Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
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Selected Characteristics of Private and
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March 21, 2014
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R41897
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Summary
An issue for Congress and state and local governments is whether the pay and benefits of public
workers are comparable to those of workers in the private sector. In addition, among the ways to
reduce budget deficits, policy makers are considering the pay and benefits of public sector
employees.
The number of people employed in both the private and public sectors has increased steadily as
the U.S. economy has grown. However, after increasing to 19.2% of total employment in 1975,
the percentage of all jobs that are in the public sector fell to 15.7% in 1999. In 2013, public sector
jobs accounted for 16.0% of total employment.
The recession that officially began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009 affected
employment in both the private and public sectors. From 2007 to 2010, the number of jobs in the
private sector fell by an estimated 7.9 million, while the number of jobs in the public sector
increased by almost 272,000. Conversely, from 2010 to 2013, private sector employment grew by
approximately 6.7 million jobs, while public sector employment fell by about 626,000 jobs.
Reflecting the effects of the 2007-2009 recession on the budgets of state and local governments,
from 2010 to 2013, public sector employment as a share of total employment fell from 17.3% to
16.0%.
Among all full-time and part-time workers ages 16 and over, the number of workers covered by a
collective bargaining agreement has fallen in both the private and public sectors. The decline has
been greater in the private sector. In 2009, for the first time, a majority of workers who were
covered by a collective bargaining agreement were employed in the public sector (8.7 million
workers in the public sector, compared to 8.2 million private sector workers). By 2013, the
situation had reversed; a slight majority of workers covered by a collective bargaining agreement
were employed in the private sector (8.1 million private sector workers, compared to 7.9 million
public sector workers). In the federal government, except for the Postal Service and some smaller
agencies, employees do not bargain over wages.
Among workers ages 18 to 64 who work full-time, differences in characteristics that may affect
the relative pay and benefits of private and public sector workers include the following:
•
Age. Reflecting the aging of the U.S. labor force, workers in both the private and
public sectors have become older. Nevertheless, employees in the public sector
are older than private sector workers. In 2013, 51.7% of public sector workers
were between the ages of 45 and 64, compared to 42.4% of full-time private
sector workers. Federal workers are older than employees of state and local
governments. In 2013, 56.7% of federal workers were between the ages of 45 and
64, compared to 49.7% of state employees and 52.1% of employees of local
governments. Workers who have more years of work experience generally earn
more than workers with less experience.
•
Gender. Reflecting the increased participation of women in the labor force, the
share of jobs held by women has increased in both the private and public sectors.
In 2013, women held almost three-fifths (57.7%) of full-time jobs in state and
local governments. By contrast, women held approximately two-fifths of fulltime jobs in the federal government and in the private sector (42.2% and 41.7%,
respectively).
Congressional Research Service
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
•
Education. On average, public sector employees have more years of education
than private sector workers. In 2013, 53.6% of workers in the public sector had a
bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree, compared to 34.9% of private
sector workers. Generally, workers with more years of education earn more than
workers with less years of education.
•
Occupation. A larger share of public sector than private sector workers are
employed in “management, professional, and related occupations.” In 2013,
56.2% of public sector workers and 37.8% of private sector workers were
employed in these occupations. In part, more public sector workers were
employed in these occupations because 25.7% of all public sector workers were
employed in “education, training, and library” occupations, compared to 2.3% of
all private sector workers. Workers in management and professional occupations
generally earn more than workers in other occupations. However, comparisons of
the compensation of private and public sector workers that use broad
occupational categories may miss differences between detailed occupations.
Many detailed occupations are concentrated in either the private or public
sectors. Nevertheless, many detailed occupations may require similar skills.
•
Union coverage. Although the number of workers covered by a collective
bargaining agreement is greater in the private sector than in the public sector, the
percentage of workers covered by a collective bargaining agreement is greater in
the public sector than in the private sector.
•
Metropolitan area. Private sector workers are more likely than federal workers to
live in major metropolitan areas (i.e., areas with 5 million or more people).
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Contents
Trends in Private and Public Sector Employment ........................................................................... 2
The Number and Percent of Workers Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement ............ 5
Individual, Occupational, and Employer Characteristics of Private and Public Sector
Workers ......................................................................................................................................... 7
Age ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Gender ....................................................................................................................................... 9
Education ................................................................................................................................. 11
Occupation............................................................................................................................... 14
Major Occupations ............................................................................................................ 14
Union Coverage by Major Occupation ............................................................................. 15
Detailed Occupations ........................................................................................................ 17
Metropolitan Area.................................................................................................................... 17
Figures
Figure 1. Private and Public Sector Employment, 1955 to 2013 ..................................................... 2
Figure 2. Public Sector Employment as a Share of Total Employment, 1955 to 2013 .................... 3
Figure 3. Public Sector Employment, by Level of Government, 1955 to 2013............................... 4
Figure 4. Public Sector Employment, by Level of Government, as a Share of
Total Employment, 1955 to 2013 ................................................................................................. 4
Figure 5. Percent of Workers Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement, 1983-2013 ........... 6
Figure 6. Percent of Full-Time Workers Who Are Between the Ages of 45 and 64, 1976 to
2013 .............................................................................................................................................. 8
Figure 7. Percent of Full-Time Workers Who Are Female, 1976 to 2013 ..................................... 10
Figure 8. Percent of Full-Time Workers with a Bachelor’s Degree, Private and Public
Sectors, 1976 to 2013 ................................................................................................................. 12
Figure 9. Percent of Full-Time Workers with an Advanced or Professional Degree,
Private and Public Sectors, 1976 to 2013 ................................................................................... 13
Figure 10. Percent of Full-Time Workers with a Bachelor’s, Advanced, or Professional
Degree, by Level of Government, 1988 to 2013 ........................................................................ 14
Figure 11. Percent of Full-Time Employees Who Live in Metropolitan Areas With
Populations of 1 Million or More or 5 Million or More, 2013 ................................................... 18
Tables
Table 1. The Percent of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers Ages 18 to 64 Employed by
Occupation and the Percent of Those Workers Who Are
Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement, 2013 .............................................................. 16
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Table A-1. The Number of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers Ages 18 to 64 Employed
by Occupation and the Number of Workers Covered by a Collective Bargaining
Agreement by Occupation, 2013 ................................................................................................ 20
Table A-2. Wage and Salary Occupations Common to Both the Private and Public
Sectors, by Total Number Employed, 2013 ................................................................................ 22
Table A-3. Wage and Salary Occupations More Common in the Private Sector, by
Number Employed in the Private Sector, 2013 .......................................................................... 25
Table A-4. Wage and Salary Occupations More Common in the Public Sector, by the
Number Employed in the Public Sector, 2013............................................................................ 27
Table A-5. Values for the Education Variable in the Current Population Survey (CPS),
1976 to 2013 ............................................................................................................................... 30
Appendixes
Appendix. Detailed Data and Description of Data Source and Methodology ............................... 19
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 31
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
A
n issue for Congress and state and local governments is whether the pay and benefits of
public workers are comparable to those of workers in the private sector.1 The effect of the
recession that officially began in December 2007 and ended in June 2009 on government
budgets increased the interest of policy makers in the compensation of public sector employees.
According to the Congressional Budget Office (CBO), the federal deficit has fallen since
FY2009. But, CBO projects that the deficit for FY2014 will be $514 billion.2 Several state and
local governments also face budget shortfalls.3 Among the ways to reduce budget deficits, policy
makers are considering the pay and benefits of public sector employees.4
This report begins with an analysis of the trends in employment in the private and public sectors.
The public sector is separated into employees of the federal government, state governments, and
local governments. Next, the report analyzes selected characteristics of private and public sector
workers. These characteristics are often used in comparisons of the compensation of different
workers. The report does not compare the actual pay or benefits of private and public sector
workers or compare the characteristics of workers to try to explain any differences in the pay or
benefits of private and public sector workers.5
1
Under the Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 (FEPCA), the pay of federal employees should be
comparable to the pay of other employees who do the same type of work in the same local area. FEPCA is Section 529
of the Treasury, Postal Service and General Government Appropriations Act, 1991 (P.L. 101-509).
2
Congressional Budget Office (CBO), The Budget and Economic Outlook: Fiscal Years 2014 to 2024, February 2014,
p. 1 and Table E-1, available at http://www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/45010-Outlook2014.pdf.
3
According to a report by the Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, 30 states and the District of Columbia had to
close budget gaps totaling an estimated $55 billion for FY2013. Elizabeth McNichol, Phil Oliff, and Nicholas Johnson,
States Continue to Feel Recession’s Impact, Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, June 27, 2012, p. 2, available at
http://www.cbpp.org/files/2-8-08sfp.pdf.
4
The pay of federal civilian employees was frozen for three years, from calendar year 2011 through calendar year
2013. In 2010, President Obama proposed, and Congress approved, a two-year pay freeze for federal civilian
employees. The pay freeze applied to calendar years 2011 and 2012. The pay freeze was included in the Continuing
Appropriations and Surface Transportation Extensions Act, 2011 (P.L. 111-322). The pay freeze was extended to
March 27, 2013, by the Continuing Appropriations Resolution, 2013 (P.L. 112-175) and through the end of 2013 by the
Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013 (P.L. 113-6).
On December 23, 2013, President Barack Obama signed an executive order granting federal civilian employees a 1%
pay increase for 2014. The White House, Adjustments of Certain Rates of Pay, http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-pressoffice/2013/12/23/executive-order-adjustments-certain-rates-pay. For 2015, the President proposed a 1% pay increase
for federal civilian employees. U.S. Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget, Analytical
Perspectives, Budget of the United States Government, Fiscal Year 2015, p. 11, available at
http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/omb/budget/fy2015/assets/spec.pdf.
President Obama’s Fiscal Commission proposed a three-year pay freeze for federal civilian employees and
recommended that federal workers contribute more to their health insurance and retirement plans. The National
Commission on Fiscal Responsibility and Reform, The Moment of Truth: Report of the National Commission on Fiscal
Responsibility and Reform, December 2010, pp. 26, 40, 44-45, available at http://www.fiscalcommission.gov/sites/
fiscalcommission.gov/files/documents/TheMomentofTruth12_1_2010.pdf.
5
For an analysis of the compensation of private and public sector workers, see Congressional Budget Office,
Comparing the Compensation of Federal and Private-Sector Employees, January 2012, available at http://cbo.gov/
sites/default/files/cbofiles/attachments/01-30-FedPay.pdf. Also see CRS Report R42636, Comparing Compensation for
Federal and Private-Sector Workers: An Overview, by (name redacted). For an analysis of changes in employment
and compensation of the federal civilian workforce (excluding the Postal Service) from 2004 to 2012, see the U.S.
Government Accountability Office, Federal Workforce: Recent Trends in Federal Civilian Employment and
Compensation, GAO-14-215, January 2014, available at http://www.gao.gov/assets/670/660449.pdf.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Trends in Private and Public Sector Employment
The first part of this report examines the trends in employment in the private and public sectors in
the United States. The data are from the Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey, which is an
employer survey conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). Employment includes all
full-time and part-time workers of any age. Data are for 1955 to 2013. The beginning year of
1955 is used because that is the first year that the CES survey provides data on the number of
employees by level of government (i.e., federal, state, and local governments). In the CES,
federal employment includes civilian employees only; the military is not included.
The number of people employed in both the private and public sectors has increased steadily as
the U.S. economy has grown. From 1955 to 2013, employment in the private sector increased by
70.8 million jobs (from 43.7 million to 114.5 million), while employment in the public sector
grew by 14.8 million jobs (from 7.0 million to 21.9 million after rounding). (See Figure 1.)
From 2007 to 2010—during and after the 2007-2009 recession—private sector employment fell
by an estimated 7.9 million jobs, while public sector employment increased by almost 272,000
jobs. Conversely, from 2010 to 2013, private sector employment grew by approximately 6.7
million jobs, while public sector employment fell by an estimated 626,000 jobs.
Figure 1. Private and Public Sector Employment, 1955 to 2013
0
0
Total private
Public
5
20
10
20
13
20
20
05
10
20
00
40
19
95
15
19
90
60
19
85
20
19
80
80
19
75
25
19
70
100
19
65
30
19
60
120
19
55
Private
(in millions)
Total public
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics survey, available at http://stats.bls.gov/ces/.
The period from 1955 to 2013 shows that, until 1975, public employment increased as a share of
total employment, but has fallen since. In 1955, public sector employment accounted for 13.8%
of total employment. This percentage increased to 19.2% in 1975, and then fell to 15.7% in 1999.
From 1999 to 2010, public sector employment increased from 15.7% to 17.3% of total
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
employment. Reflecting the effects of the 2007-2009 recession on the budgets of state and local
governments, from 2010 to 2013 public sector employment fell from 17.3% to 16.0% of total
employment. (See Figure 2.)
Figure 2. Public Sector Employment as a Share of Total Employment, 1955 to 2013
22.0%
20.0%
18.0%
16.0%
14.0%
13
10
20
20
05
20
00
20
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
75
19
70
19
65
19
60
19
19
55
12.0%
Total public
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics survey, available at http://stats.bls.gov/ces/.
From 1955 to 2013, the growth in public sector employment occurred mainly among local
governments. At the local level, employment rose by an estimated 10.5 million jobs (from 3.6
million to 14.1 million). Employment at the state level rose by about 3.9 million jobs (from 1.2
million to 5.0 million after rounding). Employment in the federal government (including the
Postal Service) grew by approximately 471,000 jobs (from 2.3 million to 2.8 million). (See
Figure 3.)
Since the end of the 2007-2009 recession, public sector employment has fallen. In 2013, local
governments had 521,000 fewer jobs than in 2008. State governments had 129,000 fewer jobs
than in 2008. In 2013, there were approximately 211,000 fewer federal jobs than in 2010.
The share of total employment accounted for by local governments peaked at 11.4% in 1975. This
percentage fell through the late 1980s and then rose to 11.1% in 2009. From 2009 to 2013, the
share of total employment at the local level fell from 11.1% to 10.3%. (See Figure 3.)
The share of total employment accounted for by state governments also peaked in 1975, at 4.1%.
By 2013, this percentage had fallen to 3.7%.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Figure 3. Public Sector Employment, by Level of Government, 1955 to 2013
(in millions)
15
12
9
6
3
Local
Federal
13
10
20
20
05
20
00
20
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
75
19
70
19
65
19
60
19
19
55
0
State
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics survey, available at http://stats.bls.gov/ces/.
Figure 4. Public Sector Employment, by Level of Government,
as a Share of Total Employment, 1955 to 2013
12.0%
10.0%
8.0%
6.0%
4.0%
2.0%
Local
Federal
20
10
20
13
20
05
20
00
19
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
75
19
70
19
65
19
60
19
55
0.0%
State
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics survey, available at http://stats.bls.gov/ces/.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Including the Postal Service, in 2013 the federal government employed an estimated 471,000
more workers than in 1955 (an increase from 2.3 million to 2.8 million). (See Figure 3.)
Nevertheless, from 1955 to 2013, federal employment as a share of total employment fell from
4.5% to 2.0% (a decline of 2.5 percentage points). (See Figure 4.)
The Number and Percent of Workers Covered by a Collective
Bargaining Agreement
Some workers who are represented by a union are dues-paying members of the union. Other
workers may be represented by a union but pay reduced, or no, dues. A worker who is covered by
a union contract but does not pay dues may work in a right-to-work state, where workers are not
required to provide financial support to a union.6 Federal workers who are covered by a union
contract are not required to pay dues. Some state and local government employees who are
covered by a collective bargaining agreement are not required to pay dues.
The data in this section are for workers who are represented by a union (i.e., whether or not they
pay dues). The data include all full-time and part-time wage and salary workers ages 16 and over.
(The data on union coverage in the section titled “Occupation” later in this report are for wage
and salary workers ages 18 to 64 who work full-time.)
The number of American workers covered by a collective bargaining agreement has declined
since 1979. In 1979, an estimated 23.5 million workers were covered by a union contract. By
2013, this number had fallen to 16.0 million.7 In 2009, for the first time, a majority of workers
covered by a collective bargaining agreement were employed in the public sector (8.7 million
workers in the public sector, compared to 8.2 million private sector workers). By 2013, the
situation had reversed; a slight majority of workers covered by a collective bargaining agreement
were employed in the private sector (8.1 million private sector workers, compared to 7.9 million
public sector workers).8
In the public sector, most workers who are covered by a collective bargaining agreement are
employed by local governments (59.0% in 2013). Another 27.2% of covered public sector
workers are employed by state governments, 8.0% are employed by the federal government, and
5.8% are employed by the Postal Service.
6
Section 14(b) of the Taft-Hartley Act (i.e., the Labor Management Relations Act of 1947, P.L. 80-101) allows states
to enact right-to-work laws, which do not allow collective bargaining agreements to include union security agreements.
A union security agreement may require employees to pay union dues after being hired. An employee who objects to
the use of his or her dues for political purposes may pay a reduced agency fee (which covers the cost of collective
bargaining and contract administration and enforcement). For a discussion of state right-to-work laws, see CRS Report
R42575, Right to Work Laws: Legislative Background and Empirical Research, by (name redacted).
7
Barry T. Hirsch and David A. Macpherson, Union Membership and Coverage Database from the Current Population
Survey, available at http://www.unionstats.com.
8
The National Labor Relations Act (NLRA) governs labor-management relations in most of the private sector. Labormanagement relations in the railroad and airlines industries are governed by the Railway Labor Act (RLA) of 1926. In
the federal sector, labor management relations are governed by the Federal Service Labor-Management Relations
Statute (FSLMRS, Title VII of the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978, P.L. 95-454). Labor-management relations for
state and local workers are governed by state and local law. For an explanation of federal labor relations statutes, see
CRS Report R42526, Federal Labor Relations Statutes: An Overview, by (name redacted). For an explanation of
collective bargaining rights in the public sector, see CRS Report R41732, Collective Bargaining and Employees in the
Public Sector, by (name redacted).
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Figure 5 shows the percentage of private and public sector workers who are covered by a
collective bargaining agreement. Because union coverage is higher in the Postal Service than in
the rest of the federal government, data for the Postal Service and the rest of the federal
government are shown separately. The data are for 1983 through 2013. The beginning year of
1983 is used because that is the year when the CPS began to collect monthly data on union
coverage.
Figure 5. Percent of Workers Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement,
1983-2013
100.0%
90.0%
80.0%
70.0%
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
Postal Service
Local
State
Federal (excluding Postal)
20
13
20
10
20
05
20
00
19
95
19
90
19
83
19
85
0.0%
Private
Source: Barry T. Hirsch and David A. Macpherson, Union Membership and Coverage Database from the CPS,
available at http://www.unionstats.com.
The number of workers covered by a collective bargaining agreement is greater in the private
sector than in the public sector. However, the percentage of workers covered by a union contract
is greater in the public sector. In 2013, 38.7% of all public wage and salary workers were covered
by a collective bargaining agreement, compared to 7.5% of private sector wage and salary
workers. Nevertheless, since 1983, the percentage of workers represented by a union has fallen in
both the private and public sectors. In the private sector, union coverage fell from 18.5% to 7.5%
of all wage and salary workers (a decline of 11.0 percentage points). In the public sector, union
coverage fell from 45.5% to 38.7% of workers (a decline of 6.8 percentage points).
In the public sector, the largest decrease in union coverage has been in the Postal Service, where
coverage fell from 83.5% of workers in 1983 to 67.2% of workers in 2013 (a decline of 16.3
percentage points). In the rest of the federal government, coverage fell from 29.4% to 22.4% (a
decline of 7.0 percentage points). Coverage fell from 51.0% to 44.1% among employees of local
governments (a decline of 6.9 percentage points after rounding) and from 35.9% to 33.8% among
state government workers (a decline of 2.1 percentage points).
Union coverage can affect the relative pay of union and nonunion workers. Workers who are
represented by a union generally receive higher wages and more or better benefits than workers
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
who are not represented by a union.9 The percent of workers covered by a collective bargaining
agreement is higher in the public sector than in the private sector. To the extent that public sector
workers can bargain over pay and benefits, greater unionization in the public sector could raise
the pay of public sector workers, compared to the pay of private sector workers.
In the federal government, most employees do not bargain over wages. Salaried employees
generally receive an annual pay adjustment and a locality pay adjustment, effective each January.
Federal employees who are paid by the hour usually receive pay adjustments equal to those
received by salaried workers in the same locality.10
Some federal workers can bargain over wages. The Postal Reorganization Act of 1970 (P.L. 91375) gave postal workers the right to bargain over wages and benefits (excluding retirement
benefits).11 Air traffic controllers can bargain over wages because the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) is required to recognize a union chosen by a majority of employees, but is
allowed to develop its own pay system.12 The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) has a longstanding policy that allows employees to bargain over wages.13
Individual, Occupational, and Employer
Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
The second part of this report examines selected characteristics that may affect the relative pay of
private and public sector workers.14 These characteristics include age, gender, educational
attainment, and the distribution of employees by occupation. The data are from the monthly
Current Population Survey (CPS) and the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) supplement to
the CPS. The CPS is a household survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for BLS. The
monthly CPS does not include persons on active duty in the military. The ASEC supplement
includes military personnel living in civilian households.
9
Several studies have attempted to measure the difference in earnings between union and nonunion workers. The
results vary. In general, however, most studies conclude that, after controlling for individual, occupational, and labor
market characteristics, the wages of union workers may be 10% to 30% higher than the wages of nonunion workers.
See CRS Report RL32553, Union Membership Trends in the United States, by (name redacted).
10
Although the law has never been implemented as enacted, adjustments to federal white-collar pay are based on the
Federal Employees Pay Comparability Act of 1990 (FEPCA). See CRS Report RL34463, Federal White-Collar Pay:
FY2009 and FY2010 Salary Adjustments, by (name redacted). Also see CRS Report RL33245,
Legislative,
Executive, and Judicial Officials: Process for Adjusting Pay and Current Salaries, by (name redacted).
11
U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Comparison of Collectively Bargained and Administratively Set Pay
Rates for Federal Employees, GAO/FPCD-82-49, July 2, 1982, p. 10, available at http://archive.gao.gov/d41t14/
118922.pdf.
12
U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Human Capital: Selected Agencies’ Statutory Authorities Could
Offer Options in Developing a Framework for Governmentwide Reform, GAO-05-398R, April 21, 2005, pp. 8, 31-32,
available at http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d05398r.pdf.
13
The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Act of 1933 does not give TVA employees the right to engage in collective
bargaining. However, a policy adopted by the TVA in 1935 allows employees to organize and bargain collectively.
U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Labor-Management Relations: Tennessee Valley Authority Situation
Needs to Improve, GAO/GGD-91-129, September 1991, p. 13, available at http://archive.gao.gov/d18t9/145065.pdf.
14
For different views on the pay of federal workers, see U.S. Congress, House Committee on Oversight and
Government Reform, Subcommittee on Federal Workforce, U.S. Postal Service and Labor Policy, Are Federal
Workers Overpaid? 112th Cong. 1st sess., March 9, 2013, available at http://oversight.house.gov/.
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
The analysis in this section covers the period from 1976 to 2013. The national unemployment
rates in 1976 and 2013 were roughly comparable (7.7% and 7.4%, respectively).15 Unlike the
analysis of union coverage in the first part of this report, which included all full-time and parttime workers ages 16 and over, the analysis in this section is of working-age adults only. These
are workers between the ages of 18 and 64. Because a larger share of workers in the public sector
than in the private sector work full-time (87.2% and 80.6%, respectively, in 2013), the analysis in
this section is of full-time workers only.16 Full-time workers are persons who usually work 35
hours or more a week. In 2013, 81.6% of workers ages 18 to 64 were employed full-time.
Age
Reflecting the aging of the U.S. labor force, workers in both the private and public sectors have
become older. Nevertheless, employees in the public sector are older than private sector workers.
In 2013, 51.7% of full-time public sector workers were between the ages of 45 and 64, compared
to 42.4% of full-time private sector workers. (See Figure 6.)
Figure 6. Percent of Full-Time Workers Who Are Between
the Ages of 45 and 64, 1976 to 2013
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
Public
13
20
10
20
05
20
00
20
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
19
76
0.0%
Private
Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Federal workers are older than employees of state and local governments. In 2013, 56.7% of
federal workers were between the ages of 45 and 64, compared to 49.7% of state employees and
52.1% of employees of local governments.
15
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey,
available at http://stats.bls.gov/cps.
16
CRS analysis of data from the monthly Current Population Survey (CPS).
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
The age gap between private and public sector workers increased from 1976 to 2001, but has
fallen since. In 1976, 35.5% of public sector workers were between the ages of 45 and 64,
compared to 33.8% of private sector workers (a gap of 1.6 percentage points after rounding). By
2001, the gap had increased to 14.3 points. In 2013, the gap had fallen to 9.3 points.
Older workers typically have more years of work experience than younger workers. Employees
with more work experience generally earn more than workers with less experience.17 Thus, the
age difference between private and public sector workers may indicate that public sector workers
have more years of experience than private sector workers. In turn, a difference in work
experience may be reflected in differences in earnings between private and public sector workers.
Gender
Reflecting the increased participation of women in the labor force, the share of jobs held by
women has increased in both the private and public sectors. However, women hold a higher share
of jobs in the public sector than in the private sector, and this difference has increased over time.
(See Figure 7.) The higher share of jobs held by women in the public sector is due mainly to the
higher share of jobs held by women in state and local governments.
In 2013, women held almost three-fifths of full-time jobs in state and local governments (57.7%
for both state and local governments). By contrast, women held approximately two-fifths of fulltime jobs in the federal government and in the private sector (42.2% and 41.7%, respectively).
The largest increase in the share of jobs held by women has been in state governments. From
1976 to 2013, the share of state jobs held by women increased by 13.7 percentage points (from
44.0% to 57.7%). By contrast, over the same period, the share of jobs held by women in local
governments increased by 8.8 points (from 48.9% to 57.7%), in the federal government by 10.7
points (from 31.5% to 42.2%), and in the private sector by 9.2 points (from 32.5% to 41.6% after
rounding).
17
Within occupations, earnings generally increase with years of experience. Ronald G. Ehrenberg and Robert S. Smith,
Modern Labor Economics: Theory and Public Policy, 7th ed. (Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley, 2000), p. 418.
Congressional Research Service
9
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Figure 7. Percent of Full-Time Workers Who Are Female, 1976 to 2013
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
Public
13
20
10
20
05
20
00
20
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
19
76
0.0%
Private
Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
The effect of the increased employment of women on the difference in pay between private and
public sector workers may be an empirical question. The share of jobs held by women in the
public sector has increased more than the share of jobs held by women in the private sector.
Although women, on average, earn less than men, the gap has narrowed.18 Evidence indicates that
the pay gap between men and women is narrower in the public sector than in the private sector.19
18
In 2012, the median earnings of women employed full-time, year-round were 76.5% of the median earnings of men
who worked full-time, year-round ($37,791 for women and $49,398 for men). This percentage was up from 60.2% in
1976 ($29,717 for women and $49,369 for men, in 2012 dollars). U.S. Census Bureau, Income, Poverty, and Health
Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2012, P60-239, September 2013, Table A-4, available at
https://www.census.gov/prod/2013pubs/p60-245.pdf. For a discussion of explanations of the differences in earnings by
gender, see Philip Cohen, “The Persistence of Workplace Gender Segregation in the U.S.,” Sociology Compass, vol. 7,
November 2013, available at http://www.terpconnect.umd.edu/~pnc/SocComp2013.pdf; Natalia Kolesnikova and Yang
Liu, “Gender Wage Gap May Be Much Smaller Than Most Think,” The Regional Economist, St. Louis Federal
Reserve, October 2011, available at http://www.stlouisfed.org/publications/pub_assets/pdf/re/2011/d/
gender_wage_gap.pdf; and CONSAD Research Corporation, An Analysis of the Reasons for the Disparity in Wages
Between Men and Women, prepared for the U.S. Department of Labor, January 2009, available at
http://www.consad.com/content/reports/Gender%20Wage%20Gap%20Final%20Report.pdf.
19
U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO), Women’s Pay: Gender Pay Gap in the Federal Workforce Narrows
as Differences in Occupation, Education, and Experience Diminish, GAO-09-279, March 2009, p. 9, available at
http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d09279.pdf. Robert G. Gregory and Jeff Borland, “Recent Developments in Public
Sector Labor Markets,” Handbook of Labor Economics, vol. 3C, ed. by Orley Ashenfelter and David Card
(Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1999), p. 3611.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Education
On average, public sector employees have more years of education than private sector workers. In
2013, 53.6% of workers in the public sector had a bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree,
compared to 34.9% of private sector workers.20
Among public sector workers, state and local government employees are more likely than federal
workers to have a bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree. In 2013, 57.9% of state workers
and 53.5% of local government workers had at least a bachelor’s degree, compared to 46.9% of
federal workers.
Beginning in 1992, the CPS changed the way educational attainment is coded. For years before
1992, the CPS reported the number of years of education that a person completed, whether or not
they received a degree. In 1992, the CPS began to report whether a person received a degree.
Therefore, data for the years 1992 and later are not completely comparable to earlier years. (See
the discussion of “CPS Values for Educational Attainment” in the Appendix.) For private and
public sector workers, the percentage point changes in educational attainment discussed in this
section are the sum of the percentage point changes over two periods: 1976 to 1991, and 1992 to
2013.
For public sector workers, the CPS began to collect information on employment by level of
government (i.e., federal, state, or local) in 1988. Accordingly, for federal, state, and local
workers, the percentage point changes in educational attainment discussed in this section are the
sum of the percentage point changes from 1988 to 1991 and 1992 to 2013.
Reflecting the general rise in years of education, educational attainment has improved among
both private and public sector workers. Educational attainment has improved more in the private
sector than in the public sector, however. From 1976 to 2013, the percentage of private sector
workers with a bachelor’s degree or better increased by 19.9 percentage points, compared to a
15.2-point increase for public workers. Among private sector workers, the largest gain was in the
percentage of workers with a bachelor’s degree (a gain of 13.2 percentage points for private
sector workers, compared to a gain of 3.8 percentage points for public sector workers). (See
Figure 10.) By contrast, the largest gain among public sector workers was among workers with
an advanced or professional degree (a gain of 11.4 percentage points for public sector workers,
compared to a gain of 6.6 percentage points for private sector workers). (See Figure 10.)
20
Advanced degrees include master’s and doctorate degrees. Professional degrees include degrees in law, medicine,
and business administration.
Congressional Research Service
11
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Figure 8. Percent of Full-Time Workers with a Bachelor’s Degree,
Private and Public Sectors, 1976 to 2013
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
Public
13
20
10
20
05
20
00
20
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
19
76
0.0%
Private
Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Notes: Because of changes in 1992 in the way educational attainment is coded in the CPS, data for the years
1992 and later are not comparable to earlier years. The data for the years 1976 to 1991 are for persons who
completed 16 or more years of education. The data for the years 1992 to 2013 are for persons who received a
bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree. See the discussion of “CPS Values for Educational Attainment” in
the Appendix.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Figure 9. Percent of Full-Time Workers with an Advanced or Professional Degree,
Private and Public Sectors, 1976 to 2013
30.0%
25.0%
20.0%
15.0%
10.0%
5.0%
Public
13
20
10
20
05
20
00
20
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
19
76
0.0%
Private
Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Notes: Because of changes in 1992 in the way educational attainment is coded in the CPS, data for the years
1992 and later are not comparable to earlier years. The data for the years 1976 to 1991 are for persons who
completed more than 16 years of education. The data for the years 1992 to 2013 are for persons who received
an advanced or professional degree. See the discussion of “CPS Values for Educational Attainment” in the
Appendix.
Figure 10 shows changes in the level of educational attainment, from 1988 to 2013, for federal,
state, and local government employees. The largest gains in educational attainment were among
federal workers. The percentage of federal employees with a bachelor’s, advanced, or
professional degree increased by 17.0 percentage points, compared to a 13.7 point increase for
employees of state governments and a 5.3 point increase for employees of local governments. The
percentage of federal employees with a bachelor’s degree increased by 6.4 percentage points,
while the percentage with an advanced or professional degree increased by 10.6 points.
Workers with more education generally earn more than workers with less education.21 Other
things being equal, the higher educational attainment of public sector workers, especially workers
with an advanced or professional degree, likely affects the relative pay of private and public
sector workers.
21
CRS Report R41329, The Rise in Wage Inequality by Level of Education, 1975 to 2008, by (name redacted).
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Figure 10. Percent of Full-Time Workers with a Bachelor’s, Advanced,
or Professional Degree, by Level of Government, 1988 to 2013
60.0%
50.0%
40.0%
30.0%
20.0%
10.0%
Local
State
20
13
20
10
20
05
20
00
19
95
19
90
19
88
0.0%
Federal
Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Notes: Because of changes in 1992 in the way educational attainment is coded in the CPS, data for the years
1992 and later are not comparable to earlier years. The data for the years 1988 to 1991 are for persons who
completed 16 or more years of education. The data for the years 1992 to 2013 are for persons who received a
bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree. See the discussion of “CPS Values for Educational Attainment” in
the Appendix.
Occupation
The CPS provides occupational data for both major and detailed occupations. A comparison of
private and public sector employment using major occupational categories shows that there are
private and public workers in all major occupations. An analysis of detailed occupations,
however, shows that many occupations are concentrated in either the private or public sectors.
Continuing with the methodology used in the second part of this report, the analysis in this
section is of full-time workers who are between the ages of 18 and 64. Because self-employed
workers are not covered by federal labor relations statutes, the analysis is of wage and salary
workers only. (The analysis in the first part of this report of the number of workers covered by a
collective bargaining agreement was for all full-time and part-time wage and salary workers ages
16 and over.)
Major Occupations
Table 1 shows the distribution of employment in the private and public sectors by five broad
occupational categories. These five categories are subdivided into 22 major occupations. The
estimates are monthly averages for calendar year 2013.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
All of the occupations in Table 1 are common to both the private and public sectors. However, in
2013, a larger share of public sector than private sector workers were employed in “management,
professional, and related occupations” (56.2% of public sector workers, compared to 37.8% of
private sector workers).22 In part, more public sector workers were employed in these occupations
because 25.7% of all public sector workers were employed in “education, training, and library”
occupations, compared to 2.3% of all private sector workers. Public sector employees in these
occupations work mainly for state and local governments (25.5% of employees in state
governments and 34.4% of employees in local governments). In general, the median weekly
earnings of full-time workers employed in management, professional, and related occupations are
higher than the earnings of workers in other occupations.23
A larger percentage of public sector than the private sector workers were employed in “protective
service” occupations (11.8% and 0.7%, respectively). On the other hand, more workers in the
private sector were employed in “sales and related” occupations (10.9% in the private sector and
0.8% in the public sector). Similarly, more workers in the private sector were employed in
“production” occupations (7.9% in the private sector and 1.2% in the public sector).
Union Coverage by Major Occupation
Table 1 also shows the percentage of private and public sector workers in each of 5 sectors and
22 major occupations who were covered by a collective bargaining agreement in 2013. In all
major occupations for which data are available (21 of 22 occupations), union coverage was higher
in the public sector than in the private sector.
In the private sector, 7.9% of all full-time employees were covered by a collective bargaining
agreement. But, only 2.0% of employees in legal occupations and 2.4% of employees in
management occupations were represented by a union. By contrast, 18.9% of workers in
education, training, and library occupations; 18.6% of workers in construction and extraction
occupations; 16.1% of workers in transportation and material moving occupations; 15.9% of
workers in installation, maintenance, and repair occupations; and 14.5% of production workers
were represented by a union.
In the public sector, 41.3% of full-time employees were covered by a collective bargaining
agreement in 2013. Among employees in education, training, and library occupations, 56.5%
were represented by a union, as were 52.6% of employees in protective service occupations. A
majority of employees in the latter two occupations are employed by local governments. By
contrast, 18.8% of public employees employed in legal occupations and 21.6% of employees in
management occupations were represented by a union. (See Table A-1.)
22
In the CPS, management occupations include executives, managers, and administrators. Supervisors are not covered
by the NLRA (29 U.S.C. §152(11)). The FSLMRS does not cover supervisors or managers (5 U.S.C. §7103(a)(2)).
These two statutes cover employees who are not supervisors, but who may be classified as managers in the CPS.
23
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey,
available at http://www.bls.gov/cps/tables.htm.
Congressional Research Service
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Table 1. The Percent of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers Ages 18 to 64 Employed by Occupation and the Percent of Those
Workers Who Are Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement, 2013
Occupation
Percent of Workers Employed by Sector and
Major Occupation
Percent of Workers Covered by a Collective
Bargaining Agreement
Total
Private
Public
Federal
State
Local
Total
Private
Total
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
13.3%
7.9%
Management, professional, and related
40.8%
37.8%
56.2%
48.8%
62.6%
55.1%
13.3%
5.3%
Management
12.0%
12.7%
8.1%
11.6%
8.8%
6.3%
4.5%
2.4%
Business and financial operations
5.4%
5.6%
4.5%
9.1%
5.3%
2.4%
6.1%
2.7%
Computer and mathematical science
3.5%
3.6%
2.6%
5.7%
2.7%
1.4%
5.4%
2.6%
Architecture and engineering
2.4%
2.5%
1.7%
4.0%
1.5%
0.9%
8.4%
5.8%
Life, physical, and social science
1.0%
0.8%
2.1%
4.2%
2.9%
0.9%
12.9%
5.9%
Community and social service
1.7%
1.3%
4.1%
1.8%
6.2%
3.6%
20.3%
6.5%
Legal
1.3%
1.2%
1.8%
2.8%
2.2%
1.3%
5.8%
2.0%
Education, training, and library
6.1%
2.3%
25.7%
2.5%
25.5%
34.4%
44.5%
18.9%
Arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media
1.5%
1.7%
0.6%
0.8%
0.7%
0.4%
6.8%
5.5%
Healthcare practitioner and technical
5.9%
6.1%
5.0%
6.2%
6.7%
3.6%
13.4%
10.3%
Service
14.2%
13.2%
19.5%
12.8%
17.5%
23.1%
15.0%
6.6%
Healthcare support
2.2%
2.4%
1.1%
1.1%
1.4%
0.8%
11.2%
9.7%
Protective service
2.5%
0.7%
11.8%
8.3%
9.2%
14.8%
42.3%
9.5%
Food preparation and serving related
3.9%
4.4%
1.3%
0.9%
1.4%
1.5%
5.2%
3.9%
Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance
3.2%
3.2%
3.6%
1.4%
3.3%
4.5%
13.5%
8.6%
Personal care and service
2.4%
2.5%
1.7%
1.1%
2.3%
1.5%
7.7%
5.0%
Sales and office
22.0%
23.2%
15.3%
27.7%
13.3%
12.0%
8.0%
4.2%
Sales and related
9.2%
10.9%
0.8%
1.5%
0.8%
0.5%
3.1%
2.9%
Office and administrative support
12.7%
12.4%
14.5%
26.3%
12.5%
11.4%
11.4%
5.3%
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance
10.0%
11.0%
4.9%
5.4%
4.2%
5.2%
18.2%
16.4%
Farming, fishing, and forestry
0.7%
0.8%
0.1%
0.4%
0.1%
0.0%
2.8%
2.2%
Construction and extraction
5.3%
5.8%
2.5%
1.7%
2.2%
3.0%
20.3%
18.6%
Installation, maintenance, and repair
4.1%
4.4%
2.3%
3.2%
1.9%
2.2%
18.0%
15.9%
Production, transportation, and material moving
13.1%
14.8%
4.1%
5.3%
2.3%
4.7%
16.5%
15.2%
Production
6.9%
7.9%
1.2%
1.9%
0.7%
1.3%
15.1%
14.5%
Transportation and material moving
6.2%
6.9%
2.9%
3.4%
1.7%
3.4%
18.1%
16.1%
Source: CRS analysis of monthly data from the Current Population Survey (CPS). Estimates are monthly averages for 2013.
Public Federal
41.3%
32.2%
41.3%
20.1%
21.6%
14.9%
27.9%
25.8%
26.3%
14.3%
28.5%
20.5%
26.7%
16.6%
43.2%
25.6%
18.8%
19.5%
56.5%
22.2%
26.9%
n.a.
33.2%
27.7%
44.6%
33.0%
29.6%
n.a.
52.6%
33.7%
27.9%
n.a.
36.3%
40.4%
29.2%
22.2%
38.0%
50.3%
20.2%
16.2%
39.0%
52.3%
39.3%
36.1%
n.a.
n.a.
39.9%
31.5%
39.6%
40.5%
41.1%
42.9%
34.7%
39.3%
43.7%
44.9%
State
36.6%
35.6%
25.1%
28.4%
35.4%
39.6%
28.0%
38.8%
18.0%
44.0%
31.6%
28.6%
42.6%
28.3%
50.9%
29.7%
37.8%
33.6%
32.0%
29.6%
32.2%
37.7%
n.a.
45.6%
28.9%
41.1%
n.a.
48.1%
Local
47.6%
52.1%
23.3%
30.0%
34.0%
30.6%
42.5%
50.8%
19.1%
63.0%
n.a.
41.9%
47.9%
27.0%
57.2%
27.9%
35.1%
27.0%
31.5%
15.3%
32.2%
41.3%
n.a.
39.1%
44.7%
40.3%
35.7%
42.0%
Notes: Following BLS practice, percentages are not shown if the denominator is 35,000 workers or less. These cells are marked as “n.a.” (not available). Details may not
sum to totals due to rounding. The estimates used to calculate the percentages in Table 1 are shown in Table A-1 in the Appendix.
CRS-16
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Detailed Occupations
Broad occupational categories may not fully distinguish between detailed occupations that are
concentrated in either the private or public sectors. Many detailed occupations may require
similar skills, however. The Appendix shows the top 100 occupations, by the number of persons
employed full-time in the private sector and the top 100 occupations by the number of persons
employed full-time in the public sector. In 2013, the top 100 occupations in the private sector
accounted for 74.0% of total full-time employment in the sector. The top 100 occupations in the
public sector accounted for 83.9% of full-time employment in the sector.
Pay comparisons between the private and public sectors that rely on broad occupational
categories may not capture differences in detailed occupations. On the other hand, pay
comparisons that use detailed occupations may be difficult if employment in the occupation is
concentrated in either the private or public sectors. For example, in 2013, 12.7% of full-time jobs
in the private sector and 8.1% of full-time jobs in the public sector were in management. (See
Table 1.) But, 94.8% of chief executives worked in the private sector. (See line 12 of Table A-2.)
Similarly, 99.1% of first-line supervisors of retail sales workers and 97.7% of first-line
supervisors of nonretail sales workers were employed in the private sector. (See lines 1 and 5 of
Table A-3.) On the other hand, virtually all (100.0%) first-line supervisors of police officers and
detectives were employed in the public sector. (See line 10 of Table A-4.)
On average, chief executives likely earn more, and first-line supervisors probably earn less, than
mid-level managers. Whether employed in the private or public sectors, management occupations
may require similar skills.
Data by detailed occupation also show that union coverage is higher in the public sector than in
the private sector. (For example, see Table A-2 and Table A-4.)
Metropolitan Area
Figure 11 shows the percentage of private and public sector workers who live in metropolitan
areas with populations of 1 million or more or with populations of 5 million or more. Persons
who live in areas with populations of 5 million or more are included with persons who live in
areas with populations of 1 million or more. The estimates are for a worker’s place of residence at
the time of the 2013 ASEC supplement survey.
The cost of living is generally higher in metropolitan than nonmetropolitan areas.24 Thus,
earnings across areas may vary because of differences in the cost of living.25 In 2013, private and
24
A metropolitan statistical area (MSA) consists of at least one urban area with a population of 50,000 or more and
adjacent communities that have a high degree of economic and social integration. Executive Office of the President,
Office of Management and Budget, Metropolitan Statistical Areas, Metropolitan Divisions, Micropolitan Statistical
Areas, Combined Statistical Areas, New England City and Town Areas, and Combined New England City and Town
Areas, OMB Bulletin No. 13-01, February 28,2013, p.2 of the Appendix, available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/
default/files/omb/bulletins/2013/b13-01.pdf.
25
Evidence suggests that when wages across areas are adjusted for differences in the cost of living, part of the
difference in observed wages across areas is due to differences in the cost of living. J. Michael DuMond, Barry T.
Hirsch, and David A Macpherson, “Wage Differentials Across Labor Markets and Workers: Does Cost of Living
Matter?” Economic Inquiry, vol. 37, October 1999, pp. 580, 588.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
federal employees were as likely to live in metropolitan areas of 1 million or more (57.8% for
private sector workers and 58.8% for federal workers). By contrast, state employees were less
likely (39.3%) than private or federal workers to live in areas with 1 million people or more.
However, private sector workers were more likely than federal workers to live in areas with 5
million or more people. In 2013, 20.5% of private sector workers lived in the largest metropolitan
areas, compared to 12.9% of federal workers. On the other hand, employees of local governments
were as likely (21.0%) as private sector workers to live in metropolitan areas of 5 million or more
people.
Figure 11. Percent of Full-Time Employees Who Live in Metropolitan Areas
With Populations of 1 Million or More or 5 Million or More, 2013
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Private
Federal
1 Million or more
State
Local
5 million or more
Source: CRS analysis of data from the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) supplement to the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
Note: Workers who do not live in metropolitan areas of a million or more live in metropolitan areas of less
than a million or in nonmetropolitan areas.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Appendix. Detailed Data and Description of Data
Source and Methodology
This appendix provides detailed information on employment and union coverage by occupation in
the private and public sectors. It also describes the survey data and methodology used in the
report.
Table A-1 shows the data used to calculate the percentages shown in Table 1.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Table A-1. The Number of Full-Time Wage and Salary Workers Ages 18 to 64 Employed by Occupation and the Number of
Workers Covered by a Collective Bargaining Agreement by Occupation, 2013
Occupation
Number of Wage and Salary Workers Employed by
Occupation (in 1,000s)
Number of Wage and Salary Workers Covered
by a Collective Bargaining Agreement (in 1,000s)
Total
Private
Public
Federal
State
Local
Total
Private
Total
104,520
87,717
16,804
3,140
5,153
8,510
13,859
6,917
Management, professional, and related
42,605
33,161
9,444
1,532
3,226
4,686
5,652
1,755
Management
12,490
11,133
1,358
365
455
538
560
266
Business and financial operations
5,645
4,881
764
286
274
204
343
130
Computer and mathematical science
3,619
3,185
433
179
140
115
195
81
Architecture and engineering
2,514
2,234
280
127
78
75
210
130
Life, physical, and social science
1,050
696
353
132
148
72
135
41
Community and social service
1,814
1,131
682
56
318
309
368
74
Legal
1,374
1,066
309
88
114
107
80
22
Education, training, and library
6,338
2,015
4,323
79
1,315
2,929
2,823
380
Arts, design, entertainment, sports, and media
1,580
1,483
97
25
38
33
107
81
Healthcare practitioner and technical
6,181
5,336
845
195
347
303
830
550
Service
14,821
11,550
3,272
402
904
1,966
2,220
759
Healthcare support
2,272
2,095
177
33
75
70
255
203
Protective service
2,615
627
1,988
261
472
1,256
1,105
59
Food preparation and serving related
4,057
3,831
226
29
70
127
211
148
Building and grounds cleaning and maintenance
3,378
2,779
599
44
169
387
457
240
Personal care and service
2,499
2,218
281
35
118
128
192
110
Sales and office
22,960
20,386
2,574
871
685
1,017
1,826
848
Sales and related
9,654
9,520
134
47
43
44
304
277
Office and administrative support
13,306
10,866
2,440
824
642
974
1,522
571
Natural resources, construction, and maintenance
10,468
9,638
830
170
218
442
1,904
1,578
Farming, fishing, and forestry
704
682
22
14
6
1
20
15
Construction and extraction
5,514
5,088
426
54
115
257
1,118
948
Installation, maintenance, and repair
4,250
3,868
382
102
97
183
766
614
Production, transportation, and material moving
13,666
12,981
684
165
120
400
2,258
1,977
Production
7,166
6,964
202
59
34
109
1,080
1,010
Transportation and material moving
6,500
6,017
483
106
86
290
1,178
967
Source: CRS analysis of monthly data from the Current Population Survey (CPS). Estimates are monthly averages for 2013.
Note: Details may not sum to totals because of rounding.
Congressional Research Service
20
Public
6,943
3,896
294
213
114
80
94
295
58
2,442
26
280
1,461
53
1,046
63
217
82
978
27
951
326
5
170
151
281
70
211
Federal
1,011
307
54
74
25
26
22
14
17
17
3
54
133
13
88
7
18
8
439
8
431
61
3
17
41
71
23
48
State
1,884
1,147
114
78
50
31
41
123
21
578
12
99
386
21
240
21
64
40
219
13
207
82
2
52
28
49
8
41
Local
4,048
2,442
125
61
39
23
31
157
20
1,847
11
127
942
19
718
35
136
34
320
7
314
182
0
100
82
161
39
122
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Table A-2, Table A-3, and Table A-4 show the largest 100 occupations in 2013 in the private
sector and the largest 100 occupations in the public sectors. The tables show the total number of
persons employed, the number of workers employed in the private and public sectors, the
percentage of total employment that was in the private sector, and the percentage of workers in
the private and public sectors who were covered by a collective bargaining agreement.
In 2013, among the top 100 occupations in the private sector and the top 100 occupations in the
public sector, 56 occupations were common to both sectors. These 56 occupations are shown in
Table A-2. The occupations are listed in descending order of the total number of workers
employed. To illustrate, of the 2,941,000 workers employed as “managers, all other,” 2,503,000
were employed in the private sector and 438,000 were employed in the public sector. Of the total
number of workers employed as “managers, all other,” 85.1% worked in the private sector. Of the
2,941,000 “managers, all other” employed in the private sector, 1.8% were covered by a
collective bargaining agreement, while 19.1% of public sector workers in this occupation were
represented by a union.
Considering those occupations where less than 90% were employed in either the private or public
sectors, occupations that were common to both the private and public sectors include managers;
elementary and middle school teachers; registered nurses; secretaries and administrative
assistants; accountants and auditors; janitors and building cleaners; managers of office and
administrative support workers; and general and operations managers.
A disproportionate share of workers in some occupations common to both the private and public
sectors were employed in only one sector. For example, for 21 of the 56 occupations in Table A2, at least 90.0% of workers were employed in the private sector. These occupations include
cashiers; laborers and material movers; stock clerks and order fillers; drivers; customer service
representatives; chief executives; maids and housekeeping cleaners; financial managers;
automotive service technicians and mechanics; software developers; management analysts;
cooks; receptionists and information clerks; electricians; and pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters,
and steamfitters.
On the other hand, large shares of workers employed in occupations common to both the private
and public sector were employed in the public sector. These occupations include elementary and
middle school teachers; postsecondary teachers; education administrators; social workers;
counselors; and preschool and kindergarten teachers.
Table A-3 shows the 44 occupations, among the top 100 occupations in the private sector, that
were not present among the top 100 occupations in the public sector. These occupations are listed
in descending order by the number of workers employed in the private sector. Of the workers
employed in these 44 occupations, 97.6% worked in the private sector. These occupations were
mainly in sales, food preparation and serving, construction, production, automotive service, real
estate, farming, and the clergy.
Table A-4 shows the 44 occupations, among the top 100 occupations in the public sector, that
were not present among the top 100 private sector occupations. The occupations are listed in
descending order by the number employed in the public sector. Of the workers employed in these
44 occupations, 62.2% worked in the public sector. These occupations were mainly in public
safety (e.g., bailiffs, correctional officers, and jailers; police officers; fire fighters; probation
officers and correctional treatment specialists; and detectives and criminal investigators); the
Postal Service; education (e.g., special education, secondary school teachers, librarians, and
Congressional Research Service
21
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
teaching assistants) highway maintenance; eligibility interviewers for government programs; and
legal occupations (e.g., court, municipal, and license clerks and legal support occupations).
Table A-2. Wage and Salary Occupations Common to Both the Private and Public
Sectors, by Total Number Employed, 2013
Occupation
Percent Covered
Percentage by a Collective
Bargaining
Number Employeda
of Total
(in 1,000s)
Agreement
Employed in
the Private
Sector
Total
Private
Public
Private Public
1 Managers, all other
2,941
2,503
438
85.1%
1.8%
19.1%
2 Elementary and middle school teachers
2,583
572
2,011
22.1%
30.6%
63.8%
3 Driver, sales workers and truck drivers
2,549
2,435
114
95.5%
13.3%
42.1%
4 Registered nurses
2,228
1,921
308
86.2%
16.3%
36.1%
5 Secretaries and administrative assistants
2,149
1,617
532
75.2%
3.6%
30.2%
6 Customer service representatives
1,572
1,497
76
95.2%
4.3%
27.5%
7 Accountants and auditors
1,519
1,341
179
88.2%
2.3%
27.7%
8 Janitors and building cleaners
1,461
1,052
409
72.0%
12.9%
38.8%
9 Nursing, psychiatric, and home health aides
1,350
1,227
123
90.9%
11.6%
31.2%
10 Cashiers
1,306
1,261
45
96.5%
5.5%
23.6%
1,256
1,208
49
96.1%
12.6%
34.3%
1,242
1,177
65
94.8%
1.8%
11.0%
1,199
983
216
82.0%
2.2%
28.2%
14 Cooks
1,184
1,099
85
92.8%
3.2%
32.6%
15 Financial managers
1,108
1,046
63
94.4%
1.7%
22.5%
1,055
988
67
93.6%
2.2%
24.3%
17 General and operations managers
958
857
101
89.5%
1.9%
13.4%
18 Stock clerks and order fillers
891
853
38
95.7%
11.3%
31.0%
19 Receptionists and information clerks
874
808
66
92.4%
2.4%
31.7%
830
630
200
75.9%
2.5%
18.3%
21 Office clerks, general
816
581
235
71.2%
4.9%
31.8%
22 Postsecondary teachers
801
365
436
45.6%
13.7%
27.5%
23 Grounds maintenance workers
787
689
98
87.5%
2.4%
28.0%
24 Bookkeeping, accounting, and auditing clerks
768
692
76
90.1%
4.1%
33.4%
25 Maids and housekeeping cleaners
717
677
40
94.5%
10.4%
32.3%
26 Physicians and surgeons
706
604
102
85.5%
7.6%
16.0%
11
Laborers and freight, stock, and material
movers, hand
12 Chief executives
13
16
20
First-line supervisors, managers of office and
administrative support workers
Software developers, applications and
systems software
Lawyers, judges, magistrates, and other
judicial workers
Congressional Research Service
22
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Occupation
27 Education administrators
Percent Covered
Percentage by a Collective
Number Employeda
of Total
Bargaining
(in 1,000s)
Employed in
Agreement
the Private
Total
Private
Public
Private Public
Sector
684
347
337
50.7%
7.5%
32.5%
682
642
40
94.2%
5.7%
49.2%
29 Electricians
664
613
51
92.3%
32.8%
45.1%
30 Personal and home care aides
618
485
132
78.6%
8.0%
34.0%
31 Social workers
618
331
286
53.7%
5.1%
43.9%
32 Management analysts
585
545
40
93.2%
1.1%
21.4%
571
509
62
89.2%
1.4%
13.2%
551
321
230
58.3%
12.9%
44.2%
526
477
49
90.7%
17.9%
39.2%
36 Medical and health services managers
522
471
51
90.3%
6.0%
23.5%
37 Human resource workers
494
402
92
81.4%
5.5%
25.2%
38 Preschool and kindergarten teachers
492
301
190
61.3%
6.3%
54.7%
39 Computer support specialists
473
403
70
85.3%
4.1%
34.6%
464
427
37
92.0%
28.8%
40.4%
41 Computer systems analysts
460
419
42
91.0%
1.6%
24.1%
42 Child care workers
447
386
61
86.4%
2.6%
35.0%
43 Computer programmers
433
387
46
89.4%
2.1%
30.4%
28
33
Automotive service technicians and
mechanics
Computer and information systems
managers
34 Counselors
35
40
First-line supervisors, managers of
construction trades and extraction workers
Pipelayers, plumbers, pipefitters, and
steamfitters
44
Licensed practical and licensed vocational
nurses
431
376
54
87.4%
8.4%
26.4%
45
First-line supervisors, managers of food
preparation and serving workers
426
386
40
90.6%
3.7%
28.2%
46
Office and administrative support workers,
including desktop publishers
418
323
95
77.3%
6.0%
25.0%
47 Maintenance and repair workers, general
386
313
72
81.2%
15.9%
35.7%
48 Engineers, all other
364
308
55
84.8%
3.0%
19.1%
49 Engineering technicians, except drafters
355
300
54
84.7%
12.1%
44.6%
50 Computer occupations, all other
349
276
73
79.1%
3.8%
22.4%
51 Other teachers and instructors
335
260
75
77.7%
5.4%
28.0%
52 Paralegals and legal assistants
329
289
41
87.6%
1.3%
18.5%
Congressional Research Service
23
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Occupation
Percent Covered
Percentage by a Collective
Number Employeda
of Total
Bargaining
(in 1,000s)
Employed in
Agreement
the Private
Total
Private
Public
Private Public
Sector
Construction equipment operators, except
53 paving, surfacing, and tamping equipment
operators
326
260
66
79.9%
20.3%
31.6%
54 Civil engineers
323
260
63
80.6%
5.5%
25.5%
55
Bus and truck mechanics and diesel engine
specialists
302
262
40
86.8%
16.7%
48.6%
56
Clinical laboratory technologists and
technicians
295
256
39
86.6%
8.8%
32.7%
Source: CRS analysis of data from the monthly Current Population Survey (CPS) for 2013.
Note: Estimates are for full-time workers ages 18 to 64.
a. Occupations are listed in descending order by the sum of persons employed in the private and public sectors.
Congressional Research Service
24
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Table A-3. Wage and Salary Occupations More Common in the Private Sector,
by Number Employed in the Private Sector, 2013
Number Employeda
(in 1,000s)
Percentage
Percent of
of Total
Total Covered
Employed in by a Collective
the Private
Bargaining
Sector
Agreement
Occupation
Total
Private
Public
First-line supervisors, managers of retail sales
workers
2,508
2,486
22
99.1%
4.0%
1,761
1,747
14
99.2%
1.9%
1,089
1,086
3
99.8%
1.3%
1,096
1,065
31
97.2%
13.4%
896
876
20
97.7%
2.5%
6 Miscellaneous assemblers and fabricators
876
869
7
99.2%
16.1%
7 Waiters and waitresses
867
854
12
98.6%
2.7%
Production workers, including semiconductor
8 processors and cooling and freezing equipment
operators
855
836
19
97.8%
16.4%
9 Food service managers
854
834
19
97.7%
2.2%
10 Marketing and sales managers
817
807
10
98.7%
2.1%
11 Carpenters
760
737
23
96.9%
16.1%
1
2 Retail salespersons
3
Sales representatives, wholesale and
manufacturing
4 Construction laborers
5
First-line supervisors, managers of nonretail
sales workers
12
First-line supervisors, managers of production
and operating workers
670
642
28
95.9%
9.0%
13
Inspectors, testers, sorters, samplers, and
weighers
637
606
32
95.1%
13.3%
14 Construction managers
552
535
18
96.8%
6.7%
15 Industrial truck and tractor operators
535
525
10
98.1%
17.0%
16 Designers
533
517
16
97.0%
2.9%
17 Welding, soldering, and brazing workers
517
498
19
96.4%
19.7%
501
495
6
98.9%
0.6%
19 Shipping, receiving, and traffic clerks
482
476
5
98.9%
10.6%
20 Insurance sales agents
444
439
5
98.9%
2.5%
21 Industrial and refractory machinery mechanics
425
409
16
96.3%
20.4%
Property, real estate, and community
association managers
410
390
20
95.0%
3.8%
23 Real estate brokers and sales agents
395
388
7
98.2%
1.9%
405
375
30
92.7%
8.6%
376
375
1
99.7%
13.7%
18
22
24
Miscellaneous agricultural workers, including
animal breeders
Health diagnosing and treating practitioner
support technicians
25 Machinists
Congressional Research Service
25
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Number Employeda
(in 1,000s)
Percentage
Percent of
of Total
Total Covered
Employed in by a Collective
the Private
Bargaining
Sector
Agreement
Occupation
Total
Private
Public
26 Billing and posting clerks and machine operators
407
374
33
91.9%
6.2%
27 Food preparation workers
391
372
19
95.2%
4.9%
362
352
9
97.4%
11.4%
29 Medical assistants
365
347
18
95.0%
7.4%
30 Sales representatives, services, all other
353
346
7
97.9%
2.8%
31 Chefs and head cooks
351
342
9
97.5%
4.5%
32 Loan counselors and officers
355
338
17
95.2%
4.0%
33 Metalworkers and plastic workers, all other
340
335
5
98.5%
17.9%
34 Hairdressers, hairstylists, and cosmetologists
337
333
3
99.1%
1.9%
35 Packers and packagers, hand
325
322
2
99.3%
8.0%
324
305
20
94.0%
16.6%
296
293
2
99.2%
1.7%
290
290
0
99.9%
15.1%
39 Personal financial advisors
297
288
9
96.8%
1.1%
40 Mechanical engineers
294
285
9
96.8%
5.1%
28
36
Painters, construction and maintenance, and
paperhangers
Heating, air conditioning, and refrigeration
mechanics and installers
37 Clergy
38
Packaging and filling machine operators and
tenders
41
Butchers and other meat, poultry, and fish
processing workers
283
283
0
100.0%
21.0%
42
Claims adjusters, appraisers, examiners, and
investigators
296
266
29
90.0%
8.0%
43 Diagnostic related technologists and technicians
281
256
24
91.3%
9.7%
44 Social and community service managers
268
251
17
93.6%
3.7%
Source: CRS analysis of data from the monthly Current Population Survey (CPS) for 2013.
Note: Estimates are for full-time workers ages 18 to 64.
a.
Occupations are listed in descending order by the number employed in the private sector.
Congressional Research Service
26
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Table A-4. Wage and Salary Occupations More Common in the Public Sector,
by the Number Employed in the Public Sector, 2013
Number Employeda
(in 1,000s)
Occupation
Percentage
Percent of
of Total
Total Covered
Employed in by a Collective
the Public
Bargaining
Sector
Agreement
Total
Private
Public
1 Secondary school teachers
936
192
744
79.5%
59.2%
2 Police officers
671
1
670
99.9%
61.9%
3 Bailiffs, correctional officers, and jailers
409
0
409
100.0%
46.2%
4 Teacher assistants
549
146
403
73.3%
35.3%
5 Fire fighters
293
7
286
97.7%
66.9%
6 Postal service mail carriers
269
0
269
100.0%
76.9%
7 Special education teachers
327
65
263
80.3%
60.5%
8 Bus drivers
307
146
161
52.5%
39.7%
9 Detectives and criminal investigators
157
6
151
96.2%
38.1%
111
0
111
100.0%
42.5%
11 Dispatchers
242
136
106
43.7%
20.5%
12 Librarians
139
34
105
75.5%
31.8%
105
3
102
97.1%
46.1%
14 Postal service clerks
88
0
88
100.0%
77.4%
15 Highway maintenance workers
92
8
84
91.6%
37.5%
16 Other education, training, and library workers
126
53
73
57.8%
29.3%
Postal service mail sorters, processors, and
processing machine operators
68
0
68
100.0%
70.5%
18 Compliance officers
175
108
67
38.4%
10.8%
19 Eligibility interviewers, government programs
74
9
65
87.7%
44.1%
20 Court, municipal, and license clerks
73
13
60
82.5%
29.3%
21 Miscellaneous legal support workers
205
145
60
29.2%
7.2%
First-line supervisors, managers of firefighting
and prevention workers
58
1
57
98.9%
50.3%
23 Tax examiners, collectors, and revenue agents
62
4
57
92.9%
45.8%
24 File Clerks
174
119
55
31.5%
12.4%
25 Emergency medical technicians and paramedics
139
87
52
37.7%
27.1%
Purchasing agents, except wholesale, retail, and
farm products
255
204
50
19.7%
9.6%
27 Operations research analysts
109
60
49
45.1%
9.6%
28 Speech-language pathologists
98
50
49
49.6%
31.7%
29 First-line supervisors, managers of mechanics,
250
202
48
19.2%
12.2%
10
13
17
22
26
First-line supervisors, managers of police and
detectives
Probation officers and correctional treatment
specialists
Congressional Research Service
27
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Number Employeda
(in 1,000s)
Occupation
Percentage
Percent of
of Total
Total Covered
Employed in by a Collective
the Public
Bargaining
Sector
Agreement
Total
Private
Public
30 Medical scientists and life scientists, all other
130
85
45
34.6%
7.4%
31 Data entry keyers
228
183
44
19.5%
10.6%
32 Biological scientists
101
57
44
43.6%
11.6%
33 Psychologists
108
64
44
40.9%
33.4%
66
24
42
63.9%
27.6%
35 Construction and building inspectors
74
35
39
52.7%
19.2%
36 Social and human service assistants
95
56
39
40.8%
15.8%
37 Private detectives and investigators
74
38
36
49.1%
16.9%
38 Business operations specialists, all other
174
138
36
20.8%
7.5%
installers, and repairers
34
Water and liquid waste treatment plant and
system operators
39
First-line supervisors, managers of housekeeping
and janitorial workers
203
168
36
17.6%
10.4%
40
Human resources assistants, except payroll and
timekeeping
123
89
35
28.2%
9.3%
41 Recreation and fitness workers
205
170
35
17.0%
3.8%
42 Physical scientists, all other
125
90
34
27.6%
3.6%
43 Human resources managers
205
171
34
16.5%
2.5%
108
74
34
31.2%
11.3%
44
Miscellaneous life, physical, and social science
technicians
Source: CRS analysis of data from the monthly Current Population Survey (CPS) for 2013.
Note: Estimates are for full-time workers ages 18 to 64.
a.
Occupations are listed in descending order by the number employed in the public sector
Congressional Research Service
28
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Data and Methodology
This report analyzes data from the Current Employment Statistics (CES) survey and the Current
Population Survey (CPS).
The CES is an employer survey conducted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS). The CES
survey counts the number of persons on employer payrolls for any part of the pay period that
includes the 12th day of the month. Persons who are on the payroll of more than one establishment
are counted in each establishment. Government employment includes civilian employees only;
persons in the military are not included. Also excluded are employees of the Central Intelligence
Agency, the National Security Agency, the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, and the
Defense Intelligence Agency.26
The CPS is a household survey conducted by the U.S. Census Bureau for BLS. The monthly CPS
is the source of the national unemployment rate and other labor market information. The survey is
representative of the civilian noninstitutional population. The sample does not include persons
living in institutions (such as psychiatric hospitals, nursing homes, or correctional facilities). The
monthly survey does not include individuals who are on active duty in the military.27
Approximately 55,500 households are interviewed each month.28 The data for occupations and
union coverage (Table 1 in the text and the tables in the Appendix) are from the monthly CPS.
Union coverage is for a worker’s occupation at the time of the monthly CPS.
Each year, the CPS conducts the Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) supplement to the monthly
CPS. The sample for the ASEC supplement is representative of the civilian noninstitutional
population of the United States. The sample for the supplement includes members of the Armed
Forces living in civilian housing units on a military base or in a household not on a military base,
provided that at least one civilian adult lives in the same household.29 The supplement does not
ask active members of the Armed Forces the monthly CPS labor force questions. The supplement
does not include persons living in military barracks. For the 2013 supplement, 75,500 households
were interviewed.30
In this report, data on the characteristics of private and public sector workers are from the ASEC
supplement. Data for employment by level of government are for are a person’s current job.
The data that are available to public users of the CPS may not be the same as the data available to
BLS. In order to protect the confidentiality of persons in the survey, the Census Bureau modifies
26
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Current Employment Statistics, available at
http://stats.bls.gov/ces/home.htm.
27
Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Labor Force Data Derived from the Current Population Survey,” Handbook of Methods,
pp. 1-2, available at http://www.bls.gov/opub/hom/pdf/homch1.pdf.
28
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, February 2006, p. 192, available at
http://www.bls.gov/cps/eetech_methods.pdf.
29
U.S. Census Bureau, Design and Methodology: Current Population Survey, Technical Paper 66, October 2006, p.
11-8, available at http://www.census.gov/prod/2006pubs/tp-66.pdf.
30
U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, 2013 Annual Social and Economic (ASEC) Supplement, pp. 1-1, 22, 9-3, G-3, available at http://www.census.gov/prod/techdoc/cps/cpsmar13.pdf.
Congressional Research Service
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Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
(or “masks”) the age variable in the data available to public users.31 As a result, some estimates
produced by public users of the CPS may not match estimates published by BLS.
Changes in the Reporting of Educational Attainment in the Current
Population Survey (CPS)
In 1992, the CPS changed the way educational attainment is recorded. Table A-5 shows the
values for educational attainment for the years 1975 to 1991 and the values for 1992 to 2013. For
1976 to 1991, the CPS recorded the number of years of school that a person attended. Another
variable recorded whether the person finished that year of school. Since 1992, the CPS has
reported whether a person graduated from high school or college.
Because of the change in the way the CPS records educational attainment, estimates of the
number of high school and college graduates for the years 1992 to 2013 are not comparable to
estimates for earlier years. For the earlier period, persons who completed 12 years of high school
may or may not have graduated from high school. Similarly, persons who finished 16 or more
years of education may or may not have received a bachelor’s, advanced, or professional degree.
Because of the change in coding for educational attainment, changes in educational attainment
discussed in this report are the sum of changes over two periods: the period to 1991 and the
period since 1992.
Table A-5. Values for the Education Variable in the Current Population Survey (CPS),
1976 to 2013
1976 to 1991
Elementary school, 1 year
Elementary school, 2 year
Elementary school, 3 year
Elementary school, 4 year
Elementary school, 5 year
Elementary school, 6 year
Elementary school, 7 year
Elementary school, 8 year
High school, 1 year
High school, 2 year
High school, 3 year
High school, 4 year
College, 1 year
College, 2 year
College, 3 year
College, 4 year
College, 5 year
College, 6 years or more
1992 to 2013
1st, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th grade
5th or 6th grade
7th and 8th grade
9th grade
10th grade
11th grade
12th grade no diploma
High school graduate (high school diploma or equivalent)
Some college but no degree
Associate degree in college (occupation or vocation program)
Associate degree in college (academic program)
Bachelor’s degree (e.g., BA or BS)
Master’s degree (e.g., MA, MS, MSW, or MBA)
Professional school degree (e.g., MD, DDS, DVM, JD)
Doctorate degree
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Census Bureau, Current Population Survey, March 1992, Technical
Documentation CPS-92-3, September 1992, p. 5-1.
31
U.S. Department of Commerce, Census Bureau, Analysis of Perturbed and Unperturbed Age Estimates: 2008,
available at http://www.census.gov/cps/user_note_age_estimates.html.
Congressional Research Service
30
Selected Characteristics of Private and Public Sector Workers
Author Contact Information
(name redacted)
Analyst in Labor Policy
/redacted/@crs.loc.gov, 7-....
Congressional Research Service
31
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