Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Congressional research reportApr 1, 2014

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Contractor Fraud

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Selected Federal Civil Remedies

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R43460

Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Summary

Because the federal government relies heavily on contractors to supply it with goods and services,

fraud by these contractors potentially costs the government billions of dollars annually. Detecting,

prosecuting, and deterring contractor fraud poses a challenge to federal agencies, which often

possess limited resources. To combat contractor fraud, Congress has enacted several statutes that

allow the federal government—and in some instances, private parties—to recover damages, civil

penalties, or forfeitures against parties that make false or fraudulent claims for payment or engage

in other misconduct. These statutes may impose civil liability for conduct that does not amount to

fraud under traditional common law definitions and potentially allow for significant recoveries.

Generally, the False Claims Act (FCA) authorizes the Attorney General, as well as certain private

parties, to bring a civil action against “any person” who makes a false claim for payment from the

government. Recently, some courts have held that claims for payment that are not explicitly false

may become false by implication because of a party’s actions or omissions prior to contract

formation or during contract performance. However, some of these same courts have expressed

concerns that such theories could lead to liability for ordinary breaches of contract or insignificant

regulatory violations, and have thus imposed limitations on their use by the government or private

parties that sue on behalf of the government. Other recent regulatory and judicial developments

may also affect contractors’ potential exposure to civil liability and damages under the FCA.

The Contract Disputes Act (CDA) sets forth procedures for the resolution of claims and disputes

involving certain contracts awarded by executive agencies. The CDA contains an anti-fraud

remedy because of concerns that contractors would submit inflated claims during contract

disputes as a “negotiating tactic,” leading the government to settle these claims instead of using

its limited resources to evaluate them on the merits. The Federal Circuit’s notable decision in

Daewoo Engineering Co., Ltd. v. United States demonstrates that the CDA’s anti-fraud provision

may result in a significant civil penalty for a contractor that submits a fraudulent claim to the

government in an effort to extract a settlement offer.

Under the Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act (FFCA), a contractor that brings a fraudulent

contract claim against the government in the Court of Federal Claims (COFC) may have to forfeit

all of its claims under the contract. Courts disagree over whether fraud sufficient for forfeiture

may relate to the execution or performance of the contract in addition to submission of a claim.

The Program Fraud Civil Remedies Act (PFCRA) provides an administrative process under

which certain federal agencies may impose civil remedies or assessments on “persons” who

knowingly make false, fraudulent, or fictitious claims or statements to the agencies in “smalldollar cases” of fraud that the Department of Justice (DOJ) declines to pursue in court. Few

federal agencies use the PFCRA, leading some to recommend that, among other things, Congress

raise the act’s jurisdictional cap and civil penalty limit; allow agencies to retain recovered funds;

and simplify the act’s procedural requirements.

Congress is perennially interested in the scope of federal civil fraud remedy statutes. In order to

be effective, these statutes must be broad enough to punish and deter fraud that often evades

detection, wastes taxpayer funds, and negatively impacts government programs. On the other

hand, if courts interpret a fraud statute so broadly that it imposes civil liability on contractors for

minor regulatory violations or ordinary breaches of contract, contractors may decline to compete

for government contracts, potentially leading to higher prices for the government.

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Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Contents

Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1

Civil False Claims Act ..................................................................................................................... 3

Overview ................................................................................................................................... 4

Recent Amendments .................................................................................................................. 7

Implied False Certification Theory............................................................................................ 8

Examples ........................................................................................................................... 10

Limitations on the Theory ................................................................................................. 11

Fraud in the Inducement Theory ............................................................................................. 13

Allegations of Fraud in the Inducement by Underbidding ................................................ 14

Other Examples ................................................................................................................. 15

Limitations on the Theory ................................................................................................. 17

Calculating Treble Damages.................................................................................................... 18

Contract Disputes Act Anti-Fraud Provision ................................................................................. 20

Overview of the CDA.............................................................................................................. 20

Anti-Fraud Provision ............................................................................................................... 21

Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States ................................... 23

Other Examples ................................................................................................................. 24

Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act .............................................................................................. 25

Program Fraud Civil Remedies Act ............................................................................................... 27

Recent Regulatory Developments ................................................................................................. 28

Mandatory Disclosure Rule ..................................................................................................... 28

Presumed Loss Rule ................................................................................................................ 30

Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 31

Tables

Table 1. Judicial Approaches to Calculating Treble Damages Under the Civil FCA .................... 19

Contacts

Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 32

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Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Introduction

The federal government relies heavily on contractors to supply it with goods and services.1 Each

year, fraud by these contractors potentially costs the government billions of dollars.2 Detecting,

prosecuting, and deterring contractor fraud poses a challenge to federal agencies, which often

possess limited resources.3 Contractor fraud comes in many forms, including false or fraudulent

claims for payment made under a contract or as part of the contract disputes process;4 false

statements;5 bid rigging; defective pricing; cost mischarging; product substitution; and false

certification of small business size or status.6

Congressional efforts to deter contractor fraud extend at least as far back as the passage of the

False Claims Act (FCA) during the Civil War.7 Since that time, Congress has enacted several

statutes that allow the federal government—and in some instances, private parties—to recover

damages, civil penalties, or forfeitures for false or fraudulent claims for payment and other

misconduct.8 Since the passage of the FCA, Members of Congress, courts, and others have

continued to debate the proper scope of liability under these civil fraud statutes.9

Recoveries of large damage awards and penalties by the government or private parties under

these statutes have brought new attention to this debate. For example, in FY2013, the Department

of Justice (DOJ) recovered about $3.8 billion in settlements and judgments under the FCA, which

represents the federal government’s primary civil fraud remedy.10 Of this amount, recoveries from

procurement fraud cases accounted for a record $890 million.11 The government has also

National Procurement Fraud Task Force, Legislation Committee, Procurement Fraud: Legislative and Regulatory

Reform Proposals ii (2008), http://www.gsaig.gov/?LinkServID=A8DD55A6-A6BB-D9F8-0788C31C39FC3CD0&.

General Services Administration, Office of Inspector General, Procurement Fraud Handbook 2 (2012),

http://www.gsaig.gov/?LinkServID=6486B647-A5DF-C154-010A408470CAE0B8.

National Procurement Fraud Task Force, Legislation Committee, Procurement Fraud: Legislative and Regulatory

Reform Proposals ii (2008), http://www.gsaig.gov/?LinkServID=A8DD55A6-A6BB-D9F8-0788C31C39FC3CD0&.

Contractors could submit false or fraudulent claims to contracting officers or bring them before the Court of Federal

Claims as part of the contract disputes process. See Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States,

557 F.3d 1332, 1334-35 (Fed. Cir. 2009).

See, e.g., 31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1)(B).

General Services Administration, Office of Inspector General, Procurement Fraud Handbook 14-29 (2012),

http://www.gsaig.gov/?LinkServID=6486B647-A5DF-C154-010A408470CAE0B8.

See Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 3d Sess. 952 (1863) (remarks of Sen. Jacob M. Howard) (“The country, as we know,

has been full of complaints respecting the frauds and corruptions practiced in obtaining pay from the Government

during the present war; and it is said ... that further legislation is pressingly necessary to prevent this great evil ...”).

E.g., Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act, 28 U.S.C. §2514; False Claims Act, 31 U.S.C. §§3729-3733; Program

Fraud Civil Remedies Act, id. at §§3801-3812; Contract Disputes Act, 41 U.S.C. §7103(c)(2).

See, for example, “False Claims Act: Recent Amendments” below. See also Kellogg Brown & Root Servs., Inc. v.

United States, 728 F.3d 1348, 1366 & n.18 (Fed. Cir. 2013) (discussing different judicial interpretations of the scope of

the Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act).

Press Release, Department of Justice Recovers $3.8 Billion from False Claims Act Cases in Fiscal Year 2013 (Dec.

20, 2013) (“The False Claims Act is the government’s primary civil remedy to redress false claims for government

funds and property under government contracts, including national security and defense contracts, as well as under

government programs as varied as Medicare, veterans benefits, federally insured loans and mortgages, transportation

and research grants, agricultural supports, school lunches and disaster assistance.”), http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/

2013/December/13-civ-1352.html; see also 31 U.S.C. §§3729-3733.

Press Release, Department of Justice Recovers $3.8 Billion from False Claims Act Cases in Fiscal Year 2013 (Dec.

20, 2013), http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2013/December/13-civ-1352.html. A large portion of this recovery resulted

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Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

recovered large civil penalties and forfeitures from contractors who submit fraudulent claims for

payment as part of the contract disputes process, including in a recent case in which the Federal

Circuit affirmed the Court of Federal Claims’ (COFC’s) assessment of a $50.6 million civil

penalty against a contractor under the Contract Disputes Act’s (CDA’s) anti-fraud provision12 and

rendered judgment of forfeiture of a $13.3 million contractor claim under the Forfeiture of

Fraudulent Claims Act (FFCA).13 Some federal statutory civil fraud remedies may be

cumulative,14 raising the possibility that the government could potentially recover significant

sums, particularly if it suffers damages.15

In addition to the significant damage awards that plaintiffs may recover under some of these

statutes, courts may find a contractor civilly liable under these laws for conduct that may not

amount to fraud under traditional common law definitions.16 Although many provisions in federal

civil fraud statutes require the existence of a “claim” for payment from the government,17 the

statutes may impose civil penalties and forfeitures even when the government has not relied on,

or suffered damages from, the claim.18 Moreover, recent statutory and judicial developments

under the FCA have reduced the level of “knowledge” that a defendant must possess in order to

be liable and extended the scope of the act to cover a wider range of conduct than the common

law typically encompasses.19

Congress has an interest in the scope of federal civil fraud remedy statutes. In order to be

effective, these statutes must be broad enough to punish and deter fraud that often evades

(...continued)

from a single case. Id. Health care fraud cases accounted for $2.6 billion of the total recovery. Id.

Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States, 557 F.3d 1332, 1341 (Fed. Cir. 2009); see also 41

U.S.C. §7103(c)(2).

Daewoo, 557 F.3d at 1341; see also 28 U.S.C. §2514.

Daewoo, 557 F.3d at 1340-41 (“A certified claim may be a source of liability under both the Contract Disputes Act

and the False Claims Act.”) (citations omitted); Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States, 73

Fed. Cl. 547, 597 (2006) (“The fraud statutes are cumulative and not in the alternative.”).

See, e.g., 31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1) (allowing for the recovery of treble damages in addition to a civil penalty).

The elements of common law fraud vary by jurisdiction, but generally they require the plaintiff to allege that (1) the

defendant made a material false representation, (2) the defendant knew that the representation was false, (3) the

defendant acted with intent to defraud, (4) the plaintiff reasonably relied on the false representation, and (5) the plaintiff

suffered damages. See, e.g., Marcus v. AT&T Corp., 138 F.3d 46, 63 (2d. Cir. 1998) (citations omitted) (stating the

requirements under federal or New York state common law); see also H.Rept. 99-660, at 18 (1986) (comparing

common law remedies to the FCA).

E.g., 28 U.S.C. §2514 (requiring that there be a claim against the United States); 31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1)(A)-(B)

(requiring that there be a false or fraudulent claim); id. at §3802(a)(1) (requiring that there be a false, fictitious, or

fraudulent claim); 41 U.S.C. §7103(c)(2) (requiring that there be a claim against the United States).

E.g., 28 U.S.C. §2514 (“A claim against the United States shall be forfeited to the United States by any person who

corruptly practices or attempts to practice any fraud against the United States in the proof, statement, establishment, or

allowance thereof.”) (emphasis added); 31 U.S.C. §3729 (making “any person” who, for example, knowingly presents

a false claim for payment or knowingly makes a false statement material to a false claim for payment, liable for a civil

penalty without requiring the government to rely on this conduct or suffer damages as a result of it); id. at §3802(a)(1)

(making “any person” who submits false claims liable for a civil penalty without requiring reliance by, or damage to,

the government); 41 U.S.C. §7103(c)(2) (stating that “the contractor is liable to the Federal Government for an amount

equal to the unsupported part of the claim” without requiring that the government rely on the claim or suffer damages);

see also S.Rept. 95-1118, at 20 (1978).

See 31 U.S.C. §3729(b)(1) (codifying the 1986 amendments that relaxed the “knowledge” requirement). See also

“Implied False Certification Theory” below.

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Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

detection, wastes taxpayer funds, and negatively impacts government programs.20 On the other

hand, if courts interpret a fraud statute so broadly that it imposes civil liability on contractors for

minor regulatory violations or ordinary breaches of contract—possibly resulting in a contractor

having insufficient notice as to which actions will result in liability21—contractors may decline to

compete for government contracts. This could lead to higher prices for the government.

This report provides an overview of federal statutes that provide civil remedies for contractor

fraud, as well as issues stemming from judicial interpretation of these statutes.22 These statutes

include the civil FCA, anti-fraud provision of the CDA, FFCA,23 and the Program Fraud Civil

Remedies Act. The report also briefly examines regulatory and judicial developments that have

implications for enforcement of the FCA, including the circuit split regarding the calculation of

treble damages under the FCA; the Mandatory Disclosure Rule; and the Presumed Loss Rule.

Civil False Claims Act

Congress originally enacted the FCA in 1863 to combat fraud by Civil War defense contractors.24

Since that time, Congress has occasionally adjusted the scope of the FCA’s civil liability

provisions in response to judicial developments and shifting perceptions of the prevalence of

fraud against the federal government.25 In its current form, the FCA imposes civil liability on

“any person” who engages in at least one of seven forms of misconduct.26 The FCA authorizes the

Attorney General, as well as certain private parties that sue on behalf of the United States under

the act’s qui tam provisions, to bring a civil action against an alleged violator of the act.27

Liability under the FCA requires no specific proof of intent to defraud.28

Liability under two provisions of the FCA frequently used against contractors requires, among

other things, the existence of a “false or fraudulent” claim for payment from the government.29

Some federal courts have developed theories that expand the definition of a “false or fraudulent”

E.g., Department of Defense, Inspector General, Semiannual Report to the Congress 31 (2013) (“The potential

damage resulting from procurement fraud extends well beyond financial losses. This crime poses a serious threat to the

ability of the Department to achieve its operational objectives and can have a negative effect on the implementation of

programs.”), http://www.dodig.mil/pubs/sar/SAR_APR_SEPT_2013_web_compliant.pdf.

See Christopher L. Martin, Jr., Reining in Lincoln’s Law: A Call to Limit the Implied Certification Theory of Liability

Under the False Claims Act, 101 Cal. L. Rev. 227, 258 (2013).

This report does not examine criminal statutes that may impose penalties on a contractor that defrauds the

government. This report also does not examine federal common law or contractual remedies; state or local remedies; or

the provisions in the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) stating that agency heads may void and rescind contracts in

certain cases of contractor misconduct. See 48 C.F.R. Subpart 3.7.

At least one court has characterized forfeiture of a claim under the FFCA as a punishment rather than a remedy

because the amount of the forfeiture is unrelated to the amount of damages sustained by the government. Gulf Group

Gen. Enters. Co. W.L.L. v. United States, 114 Fed. Cl. 258, 340 (2013) (quoting Barren Island Marina, Inc. v. United

States, 44 Fed. Cl. 252, 257 (1999)).

See “Overview” below.

See “Recent Amendments” below.

See “Overview” below.

31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1)(A)-(B).

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Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

claim.30 Under the implied false certification and fraud in the inducement theories, claims for

payment that are not explicitly false may become false by implication because of a party’s actions

or omissions prior to contract formation or during contract performance.31 Some courts have

expressed concerns that, under these theories, a defendant could become liable for ordinary

breaches of contract or minor regulatory violations.32 Thus, some courts have limited the use of

the theories by strictly enforcing the FCA’s mental state requirement; the heightened pleading

requirements for fraud allegations under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 9(b); or some form of

materiality requirement.33

In addition to discussing the scope of liability under the FCA, this section also examines a circuit

split involving the method by which courts calculate treble damages under the act when the

contractor has provided at least some value to the government.34

Overview

Congress enacted the FCA in 1863 to detect, punish, and deter fraud against the federal

government by defense contractors during the Civil War.35 In its current form, the FCA imposes

civil liability36 on “any person” who engages in at least one of seven forms of misconduct.37

See “Implied False Certification Theory” and “Fraud in the Inducement Theory” below.

See “Implied False Certification Theory” and “Fraud in the Inducement Theory” below. Two scholars have

characterized these theories as the “implied certification of no pre-formation fraud in the inducement” and “implied

certification of post-formation performance” theories. Gregory Klass & Michael Holt, Implied Certification under the

False Claims Act, 41 Pub. Contract. L.J. 1, 5 (2011).

See “Implied False Certification Theory: Limitations on the Theory” and “Fraud in the inducement Theory:

Limitations on the Theory” below.

See “Implied False Certification Theory: Limitations on the Theory” and “Fraud in the inducement Theory:

Limitations on the Theory” below.

See “Calculating Treble Damages” below.

False Claims Act, ch. 67, 12 Stat. 696 (1863); Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 3d Sess. 952 (1863) (remarks of Sen. Jacob

M. Howard) (“The country, as we know, has been full of complaints respecting the frauds and corruptions practiced in

obtaining pay from the Government during the present war; and it is said ... that further legislation is pressingly

necessary to prevent this great evil ...”). For a more detailed overview of the FCA and its history, see CRS Report

R40785, Qui Tam: The False Claims Act and Related Federal Statutes, by (name redacted).

Originally, the FCA contained both civil and criminal liability provisions. See False Claims Act, ch. 67, 12 Stat. 69699. This report examines judicial interpretations of some of the act’s civil liability provisions, which Congress has since

amended and separately codified at 31 U.S.C. §§3729-3733.

31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1). The FCA imposes civil liability on “any person” who

(A) knowingly presents, or causes to be presented, a false or fraudulent claim for payment or

approval;

(B) knowingly makes, uses, or causes to be made or used, a false record or statement material to a

false or fraudulent claim;

(D) has possession, custody, or control of property or money used, or to be used, by the

Government and knowingly delivers, or causes to be delivered, less than all of that money or

property;

(E) is authorized to make or deliver a document certifying receipt of property used, or to be used,

by the Government and, intending to defraud the Government, makes or delivers the receipt

without completely knowing that the information on the receipt is true;

(F) knowingly buys, or receives as a pledge of an obligation or debt, public property from an

officer or employee of the Government, or a member of the Armed Forces, who lawfully may not

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Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Parties bringing claims against contractors under the FCA frequently invoke two of the act’s

provisions. These provisions impose liability for treble damages38 and a civil penalty39 on “any

person” who “knowingly40 presents, or causes to be presented, a false or fraudulent claim41 for

payment or approval” or “knowingly makes, uses, or causes to be made or used, a false record or

statement material to a false or fraudulent claim.”42 Many federal courts of appeals require parties

bringing an FCA cause of action to show that the falsity of the claim or statement is material to

the government’s (or its intermediary’s) decision to pay the claim.43 The party bringing an FCA

cause of action against a contractor must prove its elements, including damages, “by a

(...continued)

sell or pledge property; or

(G) knowingly makes, uses, or causes to be made or used, a false record or statement material to an

obligation to pay or transmit money or property to the Government, or knowingly conceals or

knowingly and improperly avoids or decreases an obligation to pay or transmit money or property

to the Government. Id.

Id. at §3729(a)(1). In some circumstances, the FCA allows courts to assess double damages. Id. at §3729(a)(2). These

circumstances include when the person in violation of the act discloses all information known to that person about the

violation of the act to certain government officials within 30 days of obtaining the information; fully cooperates in the

government’s investigation; and meets certain other requirements. Id.

The Department of Justice has currently set the civil penalty at between $5,500 and $11,000 per violation. Id. at

§3729(a)(1); 28 C.F.R. §85.3(a)(9) (adjusting the civil penalty in accordance with the Federal Civil Monetary Penalties

Inflation Adjustment Act of 1990).

In this context, to prove that a person acted “knowingly” with respect to information, the government or a relator

must show that the person possessed “actual knowledge” of the information or deliberately ignored or acted in reckless

disregard of the information’s truth or falsity. 31 U.S.C. §3729(b)(1). The FCA does not require proof of specific intent

to defraud. Id.

The act defines “claim” as

any request or demand, whether under a contract or otherwise, for money or property and whether

or not the United States has title to the money or property, that—(i) is presented to an officer,

employee, or agent of the United States; or (ii) is made to a contractor, grantee, or other recipient, if

the money or property is to be spent or used on the Government’s behalf or to advance a

Government program or interest, and if the United States Government—(I) provides or has

provided any portion of the money or property requested or demanded; or (II) will reimburse such

contractor, grantee, or other recipient for any portion of the money or property which is requested

or demanded.

Id. at §3729(b)(2). Claims do not include “requests or demands for money or property that the Government has paid to

an individual as compensation for Federal employment or as an income subsidy with no restrictions on that individual’s

use of the money or property.” Id.

Id. at §3729(a)(1)(A)-(B). “This section does not apply to claims, records, or statements made under the Internal

Revenue Code of 1986.” Id. at §3729(d). Commentators have noted that it is unclear where in these provisions a court

might find support for the implied false certification and fraud in the inducement theories of falsity. See, e.g., Gregory

Klass & Michael Holt, Implied Certification under the False Claims Act, 41 Pub. Contract. L.J. 1, 27-28 (2011).

Because some courts have nevertheless applied these theories in their decisions, this report does not speculate on the

theories’ statutory bases.

See, e.g., United States v. Bourseau, 531 F.3d 1159, 1170-71 (9th Cir. 2008) (listing several circuit courts of appeals

that have held that the FCA includes a materiality requirement and adopting such a requirement). Courts have applied

various tests to determine whether a false claim or statement is material to a payment decision. See United States ex rel.

Longhi v. Lithium Power Techs., Inc., 575 F.3d 458, 470 (5th Cir. 2009). In 2009, Congress passed the Fraud

Enforcement and Recovery Act (FERA), which added a specific materiality element to Section 3729(a)(1)(B) defined

to encompass those false statements having natural tendency to influence payment. P.L. 111-21 §4, 123 Stat. 1617,

1621, 31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1)(B).

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preponderance of the evidence.”44 Unlike some of the other federal civil fraud remedy statutes

discussed in this report, liability under the FCA requires no specific proof of intent to defraud.45

The FCA authorizes the Attorney General, as well as certain private parties that sue on behalf of

the United States under the act’s qui tam46 provisions (known as “relators”), to bring a civil

action47 against an alleged violator of the act.48 Generally, the Department of Justice (DOJ) may

intervene in a relator’s suit within a certain time period after receiving the complaint and other

material information.49 If the DOJ intervenes, then it conducts the action.50 If the DOJ declines to

intervene, the relator may proceed with the action.51 When the DOJ conducts an action initially

brought by a relator, the court may award the relator between 15 to 25 percent of the proceeds of

the action or settlement of the claim “depending upon the extent to which the person substantially

contributed to the prosecution of the action.”52 If the government declines to intervene, the relator

may receive between 25 and 30 percent of the proceeds of the action or settlement.53

Id. at §3731(d).

Id. at §3729(b)(1).

“Qui tam is short for the Latin phrase qui tam pro domino rege quam pro se ipso in hac parte sequitur, which means

‘who pursues this action on our Lord the King’s behalf as well as his own.’” Vt. Agency of Natural Res. v. United

States ex rel. Stevens, 529 U.S. 765, 769 n.1 (2000).

The government or relators may bring FCA actions in district court. E.g., United States ex rel. Mikes v. Straus, 274

F.3d 687, 692 (2d Cir. 2001) (discussing the procedural history of the Mikes case); see also 28 U.S.C. §1331. In

addition, the government may bring FCA actions as counterclaims in the Court of Federal Claims when a contractor

seeks relief related to a government contract dispute. E.g., Ab-Tech Construction, Inc. v. United States, 31 Fed. Cl.

429, 431 (1994), aff’d, 57 F.3d 1084 (Fed. Cir. 1995) (unpublished table decision); see also 28 U.S.C. §§1503, 2508.

31 U.S.C. §3730(a)-(b). A relator initially files its action under seal until the court orders the relator to serve it on the

defendant. Id. at §3730(b). The act also seeks to protect relators that take lawful action in furtherance of an FCA

lawsuit from retaliation by their employers. Id. at §3730(h). Further, the act imposes certain limitations on FCA

lawsuits, including limits intended to prevent relators from receiving a share of the proceeds of an FCA lawsuit when

information about the fraud has been publicly disclosed and the relator was not an original source of the information.

See id. at §3730(e). In addition, the act contains a statute of limitations that generally bars FCA lawsuits brought after a

certain amount of time has passed. See id. at §3731(b). The Fourth Circuit recently held that the Wartime Suspension of

Limitations Act (WSLA) tolled the FCA’s statute of limitations in a qui tam suit brought against a defense contractor

that provided services to the U.S. military in Iraq. United States ex rel. Carter v. Halliburton Co., 710 F.3d 171, 174,

178 (4th Cir. 2013). The court held that the WSLA may apply even in the absence of a “formal declaration of war.” Id.

at 178; see also 18 U.S.C. §3287.

31 U.S.C. §3730(b).

Id. at §3730(c)(1).

Id.at §3730(c)(3). “The action may be dismissed only if the court and the Attorney General give written consent to

the dismissal and their reasons for consenting.” Id. §3730(b)(1). “When a person proceeds with the action, the court,

without limiting the status and rights of the person initiating the action, may nevertheless permit the Government to

intervene at a later date upon a showing of good cause.” Id. at §3730(c)(3).

Id. at §3730(d)(1). The court may not award more than 10 percent of the proceeds in cases in which “the action is

one which the court finds to be based primarily on disclosures of specific information (other than information provided

by the person bringing the action) relating to allegations or transactions in a criminal, civil, or administrative hearing, in

a congressional, administrative, or [Government Accountability Office] report, hearing, audit, or investigation, or from

the news media.” Id.

Id. at §3730(d)(2). Regardless of whether the government intervenes, a prevailing relator shall receive “reasonable

expenses which the court finds to have been necessarily incurred, plus reasonable attorneys’ fees and costs. All such

expenses, fees, and costs shall be awarded against the defendant.” Id. at §3730(d)(1)-(2). However, if the relator

planned and initiated the violation that served as the basis for the FCA suit, the court may reduce the award. Id. at

§3730(d)(3). If the relator was convicted of criminal conduct related to the violation of the FCA upon which suit is

brought, the relator must be dismissed from the action and is ineligible to receive any proceeds. Id.

Congressional Research Service

Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Recent Amendments

Since enacting the FCA, Congress has periodically amended the act to, among other things,

change the extent to which the act exposes contractors and other parties to potential civil liability.

For example, in 1943, the Supreme Court expanded the reach of the act’s qui tam provisions,

holding that a relator’s action under the FCA could be based solely on knowledge already

possessed by the government and made public in a criminal indictment.54 Congress reversed this

decision by enacting a law that stripped federal courts of jurisdiction over suits brought by

relators when the government already had knowledge of the alleged fraud underlying the relator’s

complaint.55 In the same law, Congress also limited whistleblower lawsuits by reducing the share

of the recovery a relator could obtain in a successful suit.56

By contrast, decades later, Congress sought to strengthen the FCA in the wake of evidence of

extensive fraud against the federal government by defense contractors and others.57 In 1986,

Congress restored courts’ jurisdiction over some qui tam suits based on publicly disclosed

information, including suits in which relators were an “original source” of information about the

alleged fraud.58 The amendments also relaxed the knowledge standard for liability, making clear

that liability required no specific intent to defraud.59

More recently, Congress amended the FCA in response to various judicial developments that

some perceived as having weakened the act.60 In 2009, Congress passed the Fraud Enforcement

and Recovery Act (FERA).61 Among other things, FERA eliminated language suggesting that a

false claim must be submitted directly to a federal officer or employee and added a specific

materiality element to the act’s “false statements” provision.62 Congress made additional

United States ex rel. Marcus v. Hess, 317 U.S. 537, 545 (1943) (“Even if, as the government suggests, the petitioner

has contributed nothing to the discovery of this crime, he has contributed much to accomplishing one of the purposes

for which the Act was passed.”).

P.L. 78-213, 57 Stat. 608, 609 (1943) (“The court shall have no jurisdiction to proceed with any such [qui tam] suit ...

whenever it shall be made to appear that such suit was based upon evidence or information in the possession of the

United States ...”).

Id.

S.Rept. 99-345, at 2-3 (1986) (“In 1985 ... 45 of the 100 largest defense contractors, including 9 of the top 10, were

under investigation for multiple fraud offenses. Additionally, the Justice Department has reported that in the last year,

four of the largest defense contractors ... have been convicted of criminal offenses while another ... has been indicted

and awaits trial.... The Department of Justice has estimated fraud as draining 1 to 10 percent of the entire Federal

budget. Taking into account the spending level in 1985 of nearly $1 trillion, fraud against the Government could be

costing taxpayers anywhere from $10 to $100 billion annually.”) (citations omitted); see also H.Rept. 99-660, at 18

(1986).

False Claims Amendments Act of 1986, P.L. 99-562 §3, 100 Stat. 3153, 3157 (1986).

Id. at §2, 100 Stat. at 3154; S.Rept. 99-345, at 7 (1986) (“The Committee believes [the knowledge standard prior to

the 1986 amendments] is inappropriate in a civil remedy and presently prohibits the filing of many civil actions to

recover taxpayer funds lost to fraud.”).

S.Rept. 111-10, at 4 (2009) (“The effectiveness of the False Claims Act has recently been undermined by court

decisions which limit the scope of the law and, in some cases, allow subcontractors paid with Government money to

escape responsibility for proven frauds. The False Claims Act must be corrected and clarified in order to protect from

fraud the Federal assistance and relief funds expended in response to our current economic crisis.”).

P.L. 111-21, 123 Stat. 1617 (2009).

Id. at §4, 123 Stat. at 1621-25, codified at 31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1)(A)-(B), (b)(4). Other than adding a statutory

materiality requirement to the “false statements” provision, it does not appear that these changes will significantly

affect the viability of the implied false certification and fraud in the inducement theories of falsity. Courts disagree

about retroactive application of FERA’s amendment to the FCA’s “false statements” provision. See P.L. 111-21 §4,

(continued...)

Congressional Research Service

Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

amendments to the FCA in the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (PPACA) of 2010 that,

among other things, reduced some of the jurisdictional obstacles to qui tam suits.63

Implied False Certification Theory

As described above, one element that the United States or a relator must prove in order to

establish a defendant’s liability for fraudulent misconduct under sections 3792(a)(1)(A)-(B) of the

FCA is that the claim is “false or fraudulent.”64 Congress did not define this phrase in the FCA,

and thus courts have developed a body of case law interpreting it.65 One formulation of the

judicially created implied false certification theory allows the United States or a relator to

establish the falsity of a claim for payment even when the claim is not explicitly false66 because

“the act of submitting a claim for reimbursement [or payment]67 itself implies compliance with

governing federal rules that are a precondition to payment.”68

However, courts have not adopted this definition uniformly. Thus, for example, some courts do

not mandate that compliance with a law or contractual provision be an express precondition of

payment, requiring only that it be material to the government’s decision to pay the claim.69 Some

(...continued)

123 Stat. 1617, 1625 (“[S]ubparagraph (B) of section 3729(a)(1) of title 31, United States Code ... shall take effect as if

enacted on June 7, 2008, and apply to all claims under the False Claims Act ... that are pending on or after that date.”);

United States ex rel. SNAPP, Inc. v. Ford Motor Co., 618 F.3d 505, 509 n.2 (6th Cir. 2010) (“It is unsettled, however,

whether the retroactive effect mandated by Congress applies to ‘claims’ in the sense of demands made via litigation or

‘claims’ as defined by the FCA.”) (citation omitted); U.S. ex rel. Sanders v. Allison Engine Co., 667 F. Supp. 2d 747,

758 (S.D. Ohio 2009) (“[R]etroactive application of the new FCA language to these Defendants violates the Ex Post

Facto Clause [of the Constitution].”).

E.g., P.L. 111-148 §10104(j)(2), 124 Stat. 119, 901-902. The amendments do not appear to apply retroactively to

FCA cases filed before PPACA’s enactment on March 23, 2010. See Graham County Soil and Water Conservation

Dist. v. United States ex rel. Wilson, 559 U.S. 280, 283 n.1 (2010).

31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1)(A)-(B).

See United States ex rel. Mikes v. Straus, 274 F.3d 687, 696 (2d Cir. 2001).

A claim would be explicitly false if, for example, it contained an “incorrect description of goods or services provided

or a request for reimbursement for goods or services never provided.” United States ex rel. Mikes v. Straus, 274 F.3d

687, 697 (2d Cir. 2001); United States ex rel. Wilkins v. United Health Group, Inc., 659 F.3d 295, 305 (3rd Cir. 2011).

Mikes was decided in the context of a healthcare provider submitting Medicare claims to the government for

reimbursement, but the Second Circuit later extended its holding to the procurement context. See United States ex rel.

Kirk v. Schindler Elevator Corp., 601 F.3d 94, 115 (2d Cir. 2010), rev’d on other grounds, Schindler Elevator Corp. v.

United States ex rel. Kirk, 131 S. Ct. 1885 (2011).

United States ex rel. Mikes v. Straus, 274 F.3d 687, 699 (2d Cir. 2001); United States ex rel. Wilkins v. United

Health Group, Inc., 659 F.3d 295, 313 (3rd Cir. 2011) (“To plead a claim for relief under an implied certification theory,

appellants were required to allege, as they did, that appellees submitted claims for payment to the Government at a time

that they knowingly violated a law, rule, or regulation which was a condition for receiving payment from the

Government.”). At least one federal court of appeals has held that a claim may be false even if the claimant violates a

regulation after submitting its claim for payment. See United States ex rel. Augustine v. Century Health Servs., 289

F.3d 409, 415 (6th Cir. 2002) (stating that “liability can attach if the claimant violates its continuing duty to comply

with the regulations on which payment is conditioned.”).

E.g., United States v. Sci. Applications Int’l Corp., 626 F.3d 1257, 1269 (D.C. Cir. 2010); Ab-Tech Construction,

Inc. v. United States, 31 Fed. Cl. 429, 433-34 (1994) (“The withholding of such information—information critical to

the decision to pay—is the essence of a false claim.”), aff’d, 57 F.3d 1084 (Fed. Cir. 1995) (unpublished table

decision). The First Circuit, which does not recognize the implied false certification theory by name, does not require

that a claim “fail to comply with a precondition of payment expressly stated in a statute or regulation” in order for it to

be false or fraudulent because the text of the FCA does not contain such a requirement. United States ex rel. Hutcheson

v. Blackstone Med., Inc., 647 F.3d 377, 379 (1st Cir. 2011).

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Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

courts hold that a violation of a contractual provision may make a claim for payment false under

the implied certification theory.70 In addition, a couple of courts that have recognized the theory

have done so in cases in which the claimant has previously expressly certified that it would

comply with a law.71

Although the government and relators have often used the implied false certification theory in an

effort to establish the falsity of claims for payment by contractors, the text of the FCA does not

explicitly appear to recognize the theory.72 Moreover, it does not appear that the Supreme Court

has addressed the theory’s viability. Nevertheless, federal courts of appeals in the First,73 Second,

Third, Sixth, Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, and District of Columbia circuits have adopted this theory of

falsity in some form.74 Courts that have adopted the theory have found support for it in the FCA’s

structure75 and legislative history,76 as well as language in Supreme Court opinions about

Congress’ intent that the FCA encompass a wide range of fraudulent conduct.77

See, e.g., United States ex rel. Lemmon v. Envirocare of Utah, Inc., 614 F.3d 1163, 1170 (10th Cir. 2010) (“Even if

Plaintiffs failed to state a claim arising directly from Envirocare’s regulatory obligations, Plaintiffs’ allegations

provided more than enough factual detail to support their contract-based claims.”); Sci. Applications Int’l Corp., 626

F.3d at 1269 (“Instead, we hold that to establish the existence of a ‘false or fraudulent’ claim on the basis of implied

certification of a contractual condition, the FCA plaintiff—here the government—must show that the contractor

withheld information about its noncompliance with material contractual requirements.”). At least one district court has

held that FCA liability may attach under the implied certification theory only when the contractual term the defendant

allegedly failed to comply with is “clear and unambiguous.” United States v. DRC, Inc., 856 F. Supp. 2d 159, 170

(D.D.C. 2012).

E.g., United States ex rel. Ebeid v. Lungwitz, 616 F.3d 993, 998 (9th Cir. 2010) (“Implied false certification occurs

when an entity has previously undertaken to expressly comply with a law, rule, or regulation, and that obligation is

implicated by submitting a claim for payment even though a certification of compliance is not required in the process

of submitting the claim.”); Ab-Tech, 31 Fed. Cl. at 432. But see Lemmon, 614 F.3d at 1170 (stating that implied false

certification claims “do not involve—let alone require—an explicit certification of regulatory compliance.”).

See 31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1)(A)-(G).

The First Circuit appears to recognize some form of the theory but rejects the categories of “express” and “implied”

certifications. United States ex rel. Hutcheson v. Blackstone Med., Inc., 647 F.3d 377, 385-88 (1st Cir. 2011).

United States ex rel. Mikes v. Straus, 274 F.3d 687, 699-700 (2d Cir. 2001); United States ex rel. Wilkins v. United

Health Group, Inc., 659 F.3d 295, 306 (3rd Cir. 2011); United States ex rel. Augustine v. Century Health Servs., Inc.,

289 F.3d 409, 415 (6th Cir. 2002); Ebeid, 616 F.3d at 998; Shaw v. AAA Engineering & Drafting, Inc., 213 F.3d 519,

533 (10th Cir. 2000); United States ex rel. McNutt v. Haleyville Med. Supplies, Inc., 423 F.3d 1256, 1259 (11th Cir.

2005); Sci. Applications Int’l Corp., 626 F.3d at 1266-67 (discussing the D.C. Circuit’s earlier acceptance of the theory

by implication). In an unpublished table decision, the Federal Circuit affirmed a Court of Federal Claims decision

recognizing the theory. See Ab-Tech Construction, Inc. v. United States, 31 Fed. Cl. 429 (1994), aff’d., 57 F.3d 1084

(Fed. Cir. 1995).

Wilkins, 659 F.3d 295 at 307 (“[S]ection 3729(a)(1), when compared with section 3729(a)(2), indicates that a

plaintiff can bring a claim under the FCA even without evidence that a claimant for Government funds made an express

false statement in order to obtain those funds.”); see also Shaw, 213 F.3d at 531-32. In these decisions, the courts

referred to the provisions of the FCA before Congress renumbered them in FERA. See 31 U.S.C. §3729(a) (2006).

To justify recognition of the implied false certification theory, courts often point to language in a Senate committee

report accompanying the 1986 amendments to the FCA. See, e.g., Wilkins, 659 F.3d at 306; Mikes, 274 F.3d at 699.

The committee report states that the act is “intended to reach all fraudulent attempts to cause the Government to pay out

sums of money or to deliver property or services,” and that a false claim “may take many forms, the most common

being a claim for goods or services not provided, or provided in violation of contract terms, specification, statute, or

regulation.” S.Rept. 99-345, at 9 (1986) (emphasis added).

E.g., United States v. Neifert-White Co., 390 U.S. 228, 232 (1968) (“This remedial statute reaches beyond ‘claims’

which might be legally enforced, to all fraudulent attempts to cause the Government to pay out sums of money.”). But

see United States v. McNinch, 356 U.S. 595, 599 (1958) (stating that the FCA “was not designed to reach every kind of

fraud practiced on the Government.”).

Congressional Research Service

Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Examples

Decisions by federal courts in FCA cases illustrate attempts to use the implied false certification

theory in civil lawsuits against contractors. It appears that the earliest use of the term “implied

certification” in an FCA decision occurs in the Court of Federal Claims’ 1994 opinion in Ab-Tech

Construction, Inc. v. United States.78 In this case, a subcontractor agreed to comply with the

eligibility requirements of the Small Business Administration’s (SBA’s) “8(a) Program” in order

to receive a contract from the agency.79 Federal regulations required Ab-Tech to obtain the SBA’s

approval prior to entering into “any management agreement, joint venture agreement or other

agreement relative to the performance of a section 8(a) subcontract.”80 The court held that by

submitting payment vouchers to the government without disclosing that it had entered into a

prohibited contractual arrangement with a non-minority owned business, Ab-Tech falsely and by

implication certified compliance with the eligibility regulations that were critical to the

government’s payment decision.81 This, the court held, resulted in a false claim under the FCA.82

The court reasoned that these claims were false in part because they “caused the Government to

pay out funds in the mistaken belief that it was furthering the aims of the 8(a) program.”83

Examples of recent implied false certification cases in the procurement context include cases in

which parties have alleged that a contractor submitted a claim for payment while failing to

comply with contractual provisions (express or implied);84 laws;85 or, most commonly,

requirements established by law and contract.86

Ab-Tech Construction, Inc. v. United States, 31 Fed. Cl. 429 (1994), aff’d., 57 F.3d 1084 (Fed. Cir. 1995)

(unpublished table decision).

Id. at 432. The 8(a) Program seeks to assist small businesses “unconditionally owned and controlled by one or more

socially and economically disadvantaged individuals who are of good character and citizens of and residing in the

United States” that demonstrate “potential for success.” 13 C.F.R. §124.101. For more on the program, see CRS Report

R40744, The “8(a) Program” for Small Businesses Owned and Controlled by the Socially and Economically

Disadvantaged: Legal Requirements and Issues, by (name redacted).

Ab-Tech, 31 Fed. Cl. at 432.

Id. at 433-34.

Id.

Id. at 434.

United States ex rel. Steury v. Cardinal Health, Inc., 735 F.3d 202, 206 (5th Cir. 2013) (implied warranty of

merchantibility); United States v. Sci. Applications Int’l Corp., 626 F.3d 1257, 1261 (D.C. Cir. 2010) (prohibition on

conflicts of interest); United States v. DRC, Inc., 856 F. Supp. 2d 159, 169-70 (D.D.C. 2012) (provision requiring

approval from government agency prior to subcontracting work); United States v. First Choice Armor & Equipment,

Inc., 808 F. Supp. 2d 68, 76 (D.D.C. 2011) (implied warranty requirements for body armor); United States v. Kellogg

Brown & Root Servs., Inc., 800 F. Supp. 2d 143, 156 (D.D.C. 2011) (contract provision allegedly prohibiting the

charging of expenses for private security); United States v. Honeywell Int’l Inc., 798 F. Supp. 2d 12, 20 (D.D.C. 2011)

(implied five-year warranty against defects for bulletproof vests).

United States ex rel. Kirk v. Schindler Elevator Corp., 601 F.3d 94, 98, 115 (2d Cir. 2010) (Vietnam Era Veterans

Readjustment Assistance Act, which “requires contractors doing business with federal government entities to submit

annual reports to the Secretary of Labor providing information about the number of veterans employed by the

contractor”); United States ex rel. Siewick v. Jamieson Sci. and Engineering, 214 F.3d 1372, 1374 (D.C. Cir. 2000)

(criminal statute “aimed at ‘revolving door’ abuses by former government employees”); United States ex rel. Dyer v.

Raytheon Co., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 135691, *1 (D. Ma. Sept. 23, 2013) (provisions of the Federal Acquisition

Regulation (FAR) governing reimbursement for incentive compensation).

United States ex rel. Lemmon v. Envirocare of Utah, Inc., 614 F.3d 1163, 1166 (10th Cir. 2010) (contractual

provisions requiring adherence to regulatory requirements regarding waste disposal); Shaw v. AAA Engineering &

Drafting, Inc., 213 F.3d 519, 527 & n.7 (10th Cir. 2000) (contractual and legal requirements regarding silver recovery

and disposal of fixer); United States ex rel. McLain v. Fluor Enters., Inc., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 161142, *5, 14 (E.D.

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Congressional Research Service

Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Limitations on the Theory

Some courts that recognize the implied false certification theory have limited its reach. For

example, several federal courts of appeals require that the defendant’s compliance with the law or

contractual provision it has allegedly violated be a precondition of payment by the government.87

Some of these courts have stated that the FCA is not an “enforcement device” for “minor”

violations of law or breaches of contract.88 In addition, at least one commentator has noted that

such a requirement makes the contractor aware of which violations of law or contract may result

in FCA liability, allowing contractors to focus their resources on monitoring for compliance with

these requirements.89 Other courts that recognize the implied certification theory do not mandate

that compliance be an express precondition of payment, requiring only that the law or contractual

provision be material to the government’s decision to pay the claim.90 One commentator has

(...continued)

La. Nov. 12, 2013) (contract requiring compliance with state and local regulations “governing handling and installation

of liquefied petroleum tanks”); United States ex rel. Thomas v. Black & Veatch Special Projects Corp., 2013 U.S. Dist.

LEXIS 104826, *2-3 (D. Kan. July 26, 2013) (contractual provision requiring compliance with Afghan law when

obtaining work permits for employees); United States ex rel. Winkler v. BAE Systems, Inc., 957 F. Supp. 2d 856, 868

(E.D. Mich. 2013) (minimum performance standards for brakes for military vehicles); United State ex rel. Head v. The

Kane Company, 798 F. Supp. 2d 186, 199 (D.D.C. 2011) (contract terms that required compliance with the Service

Contract Act’s minimum wage requirements); United States ex rel. Chabot v. MLU Servs., Inc., 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS

38045, *5-6 (M.D. Fla. April 18, 2010) (contractual provision requiring compliance with state and local licensing

requirements for construction activity); United States ex rel. Compton v. Circle B Enters., Inc., 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS

22749, *20 (M.D. Ga. March 11, 2010) (contractual provision and the Anti-Kickback Act); United States ex rel. Smith

v. Boeing, 505 F. Supp. 2d 974, 979-80 (D. Kan. 2007) (contract specifications, statutes, rules, and other requirements

for aircraft parts); United States ex rel. Holder v. Special Devices, Inc., 296 F. Supp. 2d 1167, 1169 (C.D. Ca. 2003)

(contractual requirements mandating compliance with environmental and health and safety regulations).

E.g., United States ex rel. Wilkins v. United Health Group, 659 F.3d 295, 309 (3d Cir. 2011) (“[T]o plead a claim

upon which relief could be granted under a false certification theory, either express or implied, a plaintiff must show

that compliance with the regulation which the defendant allegedly violated was a condition of payment from the

Government.”); Chesbrough v. VPA, P.C., 655 F.3d 461, 468 (6th Cir. 2011) (“[I]t is not the violation of a regulation

itself that creates a cause of action under the FCA. Rather, noncompliance constitutes actionable fraud only when

compliance is a prerequisite to obtaining payment.”); Kirk, 601 F.3d at 114 (stating that “[a]n implied false certification

takes place where a statute expressly conditions payment on compliance with a given statute or regulation, and the

contractor, while failing to comply with the statute or regulation (and while knowing that compliance is required),

submits a claim for payment.”); United States ex rel. Steury v. Cardinal Health, Inc., 625 F.3d 262, 269 (5th Cir. 2010)

(holding, without adopting the implied certification theory, that “a false certification of compliance, without more, does

not give rise to a false claim for payment unless payment is conditioned on compliance” in statutes, regulations, or

contracts); United States ex rel. Conner v. Salina Reg’l Health Ctr., 543 F.3d 1211, 1218 (10th Cir. 2008) (stating that

courts examine whether “the underlying contracts, statutes, or regulations themselves ... make compliance a

prerequisite to the government’s payment.”); United States ex rel. Mikes v. Straus, 274 F.3d 687, 700 (2d Cir. 2001)

(“[I]mplied false certification is appropriately applied only when the underlying statute or regulation upon which the

plaintiff relies expressly states the provider must comply in order to be paid.”) (citation omitted) (emphasis retained).

E.g., United States ex rel. Steury v. Cardinal Health, Inc., 735 F.3d 202, 205-06 (5th Cir. 2013) (quoting United States

ex rel. Thompson v. Columbia/HCA Healthcare Corp., 125 F.3d 899, 902 (5th Cir. 1997)); Mikes, 274 F.3d at 697

(stating that the FCA “does not encompass those instances of regulatory noncompliance that are irrelevant to the

government’s disbursement decisions.”). A district court found support for the express-condition-of-payment

requirement in the general tort principle that “a plaintiff making a tort claim based on a statutory violation must have

suffered an injury of the type the statute was designed to prevent.” KBR, 800 F. Supp. 2d at 156 (citation omitted)

(emphasis retained).

Christopher L. Martin, Jr., Reining in Lincoln’s Law: A Call to Limit the Implied Certification Theory of Liability

Under the False Claims Act, 101 Cal. L. Rev. 227, 263, 266 (2013) (“The express condition-of-payment requirement

provides fair notice by giving contractors ex ante warning of the contract breaches and statutory and regulatory

violations that could give rise to False Claims Act liability.”).

E.g., United States v. Sci. Applications Int’l Corp., 626 F.3d 1257, 1269 (D.C. Cir. 2010) (“[T]o establish the

existence of a ‘false or fraudulent’ claim on the basis of implied certification of a contractual condition, the FCA

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Congressional Research Service

Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

criticized this rule as failing to provide contractors with notice of which requirements they must

comply with in order to avoid liability.91

Courts have also imposed limits on defendants’ liability for implied false certifications of

compliance—at least with contractual provisions—by reference to the FCA’s knowledge (or

“scienter”) requirement.92 For example, in the D.C. Circuit, the United States or relators must

show that a defendant knows “(1) that it violated a contractual obligation, and (2) that its

compliance with that obligation was material to the government’s decision to pay.”93 However,

when the government pays a claim while possessing knowledge that a contractor has violated a

law, regulation, or contractual provision, this may negate the contractor’s intent to make a false

claim or statement, at least when the government has directed the contractor’s participation in, or

consented to, the violation.94 In addition, some courts have found that a contractor may lack the

requisite knowledge when it has made a plausible but erroneous interpretation of the contract

“absent some specific evidence of knowledge that the claim is false or of intent to deceive,” at

least when the interpretation is not unreasonable.95

(...continued)

plaintiff ... must show that the contractor withheld information about its noncompliance with material contractual

requirements. The existence of express contractual language specifically linking compliance to eligibility for payment

may well constitute dispositive evidence of materiality, but it is not ... a necessary condition. The plaintiff may

establish materiality in other ways, such as through testimony demonstrating that both parties to the contract

understood that payment was conditional on compliance with the requirement at issue.”). The D.C. Circuit

acknowledged that this could potentially allow minor contractual violations to become the basis of an FCA claim but

wrote that courts should use the act’s materiality and scienter requirements to avoid this result. Id. at 1270; see also AbTech Construction, Inc. v. United States, 31 Fed. Cl. 429, 433-34 (1994) (“The withholding of such information—

information critical to the decision to pay—is the essence of a false claim.”), aff’d, 57 F.3d 1084 (Fed. Cir. 1995)

(unpublished table decision).

The First Circuit, which does not recognize the implied false certification theory by name, does not require that a claim

“fail to comply with a precondition of payment expressly stated in a statute or regulation” in order for it to be false or

fraudulent because the text of the FCA does not contain such a requirement. United States ex rel. Hutcheson v.

Blackstone Med., Inc., 647 F.3d 377, 379 (1st Cir. 2011).

Christopher L. Martin, Jr., Reining in Lincoln’s Law: A Call to Limit the Implied Certification Theory of Liability

Under the False Claims Act, 101 Cal. L. Rev. 227, 258 (2013) (stating that this rule “draws the obligation to disclose

broadly, because contractors bear the risk that a court might later deem undisclosed violations material.”).

United States ex rel. Jones v. Brigham and Women’s Hosp., 678 F.3d 72, 85 (1st Cir. 2012); Sci. Applications Int’l

Corp., 626 F.3d at 1270-73.

Id. at 1271. Similarly, the Sixth Circuit has held that “when FCA liability is premised on an implied certification of

compliance with a contract, the FCA nonetheless requires that the contractor knew, or recklessly disregarded a risk, that

its implied certification of compliance was false.” United States ex rel. Augustine v. Century Health Servs., Inc., 289

F.3d 409, 416 (6th Cir. 2002) (quoting Shaw v. AAA Engineering & Drafting, Inc., 213 F.3d 519, 533 (10th Cir. 2000)).

See, e.g., United States ex rel. Butler v. Hughes Helicopters, Inc., 71 F.3d 321, 327 (9th Cir. 1995) (“[I]f the district

court correctly found that the only reasonable conclusion a jury could draw from the evidence was that MDHC and the

Army had so completely cooperated and shared all information during the testing that MDHC did not ‘knowingly’

submit false claims, then we must affirm the directed verdict. We examine the individual statements below to

determine whether, if they are arguably false, the government’s knowledge of their deficiencies negates MDHC’s

intent.”); United States ex rel. Hagood v. Sonoma County Water Agency, 929 F.2d 1416, 1421 (9th Cir. 1991) (“[T]he

knowledge possessed by officials of the United States may be highly relevant. Such knowledge may show that the

defendant did not submit its claim in deliberate ignorance or reckless disregard of the truth.”); Ulysses, Inc. v. United

States, 110 Fed. Cl. 618, 647 (2013). But see Shaw, 213 F.3d at 535 (holding that the “government’s alleged knowledge

of Defendants’ actions therefore does not, as a matter of law, negate the evidence of Defendants’ intent to submit a

false record in support of a claim.”).

E.g., Commercial Contractors, Inc. v. United States, 154 F.3d 1357, 1366 (Fed. Cir. 1998); United States v.

Southland Mgmt. Corp., 326 F.3d 669, 684 (5th Cir. 2003) (“Where there are legitimate grounds for disagreement over

the scope of a contractual or regulatory provision, and the claimant’s actions are in good faith, the claimant cannot be

(continued...)

Congressional Research Service

Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Because a cause of action under the FCA alleges fraud, some courts have held that Federal Rule

of Civil Procedure 9(b) requires the government or relator to plead the elements of such actions

with sufficient particularity in order to avoid having the actions dismissed by a court for failure to

state a claim for relief.96 This requirement is intended to give the defendant fair notice of the fraud

it allegedly committed so that the defendant may prepare a response to the claims; narrow the

scope of discovery; and protect defendants from harm to their reputations from fraud

allegations.97

Fraud in the Inducement Theory

In contrast to the implied false certification theory, which holds that a claim for payment under a

government contract becomes false because of a contractor’s conduct during contract

performance, the fraud in the inducement or “promissory fraud”98 theory holds that a claim for

payment becomes false because of fraudulent conduct by the contractor (or other party) prior to

contract formation that induced the government to enter into the contract.99 These cases often

involve conduct by contractors during the bidding or negotiation process such as collusive

bidding; bid-rigging; contracts obtained based on false information, fraudulent pricing, or inflated

cost estimates;100 or false representations about the ability to perform.101 Federal courts of appeals

(...continued)

said to have knowingly presented a false claim.”) (citation omitted).

Chesbrough v. VPA, P.C., 655 F.3d 461, 472 (6th Cir. 2011) (“The Chesbroughs have no personal knowledge that

claims for nondiagnostic tests were presented to the government, nor do they allege facts that strongly support an

inference that such billings were submitted. We therefore conclude that the Chesbroughs’ complaint fails to satisfy

Rule 9(b)”). The Fifth Circuit has stated that Rule 9(b) requires a plaintiff to provide the “who, what, when, where, and

how of the alleged fraud.” United States ex rel. Steury v. Cardinal Health, Inc., 735 F.3d 202, 204 (5th Cir. 2013)

(citation omitted). For implied false certification claims, the Fifth Circuit has stated that a plaintiff must specifically

establish that the government has conditioned payment on a certification of compliance. Id. at 207. According to the

Tenth Circuit, “claims under the FCA need only show the specifics of a fraudulent scheme and provide an adequate

basis for a reasonable inference that false claims were submitted as part of that scheme.” United States ex rel. Lemmon

v. Envirocare of Utah, Inc., 614 F.3d 1163, 1172 (10th Cir. 2010) (citations omitted). See generally Fed. R. Civ. P. 9(b)

(“In alleging fraud or mistake, a party must state with particularity the circumstances constituting fraud or mistake.

Malice, intent, knowledge, and other conditions of a person’s mind may be alleged generally.”).

Chesbrough, 655 F.3d at 466.

See, e.g., United States ex rel. Hendow v. Univ. of Phoenix, 461 F.3d 1166, 1173 (9th Cir. 2006).

E.g., In re Baycol Products Litig., 732 F.3d 869, 871, 876 (8th Cir. 2013) (“Thus, when a relator alleges liability

under a theory of fraud-in-the inducement, claims for payment subsequently submitted under a contract initially

induced by fraud do not have to be false or fraudulent in and of themselves in order to state a cause of action under the

FCA.”); United States ex rel. Harrison v. Westinghouse Savannah River Co., 176 F.3d 776, 788 (4th Cir. 1999)

(“Contrary to the district court’s decision, in many of the [fraud in the inducement] cases cited above the claims that

were submitted were not in and of themselves false.... False Claims Act liability attached, however, because of the

fraud surrounding the efforts to obtain the contract or benefit status, or the payments thereunder.”); see also United

States v. Veneziale, 268 F.2d 504, 505-06 (3rd Cir. 1959).

100

The Truth in Negotiations Act (TINA) generally requires offerors and contractors to submit certified “cost or pricing

data” to the government prior to award or modification of negotiated government contracts or subcontracts that exceed

$700,000 in value, with exceptions for contracts awarded with “adequate price competition,” among other things. 10

U.S.C. §2306a; 41 U.S.C. §§3501-3509; 48 C.F.R. §§15.403-1(a)-(b), 15.403-4; see also id. §2.101 (defining “cost or

pricing data”). TINA provides for a potential reduction in the price of the contract to the extent that inaccurate,

incomplete, or noncurrent cost or pricing data submitted to the government increased the price. 10 U.S.C. §2306a(e);

41 U.S.C. §3506. Non-compliance with TINA may serve as a basis for an FCA suit against a contractor. See

Department of Justice, Press Release, CyTerra Corporation Agrees to Pay $1.9 Million to Resolve False Claims Act

Allegations (July 2, 2013), http://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/2013/July/13-civ-751.html.

101

Harrison, 176 F.3d at 787-88.

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that recognize the fraud in the inducement theory of falsity include the Fourth, Fifth, Seventh,

Eighth, and Ninth circuits.102

Courts’ recognition of the theory may stem in part from concerns that the government will

ultimately pay higher prices for goods and services under fraudulently induced contracts.103 For

example, many courts adopting the theory have invoked the Supreme Court’s decision in United

States ex rel. Marcus v. Hess.104 In that case, electrical contractors colluded to remove competition

from the bidding process while certifying that their bids were genuine and not collusive.105 The

Court wrote that

By their conduct, the respondents thus caused the government to pay claims of the local

sponsors in order that they might in turn pay respondents under contracts found to have been

executed as the result of the fraudulent bidding. This fraud did not spend itself with the

execution of the contract. Its taint entered into every swollen estimate which was the basic

cause for payment of every dollar paid by the [government].... The initial fraudulent action

and every step thereafter taken pressed ever to the ultimate goal—payment of government

money to persons who had caused it to be defrauded.106

Courts also find support for the theory in a Senate committee report accompanying the 1986

amendments to the FCA.107 In this report, the committee wrote that “each and every claim

submitted under a contract, loan guarantee, or other agreement which was originally obtained by

means of false statements or other corrupt or fraudulent conduct, or in violation of any statute or

applicable regulation, constitutes a false claim.”108

Allegations of Fraud in the Inducement by Underbidding

A special case of potential fraud in the inducement occurs when a contractor underbids the

contract while intending to later seek an increase in the contract price. The Ninth Circuit has held

that FCA liability may attach to a contractor’s false initial cost estimates under a fraud in the

inducement theory.109 In United States ex rel. Hooper v. Lockheed Martin Corp., the relator

alleged that Lockheed Martin knowingly underestimated its costs in order to win a costreimbursement contract110 for services related to modernizing hardware and software used for

102

Id. at 788; United States ex rel. Laird v. Lockheed Martin Engineering & Sci. Servs. Co., 491 F.3d 254, 259 (5th Cir.

2007); United States ex rel. Main v. Oakland City Univ., 426 F.3d 914, 916-17 (7th Cir. 2005); Baycol, 732 F.3d at 871,

876; Hooper v. Lockheed Martin Corp., 688 F.3d 1037, 1048-49 (9th Cir. 2012).

103

See, e.g., United States ex rel. Marcus v. Hess, 317 U.S. 537, 542-44 (1943), superseded by statute on other

grounds, P.L. 78-213, 57 Stat. 608, 609 (1943).

104

United States ex rel. Marcus v. Hess, 317 U.S. 537 (1943), superseded by statute on other grounds, P.L. 78-213, 57

Stat. 608, 609 (1943).

105

Id. at 539, 543; see also Murray & Sorenson, Inc., v. United States, 207 F.2d 119, 124 (1st Cir. 1953) (“[I]n this case

there was an implied false representation that the bids were at a figure which the corporate defendant would have

submitted in competition instead of at a somewhat higher figure suggested by the contractor’s purchasing agent.”).

106

Marcus, 317 U.S. at 543-44.

107

S.Rept. 99-345, at 9 (1986).

108

Id.

109

United States ex rel. Hooper v. Lockheed Martin Corp., 688 F.3d 1037, 1049 (9th Cir. 2012).

110

“Cost-reimbursement types of contracts provide for payment of allowable incurred costs, to the extent prescribed in

the contract. These contracts establish an estimate of total cost for the purpose of obligating funds and establishing a

ceiling that the contractor may not exceed (except at its own risk) without the approval of the contracting officer.” 48

C.F.R. §16.301-1.

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space launch operations.111 At the time the Air Force awarded the contract to Lockheed, it knew

of the risk that costs would grow.112 Indeed, although Lockheed bid $432 million on the contract,

the Air Force ultimately paid the company more than $900 million.113 Lockheed argued that it

could not be held liable for making false initial cost estimates, even though Lockheed’s

management had allegedly told employees to lower their cost estimates without a sound basis,

because these estimates amounted to statements of opinion rather than fact.114 The Ninth Circuit

disagreed, holding that FCA liability may attach to false estimates, including “fraudulent

underbidding in which the bid is not what the defendant actually intends to charge” when the

other elements for FCA liability are satisfied.115

A few court decisions provide further insight into this theory of fraud in the inducement.

Although submission of inflated bids by contractors may cause the government to spend more

money than it would have in a fair and open marketplace,116 some courts have recognized that

underbidding may result in higher costs for the government only if the contractor seeks price

adjustments above the bid price.117 Thus, one district court has held that an intentionally

undervalued bid may not render claims for payment under a fixed-price contract false under an

inducement theory unless the contractor subsequently seeks adjustments beyond the bid price to

which it is not entitled.118 This holding acknowledges that contractors may “buy-in,” or

deliberately offer below-cost prices to get an award, hoping that it will lead to future work with a

government agency.119 In addition, a contractor might request a price adjustment under a contract

for various reasons other than to defraud the government, including that the government has

added work to the contract during performance because of changed needs or unforeseen

circumstances.120

Other Examples

Decisions by federal courts in FCA cases illustrate the use of the fraud in the inducement theory

in civil lawsuits against contractors. These cases involve allegations that a contractor has

submitted a claim for payment after inducing the government to enter into the contract by

underbidding the contract,121 engaging in bid rigging,122 or participating in collusive bidding.123 In

111

Hooper, 688 F.3d at 1041-42, 1047.

Id. at 1042.

113

Id.

114

Id. at 1042, 1047.

115

Id. at 1049. However, the court held that a genuine issue of material fact existed regarding whether Lockheed acted

with the requisite mental state when it bid on the contract. Id. at 1049-50.

116

Shupe v. Cisco Systems, Inc., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 162513, *30-31 (S.D. Tex. May 13, 2013) (emphasis added).

117

United States ex rel. Bettis v. Odebrecht Contractors of California, Inc., 297 F. Supp. 2d 272, 279-83 (D.D.C. 2004).

118

Id. Similarly, the Fifth Circuit has stated that underbidding may not result in a false claim under the fraud in the

inducement theory unless the underbid is linked to “a request for payment that the contractor would not have been

entitled to absent the contract.” United States ex rel. Laird v. Lockheed Martin Engineering & Sci. Servs. Co., 491 F.3d

254, 260 (5th Cir. 2007).

119

See, e.g., Norden Sys., Inc., B-227106.9 (Aug. 11, 1988).

120

Laird, 491 F.3d at 260-61; Bettis, 297 F. Supp. 2d at 281-83.

121

E.g., Hooper v. Lockheed Martin Corp., 688 F.3d 1037, 1041, 1047 (9th Cir. 2012) (contracts for software and

hardware used to support space launch operations allegedly induced by false cost estimates that underbid the contract);

Laird, 491 F.3d at 259 (research contract allegedly induced by underbidding); United States ex rel. Bettis v. Odebrecht

Contractors of California, Inc., 393 F.3d 1321, 1323 (D.C. Cir. 2005) (public works construction contract allegedly

induced by submission of an undervalued bid and other false representations); United States ex rel. Long v. GSD&M

(continued...)

112

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addition, parties have alleged that inducement occurred as a result of false representations made

by the contractor about the characteristics of a product, such as its effectiveness and safety;124

performance of the contract;125 record of business ethics or lack of conflicts of interest;126

compliance with the preconditions of contract award;127 compliance with labor laws and

regulations;128 financial health;129 and discounts offered to commercial customers.130

(...continued)

Idea City LLC, 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 8002, *20 (N.D. Tex. Jan. 18, 2013) (contract allegedly induced by false

overhead costs and profit numbers).

122

E.g., Shupe v. Cisco Systems, Inc., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 162513, *3, *29-30 (S.D. Tex. May 13, 2013) (contract

for equipment and services for communications networks allegedly induced by bid rigging that thwarted free

competition); United States v. CFW Construction Co., Inc., 649 F. Supp. 616, 618 (D.S.C. 1986) (alleged bid rigging

“on two federally funded wastewater treatment projects”).

123

E.g., United States ex rel. Becker v. Tools & Metals, Inc., 2009 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 27507, *20-21 (N.D. Tex. March

31, 2009) (alleged collusive bidding scheme involving submission of inflated prices to the government by the

contractor, who had received the inflated prices from a subcontractor).

124

E.g., In re Baycol Products Litig., 732 F.3d 869, 871, 873 (8th Cir. 2013) (contracts for the purchase of a cholesterollowering drug allegedly induced by false statements about the effectiveness and safety of the drug); United States v.

Bollinger Shipyards, Inc., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 150822, *3-4, 19-20 (E.D. La. Oct. 21, 2013) (acceptance of delivery

and payment allegedly induced by false measurements of boats); United States ex rel. McArtor v. Rolls-Royce Corp.,

2012 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 189752, *3-5 (S.D. Ind. June 4, 2012) (contract for purchase of aircraft engines and parts

allegedly induced by misrepresentation that contractor would comply with quality assurance procedures); United States

v. Toyobo Co. Ltd., 811 F. Supp. 2d 37, 42 (D.D.C. 2011) (contract with body armor manufacturers allegedly induced

by fiber manufacturer’s misrepresentations about deterioration of fiber used in body armor); United States v.

Honeywell Int’l Inc., 798 F. Supp. 2d 12, 22 (D.D.C. 2011) (contract with body armor manufacturer allegedly induced

by manufacturer of component of body armor’s misrepresentations about component’s tensile strength).

125

E.g., United States ex rel. DRC, Inc. v. Custer Battles, LLC, 562 F.3d 295, 308-09 (4th Cir. 2009) (contract for

airport security allegedly induced by false promises of certain staffing levels); United States ex rel. Wilson v. Kellogg

Brown & Root Servs., Inc., 525 F.3d 370, 375 (4th Cir. 2008) (Army task order allegedly induced by contractor’s

misrepresentation that it would comply with vehicle maintenance requirements); United States ex rel. Harrison v.

Westinghouse Savannah River Co., 176 F.3d 776, 780 (4th Cir. 1999) (approval of subcontract allegedly induced by

misrepresentations concerning cost, duration, and lack of conflicts of interest); United States ex rel. Berg v. Honeywell

Int’l, Inc., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 89197, *8-9 (D. Alaska June 24, 2013) (energy savings performance contract

allegedly induced by knowingly false calculation and guarantee of energy cost savings, among other things).

126

E.g., Harrison, 176 F.3d at 780 (subcontract allegedly induced by misrepresenting cost, duration, and lack of

conflicts of interest); United States ex rel. Alexander v. Dyncorp, Inc., 924 F. Supp. 292, 298 (D.D.C. 1996) (contract

allegedly induced by misrepresentations about the contractor’s record of business ethics and availability of “key

personnel” to perform the work).

127

E.g., United States ex rel. SNAPP, Inc. v. Ford Motor Co., 532 F.3d 496, 499 (6th Cir. 2008) (contract allegedly

induced by misrepresentations that contractor complied with requirements governing subcontracting with small and

minority-owned businesses).

128

E.g., United States ex rel. Green v. Serv. Contract Educ. and Training Trust Fund, 843 F. Supp. 2d 20, 25, 26-27

(D.D.C. 2012) (contract allegedly induced by misrepresentations that fringe benefits provided to the contractor’s

employees complied with the Service Contract Act and related Department of Labor regulations); United States ex rel.

Head v. The Kane Company, 798 F. Supp. 2d 186, 190-91, 197 (D.D.C. 2011) (contract for moving and other services

allegedly induced by misrepresentations that, among other things, contractor would pay wages in accordance with the

Service Contract Act); Herndon v. Sci. Applications Int’l Corp., 2007 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 50194, *1 (S.D. Cal. July 10,

2007) (contracts allegedly induced by contractor’s misrepresentation in contract negotiations that it would comply with

age discrimination laws).

129

E.g., United States ex rel. Sanchez v. Abuabara, 2012 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 10079, *2, 21 (S.D. Fla. Jan. 27, 2012)

(contract for “communication infrastructure solutions” allegedly induced by “false financial statements making an

insolvent company appear financially viable”).

130

E.g., United States ex rel. Frascella v. Oracle Corp., 751 F. Supp. 2d 842, 844-46 (E.D. Va. 2010) (contract to

provide software products allegedly induced by contractor’s false representations about the discounts it provided to

commercial customers, among other things).

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Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

Limitations on the Theory

As with the implied certification theory, some courts have limited plaintiffs’ use of the fraud in

the inducement theory. A couple of courts in the Fourth Circuit have imposed limitations that

appear to be intended to prevent ordinary breaches of contract from becoming FCA violations.131

For example, at least one court has held that a plaintiff must allege that the contractor made a

false statement in an invoice or claim for payment (rather than merely during the course of

bidding or negotiations) for allegations to rise above breach of contract.132 In the Fourth Circuit, a

statement may not be false under the FCA if the plaintiff simply alleges neglect of contractual

duties or if contract terms are ambiguous and admit of various interpretations.133

Courts have also required that a false record or statement that allegedly induced the contract be

material to the government’s decision to pay the claim.134 This may require a causal connection

between the alleged false records or statements and the submission or payment of a claim.135

Allegations that payment of a kickback has tainted a contract in the absence of a showing that this

conduct increased the contract price may be insufficient to state a claim under the FCA.136

Courts have also required that the defendant knowingly took the action that allegedly induced the

contract.137 At least one court has inferred the requisite intent when “substantial nonperformance”

of contractual duties occurs promptly after contract formation.138 For liability to attach to a

131

E.g., United States ex rel. McLain v. KBR, Inc., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 27061, *15-17 (E.D. Va. Feb. 27, 2013).

Id. (“[A]ny fraudulent inducement action under the FCA must allege a submitted claim or invoice that contains a

false statement. Without any reference to claims or payments, the allegations here comprise merely a breach of contract

claim.”) (citation omitted).

133

United States ex rel. Wilson v. Kellogg Brown & Root Servs., Inc., 525 F.3d 370, 376-78 (4th Cir. 2008) (“To hold

otherwise would render meaningless the fundamental distinction between actions for fraud and breach of contract.”)

(citations omitted).

134

United States ex rel. Longhi v. Lithium Power Techs., Inc., 575 F.3d 458, 467-69 (5th Cir. 2009); United States ex

rel. Hendow v. Univ. of Phoenix, 461 F.3d 1166, 1174 (9th Cir. 2006) (“[A]s with the false certification theory, the

promissory fraud theory requires that the underlying fraud be material to the government’s decision to pay out moneys

to the claimant.”); United States ex rel. Harrison v. Westinghouse Savannah River Co., 176 F.3d 776, 785 (4th Cir.

1999) (“Liability under each of the provisions of the False Claims Act is subject to the further, judicially-imposed,

requirement that the false statement or claim be material.”).

135

McLain, 2013 U.S. Dist. at *22 (“Relator fails to allege any causal connection or link between the compliance logs

and either submission or payment of a claim. If these logs are not seen by anyone who makes or processes a claim for

payment, then the logs cannot influence any action.”).

136

See Kellogg Brown & Root Servs., Inc. v. United States, 99 Fed. Cl. 488, 513 (2011) (“Defendant must allege facts

showing that the costs actually inflated the contract price. The facts alleged are too attenuated to show that a false claim

was submitted ...”); see also Kellogg Brown & Root Servs., Inc. v. United States, 728 F.3d 1348, 1367 n.20 (Fed. Cir.

2013). The Anti-Kickback Act of 1946, as amended, generally imposes civil and criminal penalties on contractors who

offer, solicit, accept, or include in the price they charge the government, payments made to “improperly obtain or

reward favorable treatment in connection with a prime contract or a subcontract relating to a prime contract.” 41 U.S.C.

§§8701(2), 8702, 8705, 8706, 8707; 48 C.F.R. §3.502-1 to -3.

137

Hooper v. Lockheed Martin Corp., 688 F.3d 1037, 1041, 1050 (9th Cir. 2012) (“Because there is a genuine issue as

to whether Lockheed had actual knowledge, deliberately ignored the truth, or acted in reckless disregard of the truth

when it submitted its allegedly false bid for the [contract], we reverse and remand to the district court.”); Hendow, 461

F.3d at 1174 (“In short, therefore, under a promissory fraud theory, relator must allege a false or fraudulent course of

conduct, made with scienter.”).

138

United States ex rel. Willard v. Humana Health Plan of Texas, Inc., 336 F.3d 375, 386 (5th Cir. 2003) (“It would be

illogical to find fraud where a party secretly did not intend to perform the contract when it was signed, but in actuality

did perform, as the civil law generally regulates actions, not thoughts alone.”).

132

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promise that allegedly induced a contract, the “promise must be false when made.”139 In limited

circumstances, government knowledge of a contractor’s inaccurate statements prior to the

government’s payment of a contractor’s claim may lead a court to find that the contractor did not

knowingly induce a contract by fraud under the FCA.140 In addition, some courts have found that

a contractor may lack the requisite knowledge when it has made a plausible but erroneous

interpretation of the contract “absent some specific evidence of knowledge that the claim is false

or of intent to deceive,” at least when the interpretation is not unreasonable.141

Finally, several courts have required plaintiffs pleading falsity under the fraud in the inducement

theory to comply with Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 9(b).142 Generally, this means that the

plaintiff must set forth the circumstances surrounding the alleged inducement with particularity.143

At least one court has held that a plaintiff may not plead fraud in the inducement based on a

contractor’s failure to disclose information unless the plaintiff alleges that a law or other source

explicitly requires disclosure.144

Calculating Treble Damages

In addition to disagreeing about the proper scope of liability under the FCA, courts of appeals

have different views about the proper method for calculating treble damages under the act when

the defendant (e.g., a contractor) has provided some value to the government.145 The FCA states

that, in addition to a civil penalty, a “person” violating the FCA is liable for “[three] times the

amount of damages which the Government sustains because of the act of that person.”146 The act

does not specify how courts should calculate this amount.147 Federal courts of appeals have

139

See, e.g., United States ex rel. Main v. Oakland City Univ., 426 F.3d 914, 917 (7th Cir. 2005) (“[F]ailure to honor

one’s promise is (just) breach of contract, but making a promise that one intends not to keep is fraud.”) (citations

omitted); Willard, 336 F.3d at 384 (“Entering into a contract with no intention of performing may constitute fraud in

the inducement.”); Hendow, 461 F.3d at 1174 (quoting United States ex rel. Hopper v. Anton, 91 F.3d 1261, 1267 (9th

Cir. 1996)).

140

E.g., United States ex rel. Hagood v. Sonoma County Water Agency, 929 F.2d 1416, 1421 (9th Cir. 1991) (“[T]he

knowledge possessed by officials of the United States may be highly relevant. Such knowledge may show that the

defendant did not submit its claim in deliberate ignorance or reckless disregard of the truth.”); United States v.

Bollinger Shipyards, Inc., 2013 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 150822, *30 (E.D. La. Oct. 21, 2013) (“These circumstances suggest

that the government knew that the reported section modulus might be incorrect and was willing to pay anyway. There

can be no FCA liability in such circumstances”); United States ex rel. Berg v. Honeywell Int’l, Inc., 2013 U.S. Dist.

LEXIS 89197, *15 (D. Alaska June 24, 2013).

141

E.g., Commercial Contractors, Inc. v. United States, 154 F.3d 1357, 1366 (Fed. Cir. 1998); United States v.

Southland Mgmt. Corp., 326 F.3d 669, 684 (5th Cir. 2003) (“Where there are legitimate grounds for disagreement over

the scope of a contractual or regulatory provision, and the claimant’s actions are in good faith, the claimant cannot be

said to have knowingly presented a false claim.”) (citation omitted).

142

E.g., In re Baycol Products Litig., 732 F.3d 869, 876-77 (8th Cir. 2013); Willard, 336 F.3d at 384-85; United States

ex rel. Harrison v. Westinghouse Savannah River Co., 176 F.3d 776, 789 (4th Cir. 1999); United States ex rel. Sanchez

v. Abuabara, 2012 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 10079, *22-32 (S.D. Fla. Jan. 27, 2012).

143

Baycol, 732 F.3d at 871, 876-77; Willard, 336 F.3d at 384-85; Harrison, 176 F.3d at 790-91; Abuabara, 2012 U.S.

Dist. LEXIS at *23-24.

144

United States ex rel. Wilkins v. N. Am. Constr. Corp., 173 F. Supp. 2d 601, 632 (S.D. Tex. 2001).

145

E.g., United States v. Anchor Mortg. Corp., 711 F.3d 745, 748-50 (7th Cir. 2013) (adopting the “net trebling”

approach); United States v. Eghbal, 548 F.3d 1281, 1285 (9th Cir. 2008) (expressing support for the “gross trebling”

approach).

146

31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1).

147

See id.

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developed two methods of calculating treble damages in this situation that may result in

significant differences in damages.148 The Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals has referred to these

methods as the “net trebling” and “gross trebling” approaches.149

A decision by the Seventh Circuit illustrates the differences in these two approaches. In United

States v. Anchor Mortgage Corp., the district court found that a company and its chief executive

officer had knowingly provided false information when applying for federal guarantees of home

mortgage loans.150 In calculating damages, the district court applied the “gross trebling”

approach.151 It trebled the damages that the government had suffered from paying lenders under

the guarantees on the defaulted loans and then deducted the amounts the government recovered

from selling the properties that secured the loans.152 On appeal, the Seventh Circuit reversed the

district court’s damages award and held that the district court should have employed the “net

trebling” approach.153 Under this method, the district court should have subtracted the amount

that the government realized from sale of the collateral properties from the amount the

government paid to lenders under the loan guarantees before trebling the damages.154

Table 1. Judicial Approaches to Calculating Treble Damages Under the Civil FCA

Gross Trebling

(Government’s damages x 3) - (Value retained by government) = Treble damages

Example: ($131,643.05 x 3) - $68,200.00 = $326,729.15

Net Trebling

(Government’s damages - Value retained by government) x 3 = Treble damages

Example: ($131,643.05 - $68,200.00) x 3 = $190,329.15

Difference in treble damages under the net trebling approach: In this example, the net trebling approach

resulted in damages that were about 42% lower than under the gross trebling approach.

Source: United States v. Anchor Mortgage Corp., 711 F.3d 745 (7th Cir. 2013).

The Seventh Circuit sought to justify use of the “net trebling” approach by arguing that

calculating damages using net loss is the “norm” in common law contract cases.155 Courts in these

cases have often measured damages using the difference between the market price and contract

price.156 Thus far, most courts of appeals that have considered the issue favor the “net trebling”

approach.157

148

See Anchor Mortgage Corp., 711 F.3d at 748-750.

Id.

150

United States v. Anchor Mortgage Corp., 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 81298, *14-33 (N.D. Ill. Aug. 11, 2010).

151

Id. at *34-35.

152

Id.; see also Anchor Mortgage Corp., 711 F.3d at 748.

153

Id. at 749-751.

154

Id.

155

Id. at 749.

156

Id. The Seventh Circuit also found support for the “net trebling” approach in a footnote to a 1976 Supreme Court

opinion. Id. at 750 (citing United States v. Bornstein, 423 U.S. 303 n.13 (1976) (“The Government’s actual damages

are equal to the difference between the market value of the tubes it received and retained and the market value that the

tubes would have had if they had been of the specified quality.”)).

157

E.g., United States ex rel. Feldman v. Van Gorp, 697 F.3d 78, 87-88 (2d Cir. 2012) (implying that the court would

(continued...)

149

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Contract Disputes Act Anti-Fraud Provision

The Contract Disputes Act of 1978 (CDA) provides administrative and judicial procedures for the

resolution of disputes between the government and contractors involving certain contracts

awarded by executive agencies.158 In part because of concerns that contractors would submit

inflated claims during contract disputes as a “negotiating tactic,” Congress added a provision to

the CDA imposing a penalty for unsupported claims.159

The Federal Circuit’s recent decision in Daewoo Engineering Co., Ltd. v. United States

demonstrates that the CDA’s anti-fraud provision may result in a significant civil penalty for a

contractor when it submits a fraudulent claim to the government during a contract dispute in order

to extract a settlement.160

Overview of the CDA

Congress passed the CDA in 1978 in order to provide a fair and efficient system for the resolution

of claims and disputes involving contracts awarded by executive agencies.161 The CDA’s dispute

provisions apply to most express or implied-in-fact contracts made by executive agencies162 for

the procurement of property (other than real property in being)163 or services; construction,

alteration, repair, or maintenance of real property; or the disposal of personal property.164

Generally, if parties cannot settle a dispute arising under, or relating to, a contract, the prime

contractor165 or the government submits a claim166 to the contracting officer for decision.167 When

(...continued)

follow the net trebling approach); United States v. Sci. Applications Int’l Corp., 626 F.3d 1257, 1278-79 (D.C. Cir.

2010) (endorsing the “benefit-of-the-bargain framework” in calculating damages under the FCA); United States v.

United Techs. Corp., 626 F.3d 313, 322 (6th Cir. 2010) (“On remand, the district court should calculate what the

government eventually paid each year[,] ... what it should have paid each year based on what the government received,

then take the difference between the two.”); Commercial Contractors, Inc. v. United States, 154 F.3d 1357, 1372 (Fed.

Cir. 1998) (“We agree ... that the normal measure of damages is the difference in value between what the government

was supposed to get and what it actually got from the contractor.”) (citations omitted). But see United States v. Eghbal,

548 F.3d 1281, 1285 (9th Cir. 2008) (expressing support for the gross trebling approach).

158

41 U.S.C. §§7101-7109; S.Rept. 95-1118, at 1 (1978); H.Rept. 95-1556, at 6 (1978).

159

41 U.S.C. §7103(c)(2); S.Rept. 95-1118, at 7, 8, 20 (1978).

160

See “Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States” below.

161

41 U.S.C. §§7101-7109; S.Rept. 95-1118, at 1 (1978); H.Rept. 95-1556, at 6 (1978).

162

The term “executive agency” refers to “(A) an executive department as defined in section 101 of title 5; (B) a

military department as defined in section 102 of title 5; (C) an independent establishment as defined in section 104 of

title 5, except that the term does not include the Government Accountability Office; and (D) a wholly owned

Government corporation as defined in section 9101(3) of title 31.” 41 U.S.C. §7101(8).

163

However, leases of real property are subject to the CDA. E.g., Forman v. United States, 767 F.2d 875, 879 n.4 (Fed.

Cir. 1985).

164

41 U.S.C. §7102(a).

The CDA may not apply to certain contracts of the Tennessee Valley Authority and certain contracts with foreign

governments or international organizations. Id. at §7102(b)-(c).

165

The CDA waives the government’s sovereign immunity concerning claims arising under or relating to its contracts,

but generally not for claims arising under or relating to subcontracts under its contracts. See id. at §§7101-7109. In

general, subcontractors may not submit claims under the CDA because they are not in privity of contract with the

government. See id. at §7101(7) (“The term ‘contractor’ means a party to a Federal Government contract other than the

Federal Government.”); S.Rept. 95-1118, at 16-17 (1978) (listing the reasons for allowing a subcontractor to submit a

(continued...)

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Contractor Fraud Against the Federal Government: Selected Federal Civil Remedies

a contractor’s claim exceeds $100,000, the contractor or other authorized individual must certify

that, among other things, the claim is made in good faith and that “the amount requested

accurately reflects the contract adjustment for which the contractor believes the Federal

Government is liable.”168

The contracting officer’s decision on the claim (or a deemed denial because of the officer’s failure

to decide) becomes final unless the contractor lodges an appeal of an adverse decision within 90

days of the decision to the proper agency board of contract appeals, or files suit within 12 months

in the COFC.169 Generally, the contractor—or the agency head with Attorney General approval—

may appeal decisions of an agency board of contract appeals or the COFC to the U.S. Court of

Appeals for the Federal Circuit.170 Ultimately, the Supreme Court could grant certiorari.171

Anti-Fraud Provision

The CDA contains an anti-fraud remedy primarily because of concerns that contractors would

submit inflated claims during contract disputes as a “negotiating tactic,” leading the government

to settle these claims instead of using its limited resources to evaluate them on the merits.172

During hearings on the CDA, Admiral Hyman G. Rickover testified that some Navy contractors

had circumvented competitive bidding procedures by underbidding in order to win contracts and

later submitting equitable adjustment claims to recover the amounts by which their costs

exceeded their bid prices.173 Congress added the anti-fraud provision to the CDA in an effort to

address these concerns and to supplement the government’s remedies under the FCA and

Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act (FFCA) by making it so that “the larger the fraud attempted,

the greater is the liability to the Government.”174 The CDA’s anti-fraud provision states that

If a contractor is unable to support any part of the contractor’s claim and it is determined that

the inability is attributable to a misrepresentation of fact or fraud by the contractor, then the

contractor is liable to the Federal Government for an amount equal to the unsupported part of

the claim plus all of the Federal Government’s costs attributable to reviewing the

(...continued)

CDA claim only with the sponsorship of the prime contractor).

166

Although the CDA does not define “claim,” a provision in the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) states that a

“claim” is generally “a written demand or written assertion by one of the contracting parties seeking, as a matter of

right, the payment of money in a sum certain, the adjustment or interpretation of contract terms, or other relief arising

under or relating to the contract.” 48 C.F.R. §2.101.

167

41 U.S.C. §7103(a)(1)-(3).

168

Id. at §7103(b)(1)-(2); 48 C.F.R. §33.207.

169

41 U.S.C. §§7103(g), 7104. The contractor and the contracting officer may agree to use alternative dispute

resolution procedures. Id. at §7103(h).

“In the case of an action against the Tennessee Valley Authority, the contractor may only bring an action directly on

the claim in a district court of the United States pursuant to section 1337 of title 28, notwithstanding any contract

provision, regulation, or rule of law to the contrary.” Id. at §7104(b)(2).

170

Id. at §7107(a)(1).

171

U.S. Const. art. III, §2, cl. 2.

172

S.Rept. 95-1118, at 7, 8, 20 (1978).

173

Contract Disputes Act of 1978: Joint Hearings Before the Subcomm. on Federal Spending Practices and Open

Government of the S. Comm. on Governmental Affairs and the Subcomm. on Citizens and Shareholders Rights and

Remedies of the S. Comm. on the Judiciary, 95th Cong. 44 (1978) (statement of Admiral. H. G. Rickover).

174

S.Rept. 95-1118, at 7-8, 20 (1978).

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unsupported part of the claim.175 Liability under this paragraph shall be determined within 6

years of the commission of the misrepresentation of fact or fraud.176

Agency boards of contract appeals and contracting officers generally lack jurisdiction over fraud

claims brought under the CDA’s anti-fraud provision.177 However, the COFC has jurisdiction over

government counterclaims brought under the CDA’s anti-fraud provision regardless of whether

the contracting officer has issued a final decision on the CDA claim.178

The CDA defines “misrepresentation of fact” as “a false statement of substantive fact, or conduct

that leads to a belief of a substantive fact material to proper understanding of the matter in hand,

made with intent to deceive or mislead.”179 The government must prove falsity and intent by a

preponderance of the evidence.180 The statute of limitations for government claims against a

contractor under the CDA’s anti-fraud provision is six years after the claim accrues.181

Although courts have interpreted the CDA’s anti-fraud provision in only a few cases, the Federal

Circuit and Court of Federal Claims have suggested ways in which a contractor may avoid

liability under the provision. For example, a contractor could potentially avoid liability by taking

“reasonable steps to verify the claim.”182 In addition, a contractor that submits a claim based on a

plausible legal interpretation of a contractual provision may avoid liability even if a court finds

that the interpretation is incorrect “absent some specific evidence of knowledge that the claim is

false or of intent to deceive.”183 If a contractor remains unsure about the proper interpretation of a

contract, the Federal Circuit has indicated that the contractor should ask the government for

clarification.184

175

The phrase “all of the Federal Government’s costs” refers to costs incurred in reviewing the allegedly fraudulent

claim by the contracting officer, the Department of Justice, and Defense Contract Audit Agency, if applicable. UMC

Electronics Co. v. United States, 45 Fed. Cl. 507, 510 (1999). The COFC recently held that the government may

recover from the contractor costs of review that are documented sufficiently, reasonable, and not attributable to

litigation. Veridyne Corp. v. United States, 107 Fed. Cl. 762, 767 (2012).

176

41 U.S.C. §7103(c)(2). In 2011, Congress moved the anti-fraud provision of the CDA from 41 U.S.C. §604 to 41

U.S.C. §7103(c)(2) but did not change the substantive meaning of the provision. Act of Jan. 4, 2011, P.L. 111-350, 124

Stat. 3677, 3860; Hernandez, Kroone, and Assocs., Inc. v. United States, 110 Fed. Cl. 496, 524 n.6 (2013) (“Comparing

41 U.S.C. § 7103(c)(2) with its source, 41 U.S.C. § 604[,] ... confirms the absence of any substantive change.”).

177

Martin J. Simko Construction, Inc. v. United States, 852 F.2d 540, 545 (Fed. Cir. 1988) (“We have determined that

... Congress never intended to include claims brought under [the CDA’s anti-fraud provision] to be within the agency

dispute resolution process.”). But see AAA Engineering & Drafting, Inc., ASBCA 47940, 2001-1 B.C.A. ¶31,256

(2001) (finding contract board jurisdiction under the CDA “to decide the dispute concerning [the contractor’s]

entitlement to termination costs” despite the possibility that the termination claim was fraudulent and that the board had

jurisdiction to consider “for purposes of contractual analysis, determinations of fraud made by other tribunals.”). In

addition, an agency head may not “settle, compromise, pay, or otherwise adjust any claim involving fraud.” 41 U.S.C.

§7103(c)(1). Under the FAR, a contracting officer that discovers a violation of the CDA’s anti-fraud provision must

refer the matter to the agency official responsible for investigating fraud. 48 C.F.R. §33.209.

178

See 28 U.S.C. §§1491(a)(2), 1503, 2508; Martin J. Simko Construction, 852 F.2d at 545.

179

41 U.S.C. §7101(9); 48 C.F.R. §33.201. S.Rept. 95-1118, at 17 (1978) (“It is not the intent of the committees to

punish contractors who may through ignorance or lack of understanding misrepresent some portion of the facts on a

claim.”).

180

Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States, 557 F.3d 1332, 1335 (Fed. Cir. 2009).

181

41 U.S.C. §7103(a)(4)(A).

182

Tri-Ad Constructors v. United States, 45 Fed. Appx. 907, 913 (Fed. Cir. 2002).

183

Commercial Contractors, Inc. v. United States, 154 F.3d 1357, 1366 (Fed. Cir. 1998); Ulysses, Inc. v. United States,

110 Fed. Cl. 618, 648 (2013).

184

Commercial Contractors, 154 F.3d at 1366.

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Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States

The Federal Circuit Court of Appeals’ decision in Daewoo Engineering Co., Ltd. v. United States

demonstrates that the CDA’s anti-fraud provision may result in a significant civil penalty for a

contractor that submits a fraudulent claim to the government without taking steps to verify and

justify its certified claim.185 In this case, the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)

awarded Daewoo a contract to build a road in the Republic of Palau.186 In order to build the road,

Daewoo had to compact moist soil in rainy weather, which posed a significant challenge within

the agreed upon time constraints.187 Daewoo experienced several problems with compacting the

soil, leading it to fall behind schedule in its performance of the contract.188

As its contract performance problems continued, Daewoo filed a certified CDA claim with the

contracting officer seeking a $64 million increase in the contract price.189 Daewoo alleged that the

contract contained a “misleading weather-delay clause;” that the government had withheld

“superior knowledge” about its “weather-delay calculation methods;” and that the contract was

impossible to perform, among other things.190 Daewoo’s claim included incurred costs of about

$13 million and projected costs of about $50 million.191 When the contracting officer denied

Daewoo’s claim, the company brought suit against the government in the COFC for almost $64

million in damages, arguing that the USACE had misrepresented the extent of poor weather

conditions at the construction site.192 The United States asserted that the contractor’s claim was

fraudulent and sought penalties and forfeitures in counterclaims under the FCA, the CDA’s antifraud provision, and the Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act (FFCA).193

Court of Federal Claims’ Decision

The COFC first considered Daewoo’s CDA claims and rejected them.194 Next, the COFC

considered the government’s fraud counterclaims.195 It found Daewoo liable under the CDA’s

anti-fraud provision because Daewoo had acted in bad faith by using its claim as a “negotiating

ploy” to extract a settlement offer from the government without believing that the government

actually owed it $50 million in projected costs.196 The COFC entered judgment for the

government for $50 million for the CDA violation, and held that Daewoo’s claims under the

contract were forfeited pursuant to the FFCA (although it had not found them to be supported

anyway).197 However, the COFC entered judgment for the government for only $10,000 for the

185

Daewoo, 557 F.3d at 1338-41.

Id. at 1334; Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States, 73 Fed. Cl. 547, 551, 553-54 (2006).

187

Id. at 554.

188

Id. at 551, 555-59.

189

Daewoo, 557 F.3d at 1334.

190

Id. at 1334-35; Daewoo, 73 Fed. Cl. at 551, 560.

191

Daewoo, 557 F.3d at 1335; Daewoo, 73 Fed. Cl. at 551, 560.

192

Id. at 560.

193

Daewoo, 557 F.3d at 1334.

194

Daewoo, 73 Fed. Cl. at 582.

195

Id.

196

Id. at 585, 596.

197

Daewoo, 557 F.3d at 1334.

186

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contractor’s FCA violation because the court could not establish that the government had suffered

losses.198 Daewoo appealed to the Federal Circuit.199

Federal Circuit Court of Appeals’ Decision

On appeal before the Federal Circuit, Daewoo raised two main arguments. First, the contractor

maintained that it had not made a “claim” under the CDA for the $64 million in total costs

because it did not seek the funds as a “matter of right” but rather presented the number as an

estimate “to encourage the government to adjust the contract specifications.”200 The Federal

Circuit rejected this argument, declining to find the lower court’s factual determination that

Daewoo had made a “claim” for these costs to be clearly erroneous, in significant part because of

testimony by Daewoo’s project manager confirming that Daewoo had made a $64 million

claim.201

Next, Daewoo argued that even if it had made a “claim” for the $50 million in projected costs, the

claim was not fraudulent.202 The Federal Circuit rejected this argument as well, and, like the

COFC, held that Daewoo had committed fraud.203 However, the appeals court reached this result

for slightly different reasons than the lower court.204 The Federal Circuit held that Daewoo had

committed fraud because the contractor’s calculation of its claim for $50 million in projected

costs “assumed the government was responsible for each day of additional performance beyond

the original 1080-day contract period, without even considering whether there was any

contractor-caused delay or delay for which the government was not responsible.”205 In addition,

the appeals court noted that Daewoo did not use outside experts to calculate the amount of its

claim and neglected to explain how it arrived at the claimed amount during trial.206 Finally,

Daewoo had certified that the claim was accurate and made in good faith.207 In upholding the $50

million penalty under the CDA’s anti-fraud provision, the Federal Circuit rejected Daewoo’s

arguments that the penalty violated the Eighth and Fifth amendments of the U.S. Constitution.208

Other Examples

Other examples of cases in which the government has alleged that a contractor violated the

CDA’s anti-fraud provision have involved a contractor’s purported submission of false, inflated,

or duplicative claims,209 including when the contractor allegedly misrepresented costs under a

198

Daewoo, 73 Fed. Cl. at 585.

Daewoo, 557 F.3d at 1334.

200

Id. at 1336.

201

Id. at 1337.

202

Id. at 1338.

203

Id. at 1334.

204

Id. at 1338.

205

Id.

206

Id.

207

Id. at 1339.

208

Id. at 1340.

209

E.g., Gulf Group Gen. Enters. Co. W.L.L. v. United States, 114 Fed. Cl. 258, 307 (2013) (contractor allegedly

submitted claims for more than it was owed); Munford Construction Co. v. United States, 34 Fed. Cl. 62, 64 (1995)

(contractor allegedly submitted “fictitious, inflated, and duplicative” claims).

199

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contract,210 sought payment for products that did not conform with specifications,211

misrepresented that it was an approved source,212 or misrepresented its eligibility to perform the

contract.213

Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act

The Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act (FFCA), or “special plea in fraud” statute, generally

allows the government to assert a counterclaim214 seeking forfeiture of fraudulent claims brought

against it in the COFC.215 This penalty exists as a condition of the government’s waiver of its

sovereign immunity from suit.216 Congress enacted the FFCA as part of an 1863 law that granted

new powers to the Court of Claims.217 The FFCA states that “A claim against the United States

shall be forfeited to the United States by any person who corruptly practices or attempts to

practice any fraud against the United States in the proof, statement, establishment, or allowance

thereof.”

In such cases the United States Court of Federal Claims shall specifically find such fraud or

attempt and render judgment of forfeiture.218

Judicial interpretations have clarified the elements of the special plea in fraud, as well as its

mental state requirement, burden of proof, and application. The Federal Circuit has held that the

government must prove that the contractor knowingly219 submitted a false claim with an intent to

defraud it, and thus the government does not have to show that it relied on the claim or suffered

210

E.g., Tri-Ad Constructors v. United States, 45 Fed. Appx. 907, 913 (Fed. Cir. 2002) (contractor allegedly

misrepresented “added costs” and claimed lost profit on deleted work); UMC Electronics Co. v. United States, 249

F.3d 1337, 1340 (Fed. Cir. 2001) (contractor allegedly used amounts in purchase orders as actual costs when related

invoices showed lower costs); Veridyne Corp. v. United States, 105 Fed. Cl. 769, 816 (2012) (contractor allegedly

included duplicate expenses and expenses not yet incurred in its claim); Ry. Logistics v. United States, 103 Fed. Cl.

252, 256, 259 (2012) (contractor allegedly overstated costs in a spreadsheet that the contractor characterized as a

“rough estimate”).

211

SGW, Inc. v. United States, 20 Ct. Cl. 174, 176 (1990) (contractor sought lost costs and profits for rifle barrels that

allegedly failed to conform with specifications).

212

Ulysses, Inc. v. United States, 110 Fed. Cl. 618, 647 (2013) (contractor allegedly misrepresented that it was an

approved source to obtain two purchase orders).

213

Crane Helicopter Servs., Inc. v. United States, 45 Fed. Cl. 410, 411 (1999) (contractor allegedly misrepresented that

an aircraft was a civilian aircraft to gain Federal Aviation Administration certification and obtain the contract).

214

Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States, 557 F.3d 1332, 1334 (Fed. Cir. 2009). At least

one court has held that judgment of forfeiture may be rendered on the court’s own initiative without the existence of a

government counterclaim. DeRochemont v. United States, 23 Ct. Cl. 87, 90 (1991).

215

28 U.S.C. §2514. In addition to applying to claims brought against the government in the COFC, the forfeiture

provision may also apply to claims brought against the government before a contracting officer. Tyger Construction

Co. Inc. v. United States, 28 Fed. Cl. 35, 60-61 (1993).

216

DeRochemont, 23 Ct. Cl. at 89.

217

Court of Claims Act, ch. 92, 12 Stat. 765, 767 (1863); O’Brien Gear & Mach. Co. v. United States, 219 Ct. Cl. 187,

209-12 (1979) (discussing the history of the FFCA); see also Supermex, Inc. v. United States, 35 Fed. Cl. 29, 41 (1996)

(quoting Cong. Globe, 37th Cong., 2d Sess. app. 124 (1862)) (“This is meant to visit with merited punishment that

corrupted moral sense which regards the Government as always a proper prey for fraudulent rapacity.”).

218

28 U.S.C. §2514.

219

The scienter requirement is “knowingly presenting the government with a false claim for the purpose of getting paid

for the claim.” Tri-Ad Constructors v. United States, 45 Fed. Appx. 907, 912 (Fed. Cir. 2002).

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injury from it.220 The burden of proof for the government is “clear and convincing evidence,” a

higher standard than preponderance of the evidence.221 Under the FFCA, if the court finds part of

a claim under a contract to be fraudulent and submitted with the requisite mental state, the court

must render judgment of forfeiture on all claims under that contract.222 At least one court has

sought to justify such a holding on the grounds that separating the claims tainted by fraud from

those untainted by fraud is impossible.223

A few significant disagreements over the proper interpretation of the FFCA have arisen over the

years. For example, courts disagree about whether fraud sufficient for forfeiture may involve

fraud in connection with the execution or performance of the contract in addition to fraud related

to submission of a claim.224 The Federal Circuit appears to have recently held that the government

may establish a violation of the FFCA only when the alleged fraud relates to the submission of a

claim, stating that the “neighboring provisions illustrate that the forfeiture statute is best

understood as a companion requirement of claims procedure rather than a catch-all anti-fraud

provision.”225 Courts also disagree over whether the FFCA is subject to the general statute of

limitations for claims over which the COFC has jurisdiction.226

A few recent examples of cases in which the government has sought forfeiture of a contractor’s

claims because of purported fraudulent conduct include allegations that the contractor submitted

“several inconsistent explanations for its added costs” and knowingly claimed unrecoverable lost

profits;227 used amounts in purchase orders as actual costs in its claim when related invoices

showed lower costs;228 and asserted that it was an approved source to obtain two purchase

orders.229

220

UMC Electronics Co. v. United States, 249 F.3d 1337, 1340 (Fed. Cir. 2001); Commercial Contractors, Inc. v.

United States, 154 F.3d 1357, 1362 (Fed. Cir. 1998).

221

UMC Electronics Co., 249 F.3d at 1339; Commercial Contractors, Inc., 154 F.3d at 1362.

222

Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United States, 557 F.3d 1332, 1341 (Fed. Cir. 2009); UMC

Electronics Co. v. United States, 43 Fed. Cl. 776, 790-91 (1999).

223

Id. at 790-91.

224

Kellogg Brown & Root Servs., Inc. v. United States, 728 F.3d 1348, 1366 (Fed. Cir. 2013) (submission of a claim);

Ulysses, Inc. v. United States, 110 Fed. Cl. 618, 649 (2013) (citation omitted) (submission of a claim); Crane

Helicopter Servs., Inc. v. United States, 45 Fed. Cl. 410, 431 (1999) (contract performance or submission of a claim);

Supermex, Inc. v. United States, 35 Fed. Cl. 29, 39-41 (1996) (contract performance); Little v. United States, 138 Ct.

Cl. 773, 778 (1957) (“[W]here, as in the present case, fraud was committed in regard to the very contract upon which

the suit is brought, this court does not have the right to divide the contract and allow recovery on part of it.”).

225

KBR, 728 F.3d at 1366.

226

28 U.S.C. §2501; Am. Heritage Bancorp v. United States, 56 Fed. Cl. 596, 606 (2003) (not subject to the statute of

limitations); First Fed. Savings Bank of Hegewisch v. United States, 52 Fed. Cl. 774, 787-88 (2002) (not subject to

statute of limitations because “[s]uch a limitation would allow plaintiffs to wait until the six-year time period expired

before filing their fraudulent claims.”); TS Infosystems, Inc. v. United States, 36 Fed. Cl. 570, 574 (1996) (subject to

the statute of limitations); Jana, Inc. v. United States, 34 Fed. Cl. 447, 452 (1995) (not subject to the statute of

limitations); see also 28 U.S.C. §2415(f).

227

Tri-Ad Constructors v. United States, 45 Fed. App’x. 907, 912-13 (Fed. Cir. 2002).

228

UMC Electronics Co. v. United States, 249 F.3d 1337, 1340 (Fed. Cir. 2001).

229

Ulysses, Inc. v. United States, 110 Fed. Cl. 618, 636 (2013).

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Program Fraud Civil Remedies Act

The Program Fraud Civil Remedies Act (PFCRA) provides an administrative process under

which certain federal agencies may obtain civil remedies and assessments from “persons” who

knowingly make false, fraudulent, or fictitious claims or statements to the agencies.230 The act’s

legislative history suggests that Congress intended the PFCRA to remedy the “small-dollar cases”

of fraud that the Department of Justice (DOJ) had declined to pursue in court because of litigation

costs.231 Thus, an agency may not use the administrative process contained in the PFCRA when

the amount of money, property, or services demanded in a claim (or group of related claims)

exceeds $150,000.232

The PFCRA shares some structural similarities with the FCA.233 Like the FCA, it allows for the

imposition of civil penalties on violators for false claims or statements, as well as an assessment

on violators when the government has paid the claim.234 As with the FCA, liability under the

PFCRA requires no specific intent to defraud, and thus a party may violate the FCA when it acts

with reckless disregard of a claim or statement’s truth or falsity.235

However, unlike the FCA, the PFCRA establishes a mostly administrative process for recovery of

civil remedies rather than a judicial one. The PFCRA provides for agency officials to investigate

and review allegations of false claims or statements and ultimately requires the approval of a

certain official from DOJ for the case to be referred to an Administrative Law Judge or other

hearing officer.236 The act provides the person alleged to be liable with notice and the opportunity

for a hearing on the record.237 The agency must prove its allegations by a preponderance of the

evidence.238 A decision on liability or damages by the hearing officer may be appealed to the

agency head within 30 days after the hearing officer issues a written decision, and, ultimately, to

federal district court within 60 days of the agency head’s decision.239

Few federal agencies use the PFCRA, according to a recent study by the Government

Accountability Office (GAO).240 The study found that from FY2006 through FY2010, five

230

Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1986, P.L. 99-509, §6103, 100 Stat. 1934 (1986) (codified as amended at 31

U.S.C. §§3801-3812). The definitions of “claim” and “statement” under the PFCRA are located at 31 U.S.C. §3801.

The act requires agency heads to promulgate regulations implementing the act. 31 U.S.C. §3809; e.g., 34 C.F.R. Part 33

(implementing the provisions of the PFCRA for the U.S. Department of Education).

231

H.Rept. 99-1012, at 258 (1986).

232

31 U.S.C. §3803(c)(1).

233

See Vt. Agency of Natural Res. v. United States ex rel. Stevens, 529 U.S. 765, 786 (2000) (characterizing the

PFCRA as a “sister scheme” to the FCA).

234

31 U.S.C. §3802. The current inflation-adjusted civil monetary penalty amount is $5,500. 28 C.F.R. §85.3(a)(10)(11). However, some agencies have raised the penalty even higher. GAO-12-275R, Program Fraud Civil Remedies Act:

Observations on Implementation 1 n.2 (2012), http://gao.gov/assets/590/587978.pdf.

235

31 U.S.C. §3801(a)(5).

236

Id. at §3803(a)-(b).

237

Id. at §3803(d), (f).

238

Id. at §3803(f).

239

Id. at §§3803(i), 3805(b). Before appealing a decision to district court, the petitioner must first exhaust all

administrative remedies under the PFCRA. Id. at §3805(b)(1)(B)(i).

240

GAO-12-275R, Program Fraud Civil Remedies Act: Observations on Implementation 2 (2012), http://gao.gov/

assets/590/587978.pdf.

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civilian agencies referred 141 cases to DOJ for approval.241 Of these cases, the U.S. Department

of Housing and Urban Development referred 135, or 96 percent.242 A 2008 report by the National

Procurement Fraud Task Force recommended several reforms to the PFCRA designed to increase

its use by federal agencies and its effectiveness at deterring fraud.243 These reforms include

incentivizing agencies to use the PFCRA by increasing the act’s jurisdictional cap to $500,000

and the civil penalty limit to $15,000; allowing agencies to retain recovered funds instead of

depositing them into the Treasury Miscellaneous Receipts account; and simplifying the act’s

procedural requirements.244

Recent Regulatory Developments

This section briefly considers two recent regulatory developments that may affect contractors’

potential exposure to civil liability and/or damages under the FCA. Among other things, the

Mandatory Disclosure Rule allows an agency to suspend or debar a contractor for failing to

timely disclose to the government certain violations of federal law related to a contract or

subcontract, including violations of the FCA.245 Generally, the Presumed Loss Rule states that

when a business willfully misrepresents its size or status in order to obtain certain small business

contracting preferences, there is a presumption that the United States has suffered losses equal to

the amount that the government has spent on the contract.246

Mandatory Disclosure Rule

In part to implement a statutory mandate contained in the Supplemental Appropriations Act of

2008,247 the Civilian Agency Acquisition Council and the Defense Acquisition Regulations

241

Id.

Id. According to the GAO report, some regulatory agencies “have few issues with false claims.” Id. at 3.

243

National Procurement Fraud Task Force, Legislation Committee, Procurement Fraud: Legislative and Regulatory

Reform Proposals 8, 10, 11-13 (2008), http://www.gsaig.gov/?LinkServID=A8DD55A6-A6BB-D9F80788C31C39FC3CD0&. The Task Force consisted of several federal agencies involved in the investigation and

prosecution of procurement and grant fraud. Id. at i. In 2009, it became part of the Financial Fraud Task Force. See

Financial Fraud Enforcement Task Force, http://www.stopfraud.gov/about.html.

244

National Procurement Fraud Task Force, Legislation Committee, Procurement Fraud: Legislative and Regulatory

Reform Proposals 8, 10, 11-13 (2008), http://www.gsaig.gov/?LinkServID=A8DD55A6-A6BB-D9F80788C31C39FC3CD0&. Generally, penalties and assessments collected under the PFCRA must be deposited “as

miscellaneous receipts in the Treasury of the United States.” 31 U.S.C. §3806(g)(1). However, the statute contains

exceptions for certain funds recovered by the U.S. Postal Service and Department of Health and Human Services. Id. at

§3806(g)(2).

245

DOD, GSA, and NASA, Contractor Business Ethics Compliance Program and Disclosure Requirements, 73 Fed.

Reg. 67064, 67090-91 (November 12, 2008) (codified at 48 C.F.R. §§9.406-2(b)(1)(vi), 9.407-2(a)(8)). The rule

applies to contracts whose value exceeds $5 million and whose duration is more than 120 days. Supplemental

Appropriations Act of 2008, P.L. 110-252 §6103, 122 Stat. 2387 (2008), codified at 41 U.S.C. §3509(a).

246

Small Business Administration, Final Rule, Small Business Size and Status Integrity, 78 Fed. Reg. 38811, 38816-21

(June 28, 2013) (codified in several sections of Title 13 of the Code of Federal Regulations), http://www.gpo.gov/

fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-06-28/pdf/2013-15418.pdf.

247

In the Supplemental Appropriations Act of 2008, Congress required that the FAR be amended to “require timely

notification by Federal contractors of violations of Federal criminal law or overpayments in connection with the award

or performance of covered contracts or subcontracts, including those performed outside the United States and those for

commercial items.” Supplemental Appropriations Act of 2008, P.L. 110-252 §6102, 122 Stat. 2386 (2008), codified at

41 U.S.C. §3509(b).

242

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Council (the Councils) amended the FAR to, among other things, require contractors to disclose

certain violations of federal law related to a contract or subcontract.248 This “Mandatory

Disclosure Rule” allows an agency to suspend or debar a contractor for

Knowing failure by a principal, until 3 years after final payment on any Government contract

awarded to the contractor, to timely disclose to the Government, in connection with the

award, performance, or closeout of the contract or a subcontract thereunder, credible

evidence of—

(A) Violation of Federal criminal law involving fraud, conflict of interest, bribery, or

gratuity violations found in Title 18 of the United States Code;

(B) Violation of the civil False Claims Act (31 U.S.C. 3729-3733); or

contract financing payments as defined in [48 C.F.R. §32.001].249

Many government contracts must now include language requiring contractors to, among other

things, timely disclose civil FCA violations related to the contract (or a subcontract under the

contract) when the contractor has “credible evidence” that a principal of the contractor or one of

certain other parties has committed such a violation.250 The provision states that disclosure must

be made in writing to the relevant agency Office of the Inspector General and contracting

officer.251

During the rulemaking for the Mandatory Disclosure Rule, commenters expressed concerns that

contractors would have difficulty in disclosing violations of the civil FCA because courts have

reached different conclusions about what kind of conduct constitutes a violation.252 The Councils

responded that “[g]enuine disputes over the proper application of the civil FCA may be

considered in evaluating whether the contractor knowingly failed to disclose a violation of the

civil FCA.”253 Commenters also argued that mandatory disclosure of violations would facilitate

lawsuits against contractors by qui tam relators.254 The Councils responded that “[t]imely

disclosure of a knowing violation offers the contractor an opportunity to demonstrate its present

responsibility to avoid suspension or debarment, and to obtain a reduction in damages under the

civil FCA.”255

248

See 73 Fed. Reg. at 67090-91.

Id. The rule applies to contracts whose value exceeds $5 million and whose duration is more than 120 days.

Supplemental Appropriations Act of 2008, P.L. 110-252 §6103, 122 Stat. 2387 (2008), codified at 41 U.S.C. §3509(a).

For more on debarment and suspension of government contractors, see CRS Report RL34753, Debarment and

Suspension of Government Contractors: A Legal Overview, by (name redacted).

250

73 Fed. Reg. at 67091 (codified at 48 C.F.R. §52.203-13); see also id. at §52.301.

251

73 Fed. Reg. at 67091 (codified at. 48 C.F.R. §52.203-13).

252

Id. at 67081. As described above, courts have reached various conclusions on whether, and if so, under what

circumstances, a breach of contract or regulatory violation may make a claim for payment “false or fraudulent” by

implication under the FCA. See “Implied False Certification Theory” and “Fraud in the Inducement Theory” above.

253

73 Fed. Reg. at 67081.

254

Id. at 67082.

255

Id.

249

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Presumed Loss Rule

Businesses that fraudulently obtain sole-source or set-aside contracts256 by misrepresenting their

size or status prevent legitimate small businesses from receiving these contracts.257 In 2010,

Congress amended the Small Business Act in an effort to address this issue.258 The SBA

implemented these amendments in a 2013 rule.259

The “Presumed Loss Rule,” which is codified throughout Title 13 of the Code of Federal

Regulations, states in part that when a business willfully misrepresents its size or status in order

to establish its eligibility for award of a contract or subcontract260 “set aside, reserved, or

otherwise classified as intended for award to” business concerns with a particular size or status,261

there is a presumption that the United States has suffered losses equal to the amount that the

government has spent on the contract.262 A business is deemed to have made a willful certification

of business size or status when it (1) submits a bid, proposal, or offer for a federal contract or

subcontract set-aside or reserved for businesses of a particular size or status; (2) submits a bid,

proposal, or offer for a federal contract or subcontract that “in any way encourages a Federal

agency to classify the bid or proposal, if awarded, as an award to” a business of a particular size

or status; or (3) registers on a federal electronic database as a business of a particular size or

status in order to be considered for award of a federal contract or subcontract.263 The rule allows a

trier of fact to determine that the presumption of loss does not apply in certain situations, such as

when the contractor’s misrepresentations stem from unintentional errors.264

256

In support of its “declared policy” that a “fair proportion” of federal contracts be awarded to small businesses, 15

U.S.C. §631(a), Congress has enacted various statutes authorizing procuring agencies to conduct competitions in which

only small businesses may compete, or to make noncompetitive (“sole-source”) awards to such firms in circumstances

when similar awards could not be made to other firms. See, e.g., id. at §644(a) (set-asides for small businesses); id. at

§637(a) (set-asides for 8(a) participants); id. at §637(m) (set-asides for women-owned small businesses); id. at §657a

(set-asides for HUBZone small businesses); id. at §657f (set-asides for service-disable veteran-owned small

businesses). Congress has also sought to assist small businesses by requiring the establishment of government-wide and

agency-specific goals for the percentage of federal contract and/or subcontract dollars awarded to small businesses each

year. See, e.g., id. at §644(g)(1)-(2). For more information on these statutes and other issues associated with set-asides

for small businesses, see CRS Report R42981, Set-Asides for Small Businesses: Legal Requirements and Issues, by

(name redacted) and (name redacted).

257

See, e.g., Department of Veterans Affairs, Audit of Veteran-Owned and Service-Disabled Veteran-Owned Small

Business Programs 3 (2011), http://www.va.gov/oig/52/reports/2011/VAOIG-10-02436-234.pdf; GAO-10-425, 8(a)

Program: Fourteen Ineligible Firms Received $325 Million in Sole-Source and Set-Aside Contracts 7 (2010),

http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d10425.pdf.

258

Small Business Jobs Act of 2010, P.L. 111-240 §§1341, 1342, 124 Stat. 2543-44 (2010), codified at 15 U.S.C.

§632(w)-(x).

259

Small Business Administration, Final Rule, Small Business Size and Status Integrity, 78 Fed. Reg. 38811, 38816-21

(June 28, 2013) (codified in several sections of Title 13 of the Code of Federal Regulations), http://www.gpo.gov/

fdsys/pkg/FR-2013-06-28/pdf/2013-15418.pdf.

260

The rule may also apply to cooperative agreements, cooperative research and development agreements, or grants. Id.

261

This rule may apply when a business makes a willful misrepresentation that it is a small business or a specific type

of small business (i.e., a small disadvantaged business, including participants in the “8(a) Program”; Historically

Underutilized Business Zone small business; women-owned small business; or service-disabled veteran-owned small

business). Id.

262

Id.

263

Id. The rule also requires an authorized official to certify small business size or status and requires annual

certification for the business to be identified as having a particular size or status in federal procurement databases. Id.

264

Id.

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The Presumed Loss Rule may have significant implications in FCA suits in which the government

or a relator alleges that a contractor fraudulently induced the government to award the contractor

a set-aside or sole-source contract by misrepresenting its size or status, or that a contractor made

an implied false certification by submitting a claim for payment after having failed to comply

with federal regulations governing size or status representations.265 In the past, the COFC has

declined to impose damages when the contractor failed to comply with the eligibility

requirements of the SBA’s 8(a) Program.266 The court stated that “damages represent

compensation for a loss or injury sustained” and that, because the government “got essentially

what it paid for,” the government had not suffered damages as a result of the contractor’s failure

to comply with the eligibility requirements.267 Under the Presumed Loss Rule, however, a court

facing the same set of facts would probably hold the contractor liable for three times the amount

that the government paid on the contract.

Conclusion

Preventing contractor fraud without deterring contractors’ willingness to compete for government

contracts poses a challenge for the federal government because fraud takes a variety of forms and

can be difficult to detect and prosecute with limited resources.268 Several federal statutes allow

the federal government—and in some instances, private parties—to recover damages, civil

penalties, or forfeitures for false or fraudulent claims for payment and other misconduct.269 Some

Members of Congress, courts, and others have continued to debate the proper scope of liability

under these civil fraud statutes.270 Congress may enact laws that alter the scope of these statutes

and, at least with respect to the FCA, has done so many times.271

Much of the debate about the scope of fraud statutes has focused on the FCA, the federal

government’s primary civil fraud remedy.272 Two recent court-created theories have further

expanded the scope of defendants’ liability under the FCA273—a statute which the Supreme Court

has characterized as imposing “damages that are essentially punitive in nature.”274 Some

265

See 31 U.S.C. §3729(a)(1) (potentially imposing liability for treble damages for violations of the FCA); see also

“Fraud in the Inducement Theory” and “Implied False Certification Theory” above.

266

Ab-Tech Construction, Inc. v. United States, 31 Fed. Cl. 429, 434 (1994), aff’d, 57 F.3d 1084 (Fed. Cir. 1995)

(unpublished table decision).

267

Id.

268

General Services Administration, Office of Inspector General, Procurement Fraud Handbook 14-29 (2012),

http://www.gsaig.gov/?LinkServID=6486B647-A5DF-C154-010A408470CAE0B8; National Procurement Fraud Task

Force, Legislation Committee, Procurement Fraud: Legislative and Regulatory Reform Proposals ii (2008),

http://www.gsaig.gov/?LinkServID=A8DD55A6-A6BB-D9F8-0788C31C39FC3CD0&.

269

E.g., Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act, 28 U.S.C. §2514; False Claims Act, 31 U.S.C. §§3729-3733; Program

Fraud Civil Remedies Act, 31 U.S.C. §§3801-3812; Contract Disputes Act, 41 U.S.C. §7103(c)(2).

270

See, for example, “False Claims Act: Recent Amendments” above. See also Kellogg Brown & Root Servs., Inc. v.

United States, 728 F.3d 1348, 1366 & n.18 (Fed. Cir. 2013) (discussing different judicial interpretations of the scope of

the Forfeiture of Fraudulent Claims Act).

271

See “False Claims Act: Recent Amendments” above.

272

Id.

273

See “Implied False Certification Theory” and “Fraud in the Inducement Theory” above.

274

Vt. Agency of Natural Res. v. United States ex rel. Stevens, 529 U.S. 765, 784-85 (2000) (“[T]he current version of

the FCA imposes damages that are essentially punitive in nature ...”); cf. United States ex. rel. Marcus v. Hess, 317

U.S. 537, 551-52 (1943) (“We think the chief purpose of the statutes here was to provide for restitution to the

(continued...)

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commentators have expressed concerns that judicial recognition of these theories could allow the

government or relators to recover tort-like damages for defendants’ minor breaches of contract.275

However, some of the courts that recognize these theories have limited their use by strictly

enforcing the FCA’s mental state requirement; the heightened pleading requirements for fraud

allegations under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 9(b); or some form of materiality

requirement.276 Other recent regulatory and judicial developments may also affect contractors’

potential exposure to civil liability and damages under the FCA.277

Contractors’ submission of fraudulent claims during the contract disputes process poses

additional challenges for the government. Federal statutory civil remedies for this type of

contractor fraud exist as a condition of the government’s waiver of its sovereign immunity from

suit,278 and as a means of deterring fraud against federal agencies that lack the resources to

thoroughly evaluate contractor claims that may have been submitted in an effort to extract a

settlement offer from the government.279 Fair resolution of contract disputes by courts, including

resolution of government counterclaims alleging fraud, helps ensure that contractors will continue

to compete for the government’s business.280

Author Contact Information

(name redacted)

Legislative Attorney

[redacted]@crs.loc.gov, 7-....

(...continued)

government of money taken from it by fraud, and that the device of double [currently, treble] damages plus a specific

sum was chosen to make sure that the government would be made completely whole.”). At the time of the Supreme

Court’s decision in Hess, the FCA allowed the government to recover double damages. See id. at 546. In the 1986

amendments to the FCA, Congress changed this amount to treble damages. False Claims Amendments Act of 1986,

P.L. 99-562 §2, 100 Stat. 3153 (1986).

275

E.g., Restatement (Second) of Contracts §355 (1981) (“Punitive damages are not recoverable for a breach of

contract unless the conduct constituting the breach is also a tort for which punitive damages are recoverable.”); Gregory

Klass & Michael Holt, Implied Certification under the False Claims Act, 41 Pub. Contract. L.J. 1, 1-2 (2011).

276

See “Implied False Certification Theory: Limitations on the Theory” and “Fraud in the Inducement Theory:

Limitations on the Theory” above.

277

See “False Claims Act: Calculating Treble Damages,” “Mandatory Disclosure Rule,” and “Presumed Loss Rule”

above.

278

DeRochemont v. United States, 23 Ct. Cl. 87, 89 (1991) (FFCA).

279

S.Rept. 95-1118, at 7, 8, 20 (1978) (CDA); see also “Daewoo Engineering and Construction Co., Ltd. v. United

States” above.

280

See S.Rept. 95-1118, at 4 (“How procurement functions has a far-reaching impact on the economy of our society

and on the success of many major Government programs. Both can be affected by the existence of competition and

quality contractors—or by the lack thereof. The way potential contractors view the disputes-resolving system

influences how, whether, and at what prices they compete for Government contract business.”).

Congressional Research Service

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