Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: Programs and Spending, FY2008-FY2013
Congressional research reportJan 15, 2015
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with
Low Income: Programs and Spending,
FY2008-FY2013
(name redacted)
Specialist in Domestic Social Policy and Division Research Coordinator
(name redacted)
Specialist in Social Policy
January 15, 2015
Congressional Research Service
7-....
www.crs.gov
R43863
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Summary
The Congressional Research Service (CRS) regularly receives requests about the number, size,
and programmatic details of federal benefits and services targeted toward low-income
populations, and the characteristics of people who participate. This report attempts to identify and
provide information about such programs, including their federal spending during FY2008FY2013. The report does not discuss social insurance programs such as Social Security,
Medicare, or Unemployment Insurance, but includes only programs with an explicit focus on
low-income people or communities. Tax provisions, other than the refundable portion of two tax
credits, are excluded. Key findings include the following:
•
No single label best describes all programs with a low-income focus, and no
single trait characterizes those who benefit. Programs are highly diverse in their
purpose, design, and target population. Readers should use caution in making
generalizations about the programs described in this report.
•
Total federal spending on low-income programs rose sharply between FY2008
and FY2009 as the Great Recession took hold. Spending ultimately peaked in
FY2011, dropped in FY2012, and edged up again in FY2013.
•
Total low-income spending in FY2013 totaled $744 billion, significantly higher
than the FY2008 level of $561 billion but below the FY2010 level of $750
billion. Peak spending over the six years was $764 billion in FY2011.
•
Health care is the single largest category of low-income spending, accounting for
nearly half of the total, and drives overall trends. The single largest program
within the health category is Medicaid. Cash aid and food assistance are the next
largest categories, with food assistance seeing the largest growth over the sixyear period. Other categories (in descending size) are education, housing and
development, social services, employment and training, and energy assistance.
•
Most low-income spending (82% in FY2013) is classified in budgetary terms as
“mandatory” (or “direct”), which means the amount spent is a function of
eligibility and payment rules established by Congress in authorizing laws.
Congress determines the amount spent for the remaining “discretionary”
programs through the annual appropriations process.
•
Four programs accounted for 65% of low-income spending in FY2013, and 10
programs made up 82%. Medicaid alone contributed 39% of the total. In addition
to Medicaid, the top four include the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
(SNAP), Supplemental Security Income (SSI), and the refundable portion of the
Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC).
•
The disabled receive the single largest share of federal low-income spending,
based on an analysis of spending for the top 10 programs in FY2011. The
disabled received almost a third of such spending, primarily for health care and
secondarily for cash aid. Working families with children received the next largest
share of spending (including from the EITC and Additional Child Tax Credit),
followed by the elderly. The bulk of spending for low-income elderly was in the
health category. Less than 12% of total low-income spending in FY2011 went to
families with nonelderly nondisabled adults who were not working.
Congressional Research Service
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Important Caveats...................................................................................................................... 1
Organization of Report .............................................................................................................. 2
Trends in Low-Income Spending, FY2008-FY2013 ....................................................................... 3
Overview of Benefits and Services by Category ............................................................................. 5
Health Care ................................................................................................................................ 5
Cash Aid .................................................................................................................................... 6
Food Assistance ......................................................................................................................... 6
Education ................................................................................................................................... 7
Housing and Development ........................................................................................................ 7
Social Services........................................................................................................................... 8
Employment and Training ......................................................................................................... 9
Energy Assistance ...................................................................................................................... 9
Trends in Low-Income Spending by Category .............................................................................. 10
Trends in Low-Income Spending by Budgetary Classification ..................................................... 13
Trends in Spending for the 10 Largest Programs........................................................................... 14
Spending for the 10 Largest Programs by Population ................................................................... 18
Related Reading ............................................................................................................................. 21
Figures
Figure 1. Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income,
FY2008-FY2013 ........................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2. Percent of Federal Spending by Major Category on Benefits and Services for
People with Low Income, FY2008-FY2013 .............................................................................. 10
Figure 3. Federal Spending by Major Category on Benefits and Services for People with
Low Income, FY2008-FY2013 .................................................................................................. 12
Figure 4. Federal Spending on Major Categories of Benefits and Services for People with
Low Income, FY2008-FY2013 .................................................................................................. 13
Figure 5. Spending for Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income by
Size of Program, FY2013 ........................................................................................................... 15
Figure 6. Estimated Federal Spending for 10 Largest Low-Income Assistance Programs
by Population Category, FY2011................................................................................................ 19
Tables
Table 1. Federal Spending by Major Category on Benefits and Services for People with
Low Income, FY2008-FY2013 .................................................................................................... 4
Table 2. Percent of Federal Spending by Major Category on Benefits and Services for
People with Low Income, FY2008-FY2013 .............................................................................. 11
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Table 3. Spending for the 10 Largest Programs for People with Low Income,
FY2008-FY2013 ......................................................................................................................... 16
Table 4. Key Features of the 10 Largest Programs ........................................................................ 17
Table 5. Estimated Federal Spending for the 10 Largest Low-Income Programs, by
Population Category and Program, FY2011 ............................................................................... 20
Table C-1. Spending for Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income, by
Program: FY2008-2013 .............................................................................................................. 30
Table C-2. Target Populations and Concepts Used to Determine Individual Income
Eligibility Criteria and/or Target Federal Resources, by Program.............................................. 41
Table C-3. Types of Grants or Awards, and Eligible Immediate Grantees or Beneficiaries,
by Program ................................................................................................................................. 48
Table D-1. Guide to Program Fact Sheets and Page Numbers ..................................................... 54
Appendixes
Appendix A. Methodology Used to Create Low-Income Program Database ................................ 22
Appendix B. Methodology Used for Analysis of Spending by Population ................................... 26
Appendix C. Detailed Program Tables .......................................................................................... 29
Appendix D. Program Fact Sheets ................................................................................................. 54
Contacts
Author Contact Information......................................................................................................... 168
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................... 168
Congressional Research Service
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Introduction
The size and composition of federal spending directed toward low-income people is a focus of
public policy. Particularly in a budget-conscious environment, policy makers want to know what
the federal government spends on programs to help needy populations, including the types of
assistance provided and the characteristics of those who benefit. This report attempts to identify
and provide information about federal programs that are targeted in some way toward lowincome people and communities. An earlier version of the report looked at low-income programs
and spending in FY2008 and FY2009;1 this version extends that analysis through FY2013.
Programs included in this report are distinct from social insurance programs such as Social
Security, Medicare, or Unemployment Insurance. Those programs are financed largely by
contributions from workers and employers2 and benefits are earned on the basis of an individual’s
work history. Social insurance plays a major antipoverty role in the United States, but
participation is generally meant to be universal (providing insurance to the population at large
against becoming poor) and not specifically targeted toward low-income people.3
In contrast to social insurance, programs examined in this report are funded through general
revenues and provide benefits and services to people with limited income either by tying
eligibility to a specific measure of income, or by targeting assistance through funding allocation
formulas or other need-related mechanisms.4 Some programs are highly targeted with detailed
eligibility rules for individuals or households, while others encourage or prioritize services to
low-income people within a broader target population group, such as the elderly.
These programs attempt to ameliorate or mitigate the effects of low income by providing cash or
noncash benefits to help people meet basic needs, such as food, housing, and health care. They
also seek to address root causes of economic disadvantage by providing education, training, and
other services to improve people’s employability and earnings capacity. Some programs target
assistance to communities with high concentrations of low-income people to compensate for their
low tax capacities, and to help finance benefits and services for residents.
Important Caveats
While they share the common feature of an explicit low-income focus, programs discussed in this
report are highly diverse in their purpose, design, and target population. They were established at
different times, in response to different policy challenges, and not necessarily in coordination
1
See CRS Report R41625, Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: Programs, Policy, and
Spending, FY2008-FY2009, by (name redacted).
2
These contributions are made in the form of payroll taxes. Some components of social insurance programs also
receive general revenues or other funds (e.g., Medicare Part B is funded through general revenues and premium
payments; Unemployment Compensation-Extended Benefits is funded by federal general revenues and states).
3
See discussion of “Universal Policies Versus Need-Tested Benefits” in CRS Report R43731, Poverty: Major Themes
in Past Debates and Current Proposals, by (name redacted) and (name redacted).
4
The earlier version of this report, cited in footnote 1, includes detailed discussions of concepts and income measures
used to determine individual eligibility for low-income programs, and of the various mechanisms used to target federal
resources toward populations or communities based on need.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
with one another. Readers should exercise caution in any attempt to generalize about these
programs or draw conclusions from the information presented in this report.
No single label accurately describes all programs in the report. Terms such as “social welfare”
and “social safety net” are often understood to include social insurance programs, and are thus
broader than the programs included here. “Public welfare” and “public assistance” are typically
understood as a more narrow set of programs that primarily provide cash or near-cash benefits to
low-income people. While such programs are included, programs that provide in-kind benefits
and services also are discussed. “Income-tested” or “means-tested” might be used to describe
these programs, but some target assistance toward low-income communities and do not apply a
specific income or means test to individual participants or beneficiaries.
The report examines programs by category, but the categories themselves are diverse. For
example, the health category includes primary care for poor children and their families along with
nursing home care for the elderly and disabled whose health costs may have depleted other
income and assets. Cash aid includes traditional “welfare” in the form of cash assistance to needy
families, but also includes pensions for needy veterans and two refundable tax credits for
households with earnings, the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) and the Additional Child Tax
Credit (ACTC).5 Food assistance includes the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
(SNAP), as well as subsidized meals for low-income schoolchildren and home-delivered meals
for the elderly.
Similarly, no single trait characterizes the people served by these programs. They include elderly
and disabled individuals, children and their families, single adults and couples without children,
workers and nonworkers, veterans, homeless people, refugees, students, and others. While some
popular perceptions of “welfare” assume that beneficiaries are unemployed able-bodied adults of
working age, the report demonstrates that people with disabilities actually account for the single
largest share of spending under the 10 largest low-income programs. Families with children
where an adult is working account for the next largest share of spending, followed by the elderly.
Households where no able-bodied adult is working account for a relatively small share of
spending under these programs. Readers should also note that most of the programs included in
this report are relatively small, and serve a fraction of their potentially eligible target population.
The report refers to the collective target population of the programs as persons with “low” or
“limited” income, rather than “poor” people. Although some programs limit participation to
individuals with income below federal poverty guidelines, income eligibility criteria vary widely
and frequently include people with income above the official federal definition of poverty.
Organization of Report
Key findings of this report are presented in the Summary, above. The body of the report is
organized as follows:
•
The report begins with an overview of trends in federal spending for low-income
programs over the six-year period from FY2008 through FY2013.
5
With the exception of direct spending for the refundable portions of the Earned Income Tax Credit and Additional
Child Tax Credit, this report does not include tax programs or provisions.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
•
It continues with a brief descriptive overview of federal low-income programs by
major category (health care, cash aid, food assistance, etc.). Following sections
discuss spending trends by category and by budgetary classification
(“mandatory” or “discretionary”).
•
The next section looks specifically at spending and trends over the six-year
period for the 10 largest programs included in the report, which together
accounted for 82% of all low-income spending in FY2013. Key features of the 10
programs are summarized.
•
Still focusing on the 10 largest programs, the next section presents an analysis of
spending by the population groups served, including the elderly and disabled,
families with children, and childless adults and couples. Nonelderly nondisabled
households are further examined by whether they include working adults.
•
A “related reading” section lists additional CRS reports that provide information
on federal low-income policy, programs, and spending.
•
The report concludes with several appendixes. Appendix A discusses the
methodology used to create the database of low-income programs and spending,
and Appendix B explains the methodology used to prepare the analysis of
spending by population group. Appendix C provides overview tables of the
programs included in the report, and Appendix D is a series of short fact sheets
on each program.
Trends in Low-Income Spending, FY2008-FY2013
Federal spending for low-income programs totaled $561 billion in FY2008 and jumped to $708
billion the next year, as the Great Recession of 2007-2009 took hold.6 The American Recovery
and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA, P.L. 111-5) aimed to stimulate the economy with
additional federal funding and was responsible for nearly 60% of the increased spending on lowincome programs between FY2008 and FY2009. Caseloads also grew as unemployment rose and
incomes declined, making more people eligible for such benefits as SNAP and Medicaid. Federal
spending for low-income programs peaked in FY2011 at $764 billion, dropped in FY2012, and
edged up again in FY2013. By that year, spending for low-income benefits and services had
receded below FY2010 levels, but remained a third higher than comparable spending in FY2008.
(See Figure 1 and Table 1.)
6
This report discusses federal spending only and does not attempt to quantify nonfederal (state, local, or other)
spending related to the low-income programs included in this report. However, readers should be aware that a
significant amount of such spending occurs. (See “Matching or related requirements” in individual program fact sheets
in Appendix D.)
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Figure 1. Federal Spending on Benefits and Services for People with Low Income,
FY2008-FY2013
(dollars in billions)
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from obligations data contained in the U.S.
Budget Appendix for each of FY2010-FY2015. See Appendix A for additional details.
Note: ARRA = American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, P.L. 111-5.
Table 1. Federal Spending by Major Category on Benefits and Services for People
with Low Income, FY2008-FY2013
(dollars in billions)
FY2008
Categories
FY2009
FY2010
FY2011
FY2012
FY2013
Total
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Health Care
$258.8
$319.2
$34.7
$346.9
$40.6
$352.5
$26.3
$328.4
0
$344.0
0
Cash Aid
116.4
129.6
0.2
145.3
2.0
149.1
0
142.4
0
150.3
0
Food Assistance
58.9
77.6
5.0
93.9
11.1
101.4
11.9
104.8
8.3
107.1
6.1
Education
41.9
58.2
18.7
58.6
7.9
66.0
0
58.4
0
54.7
0
Housing and
Development
39.7
60.0
14.5
51.8
5.7
46.2
0
44.0
0
41.4
0
Social Services
36.0
43.9
4.0
39.7
3.7
37.0
0
36.7
0
36.7
0
Employment
and Training
6.2
8.6
1.9
7.7
0.7
6.5
0
6.1
0
6.0
0
Energy
Assistance
2.9
10.3
4.7
5.6
0.2
4.9
0
3.6
0
3.4
0
$560.8
$707.6
$83.8
$749.6
$71.9
$763.5
$38.2
$724.5
$8.3
$743.7
$6.1
Total
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from obligations data contained in the U.S.
Budget Appendix for each of FY2010-FY2015. See Appendix A for additional details.
Notes: ARRA = American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, P.L. 111-5. ARRA amounts are included in totals.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Overview of Benefits and Services by Category
The following sections briefly describe the programs included in each major category of benefits
and services, organized by size of spending in FY2013. Tables in Appendix C list and highlight
key features of the programs, and brief fact sheets on each program are provided in Appendix D.
As noted earlier, these programs are highly diverse and provide a range of benefits and services to
a variety of target populations (see “Important Caveats”).
Health Care
Just as health care dominates total federal spending on low-income programs, Medicaid
dominates the health category. Medicaid accounted for 83% of health care spending in FY2013
and is the single largest program included in this report (accounting for 39% of total FY2013 lowincome spending). Medicaid is intended to help specified categories of people who lack the
income and resources to afford necessary medical care. Low-income parents, dependent children,
the elderly, and individuals with disabilities have been the primary target populations served by
Medicaid, although the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010 (ACA, P.L. 111-148)
expanded Medicaid eligibility to include most nonelderly, nonpregnant individuals with income
below a specified level.7 The program finances the delivery of a wide range of primary and acute
medical services as well as long-term supports and services such as nursing home care. The State
Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) provides health coverage for low-income children
who lack health insurance but whose family income exceeds Medicaid eligibility levels.
Other large health programs include the low-income subsidy under Medicare Part D, which helps
low-income seniors and individuals with disabilities pay for prescription drugs, and medical care
for low-income veterans without service-connected disabilities. The latter program pays for an
array of primary care, specialized care, and related social and support services provided by the
Department of Veterans Affairs (VA). The Indian Health Service also offers a variety of health
services to its target population, who are American Indians or Alaska Natives living on
reservations or within a specified service delivery area. Consolidated Health Centers offer
primary and other health services to low-income populations in medically underserved areas, and
the Maternal and Child Health block grant supports preventive and primary health care services
for low-income women, infants, and children.
The Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program is intended to address the unmet care and treatment needs of
individuals living with HIV or AIDS who lack insurance or resources to pay for core medical
services, including prescription drugs, and related support services. Additional programs focus on
specific health services, such as family planning and early breast and cervical cancer detection, or
specific populations, such as refugees.
7
The Supreme Court’s June 28, 2012, decision in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius, effectively
made the ACA Medicaid expansion optional for states. See CRS Report R43564, The ACA Medicaid Expansion, by
(name redacted).
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Cash Aid
Three programs account for the bulk of cash aid spending, and each ranks among the 10 largest of
all programs for low-income people. Supplemental Security Income (SSI), which aims to provide
a minimum income for aged, blind, or disabled individuals with very low income and resources,
accounted for nearly 40% of cash aid spending in FY2013. The refundable portion of the Earned
Income Tax Credit (EITC) accounted for another 38% of cash aid spending, and more than 14%
came from the refundable Additional Child Tax Credit (ACTC). The EITC subsidizes the wages
of low-income workers, with most benefits going to those with children. The ACTC is a
refundable credit for families whose tax liability is too low for them to fully benefit from the
regular nonrefundable Child Tax Credit.
Cash aid also includes part of Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), the welfare
reform program that replaced Aid to Families with Dependent Children (AFDC) in 1996. As
AFDC’s successor, TANF is still sometimes viewed as traditional welfare for poor families;
however, the majority of TANF expenditures are for activities other than cash aid. TANF aims to
increase the flexibility of states in meeting several statutory goals, including assisting needy
families so that children can remain in their homes; ending dependence of needy parents through
job preparation, work, and marriage; preventing and reducing incidence of out-of-wedlock
pregnancies; and encouraging the formation and maintenance of two-parent families. In this
report, TANF spending has been allocated among three categories—cash aid, social services, and
employment and training—based on states’ reporting of their actual expenditures. Finally, cash
aid programs include pensions for needy elderly or disabled veterans and their dependents or
survivors.
Food Assistance
The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, formerly food stamps) dominates
spending for food assistance, accounting for almost three-quarters of obligations in this category
and ranking as the second-largest low-income program in FY2013. SNAP attempts to alleviate
hunger and malnutrition and to help low-income households purchase food to support a healthy
diet. The next largest area of food assistance spending is for programs that subsidize the costs of
breakfast and lunch served to low-income schoolchildren; these programs aim to support learning
readiness, promote healthy eating, and protect the health and well-being of low-income children.
Related programs subsidize the costs of meals and snacks for children in child care and other outof-school settings (and some low-income elderly and disabled adults in adult care settings) and
for children during the summer when they lack access to school-based meal programs. Another
program helps elementary schools with high concentrations of low-income students provide fresh
fruit and vegetable snacks during the school day.
Food assistance also includes the Special Supplemental Food Program for Women, Infants and
Children (WIC), which provides supplemental food and nutrition education to low-income
pregnant, postpartum, or breastfeeding women and their infants and young children who are at
nutritional risk. The program seeks to protect children’s health during critical developmental
stages, prevent health problems, and improve health status. Food assistance programs also include
congregate and home-delivered meals for the elderly to reduce hunger and promote socialization
and well-being for older individuals, and emergency food assistance in the form of commodities
for individuals defined by their states as needy.
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Education
The Federal Pell Grant Program is the largest education program for people with limited incomes,
accounting for 58% of targeted federal education spending in FY2013 and ranking as the fifthlargest program in this report. Pell Grants are one of several ways the federal government helps
subsidize the costs of higher education for needy students. Other programs with similar goals
include Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grants and Federal Work-Study.8 In
addition to direct assistance to students, the federal government provides institutional aid to help
expand the capacity of colleges and universities that serve high proportions of low-income and
minority students. Federal TRIO Programs offer grants to institutions of higher education and
other organizations to motivate and support disadvantaged students as they move from high
school through college. GEAR-UP serves low-income elementary and secondary school students
who are at risk of dropping out, and aims to increase the number of such students who enter and
succeed in higher education. College Access Challenge Grants pursue a similar goal, through
partnerships between government agencies and philanthropic groups.
The second-largest education program included in the report (also one of the 10 largest lowincome programs) is Title I-A of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which accounted
for more than one-fourth of targeted federal education spending in FY2013. Title I-A provides
grants to local educational agencies with high concentrations of disadvantaged children and aims
to ensure that all children have an opportunity to obtain a high-quality education and reach at
least minimum proficiency on challenging academic achievement standards. Separate programs
have similar goals for children of migrant workers, Indian children, and students in rural school
districts. The Bureau of Indian Education operates programs to meet the educational needs of
Indian children living on or near reservations. Other elementary and secondary education
programs aim to increase student achievement through improvements in teacher and principal
quality and to improve teacher knowledge and student performance in mathematics and science.
Literacy is the focus of Adult Basic Education, which helps adults to become literate and obtain
the skills necessary for employment and self-sufficiency and to become partners in their own
children’s educational development. Finally, 21st Century Community Learning Centers are
intended to provide a wide range of remedial education and academic enrichment opportunities
during non-school hours for children in high-poverty and low-performing schools.
Housing and Development
The federal government supports the housing needs of low-income people primarily by
subsidizing the cost of rental units in the private market. Section 8 housing vouchers and
project-based rental assistance together accounted for nearly two-thirds of all housing and
development spending in FY2013. (The voucher component of Section 8 is one of the 10 largest
low-income programs.) The overarching goal of Section 8 is to provide low-income people with
decent, safe, and sanitary housing. Public Housing, which represented 14% of spending in this
category in FY2013, achieves a similar goal by making publicly owned rental units available to
8
Low-cost loans to help students finance higher education also are provided through the Federal Family Education
Loan and William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan programs. However, these programs are not strongly targeted toward
low-income students and are not included in this report’s analysis. See CRS Report R40122, Federal Student Loans
Made Under the Federal Family Education Loan Program and the William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan Program:
Terms and Conditions for Borrowers, by (name redacted).
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low-income tenants at affordable prices. The Public Housing account supports the capital needs
and operating costs of publicly owned housing developments, as well as the HOPE VI program
and Choice Neighborhoods, which demolish, rehabilitate, and replace distressed public housing
units. Additional housing programs are intended to expand the supply of supportive housing for
low-income elderly and disabled households, as well as individuals living with AIDS. Homeless
Assistance Grants attempt to meet the needs of homeless individuals and families, including
individuals with disabilities, for basic shelter, short-term and long-term housing, and related
support services.
Two block grants—HOME and the Community Development Block Grant (CDBG)—target
federal assistance toward communities with high rates of poverty and aging housing stock
(among other factors) to help meet the housing needs of low-income homeowners, homebuyers,
and renters (HOME) and to expand the community’s supply of decent housing and economic
development activities (CDBG). An additional block grant provides housing assistance and helps
develop private housing finance mechanisms on Indian lands.
To address housing needs in rural areas, loans are available to help low-income households
purchase, build, or renovate homes, and rental subsidies are available for low-income tenants.
Low-interest loans and grants also are available to support new and improved water and waste
disposal facilities in low-income rural communities. Finally, the housing and development
category includes the Public Works and Economic Development program, which provides grants
to distressed communities to help them revitalize, expand, and upgrade their physical
infrastructure to attract new industries, expand businesses, diversify their economies, and
generate job and investment growth.
Social Services
The social services category is diverse and includes a wide range of activities to support lowincome or otherwise vulnerable populations.9 Of spending categorized as social services in this
report, the vast majority—more than 90% in FY2013—is focused directly on children and youth
or their families. Services funded by TANF are the largest single activity in this category,
accounting for more than a quarter of the social services spending in this report. As noted in the
earlier discussion of cash aid, TANF is often thought of as traditional welfare for poor families.
However, states have flexibility in spending their TANF grants, and the majority of funds are used
for noncash aid, including various social services for families with children. TANF spending also
includes obligations under competitive grants for promotion of healthy marriage and responsible
fatherhood.
Head Start is the second-largest program in this category, accounting for more than 20% of social
services spending for low-income populations. Head Start aims to promote school readiness for
young children through a full array of educational, health, nutritional, social, and other services to
children and their families. The Child Care and Development Fund (CCDF), accounting for 14%
of social services spending in FY2013, subsidizes the cost of child care for low-income parents
while they work or attend school. Additional programs targeted toward children and families
include Child Support Enforcement, which assists custodial parents who are seeking child support
9
Social services is a loosely defined category. Some of the programs included here could be categorized differently
(e.g., Head Start could be viewed as education rather than social services; Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home
Visiting could be categorized as health, etc.). See discussion in Appendix A.
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from their children’s noncustodial parent. Foster Care grants are used by states to provide
temporary homes for children who cannot remain safely with their families; Adoption Assistance
helps facilitate the adoption of children with special needs as defined by their state; and the
Chafee Foster Care Independence Program helps current and former foster children transition to a
self-sufficient adulthood. The Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting Program is
intended to promote a range of outcomes, including maternal and newborn health, child
protection and prevention of child injuries, school readiness and achievement, reduction in crime
or domestic violence, and family economic self-sufficiency.
Of social services programs not specifically targeted toward children and families, the Social
Services Block Grant (SSBG) is the largest and most flexible. The program supports a continuum
of services to promote self-sufficiency, but decisions about target populations and services are left
to the states. Other social services programs focus on specific target populations. For example,
the Older Americans Act authorizes social services for the elderly and the Bureau of Indian
Affairs provides various human services for American Indians. Programs that target services at
the community level include the Community Services Block Grant (CSBG), which aims to reduce
poverty and empower low-income individuals and families to become self-sufficient, and
Emergency Food and Shelter Grants, which provide services for homeless and hungry individuals
in high-need communities. Finally, the Legal Services Corporation attempts to ensure equal
access to the justice system for people who are otherwise unable to afford legal counsel.
Employment and Training
Two programs serving disadvantaged youth comprised 43% of the FY2013 employment and
training spending included in this report. Specifically, youth activities under the Workforce
Investment Act (WIA)10 provide a variety of services to improve the educational and skill
competencies of eligible youth and to develop connections with employers and mentoring
opportunities with adults. Job Corps focuses on those disadvantaged youth who can benefit from
an intensive residential program to become employable and productive. This category also
includes work-related services for needy families with children under TANF, a small employment
and training program for recipients of SNAP benefits, and a program that provides employability
and related services to help refugees and other humanitarian entrants find jobs quickly.
Remaining programs include WIA’s adult activities program; Community Service Employment
for Older Americans, which helps older individuals (age 55 or older) become self-sufficient
through community service jobs and training; and Foster Grandparents, which provides stipends
for low-income older individuals to provide services to children with special needs.
Energy Assistance
Two programs make up the energy assistance category. The Low-Income Home Energy
Assistance Program (LIHEAP) helps low-income households pay their heating and cooling
expenses, and the Weatherization Assistance Program helps increase the energy efficiency of
homes occupied by low-income people to reduce energy costs and improve health and safety.
10
The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 was replaced in 2014 by the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act
(P.L. 113-128). The new provisions are generally scheduled to take effect on July 1, 2015.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Trends in Low-Income Spending by Category
Health care is by far the largest category of low-income spending, accounting for nearly half of
all expenditures in each of the six years from FY2008 through FY2013. Cash aid has consistently
been the second-largest category (20% in FY2013), followed by food assistance (more than 14%
in FY2013); however, spending for these two categories combined still falls short of spending for
low-income health programs. Education, housing and development, and social services rank next
in size, accounting for 7%, 6%, and 5%, respectively, of total low-income spending in FY2013.
The last two categories—employment and training and energy assistance—each constituted less
than 1% of low-income spending in FY2013. (See Figure 2 and Table 2.)
Figure 2. Percent of Federal Spending by Major Category on Benefits and Services
for People with Low Income, FY2008-FY2013
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from obligations data contained in the U.S.
Budget Appendix for each of FY2010-FY2015. See Appendix A for additional details.
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Table 2. Percent of Federal Spending by Major Category on Benefits and Services for
People with Low Income, FY2008-FY2013
Categories
FY2008
FY2009
FY2010
FY2011
FY2012
FY2013
Health Care
46.1%
45.1%
46.3%
46.2%
45.3%
46.2%
Cash Aid
20.7%
18.3%
19.4%
19.5%
19.7%
20.2%
Food
Assistance
10.5%
11.0%
12.5%
13.3%
14.5%
14.4%
Education
7.5%
8.2%
7.8%
8.6%
8.1%
7.4%
Housing and
Development
7.1%
8.5%
6.9%
6.0%
6.1%
5.6%
Social
Services
6.4%
6.2%
5.3%
4.9%
5.1%
4.9%
Employment
and Training
1.1%
1.2%
1.0%
0.8%
0.8%
0.8%
Energy
Assistance
0.5%
1.5%
0.7%
0.6%
0.5%
0.5%
Total
99.9%
100%
99.9%
99.9%
100.1%
100%
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from obligations data contained in the U.S.
Budget Appendix for each of FY2010-FY2015. See Appendix A for additional details.
Note: Amounts may not sum to 100% due to rounding.
As noted above, health care dominates low-income spending; thus, total low-income spending
tends to follow the same pattern as health care spending. (See Figure 3.) Like total low-income
spending, health expenditures during the FY2008-FY2013 period peaked in FY2011, declined in
FY2012, and rose again in FY2013. However, other categories show different patterns. Spending
for cash aid and food assistance generally rose over each of the six years (with a dip in the cash
aid category in FY2012); peak spending for both of these categories occurred in FY2013. (The
food category showed the largest growth over the period, with an 82% increase in spending
between FY2008 and FY2013.) On the other hand, education spending peaked in FY2011 and
declined in both of the subsequent years. Smaller categories—housing and development, social
services, employment and training, and energy assistance—all saw their peak spending in
FY2009. By FY2013, spending for these four categories combined was only slightly higher than
in FY2008. (See Figure 4.)
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Figure 3. Federal Spending by Major Category on Benefits and Services for People
with Low Income, FY2008-FY2013
(dollars in billions)
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from obligations data contained in the U.S.
Budget Appendix for each of FY2010-FY2015. See Appendix A for additional details.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Figure 4. Federal Spending on Major Categories of Benefits and Services for People
with Low Income, FY2008-FY2013
(dollars in billions)
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from obligations data contained in the U.S.
Budget Appendix for each of FY2010-FY2015. See Appendix A for additional details.
Trends in Low-Income Spending by Budgetary
Classification
Of total low-income spending in FY2013, about 82% was classified in budget terms as
“mandatory” (also called “direct” spending) and the remainder as “discretionary.”11 This was a
slight shift from FY2008, when 78% of low-income spending was mandatory and 22% was
discretionary. In mandatory programs, many of which are entitlements to individuals or units of
government, Congress defines eligibility and payment rules in authorizing laws.12 These rules
determine the amount of spending that will occur, so Congress generally must amend the
11
For more information on these budget classifications and trends in both areas of spending, see CRS Report RL33074,
Mandatory Spending Since 1962, by (name redacted) and (name redacted); and CRS Report RL34424, The Budget
Control Act and Trends in Discretionary Spending, by (name redacted).
12
Most mandatory programs in this report are entitlements; however, not all mandatory spending is for entitlement
programs. See U.S. Government Accountability Office, A Glossary of Terms Used in the Federal Budget Process,
GAO-05-734SP, September 2005.
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authorizing law in order to control federal spending. The amount of federal spending for
discretionary programs, on the other hand, is determined by Congress through the annual
appropriations process.13
Mandatory spending may be structured as open-ended or capped. In an open-ended entitlement
program, no predetermined ceiling is imposed on federal expenditures; instead, federal payments
are made to all eligible beneficiaries for eligible expenditures as defined in law. (Medicaid is an
example of an open-ended entitlement program.) In a capped program, the authorizing law limits
the total amount of federal spending that can occur. (TANF is an example of a capped entitlement
program.) Of mandatory spending discussed in this report, 90% was through open-ended
programs in FY2013.
The pattern of mandatory versus discretionary spending differs by major category of benefits and
services. The three largest categories—health care, cash aid, and food assistance—are dominated
by mandatory spending, while the smaller categories (with the exception of social services) are
primarily or exclusively discretionary. In the top three categories, spending occurs largely through
open-ended entitlement programs. Social services spending is a mixture; about two-thirds of such
spending in FY2013 was classified as mandatory and the rest discretionary. Of mandatory social
services spending, most (about three-fourths) was capped and the balance open-ended.
Trends in Spending for the 10 Largest Programs
This report describes a large number of programs, but it is important to note that just a few
account for the vast majority of spending. (See Figure 5.) The four largest programs accounted
for nearly two-thirds (65%) of total low-income spending in FY2013, and the top 10 comprised
almost 82%. The dominance of these large programs has grown somewhat since FY2008, when
the same top four made up 61% of total low-income spending, and the top 10 accounted for 78%.
Spending for Medicaid—the single largest program—went from 37% of the total in FY2008 to
39% in FY2013, and SNAP grew from 7% to 11%. (See Table 3.)
13
Congress also funds certain mandatory programs through annual appropriations laws; however, the amounts to be
provided are established in authorizing laws, and appropriators generally lack the “discretion” to adjust these amounts.
These programs are sometimes referred to as appropriated entitlements.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Figure 5. Spending for Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income by
Size of Program, FY2013
(dollars in millions)
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from obligations data contained in the U.S.
Budget Appendix for each of FY2010-FY2015. See Appendix A for additional details. All programs shown in
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this figure had spending of at least $100 million in FY2013. See Table C-1 for complete program names and
funding amounts.
Table 3. Spending for the 10 Largest Programs for People with Low Income,
FY2008-FY2013
(dollars in billions)
Program
FY2008
FY2009
FY2010
FY2011
FY2012
FY2013
Medicaid
214.0
265.1
290.5
295.8
270.9
286.9
Supplemental Nutrition
Assistance Program
37.5
53.8
68.5
75.3
78.2
79.7
Supplemental Security Income
48.9
52.4
54.5
59.9
53.8
59.8
Earned Income Tax Credit
(refundable portion)
40.6
42.4
54.7
55.7
54.9
57.5
Top Four, Subtotal
$341.1
$413.7
$468.2
$486.6
$457.7
$483.9
Top Four, Percent of Total
Low-Income Spending
60.8%
58.5%
62.5%
63.7%
63.2%
65.1%
Federal Pell Grants
18.0
26.0
32.9
41.5
34.3
31.9
Medicare Part D-Low-income
Subsidy
17.4
20.3
20.9
22.3
22.3
22.4
Additional Child Tax Credit
(refundable portion)
16.7
24.3
22.7
22.7
22.1
21.6
Section 8 Housing Choice
Vouchers
15.6
16.3
18.1
18.5
18.3
17.9
Temporary Assistance for
Needy Families
17.5
18.8
21.6
17.3
17.3
17.3
Title I-A—Education for the
Disadvantaged
13.4
21.5
14.5
14.5
14.5
13.8
Top 10, Subtotal
$439.5
$540.8
$598.9
$623.3
$586.6
$608.8
Top 10, Percent of Total
Low-Income Spending
78.4%
76.4%
79.9%
81.6%
81.0%
81.9%
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from obligations data contained in the U.S.
Budget Appendix for each of FY2010-FY2015. See Appendix A for additional details. See Table 1 for Total
Low-Income Spending amounts for each fiscal year.
Note: Amounts shown for TANF include obligations in the following categories: cash aid, social services, and
employment and training. Amounts shown for SNAP include obligations primarily in the food assistance category,
but also include obligations in the employment and training category.
The 10 largest programs in FY2013 are the same as in FY2008, and Medicaid has consistently
been number one; however, some of the others have shifted in rank order. Four programs ranked
higher in FY2013 than in FY2008: SNAP, the Low-Income Subsidy for prescription drugs under
Medicare Part D (LIS-Part D), the ACTC, and Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers. Three
programs declined in relative size: SSI, the refundable portion of the EITC, and TANF.
Among the 10 largest programs, seven are entitlements, or mandatory spending programs. Of
those seven, all but one are open-ended entitlements to individuals. As noted above, this means
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their spending levels are determined by the number of people who are eligible and apply for the
program, rather than the amount Congress chooses to provide through the appropriations process.
One mandatory program—TANF—is a capped entitlement to states (rather than individuals),
which means that states are entitled to receive a fixed amount each year that is established in the
authorizing law. Table 4 provides an overview of key features of each of these top 10 programs.
Table 4. Key Features of the 10 Largest Programs
Medicaid
Medicare Part D, Low-Income Subsidy
•
•
Mandatory spending, open-ended.
•
Serves elderly and disabled Medicare
beneficiaries.
•
Uses federal poverty guidelines to determine
eligibility, automatic eligibility for certain groups.
•
Direct benefits to individuals.
Mandatory spending, open-ended.
•
Serves elderly, disabled, families with children,
and (in certain states) nonelderly nondisabled
adults.
•
Uses federal poverty guidelines to determine
eligibility, automatic eligibility for certain groups.
•
Formula grant to states; cost-sharing formula
determines federal share.
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
•
Mandatory spending, open-ended.
•
Limits participation of able-bodied adults
without dependents.
•
Uses federal poverty guidelines to determine
eligibility, automatic eligibility for certain groups.
•
Direct benefits to individuals; matching grants
to states for administrative costs.
•
Benefits adjusted annually for inflation.
Supplemental Security Income
•
Mandatory spending, open-ended.
•
Serves elderly and disabled.
•
Sets specific dollar thresholds for eligibility.
•
Direct benefits to individuals; states may
supplement federal payment.
•
Benefits adjusted annually for inflation.
Earned Income Tax Credit
•
Mandatory spending, open-ended.
•
Serves workers with earnings; largest benefits
for families with children.
•
Phases out benefits at specific dollar thresholds.
•
Direct benefits to individuals.
•
Maximum benefit phase-out thresholds adjusted
annually for inflation.
Pell Grants
•
Discretionary and mandatory components.
•
Serves postsecondary students.
•
No individual income eligibility threshold;
benefits based on available resources and cost of
education.
•
Direct benefits to individuals.
Additional Child Tax Credit
•
•
•
•
Mandatory spending, open-ended.
Serves families with children.
Phases out benefits at specific dollar thresholds.
Direct benefits to individuals.
Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers
•
Discretionary spending.
•
Serves families, with priorities defined by local
public housing authorities.
•
Uses income limits based on area median
income to determine eligibility.
•
Formula grants to local public housing
authorities; allocations based on use and cost of
vouchers.
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
•
Mandatory spending, capped.
•
Serves families with children.
•
States set their own eligibility criteria.
•
Formula grants to states; national total and
state allocations based on historical expenditures
(early to mid-1990s) under predecessor program.
Title I-A Education for the Disadvantaged
•
Discretionary spending.
•
Serves students in schools with high
concentrations of low-income students.
•
No individual income eligibility determination;
students need not be low-income.
•
Formula grants to local educational agencies;
uses population-based and other allocation factors.
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS).
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Spending for the 10 Largest Programs by
Population14
Many low-income assistance programs target their benefits not only on the basis of financial need
but also to certain populations, such as the aged, the disabled, or families with children. Other
low-income assistance programs—while not explicitly restricting their benefits to certain
groups—provide the bulk of assistance to them.
Figure 6 provides estimates of federal spending in FY2011 by population group under the 10
largest low-income assistance programs identified in the previous section. The analysis uses
FY2011 because it is the latest year for which data to divide spending among population groups
are available for Medicaid. Estimates are provided for federal spending under the top 10
programs for the aged, the disabled, families with children, and childless adults and couples.
Childless adults and couples represent nonelderly nondisabled adults in families without children.
For families with children and for childless adults and couples, additional estimates are made for
those with and without earnings. The figure also provides detail on the type of assistance received
by each population group (e.g., health, food, housing, cash).
As the figure shows, the population group benefitting from the most federal spending under the
top 10 programs is the disabled, who received an estimated $208 billion in federal dollars in
FY2011, or 33% of all federal spending under the 10 largest programs. Disabled individuals
received $136 billion in health care assistance alone. The population group that received the
second-most federal dollars was families with children with earnings, whose federal spending
from the top 10 programs totaled $171 billion. This included $77 billion in cash assistance from
the two refundable tax credits (EITC and ACTC), which are targeted to low-income families with
children and are restricted to such families with earnings.
The aged received $96 billion in low-income aid from the top 10 programs, predominantly in the
health care category. Families with children but without wage earners received an estimated $61
billion from the top 10, largely from noncash programs. Childless adults received the least aid
from the 10 largest programs; those with earnings received an estimated $9.7 billion in benefits
and those without earnings an estimated $12.9 billion, mostly in the form of noncash benefits.
Pell Grants, one of the 10 largest low-income assistance programs, provided student aid in
FY2011 totaling $41.5 billion, and grants to states for services (education and TANF services)
totaled $23 billion. (These are shown in Figure 6 and Table 5 as “Education and Services,” rather
than in a specific population category.)
14
This section was prepared by (name redacted), Specialist in Social Policy.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Figure 6. Estimated Federal Spending for 10 Largest Low-Income Assistance
Programs by Population Category, FY2011
(dollars in billions)
Source: Estimates by the Congressional Research Service (CRS).
Table 5 shows the estimates of federal spending for each of the top 10 low-income assistance
programs by population category in FY2011. For two programs, all spending was categorized for
a single population group; the ACTC is only available for families with children with earners, and
Pell Grants are only available for college students (shown in the “Education and Services”
category). For the other eight programs, spending was allocated among population groups based
on available data. (For a discussion of the methodology used to prepare these estimates by
population groups, see Appendix B.)
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Table 5. Estimated Federal Spending for the 10 Largest Low-Income Programs, by
Population Category and Program, FY2011
(dollars in billions)
Families with Children
Total
Federal
Spending
Aged
Disabled
With
Adult
workers
Without
Adult
Workers
Childless Adults and
Couples
Working
Not
Working
Education
and
Services
Medical Assistance
Medicaid
$295.8
$68.0
$126.3
$67.0
$27.7
$4.5
$2.3
$0.0
Medicare Part D
Subsidy
22.3
12.3
10.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Total, Medical
Assistance
318.1
80.3
136.3
67.0
27.7
4.5
2.3
0.0
75.3
6.4
11.6
22.1
22.6
2.8
9.9
0.0
18.3
3.1
5.9
3.9
3.7
0.9
0.7
0.0
Supplemental
Security Income
59.9
5.9
54.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Earned Income
Tax Credit
55.7
0.0
0.0
54.3
0.0
1.4
0.0
0.0
Additional Child
Tax Credit
22.7
0.0
0.0
22.7
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
Temporary
Assistance for
Needy Families,
cash assistance
6.6
0.0
0.5
0.9
5.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
Total, Cash
Assistance
144.9
5.9
54.5
77.9
5.2
1.4
0.0
0.0
41.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
41.5
Title I Grants for
Education for the
Disadvantaged
14.5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
14.5
TANF Services
10.7
0
0
0
0
0
0
10.7
Total, Grants to
States for
Services
23.3
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
23.3
$623.3
$95.7
$208.3
$170.9
$59.1
$9.7
$12.9
$66.7
Food Assistance
SNAP
Housing Assistance
Section 8
Cash Assistance
Student Financial
Aid
Pell Grants
Grants to States for
Services
Totals
Source: Estimates by the Congressional Research Service (CRS).
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Related Reading
The following CRS reports provide related information on federal low-income policy, programs,
and spending. Additional CRS reports are cited in footnotes, and each of the program fact sheets
in Appendix D includes a reference to a relevant program-specific CRS report.
•
CRS Report R41625, Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income:
Programs, Policy, and Spending, FY2008-FY2009: includes a brief history of
federal low-income policy; a detailed discussion of concepts used to define
individual eligibility for benefits and services (e.g., federal poverty guidelines
and others); a discussion of mechanisms used to target resources on the basis of
need (e.g., formula allocation factors and cost-sharing rules); and a discussion of
the types of federal grants (formula, competitive, direct benefits to individuals)
used to provide assistance, and related policies such as matching requirements.
•
CRS Report R41823, Low-Income Assistance Programs: Trends in Federal
Spending: analyzes spending trends for the 10 largest low-income programs
(similar but not identical to the top 10 programs identified in this report) from
FY1962-FY2013, with projections through FY2024.
•
CRS Report R43731, Poverty: Major Themes in Past Debates and Current
Proposals: provides a short history of key federal policies enacted over the past
century to address poverty, presents several overarching themes that have
recurred in antipoverty policy debates over time, and highlights selected current
proposals in the context of these themes.
•
CRS Report RL33069, Poverty in the United States: 2013: presents detailed
statistics on the incidence of poverty among various demographic groups and by
geography, and compares measures of poverty under the official federal poverty
guidelines and the “research supplemental poverty measure.”
•
CRS Report R41187, Poverty Measurement in the United States: History,
Current Practice, and Proposed Changes: provides a history of the current
official federal poverty measure, and discussion of alternatives.
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Appendix A. Methodology Used to Create LowIncome Program Database
Selection of Low-Income Programs
Programs were selected for inclusion in this report if they (1) have provisions that base an
individual’s eligibility or priority for service on a measure (or proxy) of low or limited income;
(2) target resources in some way (e.g., through allocation formulas, variable matching rates) using
a measure (or proxy) of low or limited income; or (3) prioritize services to low-income segments
of a larger target population.
A few programs without an explicit low-income provision were included because either their
target population is disproportionately poor or their purpose clearly indicates a presumption that
participants will be low income. Such programs that serve disproportionately low-income people
include the Indian Health Service, Homeless Assistance Grants, Indian Education programs, Title
I Migrant Education, and Indian Human Services. Programs with purposes that presume a lowincome target population include Adult Basic Education and Social Services Block Grants.
Federal student loan programs were considered for inclusion because they determine benefit
levels through the same need-analysis system that is used for Pell Grants and several smaller
postsecondary education programs. However, this system results in students from relatively welloff families receiving assistance, as there is no absolute income ceiling on eligibility. Pell Grants
are structured in such a way that the majority of recipients are low-income and the lowest-income
students receive the largest benefits. Student loan programs are not as strongly targeted and
therefore are not included in the report.
On the other hand, deliberations about whether to include the Additional Child Tax Credit
(ACTC) reached a different conclusion. The regular Child Tax Credit (CTC) is a nonrefundable
credit and phases out at relatively high income levels. The ACTC is a refundable credit that
allows families with no or insufficient tax liability to get all or part of the benefit they would
otherwise receive from the CTC. Because of the refundable nature and other design features of
the ACTC, it serves predominantly lower-income families. For example, for tax year 2012, 90%
of returns that claimed the ACTC were filed by families with adjusted gross income (AGI) below
$40,000 and 89% of the credit went to such families.15 Thus, the ACTC is included in the report.
Because the report includes only programs with direct spending, it does not include tax
provisions, with the exception of direct spending for the refundable portion of the Earned Income
Tax Credit (EITC) and the refundable ACTC.
Finally, one program—Developmental Disabilities Support and Advocacy Grants—was included
in the 2011 version of this report (CRS Report R41625, Federal Benefits and Services for People
with Low Income: Programs, Policy, and Spending, FY2008-FY2009) but dropped in the current
version. Only one component of that program had a low-income targeting provision, and that
component was below the $100 million threshold for inclusion in this analysis (see below).
15
Internal Revenue Service, Statistics of Income (SOI) Tax Stats – Individual Income Tax Returns Publication 1304,
Table 3.3.
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Categorization of Programs
Most programs are easily assigned to broad categories, such as health, cash aid, food assistance,
or education. A few, however, have multiple purposes or allowable activities. For some of these
programs, spending can be disaggregated into the relevant categories. For example, using state
reporting of actual expenditures, it is possible to estimate the amount of TANF obligations
attributable to cash aid, social services, and employment and training. Other programs cannot be
disaggregated and must be assigned to a single category. For example, Transitional Cash and
Medical Services for Refugees was categorized as health care, and Indian Human Services was
categorized as social services although it also provides cash and housing assistance.
The social services category, in general, is not well-defined and some analysts might assign some
programs—and therefore dollars—differently. Head Start, for example, could be considered an
education program, since its purpose is to promote school readiness; however, it supports a very
broad range of activities (including activities for children ages 0-3 in its Early Head Start
component) that can best be characterized collectively as social services. Foster Care and
Adoption Assistance both give cash to families or other care providers, but income support is not
these programs’ purpose or sole use of funding. Foster Care subsidizes maintenance payments
and administrative activities (including case planning) on behalf of children who cannot remain
safely at home, and Adoption Assistance helps facilitate the adoption of children who would
otherwise lack permanent homes. Thus, these programs were categorized as social services and
not cash assistance. Likewise, Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting is included
in social services, rather than health care, because of the broad range of its intended purposes.
Selection of Spending Measure
New obligations incurred in the indicated fiscal year were chosen as the measure of spending for
this report, although for many programs readers may be more accustomed to seeing
appropriations (budget authority) or outlays. These spending concepts are related. Congress and
the President enact budget authority through appropriations measures or other authorizing laws.
Budget authority in turn allows federal agencies to incur obligations, through actions such as
entering into contracts, employing personnel, and submitting purchase orders. Outlays represent
the actual payment of these obligations, usually in the form of electronic transfers or checks
issued by the Treasury Department.16 Obligations are used in this report because they are the most
consistent measure available at the necessary level of detail for the majority of programs. The
source of obligations data is the U.S. Budget Appendix for the second fiscal year (e.g., FY2015
budget appendix for final FY2013 obligations, FY2014 budget appendix for final FY2012
obligations, etc.).
Obligations were either not available or not appropriate for a small number of programs. Because
obligations were not available at the necessary program level, appropriations were used for the
following: Transitional Cash and Medical Services for Refugees, Breast/Cervical Cancer Early
Detection, the Title I Migrant Education Program, Social Services and Targeted Assistance for
Refugees, and Foster Grandparents.
16
See CRS Report 98-410, Basic Federal Budgeting Terminology, by (name redacted)
Congressional Research Service
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
For veterans’ medical care, the Budget Appendix shows obligations for the entire program, not
solely the income-tested component. Thus, estimated obligations for Priority Group 5 veterans
(needy veterans without service-connected disabilities) were calculated from Department of
Veterans Affairs data on obligations for Priority Groups 1-6 and 7-8 and the number of patients
receiving care by individual priority group.
The Budget Appendix also does not show obligations solely for the low-income subsidy portion
of the Medicare Part D prescription drug program. Therefore, the report uses aggregate
reimbursements for the low-income subsidy for the calendar year (instead of fiscal year),
available from the annual report of the Medicare trustees.17
As noted above, TANF obligations provided in the Budget Appendix were disaggregated into the
categories of cash aid, social services, and employment and training, based on states’ reporting to
the Department of Health and Human Services of their actual expenditures.
The Budget Appendix includes obligations for the Section 502 single-family rural housing loan
program in combination with other programs in an aggregate amount for the Rural Housing
Insurance Fund Account. Thus, loan subsidy budget authority (also found in the Budget
Appendix) was used for the Section 502 program in this version of the report. In the 2011 version,
loan subsidy outlays were used, adjusted for re-estimates provided in the Federal Credit
Supplement to the U.S. Budget for the relevant years; however, budget authority has now been
chosen as a better measure.
Finally, the report uses obligations from the Budget Appendix for the ACTC in FY2009-FY2013.
However, for FY2008, ACTC obligations shown in the Budget Appendix also include an
unspecified amount for a one-time $300 per child tax rebate, authorized by the Economic
Stimulus Act of 2008 (P.L. 110-185), which was not targeted on low-income families. That figure,
which overstates the amount spent for the ACTC alone, was used in the 2011 version of this
report with appropriate caveats. For the current version, however, data from the Internal Revenue
Service Statistics of Income for tax year 2007 are used to provide a more accurate picture of the
ACTC in FY2008.
Spending Threshold
Programs are included in this report if they had obligations in any year from FY2008 through
FY2013 of at least $100 million. To simplify the analysis without significantly changing the
overall picture, smaller programs were excluded, even if they met the low-income criteria. A few
programs had spending above the threshold in some years but not in others.18 Spending totals
cited throughout this report include these programs only for the years in which their obligations
equaled or exceeded $100 million. In other words, each year’s spending total is a snapshot of
spending in that year for low-income programs that—in that year—had obligations totaling at
least $100 million. (See Table C-1 for all spending amounts for all programs in each year.)
17
2014 Annual Report of the Boards of Trustees of the Federal Hospital Insurance and Federal Supplementary
Medical Insurance Trust Funds, July 2014, Table IV.B.10.
18
These programs include the Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations, the Fresh Fruit and Vegetable
Program, Indian Education Grants to Local Education Agencies, Education for Homeless Children and Youth, College
Access Challenge Grants, Single-Family Rural Housing Loans, and the Tax Credit Assistance Program. See Table C-1.
Congressional Research Service
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Comparison with Predecessor CRS Report Series
From 1979 to 2006, the Congressional Research Service (CRS) issued a series of reports,
typically every other year, called Cash and Noncash Benefits for Persons with Limited Income.
The series was conceived and produced (except for the last edition in 2006) by (name redacted),
Specialist in Social Policy, who retired from CRS in 2004. In 2011, CRS published CRS Report
R41625, Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: Programs, Policy, and
Spending, FY2008-FY2009, as a replacement for the Cash and Noncash series. The current report
is an update to the 2011 version.
The new report series uses different methodologies to select and categorize programs and
measure spending; therefore, it cannot be considered an update of Cash and Noncash for various
reasons. For example, the older series did not include certain programs that are now included,
such as the low-income subsidy under Medicare Part D, Title I-A of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act, and Community Development Block Grants. The older series also had
no minimum spending threshold, so it included smaller programs that are not included here. In
addition, the older series included student loans, which are no longer included for reasons
explained above. Several programs were also categorized differently in the previous series (e.g.,
Head Start was categorized as education, Foster Care and Adoption Assistance as cash aid, and
Homeless Assistance Grants as social services). The older series used different measures of
spending for different programs, while the new series uses obligations wherever possible. The
older series also provided estimates of state-local spending, which are not included here.
Finally, the older series traced spending back to 1968, which is beyond the scope of the current
series. Changes in programs and appropriations accounts over time make it virtually impossible to
trace obligations backward with precision. However, an analysis of long-term spending trends for
10 major needs-tested programs, using outlays, is available in CRS Report R41823, Low-Income
Assistance Programs: Trends in Federal Spending, by (name redacted).
Congressional Research Service
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Appendix B. Methodology Used for Analysis of
Spending by Population19
The allocations of federal spending in FY2011 under the 10 largest low-income programs by
population groups (see “Spending for the 10 Largest Programs by Population”) are estimates
based on a specific methodology and available data. These estimates also rely upon certain
simplifying assumptions and hence, represent an approximate division of spending among the
population groups.
Note that for most programs, data collected in conjunction with the administration of a program
(administrative data) were used as the basis of making the allocations among population groups.
However, programs use different definitions of “elderly” and “disabled” to determine eligibility
and program requirements, so the population groupings are not consistent among all programs.
For example, Medicaid uses age 65 to determine who is elderly, while a person is considered
elderly for purposes of the SNAP program at age 60.
Medicaid
As noted earlier, the analysis uses FY2011 because it is the latest year for which data to divide
spending among population groups are available for Medicaid. The allocation of Medicaid
spending is based on a combination of administrative data and data from the Census Bureau’s
March 2011 Current Population Survey (CPS). FY2011 Medicaid administrative data report that,
of total Medicaid expenditures in that year, 23% was received by the elderly and 43% by disabled
recipients. These percentages were directly used to allocate federal Medicaid spending among
those two population categories.
However, Medicaid administrative data are not sufficient for allocating spending to the
population groups representing nonelderly and nondisabled beneficiaries. (For example, they do
not include information on whether a family had earnings.) An analysis of March 2011 CPS data
was used to determine the allocation of federal spending among those population groups. The
CPS identifies individuals covered by Medicaid, and the Census Bureau provides an estimate of
the “market value” of Medicaid for those covered.20 The CPS also provides background
demographic and economic characteristics of the population, including age, disability, whether
the individual is in a family with children, and whether the individual was working or not. These
background characteristics were used to identify Medicaid beneficiaries in families with children,
as well as childless adult recipients (not aged or disabled) and whether any adult (aged 18 or
older) in the family was employed in March 2011. Total Medicaid “market values” were
computed for each population category, which determined each population category’s share of
total Medicaid market values for the nonelderly, nondisabled population. These shares were then
applied to the 34% of Medicaid spending that remained, after spending was allocated to the
elderly and disabled, to determine how much federal Medicaid spending was allocated to the
population categories of families with children and childless adults and couples.
19
This appendix was prepared by (name redacted), Specialist in Social Policy.
The “market value” of Medicaid for an individual is generally the average expenditure in a state and in the
individual’s population group.
20
Congressional Research Service
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program
The allocation of federal SNAP spending is based on an analysis of the FY2011 SNAP Quality
Control Data files, administrative data that include information on the demographic and economic
characteristics of SNAP participants and households. The information is for the full fiscal year,
but the data are collected monthly and tabulations of them represent a monthly average.
SNAP households were placed into six categories that were totally inclusive and mutually
exclusive in the following order: households with an aged member, households with a disabled
member, households with children and earnings, households with children without earnings,
childless adults or couples with earnings, childless adults or couples without earnings. If a
household could be classified in multiple categories, it was placed in the first category for which
it met criteria for inclusion. For example, if the household had an aged member but also had
children, it was placed in the “aged” category.
Supplemental Security Income
The allocation of federal SSI spending to the elderly and disabled is based on administrative data
collected and published by the Social Security Administration. The share of spending for the aged
and disabled in this report is from Table 2, SSI Annual Statistical Report, 2013.
Earned Income Tax Credit
For the purpose of this report, EITC spending reflects obligations for the refundable portion of the
tax credit. The Internal Revenue Service collects and publishes information on the refundable
portion of the EITC in its Statistics of Income (SOI) data, derived from information on filed tax
forms. The information in this report is based on the division of the refundable portion of the
EITC for tax year 2010 (which would be paid in FY2011) between those filers who claimed the
credit based on the presence of children versus those who claimed the credit based on having no
children.
Medicare Part D Low-Income Subsidy
The allocation of the Medicare Part D prescription drug Low-Income Subsidy between the elderly
and disabled is based on unpublished information obtained by CRS from the Department of
Health and Human Services (HHS). They estimated that the elderly account for 55% of the total
low-income subsidy, with the disabled accounting for the remaining 45% of the subsidy.
Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers21
The allocation of Section 8 spending among the population groups is based on an analysis of
administrative data collected by the Department of Housing and Urban Development. FY2011
data were not available for Section 8; thus FY2010 data were used for these estimates. As with
the SNAP information, households were categorized into population groups in the following
21
(name redacted), Specialist in Housing Policy, c onducted the analysis of HUD administrative data.
Congressional Research Service
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
order: households with an elderly member; households with a disabled head or child; households
with children with earnings; households with children without earnings; households without
children (or aged or disabled members) with earnings; and households without children (or aged
or disabled members) without earnings.
The Section 8 administrative data use an annual accounting period, representing the
characteristics of a household over a year rather than in a month. Thus, families with earnings
represent those who had any earnings over a year, rather than earnings in a month. Additionally,
the disability information available for Section 8 households was more limited than that for
SNAP, with the data only permitting identification of households with a disabled head or disabled
child. Rent subsidies were tallied for each of these population shares, with federal Section 8
spending allocated based on each population’s share of total subsidies.
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
This report divides TANF spending among three categories: cash assistance, social services, and
employment and training. For the analysis of spending by population group, social services and
employment and training expenditures were placed in the “Education/Services” category.
TANF cash assistance was allocated among the population groups based on TANF administrative
data, which include information on demographic and other characteristics of families receiving
TANF cash assistance. The information is for the full fiscal year, but the data are collected
monthly and tabulations of them represent a monthly average. Using these data, TANF families
were classified into three population groups:
•
Disabled, representing families with a parent receiving SSI (not TANF cash), and
a cash supplement paid on behalf of the children in the family from TANF;
•
Families with children with earnings, representing those families with adult
TANF recipients who had earnings;
•
Families with children without earnings, representing families with adult TANF
recipients who had no earnings and families without adult recipients (other than
those with parents receiving SSI).
TANF benefit amounts for these three categories were totaled, and federal TANF cash assistance
spending was then allocated among the three population categories based on their shares of total
cash assistance benefits from the administrative data files.
Congressional Research Service
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Appendix C. Detailed Program Tables
The following three tables provide specific information about programs included in this report.
Programs are organized by category and listed within categories according to their Catalog of
Federal Domestic Assistance (CFDA) number. (Program fact sheets in Appendix D are presented
in the same sequence.)
Table C-1 shows obligations (or another measure of spending, as noted) for each program from
FY2008 through FY2013. ARRA amounts are included in the totals for each program, and are
also shown in separate columns. The table also indicates the federal administering agency for
each program.
Table C-2 identifies, for each program, the general target population and the concept(s) used to
determine individual income eligibility and (if relevant) the concept used to target federal
resources broadly based on need. The table indicates the general concept used but not the specific
application. For example, the table might indicate that federal poverty guidelines (FPG) are used
as a concept in determining income eligibility for a particular program, but it does not indicate the
specific percent of FPG that is used. Likewise, the table might show that a program uses formula
allocation factors to direct federal resources toward areas with the greatest need, but it does not
identify the specific factors or their weighting. Readers are referred to the fact sheets in
Appendix D, relevant CRS reports, or the statutes themselves for these details.
Table C-3 shows the type of federal assistance provided (typically formula grants, competitive or
discretionary grants, or direct benefits) and the immediate recipients of this assistance. As noted
in the table, “immediate” recipient refers to the level of government or the organization that
directly receives the federal grant or award. Many programs require that funds be further
distributed (by formula or other criteria) to other units of government or organizations. For
example, federal grants may be awarded by formula to states, but states are then required to
subaward these funds to local governments or other entities. This table only shows the
“immediate” grantee. The table also indicates whether a program has provisions for participation
by U.S. territories or residents or organizations located within the territories. The specific details
of these provisions are not provided in the table; readers are referred to statutory language or the
federal agency that administers the program for this information.
Congressional Research Service
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Table C-1. Spending for Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income, by Program: FY2008-2013
(new obligations, unless otherwise noted; dollars in millions)
FY2008
FY2009
FY2010
FY2011
FY2012
FY2013
Federal
Agency
Total
Total
Medical Care for
Veterans without
ServiceConnected
Disability
VA
10,517a
10,945a
11,819a
12,172a
12,490a
12,546a
Family Planning
HHS
300
307
316
298
294
278
Consolidated
Health Centers
HHS
2,021
3,665
3,384
2,882
State Grants and
Demonstrations
HHS
556
625
418
758
416
534
Transitional Cash
and Medical
Services for
Refugees
HHS
296b
282b
353b
353b
323b
401b
State Children’s
Health Insurance
Program (CHIP)
HHS
6,360
9,534
10,717
8,740
9,362
9,357
Voluntary
Medicare
Prescription
Drug Benefit—
Low-Income
Subsidy
HHS
17,400c
20,300c
20,900c
22,300c
22,300c
22,400c
Medicaid
HHS
214,015
265,058
270,914
286,920
Ryan White
HIV/AIDS
Program
HHS
2141
2227
2367
2220
Program
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
Health Care
CRS-30
1,519
32,888
3,049
290,461
2286
908
39,670
3,295
295,836
2310
74
26,181
ARRA
FY2008
Program
Federal
Agency
FY2009
Total
Total
FY2010
ARRA
Total
FY2011
ARRA
Total
FY2012
ARRA
Total
FY2013
ARRA
Total
Breast/Cervical
Cancer Early
Detection
HHS
201b
206b
210b
206b
213b
197b
Maternal and
Child Health
Block Grant
HHS
666
662
661
656
639
605
Indian Health
Service
HHS
4,347
5,416
294
5,668
5,544
5,729
5,661
258,820
319,227
3,4701
346,858
Subtotal, Health Care
40,578
352,468
26,255
328,431
0
344,001
ARRA
0
Cash Aid
Pensions for
Needy Veterans
VA
3,777
4,134
Temporary
Assistance for
Needy Families
(TANF) (cash
aid)
HHS
6,364d
6,341d
Supplemental
Security Income
SSA
48,926
52,446
Additional Child
Tax Credit
(refundable
portion)
IRS
16,690e
Earned Income
Tax Credit
(EITC)
(refundable
component)
IRS
Subtotal, Cash Aid
CRS-31
4,345
4,294
4,892
5,195
6,594d
6,737d
6,263d
54,463
59,854
53,773
59,756
24,284
22,659
22,691
22,106
21,608
40,600
42,418
54,712
55,652
54,890
57,513
116,357
129,623
210d
210
9,118d
145,297
1995d
1,995
149,085
0
142,398
0
150,335
0
FY2008
FY2009
FY2010
FY2011
FY2012
FY2013
Federal
Agency
Total
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Supplemental
Nutrition
Assistance
Program (SNAP)
USDA
37,179
53,396
4,478
68,192
10,764
74,943
11,896
77,828
8,177
79,365
5,933
School Breakfast
Program
(free/reduced
price
components)
USDA
2,307
2,513
2,811
2,987
3,256
3,514
National School
Lunch Program
(free/reduced
price
components)
USDA
7,863
8,498
9,462
9,831
9,984
10,549
Special
Supplemental
Nutrition
Program for
Women, Infants
and Children
(WIC)
USDA
6,400
7,028
7,300
7,168
6,945
Child and Adult
Care Food
Program (lowerincome
components)
USDA
2,029
2,217
2,358
2,499
2,616
2,799
Summer Food
Service Program
USDA
312
356
374
377
400
437
Commodity
Supplemental
Food Program
USDA
141
165
183
196
189
187
Program
Food Assistance
CRS-32
72
7,245
64
FY2008
Program
Federal
Agency
FY2009
FY2010
FY2011
Total
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
FY2012
FY2013
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
165
2,001
128
Nutrition
Assistance for
Puerto Rico
USDA
1,623
2,000
240
2,000
254
2,001
2,000
Food
Distribution
Program on
Indian
Reservations
(FDPIR)
USDA
[88]f
119
4
114
1
[97]f
103
100
The Emergency
Food Assistance
Program
(TEFAP)
USDA
240
425
125
359
55
298
309
312
Fresh Fruit and
Vegetable
Program
USDA
g
[45]f
[80]f
115
157
165
Nutrition
Program for the
Elderly
HHS
756
905
97
817
820
814
765
58,850
77,622
5,016
93,915
Subtotal, Food Assistance
11,138
101,367
11,896
104,824
8,342
107,139
Education
CRS-33
Indian Education
DOI
684
699
784
753
803
766
Adult Basic
Education Grants
to States
ED
555
572
628
596
595
565
Federal
Supplemental
Educational
Opportunity
Grant
ED
759
760
759
740
738
698
6,061
FY2008
FY2010
FY2011
FY2012
FY2013
Federal
Agency
Total
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
Education for the
Disadvantaged—
Grants to Local
Educational
Agencies
(Title I-A)
ED
13,352
21,495
9,936
14,526
64
14,472
14,490
13,757
Title I Migrant
Education
Program
ED
380b
395b
395b
394b
393b
373b
Higher
Education—
Institutional Aid
and Developing
Institutions
ED
755
801
764
833
816
780
Federal WorkStudy
ED
989
1,156
995
986
986
934
Federal TRIO
Programs
ED
885
905
910
883
840
796
Indian Education
Grants to Local
Educational
Agencies
ED
[97]f
[99]f
104
104
106
100
Federal Pell
Grants
ED
18,000
26,019
8,497
32,905
41,458
34,308
31,887
Education for
Homeless
Children and
Youth
ED
[64]f
135
70
[65]f
[65]f
[65]f
[62] f
21st Century
Community
Learning Centers
ED
1,082
1,127
1,166
1,157
1,150
1,091
Program
CRS-34
FY2009
200
7,786
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
FY2008
Program
Federal
Agency
Total
FY2009
Total
FY2010
ARRA
Total
FY2011
ARRA
Total
FY2012
ARRA
Total
FY2013
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Gaining Early
Awareness and
Readiness for
Undergraduate
Programs
(GEAR-UP)
ED
303
313
323
303
302
286
Reading First and
Early Reading
First
ED
560
129
0
0
0
0
Rural Education
Achievement
Program
ED
172
174
175
175
179
170
Mathematics and
Science
Partnerships
ED
182
176
180
179
148
141
Improving
Teacher Quality
State Grants
ED
2,946
2,687
2,955
2,460
2,450
2,334
College Access
Challenge Grants
ED
[66]f
[66]f
145
150
128
[72]f
Academic
Competitiveness
and Smart Grant
Program
ED
297
690
918
350
0
0
41,901
58,233
18,703
58,632
7,850
65,993
131h
277h
59h
[70]hf
[43]hf
[50] hf
954
905
837
Subtotal, Education
0
58,432
0
54,678
Housing and Development
CRS-35
Single-Family
Rural Housing
Loans
USDA
178h
279h
Rural Rental
Assistance
Program
USDA
479
902
979
0
FY2008
Program
CRS-36
Federal
Agency
Total
FY2009
Total
FY2010
ARRA
Total
Water and
Waste Disposal
for Rural
Communities
USDA
685
1,370
631
1,443
Public Works
and Economic
Development
DOC
170
285
147
Supportive
Housing for the
Elderly
HUD
778
Supportive
Housing for
Persons with
Disabilities
HUD
Section 8
Project-Based
Rental Assistance
FY2011
ARRA
Total
Total
ARRA
FY2013
Total
648
583
524
149
115
129
[97]f
800
580
509
1056
389
256
284
216
149
243
102
HUD
7,004
9,390
1,991
8,991
19
9,444
9,311
8,818
Community
Development
Block Grants
HUD
3,645
4,733
965
3,956
18
3,341
3,245
2,971
Homeless
Assistance
Grants
HUD
1,538
2,861
1,485
1,813
7
1,888
2,079
2,086
Home
Investment
Partnerships
Program
(HOME)
HUD
1,647
1,911
1,857
1,485
1,208
919
Housing
Opportunities
for Persons with
AIDS (HOPWA)
HUD
310
318
314
352
352
302
Public Housing
HUD
6,894
10,843
6,999
5,847
5,954
3,977
7,360
556
ARRA
FY2012
16
ARRA
FY2009
FY2008
Program
Federal
Agency
Total
Total
FY2010
ARRA
ARRA
Indian Housing
Block Grants
HUD
556
1,149
Section 8
Housing Choice
Vouchers
HUD
15,552
16,289
18,071
Neighborhood
Stabilization
Program
HUD
g
3,920
1,980
Grants to States
for Low-Income
Housing in Lieu
of Low-Income
Housing Credit
Allocations
Treasury
g
2,465
2,465
3,083
Tax Credit
Assistance
Program
HUD
g
2,250
2,250
0
39,692
60,049
14,542
51,831
Subtotal, Housing and Development
500
Total
FY2011
762
Total
6
ARRA
Total
ARRA
Total
ARRA
627
18,510
18,316
17,897
1,980
969
0
0
3,083
160
0
0
[10]f
0
0
46,186
3
FY2013
691
5,744
663
FY2012
3
43,965
0
41,426
Social Services
CRS-37
Indian Human
Services
DOI
118
115
118
115
110
100
Older Americans
Act Grants for
Supportive
Services and
Senior Centers
HHS
351
361
368
369
367
348
Older Americans
Act Family
Caregiver
Program
HHS
153
154
154
154
154
146
0
FY2008
Program
CRS-38
Federal
Agency
Total
FY2009
Total
FY2010
ARRA
Total
Maternal, Infant,
and Early
Childhood Home
Visiting Program
HHS
Temporary
Assistance for
Needy Families
(TANF) (social
services)
HHS
9,411i
10,594i
Child Support
Enforcement
HHS
4,585
4,719
Community
Services Block
Grant
HHS
654
1692
992
708
Child Care and
Development
Fund
HHS
4,979
7,034
1,990
Head Start
HHS
6,877
9,077
578
Foster Care
HHS
4,525
4,705
Adoption
Assistance
HHS
2,038
Social Services
Block Grant
HHS
Chafee Foster
Care
Independence
Program
FY2011
ARRA
Total
100
ARRA
FY2012
Total
ARRA
FY2013
Total
250
344
378
8,828i
8,913i
9,491i
4,671
4,179
4,278
8
678
677
635
5,083
10
5,152
5,218
5,140
8,757
1,523
7,559
7,968
7,573
4,603
4,456
4,180
4,133
2,324
2,438
2,362
2,296
2,278
1,700
2,300
1,700
1,700
1,700
1,613
HHS
140
140
140
140
140
140
Emergency Food
and Shelter
Program
FEMA
153
300
200
121
120
114
Legal Services
Corporation
LSC
351
392
422
406
351
343
g
346i
9,837i
2,120i
5,044
100
ARRA
FY2008
Program
Federal
Agency
Subtotal, Social Services
Total
FY2009
Total
36,146
44,021
FY2010
ARRA
4,006
Total
39,788
FY2011
ARRA
3,661
Total
37,077
FY2012
ARRA
Total
0
36,833
FY2013
ARRA
Total
0
36,819
Employment and Training
CRS-39
Supplemental
Nutrition
Assistance
Program (SNAP)
(employment and
training
component)
USDA
351
367
344
354
334
368
Community
Service
Employment for
Older Americans
DOL
504
708
820
454
448
429
Workforce
Investment Act
(WIA) Adult
Activities
DOL
827
1,357
495
862
766
773
731
Workforce
Investment Act
(WIA) Youth
Activities
DOL
984
2,218
1,182
994
946
902
856
Social Services
and Targeted
Assistance for
Refugees
HHS
203b
203b
203b
202b
152b
198b
Temporary
Assistance for
Needy Families
(TANF)
(employment and
training)
HHS
1,694j
1,826j
1,845j
1,683j
1,579j
Foster
Grandparents
CNCS
109b
109b
111b
111b
105b
60j
2,682j
111b
587j
ARRA
0
FY2008
Program
Job Corps
Federal
Agency
DOL
Subtotal, Employment and Training
Total
FY2009
Total
FY2010
ARRA
Total
FY2011
ARRA
Total
FY2012
ARRA
Total
FY2013
ARRA
Total
1,558
1,804
148
1,713
102
1,777
1,735
1,718
6,230
8,592
1,885
7,729
689
6,455
6,138
5,984
4,748
517
228
234
126
182
4,701
3,472
3,255
ARRA
Energy Assistance
Weatherization
Assistance
Program
DOE
291
5,240
Low-Income
Home Energy
Assistance
Program
(LIHEAP)
HHS
2,590
5,100
2,881
10,340
Subtotal, Energy Assistance
$560,877 $707,707
TOTALS
5,100
4,748
5,617
$83,811 $749,667
228
4,935
$71,883 $763,566
0
3,598
$38,154 $724,619
0
3,437
0
$8,342 $743,819
$6,061
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS) from obligations data contained in the U.S. Budget Appendix for each of FY2010-FY2015, unless
otherwise noted. See Appendix A for additional details on spending measures.
Notes: VA = Department of Veterans Affairs. HHS = Department of Health and Human Services. SSA = Social Security Administration. IRS = Internal Revenue Service.
USDA = Department of Agriculture. DOC = Department of Commerce. HUD = Department of Housing and Urban Development. Treasury = Department of the
Treasury. DOI = Department of the Interior. ED = Department of Education. FEMA = Federal Emergency Management Agency. LSC = Legal Services Corporation. DOE
= Department of Energy. DOL = Department of Labor. CNCS = Corporation for National and Community Service. ARRA = American Recovery and Reinvestment
ACT. ARRA mounts are included in totals.
a.
Estimated obligations on behalf of Priority Group 5 veterans.
b.
Appropriations.
c.
Aggregate reimbursements for calendar year from 2014 Medicare trustees’ report.
d.
Estimated obligations for cash aid and administration under TANF, based on state reporting of actual expenditures.
e.
Amount shown for FY2008 is from the Internal Revenue Service Statistics of Income for tax year 2007.
f.
Amounts below $100 million are not included in totals. (Not applicable to amounts shown in ARRA columns.)
g.
Program not authorized.
h.
Subsidy budget authority.
i.
Estimated obligations for social services under TANF, based on state reporting of actual expenditures.
j.
Estimated obligations for employment and training activities under TANF, based on state reporting of actual expenditures.
CRS-40
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Table C-2.Target Populations and Concepts Used to Determine Individual Income
Eligibility Criteria and/or Target Federal Resources, by Program
Program
Target Population
Concept(s) Used to
Determine Individual
Income Eligibility
Concept(s) Used to
Target Federal
Resources
Health
Medical Care for Veterans
without Service-Connected
Disability
Needy veterans without
service-connected
disabilities.
Specific dollar amounts.
None.
Family Planning
Low-income individuals.
FPG.
None.
Consolidated Health
Centers
“Medically underserved”
groups.
FPG.
Eligibility limited to areas
or populations designated
by the Secretary as
“medically underserved.”
State Grants and
Demonstrations
Varies by program. In
general, selected
individuals eligible for
Medicaid.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Federal-state cost-sharing
rules for certain programs.
Transitional Cash and
Medical Services for
Refugees
Refugees, asylees, other
humanitarian cases,
trafficking victims,
unaccompanied refugee
minor children.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors.
State Children’s Health
Insurance Program (CHIP)
Uninsured low-income
children.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Voluntary Medicare
Prescription Drug Benefit—
Low-Income Subsidy
Low-income seniors and
people with disabilities.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
None.
Medicaid
Low-income families with
dependent children; aged,
blind and disabled
individuals; nonelderly
nondisabled individuals in
certain states.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Federal-state cost-sharing
rules.
Ryan White HIV/AIDS
Program
Uninsured or underinsured
people living with HIV or
AIDS.
FPG.
Formula allocation factors.
Breast/Cervical Cancer
Early Detection
Low-income uninsured and
underserved women of
specified ages.
FPG.
None.
Maternal and Child Health
Block Grant
Mothers and children.
FPG.
Formula allocation factors.
Indian Health Service
American Indians and
Alaskan Natives.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Assistance generally
provided to eligible
individuals in IHS service
delivery areas.
Congressional Research Service
41
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Program
Target Population
Concept(s) Used to
Determine Individual
Income Eligibility
Concept(s) Used to
Target Federal
Resources
Cash Aid
Pensions for Needy
Veterans
Needy veterans, their
dependents and survivors.
Specific dollar amounts.
None.
Temporary Assistance for
Needy Families (TANF)
Needy families with
children.
Defined by states.
None.
Supplemental Security
Income (SSI)
Low-income aged, blind
and disabled individuals.
Specific dollar amounts.
None.
Additional Child Tax Credit
(ACTC)
Working families with
children below specified
ages.
Specific calculations
determine when families
incur tax liability and
become eligible for
nonrefundable Child Tax
Credit instead of ACTC.
None.
Earned Income Tax Credit
(EITC)
Working families with
children below specified
ages, and childless adults.
Specific dollar amounts.
None.
Food Assistance
Supplemental Nutrition
Assistance Program (SNAP)
Low-income households.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
None.
School Breakfast Program
(free/reduced price
components)
Low-income children.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Cost-sharing rules; federal
reimbursement varies by
family income of
participating child.
National School Lunch
Program (free/reduced
price components)
Low-income children.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Cost-sharing rules; federal
reimbursement varies by
family income of
participating child.
Special Supplemental
Nutrition Program for
Women, Infants and
Children (WIC)
Low-income women,
infants and young children
who are at nutritional risk.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Child and Adult Care Food
Program (lower-income
components)
Low-income children and
chronically impaired and
elderly adults.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Cost-sharing rules; federal
reimbursement varies by
family income of
participating child or adult.
Summer Food Service
Program
Low-income children.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Cost-sharing rules; federal
reimbursement varies by
family income of
participating child.
Commodity Supplemental
Food Program
Low-income elderly
individuals and pregnant
and postpartum and
breastfeeding women,
infants and young children.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Nutrition Assistance for
Puerto Rico
Needy persons living in
Puerto Rico.
Defined by Puerto Rico.
Eligibility is limited to
Puerto Rico.
Congressional Research Service
42
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Program
Target Population
Concept(s) Used to
Determine Individual
Income Eligibility
Concept(s) Used to
Target Federal
Resources
Food Distribution Program
for Indian Reservations
Low-income American
Indian and households
living on or near
reservations.
FPG; automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Program only operates on
or near Indian
reservations.
The Emergency Food
Assistance Program
(TEFAP)
Low-income individuals.
Defined by states.
Formula allocation factors.
Fresh Fruit and Vegetable
Program
Students in elementary
schools with high
proportion of low-income
children.
None.
Formula allocation factors;
program is limited to
schools that meet needrelated tests.
Nutrition Program for the
Elderly
Older individuals.
FPG.
Formula allocation factors.
Education
Indian Education
American Indian and
Alaskan Native children
and postsecondary
students.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Depending on the
program, assistance
provided through
recognized tribes.
Adult Basic Education
Grants to States
Adults who lack basic
education skills or cannot
speak, write, or read
English.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Federal Supplemental
Educational Opportunity
Grant
Low-income
undergraduate students.
“Need analysis” system.
Formula allocation factors.
Education for the
Disadvantaged—Grants to
Local Educational Agencies
(Title I-A)
Low-achieving elementary
and secondary students.
None.
Formula allocation factors.
Title I Migrant Education
Program
Migratory children.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Higher Education—
Institutional Aid and
Developing Institutions
Low-income and minority
postsecondary students.
None.
Eligibility limited to
institutions that meet
need-related tests.
Federal Work-Study
Postsecondary students.
“Need analysis” system.
Formula allocation factors.
Federal TRIO Programs
Low-income secondary
and postsecondary
students who are firstgeneration college
students.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
None.
Indian Education Grants to
Local Educational Agencies
Indian students, including
preschoolers, in schools
that enroll a certain
threshold of Indian
children.
None.
Formula allocation factors;
program is limited to
schools that meet needrelated tests.
Federal Pell Grants
Low-income
postsecondary students.
“Need analysis” system.
None.
Congressional Research Service
43
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Target Population
Concept(s) Used to
Determine Individual
Income Eligibility
Concept(s) Used to
Target Federal
Resources
Education for Homeless
Children and Youth
Homeless children and
youth.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors.
21st Century Community
Learning Centers
Children who attend highpoverty and lowperforming schools.
None.
Funds must be used to
serve children in schools
that meet need-related
test.
Gaining Early Awareness
and Readiness for
Undergraduate Programs
(GEAR-UP)
Low-income secondary
school students.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Funds must be used to
serve cohorts of students
in at least one grade level
at schools that meet needrelated tests.
Rural Education
Achievement Program
Students in rural and rural
low-income school
districts.
None.
Eligibility for certain grants
limited to local educational
agencies that meet needrelated test.
Mathematics and Science
Partnerships
Teachers and students in
high-need local educational
agencies.
None.
Eligibility limited to
partnerships that meet
need-related tests.
Improving Teacher Quality
State Grants
Elementary school
teachers and principals.
None.
Formula allocation factors;
eligibility for certain grants
limited to partnerships
that meet need-related
tests.
College Access Challenge
Grants
Low-income students and
their families.
None; priority based on
FPG.
Formula allocation factors.
Reading First and Early
Reading First
Low-income children from
preschool through grade 3.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors
(Reading First).
Academic Competitiveness
and Smart Grant Program
Needy undergraduate
students pursuing a
rigorous curriculum or
majoring in selected
subjects.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
None.
Program
Housing and Development
Single-Family Rural Housing
Loans
Low-income households in
rural areas.
AMI.
None.
Rural Rental Assistance
Program
Low-income households in
rural areas.
AMI.
Formula allocation factors.
Water and Waste Disposal
for Rural Communities
Residents of poor rural
communities.
None.
Formula allocation factors;
cost-sharing rules.
Public Works and
Economic Development
Residents of distressed
communities.
None.
Eligibility is limited to
projects located in areas
that meet need-related
tests; cost-sharing rules.
Supportive Housing for the
Elderly
Low-income housing with
at least one elderly
member.
AMI.
Formula allocation factors.
Congressional Research Service
44
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Program
Target Population
Concept(s) Used to
Determine Individual
Income Eligibility
Concept(s) Used to
Target Federal
Resources
Supportive Housing for
Persons with Disabilities
Low-income households
with at least one member
with a disability.
AMI.
Formula allocation factors.
Section 8 Project-Based
Rental Assistance
Low-income families
(which may include single
individuals).
AMI.
Assistance is limited to
projects under contract
with the federal
government.
Community Development
Block Grants
Low and moderate-income
residents of targeted
communities.
None. (However, a
specified percentage of
funds must be used to
benefit low and moderateincome individuals, defined
using AMI.)
Formula allocation factors.
Homeless Assistance
Grants
Homeless individuals and
families.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Emergency Shelter Grant
uses formula allocation
factors.
Home Investment
Partnerships Program
(HOME)
Low-income homeowners,
homebuyers, and renters.
AMI.
Formula allocation factors.
Housing Opportunities for
Persons with AIDS
(HOPWA)
Low-income individuals
who are HIV-positive or
have AIDS.
AMI.
Formula allocation factors.
Public Housing
Low-income families,
elderly and disabled
individuals.
AMI.
Assistance is limited to
publicly-owned housing
projects.
Indian Housing Block
Grants
Low-income Indian families
living on reservations or
other Indian lands, certain
specified non-Indians also
living on reservations or
other Indian lands.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors;
eligibility limited to
recognized Indian tribes.
Section 8 Housing Choice
Vouchers
Low-income families
(which may include single
individuals).
AMI.
Formula allocation factors.
Neighborhood Stabilization
Program-1
Low-income individuals
and families.
AMI.
Formula allocation factors.
Grants to States for LowIncome Housing in Lieu of
Low-Income Housing
Credit Allocations
Low-income households.
AMI.
Eligibility limited to
projects in which a
specified percentage of
units are rent-restricted
and serve a specified
percentage of low-income
households.
Tax Credit Assistance
Program
Low-income households.
AMI.
Eligibility limited to
projects in which a
specified percentage of
units are rent-restricted
and serve a specified
percentage of low-income
households.
Congressional Research Service
45
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Program
Target Population
Concept(s) Used to
Determine Individual
Income Eligibility
Concept(s) Used to
Target Federal
Resources
Social Services
Indian Human Services
American Indian children
and adults with various
needs.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
None.
Older Americans Act
Grants for Supportive
Services and Senior
Centers
Older individuals.
FPG.
Formula allocation factors.
Older Americans Act
Family Caregiver Program
Family and other
caregivers for older
individuals and
grandparents or other
relative caregivers for
children with disabilities.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Child Support Enforcement
Custodial parents and their
children.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
None.
Community Services Block
Grant
Low-income individuals
and families.
FPG.
Formula allocation factors.
Child Care and
Development Fund
Low-income children and
their families.
SMI, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Formula allocation factors;
federal-state cost-sharing
rules for certain funds.
Head Start
Low-income infants,
toddlers and preschool
children.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Foster Care
Children who cannot
remain safely in their own
homes.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Federal-state cost-sharing
rules.
Adoption Assistance
Children with special
needs that make it difficult
for them to be placed with
adoptive families.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Federal-state cost-sharing
rules.
Social Services Block Grant
Defined by states.
Defined by states. (FPG
used for certain funds.)
Formula allocation factors.
Chafee Foster Care
Independence Program
Current and former foster
youth.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Emergency Food and
Shelter Program
Homeless and hungry
individuals.
Defined by local
administering boards.
Eligibility is limited to
jurisdictions that meet
need-related tests.
Legal Services Corporation
Low-income individuals.
FPG.
Formula allocation factors.
Maternal, Infant, and Early
Childhood Home Visiting
Program
Energy Assistance
Weatherization Assistance
Program
Low-income households.
Congressional Research Service
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
Formula allocation factors.
46
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Program
Target Population
Low-Income Home Energy
Assistance Program
(LIHEAP)
Low-income households.
Concept(s) Used to
Determine Individual
Income Eligibility
FPG, SMI, automatic
eligibility for specific
categorical groups.
Concept(s) Used to
Target Federal
Resources
Formula allocation factors.
Employment and Training
Community Service
Employment for Older
Americans
Low-income unemployed
individuals above a
specified age.
FPG, priority for specific
categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Workforce Investment Act
(WIA) Adult Activities
Adults for core services.
For intensive and training
services: adults who need
services to become
employed or obtain and
retain a job that allows for
self-sufficiency.
None for core services.
For intensive and training
services: FPG, LLSIL, and
priority for specific
categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Workforce Investment Act
(WIA) Youth Activities
Low-income youth who
are deficient in basic skills,
school dropouts, runaway
or foster children,
pregnant or parenting, or
offenders.
FPG, LLSIL, and automatic
eligibility for specific
categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Social Services and
Targeted Assistance for
Refugees
Refugees, asylees, other
humanitarian cases, and
trafficking victims.
Automatic eligibility for
specific categorical groups.
Formula allocation factors.
Foster Grandparents
Low-income older
individuals.
FPG.
None.
Job Corps
Low-income youth who
need and can benefit from
the program.
FPG, automatic eligibility
for specific categorical
groups.
None.
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). For a detailed discussion of the concepts
shown in this table, see CRS Report R41625, Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: Programs,
Policy, and Spending, FY2008-FY2009.
Notes: FPG = federal poverty guidelines. AMI = area median income. SMI = state median income. LLSIL = lower
living standard income levels.
Congressional Research Service
47
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Table C-3.Types of Grants or Awards, and Eligible Immediate Grantees or
Beneficiaries, by Program
Program
Grant or Award Types
Eligible Immediate Grantees or
Beneficiaries
Health
Medical Care for Veterans without
Service-Connected Disability
Direct benefits.
Eligible veterans served at VA
facilities or through contracts with
the VA.
Family Planning
Competitive grants.
Public and private nonprofit
agencies. Includes provisions for
territories.
Consolidated Health Centers
Competitive grants.
Public and private nonprofit
agencies.
State Grants and Demonstrations
Varies by program; formula and
competitive grants.
Varies by program; states and health
care providers. Includes provisions
for territories.
Transitional Cash and Medical
Services for Refugees
Formula and discretionary grants.
Formula grants: states. Discretionary
grants: “state-alternative” programs
and voluntary agencies. Includes
provisions for territories.
State Children’s Health Insurance
Program (CHIP)
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Voluntary Medicare Prescription
Drug Benefit—Low-Income Subsidy
Direct benefits (through contracts
with participating prescription drug
plans).
Eligible beneficiaries enrolled in
participating prescription drug plans.
Medicaid
Formula grants (reimbursement for
eligible expenditures).
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program
Formula and competitive grants.
Formula grants: eligible metropolitan
areas, “transitional grant” areas and
states. Competitive grants: qualified
health centers, family planning
clinics, hemophilia centers, rural
health clinics, Indian Health Service
facilities, and certain other health
facilities and organizations; public
and private nonprofit organizations;
and dental schools. Includes
provisions for territories.
Breast/Cervical Cancer Early
Detection
Competitive grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Maternal and Child Health Block
Grant
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Indian Health Service
Direct benefits.
Eligible American Indians or Alaskan
Natives served at IHS or tribal
health facilities or through contracts.
Cash Aid
Pensions for Needy Veterans
Congressional Research Service
Direct benefits.
Eligible veterans, their dependents
and survivors.
48
Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Grant or Award Types
Eligible Immediate Grantees or
Beneficiaries
Temporary Assistance for Needy
Families (TANF)
Formula grants (basic block grant,
contingency fund) and competitive
grants (promoting healthy marriage
and strengthening fatherhood).
Formula grants: states. Competitive
grants: public and private nonprofit
organizations. Includes provisions
for territories.
Supplemental Security Income
Direct benefits.
Eligible individuals.
Additional Child Tax Credit
Direct benefits.
Eligible individuals.
Earned Income Tax Credit
Direct benefits.
Eligible individuals.
Program
Food Assistance
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance
Program (SNAP)
Direct benefits and formula grants
(reimbursement for eligible
expenditures).
Direct benefits: eligible households.
Formula grants: states. Includes
provisions for territories.
School Breakfast Program
(free/reduced price components)
Formula grants (reimbursement for
eligible expenditures).
State educational agencies. Includes
provisions for territories.
National School Lunch Program
(free/reduced price components)
Formula grants (reimbursement for
eligible expenditures).
State educational agencies. Includes
provisions for territories.
Special Supplemental Nutrition
Program for Women, Infants and
Children (WIC)
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Child and Adult Care Food Program
(lower-income components)
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Summer Food Service Program
Formula grants.
State educational agencies. Includes
provisions for territories.
Commodity Supplemental Food
Program
Formula grants and commodity
support.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Nutrition Assistance for Puerto Rico
Formula grants.
Puerto Rico.
Food Distribution Program on Indian
Reservations (FDPIR)
Formula grants
States and Indian tribal
organizations.
The Emergency Food Assistance
Program (TEFAP)
Formula grants and commodity
support.
States.
Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Nutrition Program for the Elderly
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Education
Indian Education
Formula grants.
BIE schools, public schools, tribally
controlled colleges and universities.
Adult Basic Education Grants to
States
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Federal Supplemental Educational
Opportunity Grant
Formula grants.
Institutions of higher education.
Includes provisions for Palau.
Education for the Disadvantaged—
Grants to Local Educational Agencies
(Title I-A)
Formula grants.
Local educational agencies. Includes
provisions for territories.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Program
Grant or Award Types
Eligible Immediate Grantees or
Beneficiaries
Title I Migrant Education Program
Formula grants.
State educational agencies. Includes
provision for Puerto Rico.
Higher Education—Institutional Aid
and Developing Institutions
Formula and competitive grants.
Institutions of higher education.
Includes provisions for territories.
Federal Work-Study
Formula grants.
Institutions of higher education.
Includes provisions for Palau.
Federal TRIO Programs
Competitive grants.
Institutions of higher education,
public and private organizations,
secondary schools, and consortia of
such entities. Includes provisions for
territories.
Indian Education Grants to Local
Educational Agencies
Formula grants.
Local educational agencies, Bureau
of Indian Education schools, tribes.
Federal Pell Grants
Direct benefits (through payments to
participating institutions of higher
education).
Eligible students at participating
institutions. Includes provisions for
territories.
Education for Homeless Children and
Youth
Formula grants.
State educational agencies. Includes
provisions for territories.
21st Century Community Learning
Centers
Formula grants.
State educational agencies. Includes
provisions for territories.
Gaining Early Awareness and
Readiness for Undergraduate
Programs (GEAR-UP)
Competitive grants.
States and partnerships consisting of
at least one degree-granting
institution of higher education and
one or more local agencies and, if
desired, at least two other partners
such as community organizations,
business, and public or private
agencies or organizations. Includes
provisions for territories.
Rural Education Achievement
Program
Formula grants.
Small local educational agencies and
states on behalf of local educational
agencies that do not meet small-size
thresholds. Includes provisions for
territories.
Mathematics and Science
Partnerships
Formula grants.
State educational agencies.
Improving Teacher Quality State
Grants
Formula grants.
State educational agencies and state
agencies of higher education.
Includes provisions for territories.
College Access Challenge Grants
Formula grants.
States or philanthropic
organizations. Includes provisions
for territories.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Eligible Immediate Grantees or
Beneficiaries
Program
Grant or Award Types
Reading First and Early Reading First
Formula grants (Reading First) and
competitive grants (Early Reading
First).
Formula: state educational agencies.
Competitive: local educational
agencies eligible under Title I-A, one
or more public or private
organizations acting on behalf of
programs that serve preschool
children in an area served by a Title
I-A-eligible local educational agency,
or a consortium of the above.
Includes provisions for territories.
Academic Competitiveness and Smart
Grant Program
Direct benefits (through payments to
participating institutions of higher
education).
Eligible students at participating
institutions. Includes provisions for
territories.
Housing and Development
Single-Family Rural Housing Loans
Direct benefits.
Eligible individuals.
Rural Rental Assistance Program
Direct benefits (through contracts
with property owners).
Eligible households in units owned
by participating owners.
Water and Waste Disposal for Rural
Communities
Loans and formula grants.
Local governments, public and
private nonprofit organizations.
Includes provisions for territories.
Public Works and Economic
Development
Competitive grants.
Designated economic development
districts, states, local governments,
institutions of higher education,
public and private nonprofit
organizations and associations acting
in cooperation with local
governments. Includes provisions for
territories.
Supportive Housing for the Elderly
Competitive grants (from amounts
allocated among HUD multifamily
“hubs” according to a formula).
Private nonprofit organizations and
for-profit general partnerships
where the sole general partner is a
nonprofit organization. Includes
provisions for territories.
Supportive Housing for Persons with
Disabilities
Competitive grants (from amounts
allocated among HUD field offices
according to a formula).
Private nonprofit organizations and
for-profit general partnerships
where the sole general partner is a
nonprofit organization. Includes
provisions for territories.
Section 8 Project-Based Rental
Assistance
Direct benefits (through contracts
with property owners).
Eligible households in units owned
by participating owners.
Community Development Block
Grants
Formula grants.
“Entitlement communities” (i.e.,
cities and urban counties of specified
sizes), and states on behalf of nonentitlement communities. Includes
provisions for territories.
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Program
Grant or Award Types
Eligible Immediate Grantees or
Beneficiaries
Homeless Assistance Grants
Competitive grants (SHP, S+C, SRO)
and formula grants (ESG).
Competitive grants: states, local
governments, public housing
authorities, private nonprofit
organizations, community mental
health centers. Formula grants:
states, metropolitan cities and urban
counties. Includes provisions for
territories.
Home Investment Partnerships
Program (HOME)
Formula grants.
States and local participating
jurisdictions (i.e., metropolitan cities
or urban counties that meet
minimum funding thresholds).
Includes provisions for territories.
Housing Opportunities for Persons
with AIDS (HOPWA)
Formula and competitive grants.
Formula grants: states and eligible
metropolitan statistical areas that
meet minimum AIDS case
requirements. Competitive grants:
states, local governments, and
private nonprofit agencies. Includes
provisions for territories.
Public Housing
Formula grants (operating and capital
funds) and competitive grants (HOPE
VI).
Public housing authorities.
Indian Housing Block Grants
Formula grants.
Federally recognized Indian tribes or
their tribally designated housing
entity; state recognized Indian tribes
that were funded under prior law.
Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers
Formula grants.
Public housing authorities.
Neighborhood Stabilization
Program-1
Formula grants.
States and local governments.
Includes provisions for territories.
Grants to States for Low-Income
Housing in Lieu of Low-Income
Housing Credit Allocations
Formula grants.
State housing credit agencies.
Includes provisions for territories.
Tax Credit Assistance Program
Formula grants.
State housing credit agencies.
Includes provisions for Puerto Rico.
Social Services
Indian Human Services
Discretionary grants.
Federally recognized Indian tribes
and tribal organizations.
Older Americans Act Grants for
Supportive Services and Senior
Centers
Formula grants.
State agencies on aging. Includes
provisions for territories.
Older Americans Act Family
Caregiver Program
Formula grants.
State agencies on aging. Includes
provisions for territories.
Child Support Enforcement
Formula grants (reimbursement for
eligible expenditures).
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Community Services Block Grant
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
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Program
Grant or Award Types
Eligible Immediate Grantees or
Beneficiaries
Child Care and Development Fund
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Head Start
Formula grants.
Local public and private nonprofit
and for-profit entities. Includes
provisions for territories.
Foster Care
Formula grants (reimbursement for
eligible expenditures).
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Adoption Assistance
Formula grants (reimbursement for
eligible expenditures).
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Social Services Block Grant
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Chafee Foster Care Independence
Program
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Emergency Food and Shelter
Program
Formula grants.
Local boards. Includes provisions for
territories.
Legal Services Corporation
Formula grants.
Public and private nonprofit entities.
Includes provisions for territories.
Energy Assistance
Weatherization Assistance Program
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Low-Income Home Energy
Assistance Program (LIHEAP)
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Employment and Training
Community Service Employment for
Older Americans
Formula grants.
States and national nonprofit
organizations. Includes provisions
for territories.
Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
Adult Activities
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Workforce Investment Act (WIA)
Youth Activities
Formula grants.
States. Includes provisions for
territories.
Social Services and Targeted
Assistance for Refugees
Formula and competitive grants.
Formula grants: states. Competitive
grants: public and private nonprofit
entities.
Foster Grandparents
Discretionary grants.
Public and private nonprofit entities.
Includes provisions for territories.
Job Corps
Competitive contracts and
interagency agreements.
Federal, state and local agencies;
area vocational schools, residential
vocational schools, or private
organizations.
Source: Prepared by the Congressional Research Service. For a detailed discussion of the concepts shown in
this table, see CRS Report R41625, Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: Programs, Policy, and
Spending, FY2008-FY2009.
Notes: “Immediate” grantee refers to the level of government or other organization that directly receives the
grant or award from the federal government. Many programs require that funds be further distributed (by
formula or other criteria) to other units of government or organizations. For example, federal grants may be
awarded by formula to states, but states are then required to subaward these funds to local governments or
other entities. This table only shows the “immediate” grantee. “States” include the District of Columbia.
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Appendix D. Program Fact Sheets
The following fact sheets provide brief information about each program included in this report’s
analysis. Efforts were made to present the information in a relatively consistent manner; however,
the programs are sufficiently different that the fact sheets vary in scope and level of detail.
Readers should note that the number of programs included in this report is not necessarily
meaningful. While fact sheets are presented for 87 “programs,” some could have been
characterized as more than one program and others could have been consolidated.
For each program, the following information is provided: Catalog of Federal Domestic Assistance
(CFDA) number(s); statutory and regulatory citations; the name of the federal administering
agency and (where relevant) the specific office within that agency; the program’s purpose; the
type of benefit or service provided; criteria used to determine individual eligibility; the form and
recipient of federal assistance (note that “state” includes the District of Columbia); the allocation
formula used if relevant; any matching or related nonfederal spending requirements; the amount
of new obligations in FY2013; the budgetary classification of the program’s spending; some
limited detail on program participation; and citations to relevant CRS reports. Information was
derived from statutes, regulations, agency websites, and budget documents. Programs are
organized by category, and presented in order of their CFDA number. (Note that some programs
have multiple CFDA numbers; they may not necessarily be inclusive of all CFDA numbers
associated with a particular program.)
Readers should note that participation data are provided to give a sense of scope for each
program; however, these data use different time periods and units of measurement and therefore
are not consistent from one program to another. They should not be totaled or compared.
Only selected information is included in these fact sheets. Programs are generally described as
they existed in FY2013, with references to major enacted changes that are effective in subsequent
years. Certain programs are no longer funded and are described as they existed in their final year.
For complete information about a particular program of interest, readers are referred to the legal
citations provided, the federal administering agency, or the identified CRS report(s).
The following table provides a list of programs and page numbers, for easier reference to
individual program fact sheets.
Table D-1. Guide to Program Fact Sheets and Page Numbers
Program
Page Number
Health
Medical Care for Veterans without
Service-Connected Disability
58
Family Planning
59
Consolidated Health Centers
60
State Grants and Demonstrations
61
Transitional Cash and Medical Services for Refugees
63
State Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP)
64
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Program
Page Number
Voluntary Medical Prescription Drug Benefit—LowIncome Subsidy
66
Medicaid
67
Ryan White HIV/AIDS Program
69
Breast/Cervical Cancer Early Detection
70
Maternal and Child Health Block Grant
71
Indian Health Service
72
Cash Aid
Pensions for Needy Veterans
73
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
74
Supplemental Security Income
76
Additional Child Tax Credit
77
Earned Income Tax Credit
78
Food Assistance
Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)
79
School Breakfast Program
81
National School Lunch Program
82
Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women,
Infants and Children (WIC)
83
Child and Adult Care Food Program
84
Summer Food Service Program
86
Commodity Supplemental Food Program
87
Nutrition Assistance for Puerto Rico
88
Food Distribution Program on Indian Reservations
(FDPIR)
89
The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP)
90
Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Program
91
Nutrition Program for the Elderly
92
Education
Indian Education
93
Adult Basic Education Grants to States
95
Federal Supplemental Educational Opportunity Grant
96
Education for the Disadvantaged—Grants to Local
Educational Agencies (Title I-A)
97
Title I Migrant Education Program
99
Higher Education—Institutional Aid and Developing
Institutions
100
Federal Work-Study
102
Federal TRIO Programs
103
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Program
Page Number
Indian Education Grants to Local Educational Agencies
104
Federal Pell Grants
105
Education for Homeless Children and Youth
106
21st Century Community Learning Centers
107
Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for
Undergraduate Programs (GEAR-UP)
109
Rural Education Achievement Program
110
Mathematics and Science Partnerships
111
Improving Teacher Quality State Grants
112
College Access Challenge Grants
113
Reading First and Early Reading First
114
Academic Competitiveness and Smart Grant Program
116
Housing and Development
Single-Family Rural Housing Loans
117
Rural Rental Assistance Program
118
Water and Waste Disposal for Rural Communities
119
Public Works and Economic Development
120
Supportive Housing for the Elderly
121
Supportive Housing for Persons with Disabilities
122
Section 8 Project-Based Rental Assistance
123
Community Development Block Grants
124
Homeless Assistance Grants
126
Home Investment Partnerships Program (HOME)
128
Housing Opportunities for Persons with AIDS
(HOPWA)
129
Public Housing
130
Indian Housing Block Grants
132
Section 8 Housing Choice Vouchers
134
Neighborhood Stabilization Program-1
135
Grants to States for Low-Income Housing in Lieu of
Low-Income Housing Credit Allocations
136
Tax Credit Assistance Program
137
Social Services
Indian Human Services
138
Older Americans Act Grants for Supportive Services and
Senior Centers
139
Older Americans Act National Family Caregiver Program
141
Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting
Program
143
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Program
Page Number
Child Support Enforcement
144
Community Services Block Grant
145
Child Care and Development Fund
146
Head Start
148
Foster Care
150
Adoption Assistance
152
Social Services Block Grant
154
Chafee Foster Care Independence Program
155
Emergency Food and Shelter Program
156
Legal Services Corporation
157
Employment and Training
Community Service Employment for Older Americans
158
Workforce Investment Act (WIA) Adult Activities
159
Workforce Investment Act (WIA) Youth Activities
161
Social Services and Targeted Assistance for Refugees
163
Foster Grandparents
164
Job Corps
165
Energy Assistance
Weatherization Assistance Program
166
Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program (LIHEAP)
167
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Health Care
Medical Care for Veterans without Service-Connected Disability
(CFDA #64.009)
Authority: Statute: 38 U.S.C. Part 2, Chapter 17. Regulations: 38 C.F.R. Part 17.
Federal administering agency: Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Health Administration.
Purpose of program: To provide primary care, specialized care, and related social and support
services to eligible veterans.
Benefit/service: Standardized medical benefits package including preventive services, such as
immunizations, screening tests, and health education and training classes; primary health care
diagnosis and treatment, prescription drugs, comprehensive rehabilitative services, mental health
services, including professional counseling, home health care, respite (inpatient), hospice and
palliative care; and emergency care. Some veterans also may receive long-term care, including
nursing home care, domiciliary care, adult day care, and limited dental care.
Individual eligibility criteria: In general, eligibility for VA health care is based on veteran status,
service-connected disabilities or exposures, and other factors such as veterans who were former
prisoners of war or who are awarded the Purple Heart. Veterans with no service-connected
conditions and who are Medicaid-eligible, or who have income below a certain VA means-test
threshold and below a median income threshold for the geographic area in which they live are
eligible to enroll in the VA health care system. These veterans are classified as Priority Group 5
veterans.
Form and recipient of federal assistance: Services are provided directly by the VA in VA
facilities or through contracts.
Allocation formula: Not applicable.
Matching or related requirements: None.
New obligations (FY2013): $12,546 million (estimated obligations on behalf of Priority Group 5
veterans).
Budgetary classification: Discretionary.
Participation data (most recent available): In FY2013, 1,409,341 Priority Group 5 veteran
patients received care from the VA.
CRS reports: CRS Report R43547, Veterans’ Medical Care: FY2015 Appropriations, by (name r
edacted); and CRS Report R42747,
Health Care for Veterans: Answers to Frequently
Asked Questions, by (name redacted) and (name redacted).
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Family Planning (CFDA #93.217)
Authority: Statute: Title X of the Public Health Service Act, established in the Family Planning
and Services and Population Research Act of 1970 (P.L. 91-572); 42 U.S.C. 300 to 300a-6.
Regulations: 42 C.F.R. Part 59.
Federal administering agency: Department of Health and Human Services, Office of the
Assistant Secretary for Health, Office of Population Affairs, Office of Family Planning.
Purpose of program: To assist individuals to determine freely the number and spacing of their
children through the provision of education, counseling, and medical services.
Benefit/service: A broad range of family planning methods and services (including natural family
planning methods, infertility services, and services for adolescents). Family planning services
include clinical family planning and related preventive health services; information, education
and counseling related to family planning; and referral services. Services are free for persons
whose income does not exceed federal poverty guidelines (unless covered by Medicaid or other
health insurers) and are provided on a sliding fee scale basis for those with incomes between
100% and 250% of federal poverty guidelines.
Individual eligibility criteria: Priority is given to individuals from low-income families, defined
in regulation as individuals whose family income does not exceed 100% of federal poverty
guidelines, and individuals whose family income exceeds 100% of federal poverty guidelines but
who otherwise are unable to afford family planning services.
Form and recipient of federal assistance: Competitive grants to public and nonprofit agencies.
Allows participation by agencies in territories (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana
Islands, Puerto Rico, the U.S. Outlying Islands, the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of
Micronesia, Republic of Palau, and the U.S. Virgin Islands).
Allocation formula: Not applicable.
Matching or related requirements: None. However, regulations provide that no project may be
fully supported by Title X funds.
New obligations (FY2013): $278 million.
Budgetary classification: Discretionary.
Participation data (most recent available): In calendar year 2012, a total of 4.764 million users
were served by Title X-funded sites.
CRS report: CRS Report RL33644, Title X (Public Health Service Act) Family Planning
Program, by (name redacted).
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Consolidated Health Centers (CFDA #93.224)
Authority: Statute: Section 330 of the Public Health Service Act, established by the Health
Centers Consolidation Act of 1996 (P.L. 104-299) and most recently reauthorized by the Patient
Protection and Affordable Care Act (P.L. 111-148); 42 U.S.C. 254b. Regulations: 42 C.F.R.
Subpart 51c and 42 C.F.R. Parts 56.201-56.604.
Federal administering agency: Department of Health and Human Services, Health Resources
and Services Administration, Bureau of Primary Health Care.
Purpose of program: To provide health care services to groups that are determined to be
medically underserved.
Benefit/service: Primary and additional health care services defined in statute, delivered by
community health centers, migrant health centers, health centers for the homeless, and health
centers for residents of public housing.
Individual eligibility criteria: The statute defines “medically underserved” as “the population of
an urban or rural area designated by the Secretary as an area with a shortage of personal health
services or a population group designated by the Secretary as having a shortage of such services.”
Regulations provide that, in designating these populations, the Secretary may consider economic
factors, such as the percentage of the population with incomes below poverty. Grant funds may be
used to pay the full cost of services to individuals and families with income at or below federal
poverty guidelines; services are provided on a sliding fee scale basis for those with incomes
between 100% and 200% of federal poverty guidelines and no discount is provided for those with
incomes above 200% of poverty.
Form and recipient of federal assistance: Competitive grants to public and private nonprofit
entities.
Allocation formula: Not applicable.
Matching or related requirements: None. Grantees are expected to collect fees from third-party
payors, such as Medicare, Medicaid, and private health insurance; centers may also collect fees
from patients with family income above the federal poverty guidelines; and centers may also
receive funding from state, local and other federal sources. For grants serving certain populations,
federal funds must supplement and not supplant other funds used by the health center to serve the
same population.
New obligations (FY2013): $2,882 million.
Budgetary classification: Discretionary.
Participation data (most recent available): In FY2012, 2.1 million patients were served.
CRS reports: CRS Report R43304, Public Health Service Agencies: Overview and Funding,
coordinated by (name redacted); and CRS Report RL32046,
Federal Health Centers
Program, by Barbara English.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
State Grants and Demonstrations (includes CFDA #93.536, #93.537, #93.767,
#93.784, #93.791)
Authority: Statute: grants and demonstrations with FY2013 obligations include Money Follows
the Person (MFP) Rebalancing Demonstration, Section 6071 of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005
(P.L. 109-171) as amended by Section 2403 of the Affordable Care Act (P.L. 111-148); Medicaid
Integrity Program (MIP), Section 1936 of the Social Security Act as established by Section 6034
of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 (P.L. 109-171); Grants to Improve Outreach and Enrollment,
Section 201 of the Children’s Health Insurance Program Reauthorization Act (CHIPRA, P.L. 1113) and Section 10203 of the Affordable Care Act (P.L. 111-48); Medicaid Incentives for
Prevention of Chronic Disease Demonstration Project, Section 4108 of the Affordable Care Act
(P.L. 111-148); Emergency Health Services (EHS) Furnished to Undocumented Aliens, Section
1011 of the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act of 2003 (P.L. 10873); Medicaid Emergency Psychiatric Demonstration, Section 2707 of the Affordable Care Act
(P.L. 111-148). Regulations: no program-specific regulations.
Federal administering agency: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Medicare
& Medicaid Services.
Purpose of program: MFP: to help states rebalance their long-term services and supports
programs to increase use of home and community-based services rather than institutional longterm care services. MIP: to reduce fraud, waste, and abuse in Medicaid. Outreach and Enrollment
Grants: to increase enrollment and participation of children who are eligible for Medicaid or the
State Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) but not enrolled. Prevention of Chronic
Disease: to provide incentives for Medicaid beneficiaries to participate in programs to promote
healthy lifestyles. EHS: to reimburse states for costs of emergency care provided to unauthorized
aliens. Emergency Psychiatric Demonstration: to demonstrate impact of reimbursing institutions
for mental disease for services to Medicaid-eligible individuals aged 21-64.
Benefit/service: MFP: home and community-based long-term care services, including home
health and personal care services. MIP: not applicable. Outreach and Enrollment: not applicable.
Prevention of Chronic Disease: comprehensive, evidence-based programs to promote healthy
lifestyles. EHS: emergency health services provided by hospitals, physicians, and ambulance
suppliers. Emergency Psychiatric Demonstration: services of residential institutions for mental
disease.
Individual eligibility criteria: MFP: certain Medicaid beneficiaries residing in inpatient facilities
who would continue to require the level of care provided by such facilities without provision of
home and community-based long-term care services. MIP: not applicable. Outreach and
Enrollment: as provided under Medicaid and CHIP. Prevention of Chronic Disease: Medicaid
beneficiaries. EHS: unauthorized aliens who would otherwise be eligible for Medicaid, and
certain parolees and Mexican citizens. Emergency Psychiatric Demonstration: Medicaid-eligible
individuals aged 21-64 who require medical assistance to stabilize a psychiatric emergency
medical condition.
Form and recipient of federal assistance: MFP: competitive grants to states. MIP: not
applicable. Outreach and Enrollment: competitive grants to states, local governments,
community-based organizations, and tribal entities. Prevention of Chronic Disease: competitive
grants to states. EHS: direct reimbursements to providers. Emergency Psychiatric Demonstration:
competitive grants to states.
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Allocation formula: EHS: payments are made directly to providers from amounts reserved for
states; two-thirds of funds are allocated among states based on their relative percentage of total
undocumented aliens and the remaining third is allocated to the six states with the largest number
of undocumented alien apprehensions. Not applicable for other programs.
Matching or related requirements: MFP: an enhanced federal medical assistance percentage
(FMAP) applies. Not applicable for other programs.
New obligations (FY2013): $534 million. (MFP: $344 million. MIP: $102 million. Outreach and
Enrollment: $34 million. Prevention of Chronic Disease: $23 million. EHS: $16 million.
Emergency Psychiatric Demonstration: $14 million.)
Budgetary classification: Mandatory.
Participation data (most recent available): MFP: As of December 2013, about 41,000
individuals had been transitioned out of institutional settings. MIP: not applicable. Outreach and
Enrollment: no data available. Prevention of Chronic Disease: As of August 31, 2013, there were
7,936 participants in 10 participating states. EHS: As of November 2013, payments had been
made to 2,265 hospitals, 49,505 physicians, and 538 ambulance providers. Emergency Psychiatric
Demonstration: As of June 30, 2013, there were 2,791 participants.
CRS reports: CRS Report R41210, Medicaid and the State Children’s Health Insurance Program
(CHIP) Provisions in ACA: Summary and Timeline, by (name redacted) et al., and CRS
Report R43328, Medicaid Coverage of Long-Term Services and Supports, by (name redacted).
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Federal Benefits and Services for People with Low Income: FY2008-FY2013
Transitional Cash and Medical Services to Refugees (CFDA #93.566)
Authority: Statute: Title IV, Chapter 2 of the Immigration and Nationality Act, established by the
Refugee Act of 1979 (P.L. 96-212) and most recently reauthorized by P.L. 106-104; 8 U.S.C.
1521-1524. Regulations: 45 C.F.R. Parts 400-401.
Federal administering agency: Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for
Children and Families, Office of Refugee Resettlement.
Purpose of program: To provide for the effective resettlement of refugees and to assist them to
achieve economic self-sufficiency as quickly as possible.
Benefit/service: Cash payments to eligible individuals that are at least equal to the payment rate
to a family of the same size under the state’s Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)
program; and medical benefits, through payments to doctors, hospitals and pharmacists. Those
eligible for Supplemental Security Income (SSI) may receive refugee cash assistance while their
SSI applications are pending.
Individual eligibility criteria: Adult refugees, asylees, other specified humanitarian cases, and
trafficking victims who meet the income and asset tests for TANF or Medicaid but who are not
categorically eligible for those programs; and unaccompanied refugee minor children.
Form and recipient of federal assistance: Formula grants to states, and discretionary grants to
state-alternative programs and voluntary agencies. Allows participation by territories (American
Samoa, Guam, Northern Marianas, Puerto Rico, the Trust Territories of the Pacific, and the U.S.
Virgin Islands).
Allocation formula: Formula funds are allocated to states based on their estimates of eligible
expenditures.
Matching or related requirements: No matching requirements for formula grants. Voluntary
agencies receiving discretionary grants must provide a $1 match for each 2 federal dollars.
New obligations (FY2013): $401 million (appropriations).
Budgetary classification: Discretionary.
Participation data (most recent available): No data available.
CRS report: CRS Report RL31269, Refugee Admissions and Resettlement Policy, by (name re
dacted).
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State Children’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP) (CFDA #93.767)
Authority: Statute: Title XXI of the Social Security Act, established by the Balanced Budget Act
of 1997 (P.L. 105-33), reauthorized by the Children’s Health Insurance Program Reauthorization
Act of 2009 (CHIPRA, P.L. 111-3), and most recently extended through FY2015 by the Patient
Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA; P.L. 111-148, as amended); 42 U.S.C. 1397aa-mm.
Regulations: 42 C.F.R. Part 457.
Federal administering agency: Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Medicare
& Medicaid Services.
Purpose of program: To provide health coverage to uninsured, low-income children in an
effective and efficient manner that is coordinated with other sources of health benefits coverage
for children.
Benefit/service: Health care coverage is available through expansion of a state’s existing
Medicaid program, creation of a separate CHIP program, or a combination of both approaches
where the state operates a CHIP Medicaid expansion and one or more separate CHIP programs
concurrently. States that use the CHIP Medicaid expansion option must provide the full range of
mandatory Medicaid benefits as well as all optional services specified in their state Medicaid
plans. Alternatively, states may enroll CHIP Medicaid expansion children in Alternative Benefit
Plans, which must include the same “essential health benefits” provided in plans available
through the health insurance exchanges established under the ACA. All CHIP Medicaid
expansion children are entitled to Early and Periodic Screening, Diagnostic, and Treatment
(EPSDT) coverage, which effectively eliminates any state-defined limits on the amount, duration,
and scope of any benefit listed in Medicaid statute. CHIP Medicaid expansion programs must
follow Medicaid’s cost-sharing rules which generally exempt children from program participation
fees and service-related cost-sharing. In general, for separate CHIP programs under which the
majority of children are enrolled, states may offer one of three benefit options. As one option,
states may elect to provide one of the following “benchmark” benefit packages: (1) the standard
Blue Cross/Blue Shield preferred provider plan offered under the Federal Employees Health
Benefits Program (FEHBP), (2) the health coverage that is offered and generally available to state
employees, and (3) the health coverage that is offered by a health maintenance organization
(HMO) with the largest commercial (non-Medicaid) enrollment in the state. As a second option,
states may elect to offer “benchmark-equivalent” coverage with the same actuarial value as one of
the benchmark packages listed above. As a third option, states may elect to offer “Secretaryapproved” coverage for which benefits are appropriate for the target population. States with
separate CHIP programs may vary cost-sharing requirements by family income, but the total
annual aggregate cost-sharing (including premiums, copayments, and similar charges) for a
family may not exceed 5% of total income in a year, and certain services such as preventive care
are exempt from cost-sharing. Under certain conditions, states may also provide premium
assistance for health insurance offered through private insurance arrangements for Medicaid
children (including CHIP children) and their parents. States may seek CMS approval to waive
many of the basic benefit rules described above to conduct demonstration projects under the
Section 1115 authority that test alternative methods of meeting the overall purpose of CHIP.
Individual eligibility criteria: Target populations are defined by states within federal parameters.
Children must be under age 19, lack health insurance, and not be qualified for regular Medicaid.
States may set the upper income limit for targeted children at up to 200% of federal poverty
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guidelines or 50 percentage points above the applicable pre-CHIP (1997) Medicaid income level.
States may seek federal approval to serve higher-income children. States also may cover pregnant
women who lack health insurance and meet specified income thresholds. The ACA requires states
to maintain CHIP child eligibility standards (as of March 23, 2010) through September 30, 2019,
as a condition for receiving payments under Medicaid. Beginning January 1, 2014, in determining
CHIP eligibility, states must use modified adjusted gross income (MAGI) income counting rules,
which include a standard 5% income disregard. Also beginning January 1, 2014, states are
required to transition CHIP children ages 6 through 18 in families with MAGI income less than
133% of federal poverty guidelines to Medicaid.
Form and recipient of federal assistance: Formula grants to states. Allows participation by
territories (American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin
Islands).
Allocation formula: The national appropriation amount is set in statute and is the overall annual
ceiling on federal funds available for CHIP in a fiscal year. The law calculates allotment amounts
for each state for the federal sh
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