If a participant objects to a federal agency’s
consistency determination, the participant may request mediation from the
Secretary of Commerce or OCM. Regardless of the mediation outcomes, the
federal agency may proceed with its activities if
• the agency provides a legal basis for being consistent to the maximum
extent practicable,40 or
• the agency has concluded that its proposed action is fully consistent with
the participant’s enforceable policies.41
Federal license or permit activities, outer continental shelf plans, and federal
assistance to state and local governments: If the participant objects to the
consistency determination, the federal agency cannot authorize the action unless
the Secretary of Commerce overrides the objection.42 The applicant may appeal
the objection to the Secretary, who is expected to review the administrative
record and may override a participant’s objection if they find that the action is
consistent with the objectives of CZMA or is necessary for national security.43
For example, in 2020, the Secretary of Commerce overrode New York’s
objection to an applicant’s consistency determination, finding that the project “is
necessary in the interest of national security.”44
38 15 C.F.R. §930 Subpart I.
39 NOAA also illustrated the federal agency activities and federal license and permit activities process in a step-by-step
flowchart at NOAA OCM, CZMA Federal Consistency Overview, Section 307 of the Coastal Zone Management Act of
1972, February 24, 2020, https://coast.noaa.gov/data/czm/consistency/media/federal-consistency-overview.pdf,
archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/LV3D-GWLG. The flowcharts are in Appendixes B and C of that report.
40 NOAA has defined the term consistent to the maximum extent practicable as “fully consistent with the enforceable
policies of management programs unless full consistency is prohibited by existing law applicable to the Federal
agency” (15 C.F.R. §930.32).
41 15 C.F.R. §930.43.
42 16 U.S.C. §1456(c)-(d); 15 C.F.R. §930.64; 15 C.F.R. §930.80; and 15 C.F.R. §930.97.
43 16 U.S.C. §1456(c)-(d); and 15 C.F.R. §930 Subparts G and H.
44 Department of Commerce, Decision and Findings by the U.S. Secretary of Commerce in the Consistency Appeal of
Electric Boat Corporation from an Objection by the New York State Department of State, November 16, 2020, p. 18,
https://coast.noaa.gov/data/czm/consistency/appeals/fcappealdecisions/mediadecisions/ebc-decision.pdf, archived April
1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/R8D4-VD25.
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Table 2. Summary of CZMA Consistency Determination Review Process
by Proposed Federal Action Type
Federal Assistance
Activities to State
and Local
Governments
Federal Agency
Activities
Federal License or
Permit Activities
Outer Continental
Shelf Plans
Proposed
action is
subject to
participant
review if it ...
Affects any land or
water use or natural
resource of state
coastal zone,
regardless of location
of activity.
Affects any land or
water use or natural
resource of state
coastal zone and
activity is listed in
participant’s CMP or
NOAA approves
review of unlisted
activity.
Affects any land or
water use or natural
resource of state
coastal zone.
Affects any land or
water use or natural
resource of state
coastal zone and
activity is listed in
participant’s CMP or
participant reviews
unlisted activity.
Consistency
Requirement
Consistent to the
maximum extent
practicable with
participant CMP
enforceable policiesa
Consistent with
participant CMP
enforceable policies
Consistent with
participant CMP
enforceable policies
Consistent with
participant CMP
enforceable policies
Participant
Review
Period
60 days
(plus 15-day
extension or
alternative period
agreed to by
participant and
federal agency)
6 months
3 months
(participant may
extend to 6 months)
Participant
clearinghouse
schedule
Impact of
Participant
Objection
Federal agency may
proceed only if it
provides legal basis
for being consistent
to the maximum
extent practicableb
Federal agency may
not grant a license or
permit unless
Secretary of
Commerce overrides
objection on appeal
Federal agency may
not grant a license or
permit for plan
activities unless
Secretary of
Commerce
overrides objection
on appeal
Federal agency may
not provide federal
assistance unless
Secretary of
Commerce overrides
objection on appeal
Conflict
Resolution
Mediation by
Secretary of
Commerce or OCMc
(voluntary process
and nonbinding
decision)
License or permit
applicant may appeal
to Secretary of
Commerce to
override participant
objection
(binding decision)
Person may appeal to
Secretary of
Commerce to
override participant
objection
(binding decision)
State and local
governments may
appeal to Secretary
of Commerce to
override participant
objection
(binding decision)
Source: CRS, adapted from National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), CZMA Federal
Consistency Overview, February 24, 2020, https://coast.noaa.gov/data/czm/consistency/media/federal-consistencyoverview.pdf, archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/P2LZ-GSWF; 16 U.S.C. §1456; and 15 C.F.R. §930.
Notes: CMP = coastal management program; OCM = NOAA Office for Coastal Management
a. NOAA defines the term consistent to the maximum extent practicable as “fully consistent with the enforceable
policies of management programs unless full consistency is prohibited by existing law applicable to the
Federal agency” (15 C.F.R. §930.32).
b. More information about the impact of the participant’s objection to proposed federal actions can be found
at 15 C.F.R. §930.43.
c. More information about the availability of mediation for proposed federal actions can be found at 15 C.F.R.
§930.44.
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According to NOAA, participants have concurred with around 95% of the federal consistency
determinations they have reviewed.45 Since the first CMP was approved in 1978, 51 consistency
decisions have been subject to secretarial appeals (as of August 2025, Figure 2).46 Of the 51
appeals, the Secretary overrode participant objections in 17 cases and agreed with the participant
in the other 34 cases. An additional 68 appeals have been settled or withdrawn after they reached
the secretarial level but before a determination was made, and 34 additional requests for appeals
were dismissed or overridden on procedural grounds.47
Figure 2. CZMA Consistency Determination Objection Appeals to the Secretary of
Commerce, 1972-August 2025
Source: NOAA, Office for Coastal Management, Appeals to the Secretary of Commerce Under the Coastal Zone
Management Act (CZMA), August 18, 2025, https://coast.noaa.gov/data/czm/consistency/media/appealslist.pdf,
archived December 23, 2025, at https://perma.cc/8RVR-FPAQ.
Issues for Congress
Various concerns related to CZMA have been considered by Congress and have been recently raised by
government agencies and various coastal stakeholders. Some of these concerns include the effects of
natural and man-made changes on the coast, the effectiveness of CZMA implementation, and CZMA
financial assistance authorizations of appropriations and funding levels. These discussions are occurring
within the broader context of the 119th Congress and the Trump Administration. The 119th Congress may
consider whether—and if so, how—to modify or codify in statute actions of the Trump Administration.
45 NOAA, Office for Coastal Management, Appeals to the Secretary of Commerce Under the Coastal Zone
Management Act (CZMA), August 18, 2025, https://coast.noaa.gov/data/czm/consistency/media/appealslist.pdf,
archived December 23, 2025 at https://perma.cc/8RVR-FPAQ. Hereinafter NOAA, Appeals under CZMA, August 18,
2025.
46 NOAA, Appeals Under CZMA, August 18, 2025.
47 In addition to the decisions noted in the text, the Secretary of Commerce has delegated questions of threshold (i.e.,
whether the appeal meets the form and timeliness requirements set in regulation) to the NOAA general counsel and
substantive appeal decisions to the Under Secretary for Oceans and Atmosphere (NOAA, Appeals Under CZMA,
August 18, 2025).
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Changes Along the Coast
Congress may continue to examine CZMA in light of continued population and infrastructure
growth along the coast, as well as coastal environmental conditions. According to the 2020
census, coastal shoreline counties were home to 129 million people—nearly 40% of the U.S.
population.48 NOAA and the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis estimate that the marine
economy, covering the U.S. oceans and Great Lakes, accounted for 2.6 million jobs and
contributed $511 billion to the total U.S. gross domestic product in 2023.49 Population and
infrastructure growth often occurs in shoreline communities amid ecosystems such as beaches,
reefs, sea grasses, wetlands, estuaries, and deltas. The combination of built and natural systems
has been and likely will continue to be affected by changes in sea level (and its impacts, such as
higher tides, greater storm surge, saltwater intrusion, erosion, etc.), local rainfall, water and air
temperatures, and ocean acidification, among other factors.50
Some scholars have argued for substantial revision or alterations to CZMA to account for changes
along the coast.51 For example, one suggested changing CZMA financial assistance programs to
focus primarily on actions to protect and restore natural systems, acquire wetlands with greatest
capacity to adapt to sea level rise, and address sea level rise and biodiversity loss.52 Another
advocated amending CZMA to increase the use of science in coastal management decisions and
more acutely focus on low-income coastal communities.53 Still another encouraged participants to
more fully include the fishing industry in their coastal management planning regarding offshore
wind;54 Congress could amend CZMA to make these changes or others. On the other hand, some
stakeholders may argue that CZMA is working as intended and should not be amended to
specifically address new or novel concerns. Others, including the Trump Administration, have
taken action to reduce, rather than expand, federal financial assistance under CZMA.
Members of the 119th Congress have introduced several bills with provisions to amend CZMA.
For example, Members have introduced bills focused on amending CZMA to include provisions
regarding climate change preparedness and response and “working waterfronts,” including the
creation of new financial assistance programs.55 Another bill in the 119th Congress would expand
48 NOAA, OCM, “Economics and Demographics,” https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/economics-and-
demographics.html, archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/Q85H-YB33.
49 NOAA, OCM, “Marine Economy,” https://coast.noaa.gov/states/fast-facts/marine-economy.html, archived
December 29, 2025, at https://perma.cc/BBU7-SRJV. The marine economy includes tourism and recreation, national
defense and public administration, offshore minerals, transportation and warehousing, living resources, ship and boat
building, coastal utilities, research and education, professional and technical services, and construction.
50 USGCRP, “Chapter 9: Coastal Effects.”
51 Eric V. Hull, “Protecting Coastal Communities and Marine Biodiversity Under the Coastal Zone Management Act,”
South Carolina Law Review, vol. 76 (2024), pp. 1-47 (hereinafter Hull, “Protecting Coastal Communities”); Alisha
Summers et al., “Failure to Protect Beaches Under Slowly Rising Sea Level,” Climatic Change, vol. 151 (2018), pp.
427-443; and Lindsay Garten, “The Coastal Zone Management Act: A Mixed Success,” Consilience: The Journal of
Sustainable Development, vol. 16, no. 1 (2016), pp. 1-13.
52 Hull, “Protecting Coastal Communities,” pp. 37-38.
53 Brooke Mercaldi, “Enhancing the Coastal Zone Management Act by Integrating Environmental Justice,” ChicagoKent Journal of Environmental & Energy Law, vol. 12, no. 1 (Fall 2022), p. 52.
54 Lindsey Hutchison, “Fissues in the Windustry: Mitigating Fishing Industry Concerns While Promoting Offshore
Wind,” Journal of Environmental Law and Litigation, vol. 37 (2022), p. 312.
55 For example, H.R. 1808; H.R. 2990; H.R. 3718 §202; and H.R. 5746 §303 in the 119th Congress. H.R. 1808 would
define a working waterfront as “real property (including support structure over water and other facilities) that (A)
provides access to coastal waters by coastal users; and (B) is used for, or supports, commercial and recreational fishing,
recreational fishing and boating businesses, and boatbuilding, aquaculture, and other water-dependent, coastal-related
business.”
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CZMA financial assistance programs to the District of Columbia.56 A bill introduced in the 118th
Congress would have also authorized new CZMA grants to tribal governments and Native
Hawaiian organizations; similar provisions have not been proposed in the 119th Congress.57
Another bill in the 119th Congress would amend the Section 307A grant program to prioritize
areas that are “under threat due to climate change” or that “may serve to mitigate the adverse
effects of climate change,” among other changes.58
Effectiveness of CZMA Implementation
Congress may examine how the Secretary of Commerce and NOAA have implemented CZMA
and whether changes to the agency, the law, or the law’s implementation are necessary. Various
entities have evaluated the effectiveness of CZMA implementation, specifically the NCZMP,
since the law’s enactment. Evaluations have noted a range of issues, from monitoring and
measuring the success of the program as a whole to issues concerning specific financial assistance
programs. Some stakeholders also have proposed changes to the types of activities considered by
participants in their consistency determination reviews.
In 2014 and 2016, the Government Accountability Office (GAO) reported several issues with
NOAA’s implementation of CZMA. The 2014 report focused on limitations to the coastal zone
management performance measurement system and the agency’s limited use of collected
performance data, among other topics.59 NOAA agreed with the recommendations and
implemented the recommended actions by November 2016.60 According to the agency, NOAA
tracks the performance data internally but does not make it public.61 In a separate 2016 study,
GAO surveyed state coastal zone managers about the actions NOAA was taking under CZMA to
support state efforts to make marine coastal ecosystems more resilient to climate change; GAO at
that time found that state coastal zone managers “generally had positive views of the actions
NOAA [was] taking.”62 Congress may continue allowing NOAA the discretion to retain data
internally, or consider requiring the agency to make its progress implementing GAO
recommendations public in a variety of ways, including periodic reports to Congress or the
public.63 Additionally, Congress may consider requiring NOAA, GAO, or another entity to resurvey state coastal zone managers to better understand whether and what kind of improvements
could be made to CZMA and its implementation.
Some stakeholders have argued that the implementation of some CZMA programs has been
inadequate. For example, some have questioned whether Section 6217 provisions have been
properly implemented. Section 6217 establishes the Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program
56 H.R. 5920 in the 119th Congress
57 H.R. 3976 in the 118th Congress.
58 H.R. 2786 in the 119th Congress.
59 U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Coastal Zone Management: Opportunities Exist for NOAA to
Enhance Its Use of Performance Information, GAO-14-592, July 16, 2014, pp. 22-24. Hereinafter GAO-14-592.
60 GAO-14-592.
61 NOAA, Office of Coastal Management, Coastal Zone Management Act Performance Measurement System: Coastal
Management Program Guidance, April 2011, updated October 2023, https://coast.noaa.gov/data/czm/media/
czmapmsguide.pdf, archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/P9KV-5Q73, and personal correspondence with
NOAA’s OLIA, August 12, 2025.
62 GAO, Climate Change: Information on NOAA’s Support for States’ Marine Coastal Ecosystem Resilience Efforts,
GAO-16-834, September 28, 2016, p. 14. Hereinafter GAO-16-834.
63 16 U.S.C. §1462 requires the Secretary of Commerce to submit a report summarizing CZMA administration every
two fiscal years. In 1995, Congress passed the Sunset Act (P.L. 104-66) which repealed the CZMA reporting
requirements, effective May 2000 (personal correspondence with NOAA’s OLIA, August 12, 2025).
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(CNPCP), which requires coastal states with approved CMPs to reduce polluted runoff to coastal
waters through coastal nonpoint pollution control programs that include specific land-based
measures. NOAA and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) jointly administer the CNPCP.
Under Section 6217, participants that fail to submit an “approvable [CNPCP]” lose a portion of
their funding under CZMA Section 306.64 Most participants received conditional approval
between 1997 and 1998, and the majority have since received final approval.
In 2009 and 2016, a private organization sued NOAA and EPA for continuing to provide Section
306 funds to Washington and Oregon, even though the states’ programs were not approved.65
Washington received final approval of its program in 2024. As of February 2026, approvals for
Hawaii and Mississippi were pending, and Oregon had not submitted a “fully approvable”
program.66 According to available NOAA allocation guidance for FY2017 through FY2020, 30%
of Oregon’s Sections 306/306A allocations were withheld and redirected to participants with
approved CNPCPs.67 Some have advocated for Congress to further amend CZMA to better
address coastal nonpoint pollution, such as agricultural nutrients, to reduce the incidence and
extent of harmful algal blooms and hypoxia.68 Others may argue that these responsibilities in
coastal waters should fall primarily to the states and local governments.
Some have advocated for changes to the types of activities that can be funded by CZMA financial
assistance or that undergo participant consistency determination reviews. For example, legislation
introduced in the 119th Congress would prohibit CZMA financial assistance to be used to “block
wildfire and timber production, energy production, housing construction, or military-related
activities under the Endangered Species Act.”69 In another instance, a Member of Congress
introduced legislation to add a “conclusive presumption” of consistency between certain federal
actions and participants’ policies.70 In the bill, the specified federal actions or covered activities
are defined as “a national security activity,” “a critical infrastructure project,” “a disaster recovery
or mitigation activity,” or “an activity with a significant national or regional economic impact.”71
Under the legislation, the participant could object to or challenge the activity, but such a
challenge may “not delay or otherwise prevent the activity from proceeding.” In a statement, the
bill sponsor noted that the bill would “expedite important coastal activities” and highlighted
concerns regarding state coastal management decisions in California.72 Some stakeholders have
64 16 U.S.C. §1455b(c)(3).
65 Northwest Environmental Advocates, Lawsuit Seeks Federal Action on Washington’s Failure to Control Puget
Sound Polluted Runoff, press release, December 7, 2016, https://northwestenvironmentaladvocates.org/wpdm-package/
waczaranewsr201612/?wpdmdl=6334&refresh=695592720c5cf1767215730; and Northwest Environmental Advocates,
Federal Lawsuit Settlement Will Force Changes in Oregon’s Coastal Logging Practices, press release, September 28,
2010, https://www.northwestenvironmentaladvocates.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2011/03/
dt_intfc4d86844e01a23_4d8686c2a96cc.pdf.
66 NOAA, “Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program,” https://coast.noaa.gov/czm/pollutioncontrol/, archived
February 13, 2026, at https://perma.cc/D46Q-XMGT.
67 NOAA, “National Coastal Zone Management Program,” https://coast.noaa.gov/czm/guidance/, archived December
31, 2025, at https://perma.cc/CX4W-AYTK. Allocation guidance prior to FY2017 and after FY2020 was not available.
68 Caroleen M. Dineen, “Stemming the ‘Red Tide’: Legislative Approaches to Addressing the Contribution of
Agricultural Nutrient Pollution to the Development and Consequences of Harmful Algal Blooms,” Vermont Journal of
Environmental Law, vol. 24, no. 3 (spring 2023), p. 261.
69 H.R. 5342, §616 in the 119th Congress.
70 H.R. 1874 in the 119th Congress.
71 H.R. 1874 in the 119th Congress. The bill also defines each of the covered activities listed.
72 Rep. Kevin Kiley, “Representative Kiley Introduces the Coastal Commission Accountability Act to Rein in CA
Coastal Commission Abuses,” March 5, 2025, https://kiley.house.gov/posts/representative-kiley-introduces-the-coastalcommission-accountability-act-to-rein-in-ca-coastal-commission-abuses. For more about concerns regarding the
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opposed the bill, stating that it “would muzzle the voices of communities, small businesses, and
states to speak out about federal government actions along the coast that affect their lives and
livelihoods” and that it “attacks coastal states’ rights to review federal actions under the
CZMA.”73
Authorization of Appropriations and Funding for CZMA Financial
Assistance Programs
The CZMA coastal zone management financial assistance programs, listed in Table 1, were last
authorized for appropriations in the following years:74
•
•
•
•
•
•
Section 306 (Administrative Grants): FY1999;75
Section 306A (Coastal Resource Improvement Grants): FY1999;
Section 307A (Coastal and Estuarine Land Conservation Program): FY2013;76
Section 309 (Coastal Zone Enhancement Grants): FY1999;
Section 310 (Technical Assistance): no authorization of appropriations; and
Section 6217 (Coastal Nonpoint Pollution Control Program): FY1995.77
Some Members of the 119th and previous Congresses have proposed to reauthorize the programs
into the future. For example, one bill in the 119th Congress would update the time frame of the
authorization of appropriations for an amended version of the Section 307A program.78
Although authorizations of appropriations for CZMA financial assistance programs expired years
ago, Congress continued to appropriate funding for the programs through FY2024.79 Various
stakeholders have argued for changes to appropriated amounts for the CZMA financial assistance
programs. For example, the Biden Administration requested $81.5 million for the programs for
FY2025;80 conversely, the Trump Administration proposed to eliminate all the programs for
California Coastal Commission, see, for example, Editorial Board, “Trump and Newsom Unite over Coastal
Commission,” March 30, 2025, Los Angeles Daily News, https://www.dailynews.com/2025/03/30/trump-and-newsomunite-over-coastal-commission/.
73 Coastal States Organization (CSO), “Coastal States Organization Opposes Bill Attacking Coastal Zone Management
Act,” March 6, 2025, https://coastalstates.org/coastal-states-organization-opposes-bill-attacking-coastal-zonemanagement-act/. Another group similarly stated that the bill “threatens to strip states of their authority” under CZMA
(American Coastal Coalition, “American Coastal Coalition Opposes Anti-CZMA Bill Introduced by Rep. Kevin
Kiley,” March 21, 2025, https://americancoastalcoalition.org/news/american-coastal-coalition-opposes-anti-czma-billintroduced-rep-kevin-kiley).
74 Authorized amounts for CZMA grant programs generally decreased in the 1980 (P.L. 96-464) and 1985 (P.L. 99272) amendments and increased in the subsequent amendments.
75 P.L. 104-150 authorized appropriations of $50.5 million for Sections 306, 306A, and 309 grants in FY1999.
76 P.L. 111-11 authorized appropriations of $60.0 million for Section 307A grants in FY2013.
77 P.L. 101-508 authorized appropriations of $12.0 million for Section 6217 grants in FY1995.
78 H.R. 2786 in the 119th Congress.
79 Congress provided appropriations to NOAA for FY2025, but did not provide line office or budget line item
information as part of the law (P.L. 119-4, Title III) or accompanying language. The agency also did not make its
FY2025 spending plan publicly available.
80 NOAA, Budget Estimates Fiscal Year 2025, March 2024, p. Control Table-1, https://www.noaa.gov/sites/default/
files/2024-03/NOAA_FY25_Congressional_Justification.pdf, archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/ZZD7-2KW3.
Hereinafter NOAA, Budget Estimates FY2025.
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FY2026.81 Congress appropriated $81.5 million to NOAA for coastal zone management grants in
FY2026.82
Congress had also provided additional funding to states and territories under Sections 307A and
310 programs for FY2022 through FY2026 under the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act
(IIJA) and P.L. 117-169, also known as the Inflation Reduction Act.83 In January 2025, the Trump
Administration paused or terminated certain categories of IIJA and P.L. 117-169 funding through
Executive Order 14154, “Unleashing American Energy.”84 In July 2025, Congress rescinded
unobligated balances of P.L. 117-169 funding for NOAA. 85 CRS was unable to identify how the
Administration’s pause and congressional rescission of P.L. 117-169 funds may have specifically
impacted NOAA’s coastal zone management-related financial assistance.
Some stakeholders have contended that financial assistance to states from the NCZMP is
important, and have supported more funding. For example, in a 2016 GAO survey, state coastal
zone managers indicated that “financial assistance provided by NOAA [was] critical” and that
“the amount of financial assistance available [was] insufficient to address states’ needs in
implementing projects.”86 Another stakeholder group in 2024 stated that the “federal government
needs to provide more consistent financial … support to states” and that “many states would be
further along with coastal management programs if federal partners strategically committed more
time and resources to assisting local efforts.”87 One group also noted that while funding for
coastal zone management financial assistance generally increased nominally from FY2002
through FY2023, funding levels have “not kept pace with inflation or the increased costs of
staffing and operating programs.”88 They claim that “coastal states and territories have identified
that annual appropriations would need to be over $134 [million] in FY2025 … to fully address
these demands.”
NOAA has seen varying interest in its competitive financial assistance programs, with amounts
applied for exceeding available funding in most years. For example, the NOAA Regional Coastal
81 NOAA, Budget Estimates Fiscal Year 2026, June 2025, p. NOS-23, https://www.noaa.gov/sites/default/files/2025-
06/NOAA%20FY26%20Congressional%20Justification.pdf, archived December 30, 2025, at https://perma.cc/PX7VQ99Q. NOAA stated that the agency would “continue to administer existing cooperative agreements, while also
providing national coordination and in-kind support to state coastal zone management agencies that are able operate
programs using state funds.”
82 Sen. Patty Murray, Unanimous Consent Agreement - H.R. 4366, Congressional Record, vol. 170 (March 4, 2024), p.
S1401. EPA directed states to allocate a portion of their Clean Water Act Section 319 funding towards the
implementation of CZMA Section 6217 starting in FY2025 (EPA, Nonpoint Source Program and Grants Guidelines
for States and Territories, May 4, 2024, EPA 841-R-24-009, https://www.epa.gov/system/files/documents/2024-06/
2024_section_319_guidelines_final_1.pdf, archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/PG88-C3E9). For more
information about Clean Water Act Section 319, see CRS Report R44871, Freshwater Harmful Algal Blooms: Causes,
Challenges, and Policy Considerations, by Laura Gatz.
83 NOAA, “Coastal Zone Management,” https://www.noaa.gov/infrastructure-law/infrastructure-law-climate-readycoasts/coastal-zone-management, archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/KQ5L-XQFW; and NOAA, “Inflation
Reduction Act: Climate-Ready Coasts and Communities,” https://www.noaa.gov/inflation-reduction-act/inflationreduction-act-climate-ready-coasts-and-communities, archived April 1, 2025, at https://perma.cc/A4M7-RMK4. For
information on how NOAA planned to allocate some of that funding, see NOAA, Budget Estimates FY2025, p. BIL
Control Table-1.
84 Executive Order 14154, “Unleashing American Energy,” 90 Federal Register 8353, January 20, 2025.
85 P.L. 119-21, §40008.
86 GAO-16-834, p. 16.
87 Surfrider Foundation, State of the Beach Report, 2023, p. 84, https://www.surfrider.org/hubfs/SOTB23/SOTB2023.pdf.
88 CSO, CSO FY2025 Programmatic Request, Subcommittee on Commerce, Justice, and Science, March 2024,
https://coastalstates.org/wp-content/uploads/dmf/FY-2025-CSO-Approps-Request-FINAL_March24.pdf.
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Resilience grant program, administered under Section 310, received 132 applications in FY2015
requesting $105 million, while $4.5 million was available for grants.89 More recently, in FY2022
through FY2024, NOAA received applications for Projects of Special Merit under Section 309 at
or above the available funding. For example, the agency received 11 applications in both FY2022
and FY2023, requesting over $2.2 million for $1.5 million in available funds each year.90
Moving forward, Congress could evaluate whether to increase appropriations for some or all of
the CZMA financial assistance programs given these stakeholders’ concerns, maintain the funding
status quo, or reduce funding. Congress also may consider directing NOAA to continue its recent
allocation strategy of funding certain financial assistance programs or making changes to provide
funds to other programs, such as Sections 307A and 6217 programs, that have not received annual
appropriations in recent years. Alternatively, some Members of Congress and stakeholders have
argued no appropriations should be provided for programs with expired authorizations of
appropriations, such as CZMA financial assistance programs. Under House rules, authorizations
of appropriations are required to be enacted prior to consideration of relevant appropriations bills;
Members may raise a point of order, which may be waived.91 Some stakeholders contend that
Congress should enforce the rules to a greater degree and refrain from appropriating funding
toward programs with expired authorizations of appropriations.92 Some Members of the 119th
Congress have proposed legislation that would reduce appropriations for, or terminate altogether,
programs with expired authorizations of appropriations.93
Author Information
Eva Lipiec
Specialist in Natural Resource Policy
89 GAO-16-834, p. 16. Congress appropriated funds to the Regional Coastal Resilience grant program from FY2015 to
FY2017.
90 Personal correspondence with NOAA’s OLIA, August 12, 2025.
91 For more about the rules see CRS Report R46497, Authorizations and the Appropriations Process, by James V.
Saturno.
92 National Taxpayers Union Foundation, “Reform Legislation Would Help Bring ‘Zombie Programs’ to Their Final
Rest,” April 23, 2025, https://www.ntu.org/foundation/detail/reform-legislation-would-help-bring-zombie-programs-totheir-final-rest.
93 H.R. 143 in the 119th Congress.
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