Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

Legislative Branch Agency Appointments:

History, Processes, and Recent Actions

Updated October 16, 2024

Congressional Research Service

https://crsreports.congress.gov

R42072

SUMMARY

Legislative Branch Agency Appointments:

History, Processes, and Recent Actions

R42072

October 16, 2024

Ida A. Brudnick

Specialist on the Congress

The leaders of the legislative branch agencies and entities—the Government Accountability

Office (GAO), the Library of Congress (LOC), the Congressional Research Service (CRS), the

Government Publishing Office (GPO, formerly Government Printing Office), the Office of the

Architect of the Capitol (AOC), the U.S. Capitol Police (USCP), the Congressional Budget

Office (CBO), the Office of Congressional Workplace Rights (OCWR), the Congressional Office

for International Leadership (COIL, formerly the Open World Leadership Center), and the John C. Stennis Center for Public

Service Training and Development (hereinafter, Stennis Center)—are appointed in a variety of manners.

Congress has periodically examined the procedures used to appoint these officers with the aim of protecting the prerogatives

of, and ensuring accountability to, Congress within the framework of the advice and consent appointment process established

in Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution.

Most recently, legislation enacted in the 118th Congress altered the appointment process for the Architect of the Capitol. The

Architect of the Capitol Appointment Act of 2023 was enacted within the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year

2024 (H.R. 2670, P.L. 118-31) on December 22, 2023. The act places responsibility for the appointment of the Architect

within a congressional commission comprised of 12 Members. Under the new procedure, the appointment is pursuant to a

majority vote of the commission, as is reappointment or removal.

Following this change, three agencies are led by a person appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the

Senate; three are appointed by Congress (i.e., by designated Members, leaders, a commission comprised of Members, or

officers); one is appointed by the Librarian of Congress, after consultation with the Joint Committee on the Library; one is

appointed by a board of directors; one is appointed by the Librarian of Congress on behalf of a board of trustees; and one is

appointed by a board of trustees.

This report contains information on the legislative branch agency heads’ appointment processes, length of tenures (if terms

are set), reappointment or removal provisions (if any), salaries and benefits, and most recent appointments.

Congressional Research Service

Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

Contents

Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1

Overview by Legislative Branch Agency or Entity................................................................... 2

Architect of the Capitol ............................................................................................................. 4

Most Recent Appointment .................................................................................................. 5

Government Accountability Office ........................................................................................... 6

Most Recent Appointment .................................................................................................. 7

Government Publishing Office.................................................................................................. 7

Most Recent Appointment .................................................................................................. 8

Library of Congress................................................................................................................... 8

Most Recent Appointment .................................................................................................. 9

Congressional Research Service ............................................................................................... 9

Most Recent Appointment .................................................................................................. 9

U.S. Capitol Police .................................................................................................................... 9

Most Recent Appointment ................................................................................................ 10

Congressional Budget Office ...................................................................................................11

Most Recent Appointment .................................................................................................11

Office of Congressional Workplace Rights ............................................................................. 12

Most Recent Appointment ................................................................................................ 13

Congressional Office for International Leadership ................................................................. 13

Most Recent Appointment ................................................................................................ 13

John C. Stennis Center for Public Service Training and Development ................................... 14

Most Recent Appointment ................................................................................................ 14

Tables

Table 1. Legislative Branch Agency and Entity Executives: Summary of Appointment

Process, Tenure, and Salaries ....................................................................................................... 2

Contacts

Author Information........................................................................................................................ 14

Congressional Research Service

Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

Introduction

The leaders of legislative branch agencies and entities—the Government Accountability Office,

the Library of Congress, the Government Publishing Office (formerly Government Printing

Office), the Office of the Architect of the Capitol, the U.S. Capitol Police, the Congressional

Budget Office, the Congressional Research Service, the Office of Congressional Workplace

Rights, the Congressional Office for International Leadership (COIL, formerly the Open World

Leadership Center), and the John C. Stennis Center for Public Service Training and Development

(hereinafter, Stennis Center)—are appointed in a variety of manners.1

The first three agencies listed above are led by a person appointed by the President, with the

advice and consent of the Senate. The next three are appointed by Congress (i.e., by designated

Members or officers), the next by the Librarian of Congress (after consultation with the Joint

Committee on the Library), the next by a board of directors, the next by the Librarian of Congress

on behalf of the board of trustees of COIL, and the last by the board of trustees of the Stennis

Center.

The most recent change in appointment process for any of these positions occurred with the

enactment of the Architect of the Capitol Appointment Act of 2023 (within the National Defense

Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2024, H.R. 2670, P.L. 118-31) on December 22, 2023.

Congress has periodically examined the procedures used to appoint legislative branch officers

with the aim of protecting the prerogatives of, and ensuring accountability to, Congress within the

framework of the advice and consent appointment process established in Article II, Section 2 of

the Constitution.2 Legislation to alter the appointment process for legislative branch agencies and

entities has periodically been introduced for many years.3

Questions remain about various reform proposals, including the ability of Congress to remove the

President from the appointment process for some of these positions. These may depend upon the

implication or interpretation of the Appointments Clause of the Constitution, the definition of an

“officer of the United States,” the specific office or agency in question, and whether or not a

change in appointing authority would require any revision in the powers and duties of legislative

branch agency leaders. Some previous reforms and proposals have also attempted to find a role

for the House of Representatives, which does not play a formal role in the confirmation of

presidential nominees, in the search for legislative branch officials.

1 Inclusion in this report is generally based on funding provided within the annual legislative branch appropriations

bills, not including funding for the House, Senate, or within “Joint Items.” The report does not include boards and

commissions that do not receive funding within the legislative branch appropriations bill but may be deemed in the

legislative branch. The report is not meant to address applicability of broader rules, regulations, or laws to any of the

agencies or entities included in this report.

2 This section states The President “shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall

appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the

United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but

the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone,

in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.”

3 For example, see H.R. 8616, S. 2206, and S. 2205 (94th Cong.); S. 1278 and H.R. 63 (93rd Cong.); and H.R. 17102

(92nd Cong.). In more recent Congresses, the Legislative Branch Officer Appointment Act of 2005 (H.R. 4446, 109th

Cong.) and the Architect of the Capitol Appointment Act of 2008 (H.R. 6656, 110th Cong.) were introduced and

referred to committees, although no further action was taken. In the 111th Cong., two measures (H.R. 2185 and H.R.

2843) were introduced to remove the President from the Architect appointment process and shift it to the congressional

leaders and chairs and ranking Members of specific congressional committees. H.R. 2843, the Architect of the Capitol

Appointment Act of 2010, passed the House on February 3, 2010, but received no further consideration. In the 118th

Cong., see H.R. 3196, S.Amdt. 220 and S.Amdt. 935 to S. 2226; and H.R. 2670 (P.L. 118-31).

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Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

Overview by Legislative Branch Agency or Entity

The following sections contain information on the legislative branch agency heads’ appointment

processes, length of tenures (if terms are set), reappointment or removal provisions (if any),

salaries and benefits, and most recent appointments. Information is provided on each agency and

summarized in Table 1.

The report does not address all statutorily established appointive positions in the legislative

branch. Additional positions—including some deputies, inspectors general, counsels, and leaders

of service units or divisions—are beyond the scope of this report, but may be addressed in other

CRS products.

Table 1. Legislative Branch Agency and Entity Executives: Summary of Appointment

Process, Tenure, and Salaries

Agency

(Top Official)

Appointment Process

Tenure

Salarya

Architect of the Capitol

(Architect of the

Capitol)

Majority vote of a

congressional commission

comprised of 12 Members

10 years

May be reappointed

Equivalent to Level II of

the Executive Schedulea

Government

Accountability Office

(Comptroller General)

Advice and Consent;

congressional commission

recommends names to the

President

15 years

Not eligible for

reappointment

Equivalent to Level II of

the Executive Schedulea

Government Publishing

Office

(Director)

Advice and Consent

10 years

May be reappointed

Equivalent to Level II of

the Executive Schedulea

Library of Congress

(Librarian of Congress)

Advice and Consent

10 years

May be reappointed

Equivalent to Level II of

the Executive Schedulea

Congressional Research

Service

(Director)

Appointed by the Librarian

after consultation with the

Joint Committee on the Library

None specified in law

“the greater of the rate of

pay in effect for level III of

the Executive Schedule”

or “the maximum annual

rate of basic pay payable ...

for positions at agencies

with a [certified]

performance appraisal

system”a

Capitol Police

(Chief)

Appointed by the Capitol

Police Board

None specified in law

Equivalent to Level II of

the Executive Schedulea

Congressional Budget

Office

(Director)

Appointed by Speaker and

President pro tempore after

consideration of

recommendations of the

Committees on the Budget

4 years

May be reappointed

Maximum rate of

compensation paid to

employees of the Senate,

which is also equivalent to

Level II of the Executive

Schedulea

Congressional Research Service

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Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

Agency

(Top Official)

Appointment Process

Tenure

Salarya

Office of Congressional

Workplace Rights

(Executive Director)

Appointed by Chair of the

Board of Directors of the

Office of Congressional

Workplace Rights, subject to

the approval of the Board

5 years

May serve up to two

terms

Established by Chair of the

Board at a rate not to

exceed the maximum rate

of compensation paid to

employees of the Senate,

which is also equivalent to

Level II of the Executive

Schedulea

Congressional Office

for International

Leadership

(Executive Director)

Appointed by the Librarian of

Congress on behalf of the

Board of Trustees of COIL

None specified in law

Established by the Board

at a rate not to exceed

Level III of the Executive

Schedulea

John C. Stennis Center

for Public Service

Training and

Development

(Executive Director)

Appointed by the Board of

Trustees of the Stennis Center

None specified in law

Linked to the former GS–

18 of the General

Schedule, which is now

“considered a reference to

the maximum rate payable

under section 5376 of

Title 5 of the U.S. Code.”b

Source: Congressional Research Service. See sections on the individual positions for additional information.

Notes:

a. For information on 2024 rates for certain senior officials, see https://www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/

pay-leave/salaries-wages/pay-executive-order-2024-adjustments-of-certain-rates-of-pay.pdf. In addition, OPM

Salary Table No. 2024-EX, “Rates of Basic Pay for the Executive Schedule (EX),” effective January 2024,

includes the official 2024 EX rates, which are also the payable rates for officials not covered by the freeze. It

also states “The Further Continuing Appropriations and Other Extensions Act, 2024 (P.L. 118-22,

November 16, 2023) continues the pay freeze on the payable pay rates for the Vice President and certain

senior political appointees through February 2, 2024. Future Congressional action will determine whether

the pay freeze continues beyond that date.” From calendar year 2014 through calendar year 2018,

legislation limited pay increases for certain appointees who are paid at rates equal to the Executive Schedule

(P.L. 113-76, Division E, title VII, §741, January 17, 2014; P.L. 113-235, Division E, title VII, §738, December

16, 2014; P.L. 114-113, Division E, title VII, §738, December 18, 2015; P.L. 115-31, Division E, title VII, §738,

May 5, 2017; P.L. 115-141, Division E, title VII, §738, March 23, 2018). The Consolidated Appropriations

Act, 2019 (P.L. 116-6, Division D, title VII, §749, February 15, 2019) applied a modified pay freeze to

calendar year 2019. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2020 (P.L. 116-93, Division C, title VII, §749,

December 20, 2019), the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021 (P.L. 116-260, Division E, title VII, §748,

December 27, 2020), the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2022 (P.L. 117-103, Division E, §747, March 15,

2022), the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2023 (P.L. 117-328, Division E, §747, December 29, 2022), the

Further Continuing Appropriations and Other Extensions Act, 2024 (P.L. 118-22, §141, November 16,

2023), and the Further Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2024 (P.L. 118-47, Division B, §747, March 23,

2024) continued this modified freeze. Level II is the salary for many deputy secretaries and heads of

independent agencies (5 U.S.C. §5313). The 2024 Level II rate for officials not covered by the freeze is

$221,900. The 2024 Level II rate for officials covered by the freeze is $183,100. For positions linked to the

maximum rate of compensation of Senate employees, see 2 U.S.C. §4575(f) (Gross rate of compensation of

employees paid by Secretary of Senate, general limitation).

b. See https://www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/pay-leave/pay-administration/fact-sheets/interpretingreferences-in-law-to-maximum-rates-under-the-general-schedule-or-5-usc-5376/.

The House-reported version of the FY2025 legislative branch appropriations bill (H.R. 8772),

which failed on passage, included a general provision (§210) to prohibit the pay freezes that have

been included in Section 747 of the financial services and general government appropriations acts

from applying to the Director of the Government Publishing Office or the Librarian of Congress.

The Senate-reported version of the FY2025 legislative branch appropriations bill (S. 4678) did

not include this provision.

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Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

Architect of the Capitol

Legislation to change the appointment of the Architect was considered and enacted in the 118th

Congress.

On May 10, 2023, H.R. 3196, the Architect of the Capitol Appointment Act of 2023, was

introduced and referred to the Committee on House Administration, and in addition to the House

Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure. This bill would have made the Architect’s

appointment based on a majority vote of a congressional commission, maintained the 10-year

term of office, and allowed for removal with a majority vote of the members of the appointing

commission.4

Additionally, S.Amdt. 220 to S. 2226, a Senate floor amendment to the Senate FY2024 National

Defense Authorization Act (NDAA), filed by Senator Klobuchar (for herself and Senator Fischer)

on July 12, 2023, included the Architect appointment provision as proposed in H.R. 3196, though

the amendment was not offered to the bill.

The Architect appointment provision was included, however, in S.Amdt. 935, a full-text substitute

“managers’ package” offered by Senator Schumer on behalf of Senator Reed, which incorporated

the text of 51 different filed amendments to the bill. Senate passage of S. 2226, as amended, on

July 27, 2023, included the Architect appointment provision.

The Senate offered the S. 2226 text, as passed, as a Senate amendment to the House FY2024

NDAA (H.R. 2670), which did not previously include the Architect appointment provision, also

on July 27, 2023. The Senate and House agreed to the conference report on December 13 and 14,

2023, respectively. H.R. 2670 was enacted on December 22, 2023, with the identical Architect

appointment provision (P.L. 118-31).

Previously, pursuant to the Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 1990,5 the Architect was

“appointed by the President by and with the advice and consent of the Senate for a term of 10

years.”6 The act also established a congressional commission responsible for recommending

individuals to the President for the position of Architect of the Capitol. The commission,

originally consisting of the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the President pro tempore of

the Senate, the majority and minority leaders of the House of Representatives and the Senate, and

the chairs and the ranking minority Members of the Committee on House Administration and the

Senate Committee on Rules and Administration, was expanded in 1995 to include the chairs and

ranking minority Members of the House and Senate Appropriations Committees.7

Prior to 1989, the Architect was selected by the President for an unlimited term without any

formal involvement of Congress. The FY1990 act, however, followed numerous attempts dating

at least to the 1950s to alter the appointment procedure to provide a role for Congress. The

4 The congressional commission proposed in H.R. 3196 and eventually enacted in P.L. 118-31 is comprised of “the

Speaker of the House of Representatives, the majority leader of the Senate, the minority leaders of the House of

Representatives and Senate, the chair and ranking minority member of the Committee on Appropriations of the House

of Representatives, the chairman and ranking minority member of the Committee on Appropriations of the Senate, the

chair and ranking minority member of the Committee on House Administration of the House of Representatives, and

the chairman and ranking minority member of the Committee on Rules and Administration of the Senate” (H.R. 3196,

118th Cong.).

5

P.L. 101-163, November 21, 1989, 103 Stat. 1068.

6 2 U.S.C. §1801(a)(1).

7 P.L. 104-19, July 27, 1995, 109 Stat. 220.

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Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

proposals included requiring the advice and consent of the Senate,8 establishing a commission to

recommend names to the President, and removing the appointment process from the President

and instead making the Architect appointed solely by Congress.

The salary for the Architect has been statutorily changed a few times in recent years. Beginning

with the enactment of the FY2002 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, the Architect was

compensated at an “annual rate which is equal to the lesser of the annual salary for the Sergeant at

Arms of the House of Representatives or the annual salary for the Sergeant at Arms and

Doorkeeper of the Senate.”9 In general, this level was equivalent to $1,500 below the salary of

Members of Congress.

Pursuant to the FY2020 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, the pay for the Architect of the

Capitol was set “at an annual rate which is equal to the maximum rate of pay in effect under

section 4575(f) of Title II” of the U.S. Code (e.g., maximum rate of compensation of Senate

employees).10

A provision included in the House-reported FY2021 legislative branch appropriations bill, H.R.

7611, proposed setting pay for the Architect at Level II of the Executive Schedule. This provision

was not included in the FY2021 Senate Appropriations Committee majority draft bill or the

FY2021 Consolidated Appropriations (P.L. 116-260). A similar provision setting pay at Level II

of the Executive Schedule was included in the House-passed FY2022 legislative branch

appropriations bill, H.R. 4346, but not the Senate Appropriations Committee chairman’s draft bill.

This provision was included in the FY2022 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 117-103).11

Most Recent Appointment

The first appointment under this new process was announced by the congressional commission on

May 22, 2024. Thomas Austin assumed the role of Architect on June 24.12

Prior to this appointment, Chief of Operations Joseph DiPietro served as the Acting Architect of

the Capitol.13 He succeeded Chere Rexroat, the Chief Engineer, in this acting role.

On February 13, 2023, previous Architect J. Brett Blanton was informed by the White House that

his appointment as Architect was terminated. The termination followed a hearing of the

8 For example, S. 2760 (96th Cong., S.Rept. 96-818) passed the Senate on November 24, 1980, but received no further

action.

9 This language was included in the Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, 2002 (P.L. 107-68, §129, November 12,

2001, 115 Stat. 579-580, 2 U.S.C. §1802 note). Prior to 2001, the position was linked to Level III of the Executive

Schedule.

10 P.L. 116-94, December 20, 2019, 133 Stat. 2775, 2 U.S.C. §1802.

11 P.L. 117-103, March 15, 2022, 136 Stat. 526, 2 U.S.C. §1802.

12 See “Thomas E. Austin,” U.S. Architect of the Capitol, https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/history/architects-of-thecapitol/thomas-e-austin; Sen. Amy Klobuchar, “Congressional Commission Announces Architect of the Capitol

Appointment,” press release, May 22, 2024, https://www.klobuchar.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/2024/5/congressionalcommission-announces-architect-of-the-capitol-appointment; “Congressional Recognition of Thomas Austin, Architect

of the Capitol,” Congressional Record, Extensions of Remarks, June 25, 2024, p. E660; and “Architect of the Capitol

Appointment,” Congressional Record, June 18, 2024, p. S4147.

13 See “Joseph DiPietro,” U.S. Architect of the Capitol, https://www.aoc.gov/about-us/organizational-structure/officechief-operations/ChOps. Pursuant to 2 U.S.C. §1804, the Deputy Architect of the Capitol acts as the Architect of the

Capitol during a vacancy in that position. At the time of Blanton’s termination as Architect, the deputy position was

vacant.

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Committee on House Administration on February 9, 2023,14 and an inspector general report

issued on October 26, 2022.15

Blanton was nominated to be Architect of the Capitol by President Donald J. Trump on December

9, 2019. The nomination was referred to the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration. The

committee held a hearing on December 12, 2019, and Blanton was confirmed by voice vote in the

Senate on December 19, 2019.

Previously, Stephen T. Ayers was nominated by President Obama for a 10-year term on February

24, 2010. The nomination was referred to the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration.

The committee held a hearing on April 15, 2010, and Ayers was confirmed by voice vote in the

Senate on May 12, 2010. Ayers was previously the Deputy Architect/Chief Operating Officer and

had served as Acting Architect of the Capitol following the February 4, 2007, retirement of

former Architect of the Capitol Alan Hantman. Upon the retirement of Ayers on November 23,

2018, Christine Merdon, the Deputy Architect of the Capitol/Chief Operating Officer, became the

Acting Architect of the Capitol. After her resignation in August 2019, Thomas J. Carroll served as

Acting Architect of the Capitol until the confirmation of Blanton.

Government Accountability Office

Pursuant to 31 U.S.C. §703(a)(1), the Comptroller General shall be “appointed by the President,

by and with the advice and consent of the Senate.” This procedure dates to the establishment of

the agency in 1921.16 Additionally, a commission procedure established in 1980 recommends

individuals to the President in the event of a vacancy.17 The commission consists of the Speaker

of the House, the President pro tempore of the Senate, the majority and minority leaders of the

House and Senate, the chairs and ranking minority Members of the Senate Committee on

Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs and the House Committee on Oversight and

Government Reform. The commission is to recommend at least three individuals for this position

to the President, although the President may request additional names.

The Comptroller General is appointed to a 15-year term and may not be reappointed.18 The

Comptroller General may be removed by “(A) impeachment; or (B) joint resolution of Congress,

after notice and an opportunity for a hearing” and only by reason of permanent disability;

inefficiency; neglect of duty; malfeasance; or a felony or conduct involving moral turpitude.19

14 See U.S. Congress, Committee on House Administration, The Looking Ahead Series: The Architect of the Capitol’s

Strategic Plan for the 118th Congress, 118th Cong., 1st sess., February 9, 2023, at https://cha.house.gov/committeeactivity/hearings/looking-ahead-series-architect-capitols-strategic-plan-118th-congress.

15 See “J. Brett Blanton, Architect of the Capitol, Abused His Authority, Misused Government Property and Wasted

Taxpayer Money, Among Other Substantiated Violations,” Architect of the Capitol, Office of Inspector General,

October, 26, 2022, available at https://www.oversight.gov/report/AOC/J-Brett-Blanton-Architect-Capitol-Abused-HisAuthority-Misused-Government-Property-and.

16 Ch. 18, §302, June 10, 1921, 42 Stat. 23. For additional information on discussion prior to enactment, see

Congressional Record, June 4, 1920 pp. 8609-8613; Congressional Record, May 3, 1921, pp. 982-984; Congressional

Record, May 5, 1921, p. 1079; Congressional Record, May 27, 1921, pp. 1855-1859. For a more recent discussion, see

H.R. 4296 and Congressional Record, October 21, 1998, p. S12980.

17 P.L. 96-226, 94 Stat. 314-315, April 3, 1980; 31 U.S.C. §703(a)(2).

18 31 U.S.C. §703(b).

19 31 U.S.C. §703(e). See also Myers v. United States (1926); Humphrey’s Executor v. United States (1935); and

Bowsher v. Synar (1986).

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Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

The salary of the Comptroller General is equal to Level II of the Executive Schedule.20

Additionally, a law enacted in 1953 established a separate retirement system for the Comptroller

General.21

Most Recent Appointment

Gene L. Dodaro, then-chief operating officer at GAO, became the acting Comptroller General on

March 13, 2008, upon the resignation of David M. Walker,22 who had previously been confirmed

on October 21, 1998. The White House announced Dodaro’s nomination to a 15-year term as

Comptroller General on September 22, 2010. The Senate Committee on Homeland Security and

Governmental Affairs held a hearing on the nomination on November 18, 2010, and Dodaro was

confirmed by the Senate by voice vote on December 22, 2010.

Government Publishing Office

The Government Publishing Office (GPO; formerly Government Printing Office) was established

in 1861. The U.S. Code, at 44 U.S.C. §301, states that the President “shall nominate and, by and

with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoint a suitable person to take charge of and manage

the Government Publishing Office. The title shall be Director of the Government Publishing

Office.”

The current appointment language was enacted in 2014,23 although the use of the advice and

consent procedure for this position can be traced back much further.24 P.L. 117-213 (S. 4791, 117th

Congress; enacted October 17, 2022), established a term of 10 years for the director of GPO, with

the possibility of reappointment by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the

Senate.

20 P.L. 97-258, September 13, 1982, 96 Stat. 889, 31 U.S.C. §703(f)(1). The FY2024 budget request includes an

administrative provision to increase the salary to the payable rate for “Executive Schedule level I in effect on December

31, 2022, except that if at any time during fiscal year 2024 the payable rate for Executive Schedule level I is greater

than the rate payable for Executive Schedule level I in effect on December 31, 2022, the payable rate of pay of the

Comptroller General shall be that greater rate.” (U.S. Office of Management and Budget, Budget of the U.S.

Government Fiscal Year 2024, Budget Appendix, Legislative Branch, §8001, p. 38, at https://www.whitehouse.gov/wpcontent/uploads/2023/03/leg_fy2024.pdf.)

21 This “annuity for life [is] equal to the pay the Comptroller General is receiving on completion of the term or at the

time of retirement,” subject to increases (67 Stat. 229, 31 U.S.C. §772 et seq.). For additional discussion, see U.S.

Congress, Senate Committee on Government Operations, Comptroller General, Retirement, S.Rept. 594, 83rd Cong., 1st

sess. (Washington: GPO, 1953), p. 1; U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Legislative Branch

Appropriations, 2008, report to accompany H.R. 2771, 110th Cong., 1st sess., H.Rept. 110-198 (Washington: GPO,

2007), p. 31; and, Response by Gene L. Dodaro, U.S. Congress, House Committee on Appropriations, Subcommittee

on the Legislative Branch, Legislative Branch Appropriations for 2009, hearings, part 2, 110th Cong., 2nd sess., April

10, 2008 (Washington: GPO, 2008), pp. 705-706.

22 Pursuant to 31 U.S.C. §703, “The Comptroller General shall designate an officer or employee of the Government

Accountability Office to act as Comptroller General when the Comptroller General and Deputy Comptroller General

are absent or unable to serve or when the offices of Comptroller General and Deputy Comptroller General are vacant.”

23 P.L. 113-235, Div. H, December 16, 2014, 128 Stat. 2537, 2538. The 2014 act also deleted references to gender and

bookbinding as well as changing the title of the agency and its director.

24 See, for example: P.L. 90-620, October 22, 1968, 82 Stat. 1239; and previously, nomination of John D. Defrees to be

Superintendent of Public Printing, Senate Executive Journal, March 16, 1861, p. 307, and March 20, 1861, p. 319;

designation as congressional printer in ch. 61,14 Stat. 399, February 22, 1867 and debate in Cong. Globe, 39th Cong.,

2nd sess., vol. 37, pt. 2, February 18, 1867, pp. 499-500; return to prior process in ch. 246, 19 Stat. 105, July 31, 1876;

and ch. 23, 28 Stat. 603, January 12, 1895.

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Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

The director’s pay is equivalent to Level II of the Executive Schedule.25

Most Recent Appointment

On October 17, 2019, Hugh Halpern was nominated as director of GPO. The nomination was

referred to the Senate Committee on Rules and Administration. The committee held a hearing on

November 14, 2019, and Halpern was confirmed by voice vote in the Senate on December 4,

2019.

From November 2017 until the confirmation of Halpern, multiple officials served as acting

director. GPO’s managing director of plant operations, John Crawford, become acting deputy

director on April 1, 2019. GPO’s former chief administrative officer, Herbert H. Jackson Jr.,

served as acting deputy director from July 1, 2018, until his retirement on March 31, 2019. His

service followed the retirement of Andrew M. Sherman, formerly GPO’s chief of staff, who had

been serving as acting deputy director following the retirement of Acting GPO Director Jim

Bradley on March 6, 2018. Bradley, previously the GPO deputy director, had assumed this role

following the departure of the previous director, Davita Vance-Cooks, in November 2017. VanceCooks had been nominated by President Obama on May 9, 2013, to be public printer, as the head

of the GPO was then known, and confirmed by the Senate by voice vote on August 1, 2013.

During this vacancy period, Robert C. Tapella was twice nominated to be director. Previously,

Tapella served in this role from October 4, 2007 (confirmed by the Senate by voice vote) until

December 28, 2010. He was subsequently nominated on June 18, 2018. The nomination was

referred to the Committee on Rules and Administration. No further action was taken prior to the

end of the 115th Congress, and the nomination was returned to the President pursuant to Senate

Rule XXXI. President Trump renominated Tapella on January 16, 2019. The nomination was

referred to the Committee on Rules and Administration. A message from the President

withdrawing the nomination was received in the Senate on June 24, 2019.26

Library of Congress

The Library of Congress was established in 1800. The U.S. Code, at 2 U.S.C. §136, states “The

Librarian of Congress shall make rules and regulations for the government of the Library.”

Until an act of February 19, 1897,27 which made the appointment subject to the advice and

consent of the Senate, the Librarian was appointed solely by the President.

The tenure of the Librarian was amended in 2015 (2 U.S.C. §136-1). The Librarian of Congress

Succession Modernization Act of 2015, S. 2162, was introduced in the Senate on October 7,

2015, and agreed to the same day by unanimous consent. It was agreed to in the House without

objection on October 20 and signed by President Obama on November 5, 2015 (P.L. 114-86). The

act establishes a term limit of 10 years, with the possibility of reappointment by the President, by

and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Previously, there was no set term of office for the

Librarian.

25 This rate was established with the FY2004 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act (P.L. 108-83, September 30, 2003,

117 Stat. 1033, 44 U.S.C. §303). Pay for the Public Printer previously was equivalent to Level III of the Executive

Schedule.

26 Available at https://trumpwhitehouse.archives.gov/presidential-actions/thirteen-nominations-one-withdrawal-sentsenate/.

27 29 Stat. 544. For a lengthy discussion, see also Congressional Record, December 19, 1896, pp. 311-319.

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The U.S. Code, at 2 U.S.C. §136a-2, states “the Librarian of Congress shall be compensated at an

annual rate of pay which is equal to the annual rate of basic pay payable for positions at Level II

of the Executive Schedule under section 5313 of title 5.”28

Most Recent Appointment

Carla D. Hayden was nominated to a 10-year term as Librarian of Congress by President Obama

on February 24, 2016.29 The Senate Committee on Rules and Administration held a hearing on the

nomination on April 20, 2016, and ordered the nomination favorably reported on June 9.30

Hayden was confirmed as the 14th Librarian of Congress on July 13, 2016 (74-18, record vote

number 128).

Hayden succeeded James H. Billington, who retired effective September 30, 2015. Billington had

been confirmed as Librarian of Congress by the Senate on July 24, 1987.31

Congressional Research Service

The Legislative Reorganization Act of 1970 provides that the Librarian of Congress appoint the

director of the Congressional Research Service (CRS) “after consultation with the Joint

Committee on the Library.”32 Pursuant to the FY2020 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, the

compensation for the director is set “at the greater of the rate of pay in effect for level III of the

Executive Schedule under section 5314 of title 5 or the maximum annual rate of basic pay

payable under section 5376 of such title for positions at agencies with a performance appraisal

system certified under section 5307(d) of such title.”33 There is no set term of office.34

Most Recent Appointment

Karen E. Donfried began her service as CRS Director effective September 23, 2024.

She followed Robert R. Newlen, who served as interim director of CRS beginning July 3, 2023.

Previously, Mary B. Mazanec was appointed director by former Librarian James H. Billington on

December 5, 2011.

U.S. Capitol Police

2 U.S.C. §1901 states “There shall be a captain of the Capitol police and such other members

with such rates of compensation, respectively, as may be appropriated for by Congress from year

to year. The Capitol Police shall be headed by a Chief who shall be appointed by the Capitol

28 From 1983 until the passage of the FY2000 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, the Librarian was compensated

at a rate equivalent to Level III of the Executive Schedule (P.L. 98-63, July 30, 1983, 97 Stat. 336, and P.L. 106-57,

September 29, 1999, 113 Stat. 424, 2 U.S.C. §136a-2 and §166).

29 See also https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/02/24/president-obama-announces-his-intentnominate-carla-d-hayden-librarian.

30 U.S. Congress, Senate Committee on Rules and Administration, Nomination of Dr. Carla D. Hayden to be Librarian

of Congress, 114th Cong., 2nd sess., April 20, 2016, S.Hrg. 114-285 (Washington: GPO, 2016). Pursuant to the

Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2016 (P.L. 114-113), Billington was designated Librarian of Congress Emeritus.

31 For additional information on prior Librarians, see http://www.loc.gov/loc/legacy/librs.html.

32 2 U.S.C. §166.

33 2 U.S.C. §166. Most recently amended by P.L. 116-94, December 20, 2019, 133 Stat. 3208. See also 5 U.S.C. §5307

(P.L. 114-113, December 18, 2015, 129 Stat. 2674).

34 2 U.S.C. §166.

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Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

Police Board and shall serve at the pleasure of the Board.” The last sentence was inserted in

1979,35 struck by the FY2003 Consolidated Appropriations Resolution,36 and restored in 2010 by

the U.S. Capitol Police Administrative Technical Corrections Act.37

Pay for the chief has been adjusted multiple times: (1) pursuant to a 1979 law, pay for the chief

was equal to Level IV of the Executive Schedule; (2) pursuant to a 2000 law, pay was linked to

the Senior Executive Service; and (3) pursuant to a 2002 law, pay was equal to $2,500 less than

House or Senate officers.38 From 2003 until statutorily amended in 2019, the compensation for

the chief of the Capitol Police was “equal to $1,000 less than the lower of the annual rate of pay

in effect for the Sergeant-at-Arms of the House of Representatives or the annual rate of pay in

effect for the Sergeant-at-Arms and Doorkeeper of the Senate.”39

Pursuant to the FY2020 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, the pay for the chief of the

Capitol Police was “$1,000 less than the maximum rate of pay in effect under section 4575(f) of

Title II” of the U.S. Code (e.g., maximum rate of compensation of Senate employees).40

A provision included in the House-reported FY2021 legislative branch appropriations bill, H.R.

7611, would have set pay for the chief at Level II of the Executive Schedule. This provision was

not included in the FY2021 Senate Appropriations Committee majority draft bill or the FY2021

Consolidated Appropriations (P.L. 116-260).41 A similar provision setting pay at Level II of the

Executive Schedule was included in the House-passed FY2022 legislative branch appropriations

bill, H.R. 4346, but not the Senate Appropriations Committee chairman’s draft bill. This provision

was included in the FY2022 Consolidated Appropriations Act (P.L. 117-103).42

Most Recent Appointment

The Capitol Police Board announced the appointment of J. Thomas Manger as chief of the U.S.

Capitol Police, effective July 23, 2021.43

Previously, Yogananda D. Pittman served as the acting chief of police/assistant chief of police for

protective and intelligence operations following the January 8, 2021, resignation of Chief Steven

35 P.L. 96-152, December 20, 1979, 93 Stat. 1099.

36 P.L. 108-7, February 20, 2003, 117 Stat. 368.

37 P.L. 111-145, March 4, 2010, 124 Stat. 54, 55.

38 P.L. 107-117 (January 10, 2002, 115 Stat. 2319) established the chief’s salary at a level “not to exceed $2,500 less

than the lesser of the annual salary for the Sergeant at Arms of the House of Representatives or the annual salary for the

Sergeant at Arms and Doorkeeper of the Senate.” The FY2001 Consolidated Appropriations Act linked pay for the

chief to the former level ES–4 of the Senior Executive Service (P.L. 106-554, December 21, 2000, 114 Stat. 2763,

2763A-107). The chief had previously been paid at a rate equal to the annual rate determined by the Capitol Police

Board but not to exceed the basic pay payable for Level IV of the Executive Schedule (P.L. 96-152, December 20,

1979, 93 Stat. 1099). 2 U.S.C. §1902 and §1903 notes.

39 P.L. 108-7, February 20, 2003, 117 Stat. 368.

40 P.L. 116-94, December 20, 2019, 133 Stat. 2775, 2 U.S.C. §1902.

41 For additional information on FY2021 actions, see CRS Report R46469, Legislative Branch: FY2021

Appropriations, by Ida A. Brudnick.

42 P.L. 117-103, March 15, 2022, 136 Stat. 526, 2 U.S.C. §1902.

43 U.S. Capitol Police, “Capitol Police Board Announces Selection of USCP Chief of Police,” press release, July 22,

2021, available at https://www.uscp.gov/media-center/press-releases/capitol-police-board-announces-selection-uscpchief-police. The Police Executive Research Forum “assist[ed] the Capitol Police Board with the selection process”

(see Police Executive Research Forum, “Chief of Police: United States Capitol Police,” at

https://www.policeforum.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=952:chief-of-police—united-statescapitol-police&catid=20:site-content).

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Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

A. Sund, who had served as chief since June 13, 2019.44 Chief Sund followed Matthew R.

Verderosa, who had served as chief since March 20, 2016.45

Congressional Budget Office

The director of the Congressional Budget Office (CBO) has been appointed wholly by Congress

since the creation of the post with the passage of the Congressional Budget Act in 1974. The act

stipulates that the director is appointed for a four-year term “by the Speaker of the House of

Representatives and the President pro tempore of the Senate after considering recommendations

received from the Committees on the Budget of the House and the Senate, without regard to

political affiliation and solely on the basis of his fitness to perform his duties.”46 The director may

be reappointed, and either chamber can remove the director by simple resolution.47 Additionally, a

director appointed “to fill a vacancy prior to the expiration of a term shall serve only for the

unexpired portion of that term” and an “individual serving as Director at the expiration of a term

may continue to serve until his successor is appointed.”48

From the establishment of CBO until the enactment of the FY2000 Consolidated Appropriations

Act (P.L. 106-113), the director was paid at a rate equivalent to Level III of the Executive

Schedule. Subsequently, the CBO director was paid at an annual rate equivalent to the lower of

the highest annual rate of compensation of any officer of the House or any officer of the Senate.

Pursuant to the FY2020 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, the pay for the CBO director was

set “at an annual rate of pay that is equal to the maximum rate of pay in effect under section

4575(f) of Title II” of the U.S. Code (e.g., maximum rate of compensation of Senate

employees).49 The FY2022 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, in turn, amended 2 U.S.C.

§4575(f) to establish a maximum annual amount equivalent to “the annual rate of basic pay in

effect for level II of the Executive Schedule under section 5313 of title 5.”50

Most Recent Appointment

Phillip Swagel, the current director of CBO, began his service on June 3, 2019. He was appointed

to a second term in office on July 27, 2023.51 He follows Keith Hall, who began his service on

April 1, 2015.52

44 U.S. Capitol Police, “Capitol Police Board Selects Steven Sund as Chief of United States Capitol Police,” press

release, June 14, 2019, available at https://www.uscp.gov/media-center/press-releases/capitol-police-board-selectssteven-sund-chief-united-states-police.

45 U.S. Capitol Police, “The Capitol Police Board Announces the Appointment of Assistant Chief of Police Matthew R.

Verderosa as New Chief of the United States Capitol Police,” February 24, 2016, available at https://www.uscp.gov/

media-center/press-releases/capitol-police-board-announces-appointment-assistant-chief-police.

46 2 U.S.C. §601(a).

47 2 U.S.C. §601(a)(4).

48 2 U.S.C. §601(a)(3).

49 P.L. 116-94, December 20, 2019, 133 Stat. 2775, 2 U.S.C. §601(a)(5). A provision included in the House-reported

FY2021 legislative branch appropriations bill, H.R. 7611, would have set pay for the CBO Director at Level II of the

Executive Schedule. This provision was not included in the FY2021 Senate Appropriations Committee majority draft

bill or the FY2021 Consolidated Appropriations (P.L. 116-260). This language was not included in FY2022 legislation.

50 P.L. 117-103, March 15, 2022, 136 Stat. 527.

51 See Phill Swagel, “Director’s Statement on Reappointment,” Congressional Budget Office, July 27, 2023,

https://www.cbo.gov/publication/59424.

52 For additional information, see CRS Report RL31880, Congressional Budget Office: Appointment and Tenure of the

Director and Deputy Director, by Megan S. Lynch; http://www.cbo.gov/about/overview.

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Legislative Branch Agency Appointments: History, Processes, and Recent Actions

Office of Congressional Workplace Rights

The Office of Congressional Workplace Rights (OCWR; formerly the Office of Compliance) was

renamed by the Congressional Accountability Act of 1995 Reform Act.53

2 U.S.C. §1382 states that the chair of the board of directors of the Office of Congressional

Workplace Rights, “subject to the approval of the Board, shall appoint and may remove an

Executive Director. Selection and appointment of the Executive Director shall be without regard

to political affiliation and solely on the basis of fitness to perform the duties of the Office.”54 The

executive director must be “an individual with training or expertise in the application of laws

referred to in section 1302(a)” of Title II of the U.S. Code.55

The chair of the board may set the compensation of the executive director. Pursuant to the

FY2020 Legislative Branch Appropriations Act, the pay for the executive director “may not

exceed the maximum rate of pay in effect under section 4575(f) of Title II” of the U.S. Code (i.e.,

maximum rate of compensation of Senate employees).56 The FY2022 Legislative Branch

Appropriations Act, in turn, amended 2 U.S.C. §4575(f) to establish a maximum annual amount

equivalent to “the annual rate of basic pay in effect for level II of the Executive Schedule under

section 5313 of title 5.”57

Previously

•

•

Pursuant to the FY2008 Consolidated Appropriations Act, the chair of the board

could fix the annual rate of pay for the executive director at a rate not to exceed

the lesser of House or Senate officers.58

Pursuant to the Congressional Accountability Act of 1995, which established the

office, the maximum pay for the executive director had been Level V of the

Executive Schedule.59

Separate legislation, P.L. 110-164, amended the Congressional Accountability Act and altered

eligibility and tenure restrictions for the executive director by allowing current or former

employees of the Office to serve in this capacity. The legislation also permits the executive

53 P.L. 115-397, December 21, 2018.

54 P.L. 104-1, January 23, 1995, 109 Stat. 26.

55 P.L. 104-1, January 23, 1995, 109 Stat. 26.

56 P.L. 116-94, December 20, 2019, 133 Stat. 2775, 2 U.S.C. §1382(a)(2)(B). A provision included in the House-

reported FY2021 legislative branch appropriations bill, H.R. 7611, would have set pay for the OCWR executive

director at Level II of the Executive Schedule. This provision was not included in the FY2021 Senate Appropriations

Committee majority draft bill or the FY2021 Consolidated Appropriations (P.L. 116-260).

57

P.L. 117-103, March 15, 2022, 136 Stat. 527.

58 P.L. 110-161, December 26, 2007, 121 Stat. 2237.

59 P.L. 104-1, January 23, 1995, 109 Stat. 26.

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director, deputy executive directors,60 and general counsel,61 who formerly were limited to one

five-year term in their positions, to serve up to two terms.62

Most Recent Appointment

On January 14, 2024, the OCWR board of directors announced the appointment of Martin J.

Crane as the OCWR executive director.63

Previously, on November 9, 2022, Patrick N. Findlay was announced as the OCWR executive

director.64 Prior to that, Teresa M. James served as acting executive director and deputy executive

director for the House of Representatives. Her service followed that of Susan Tsui Grundmann,

who was appointed to a five-year term as executive director commencing January 2017.65

Congressional Office for International Leadership

The office, formerly known as the Open World Leadership Center,66 is led by an executive

director who is appointed by the Librarian of Congress on behalf of the Board of Trustees. The

executive director is “compensated at the annual rate specified by the Board, but in no event shall

such rate exceed level III of the Executive Schedule under section 5314 of title 5.”67

Most Recent Appointment

Librarian of Congress Carla Hayden, at the recommendation of the Board of Trustees, announced

the appointment of Jane Sargus as executive director, effective January 8, 2018.68

60 The chair of the board of directors, subject to the approval of the board, appoints a deputy executive director for the

Senate and a deputy executive director for the House of Representatives. The chair may fix the compensation for the

deputy executive directors at a rate not to exceed 96% of the lesser of the highest annual rate of House or Senate

officers (2 U.S.C. §1382).

61 The chair of the board of directors, subject to the approval of the board, also appoints a general counsel. The chair

may fix the general counsel’s compensation at a rate not to exceed the lesser of the highest annual rate of House or

Senate officers (2 U.S.C. §1382).

62 P.L. 110-164, December 26, 2007, 121 Stat. 2459. Other laws addressed the permissible number of terms of

members of the board of directors (P.L. 108-349, P.L. 111-114, P.L. 114-6, and P.L. 115-19).

63 See Office of Congressional Workplace Rights, “OCWR Announces the Appointment of Martin J. Crane as

Executive Director,” press release, January 14, 2024, https://www.ocwr.gov/news/news-announcements/ocwrannounces-the-appointment-of-martin-j-crane-as-executive-director/.

64 See Office of Congressional Workplace Rights, “OCWR Appoints New Executive Director,” November 9, 2022,

https://www.ocwr.gov/news/press-releases/press-releases-ocwr-appoints-new-executive-director/.

65 On August 4, 2021, President Biden announced his intention to nominate Susan Tsui Grundmann for member of the

Federal Labor Relations Authority (see White House, “President Biden Announces 11 Key Nominations,” press

release, August 4, 2021, at https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/08/04/president-bidenannounces-11-key-nominations-2/). The nomination was returned to the President at the end of the 1st sess. of the 117th

Cong., pursuant to the provisions of Senate Rule XXXI, paragraph 6 of the Standing Rules of the Senate. President

Biden renominated Grundmann on January 4, 2022, and she was confirmed on May 12, 2022.

66 The FY2022 Consolidated Appropriations Act changed the name from the Open World Leadership Center to the

Congressional Office for International Leadership (P.L. 117-103, 136 Stat. 522, March 15, 2022).

67 2 U.S.C. §1151.

68 See https://www.openworld.gov/press-releases/jane-sargus-appointed-executive-director-open-world-leadershipcenter.

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John C. Stennis Center for Public Service Training and

Development

The Stennis Center was created by Congress in 1988 to encourage public service by

congressional staff through training and development programs. Its executive director is

appointed by the board of trustees of the Stennis Center.69

2 U.S.C. §1107(b) states that “The Executive Director of the Center shall be compensated at the

rate specified for employees in grade GS–18 of the General Schedule under section 5332 of title

5,” which is now “considered a reference to the maximum rate payable under section 5376 of

such title (as amended by section 102(a))….”70

Most Recent Appointment

Brian Pugh is the executive director of the Stennis Center. He succeeded Rex Buffington, who

had served as the executive director since the center’s establishment, in spring 2019.

Author Information

Ida A. Brudnick

Specialist on the Congress

Disclaimer

This document was prepared by the Congressional Research Service (CRS). CRS serves as nonpartisan

shared staff to congressional committees and Members of Congress. It operates solely at the behest of and

under the direction of Congress. Information in a CRS Report should not be relied upon for purposes other

than public understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to Members of Congress in

connection with CRS’s institutional role. CRS Reports, as a work of the United States Government, are not

subject to copyright protection in the United States. Any CRS Report may be reproduced and distributed in

its entirety without permission from CRS. However, as a CRS Report may include copyrighted images or

material from a third party, you may need to obtain the permission of the copyright holder if you wish to

copy or otherwise use copyrighted material.

69 2 U.S.C. §1107. See also https://stennis.gov/.

70 5 U.S.C. §5376, Pay for certain senior-level positions, note, References in Other Laws to GS–16, 17, or 18 Pay

Rates; Regulations, P.L. 101-509, title V, §529 [title I, §101(c), (d)], November 5, 1990, 104 Stat. 1427, 1442. See also

https://www.opm.gov/policy-data-oversight/pay-leave/pay-administration/fact-sheets/interpreting-references-in-law-tomaximum-rates-under-the-general-schedule-or-5-usc-5376/.

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