The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Congressional research reportDec 1, 2011
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement
and Its Implications for the United States
-name redactedSpecialist in International Trade and Finance
-name redactedSpecialist in Agricultural Policy
-name redactedSpecialist in Industrial Organization and Business
-name redactedSpecialist in Asian Affairs
December 1, 2011
Congressional Research Service
7-....
www.crs.gov
R41534
CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Summary
On October 6, 2010, the 27-member European Union (EU) and South Korea signed a bilateral
free trade agreement (FTA). The South Korean National Assembly and the EU Parliament have
ratified the agreement. The agreement went into effect on July 1, 2011. The South Korea-EU FTA
(KOREU FTA) is the largest FTA in terms of market size that South Korea has entered into. The
KOREU FTA reflects the EU and South Korean trade strategies to use FTAs to strengthen
economic ties outside their home regions. It also builds upon the surge in trade and investment
flows between South Korea and the EU over the past decade. On October 12, 2011, both houses
of Congress passed implementing legislation for the U.S.-South Korea FTA (KORUS FTA),
which the President signed into law (P.L. 112-41) on October 21. The KORUS FTA is expected to
enter into force in early 2012.
The KOREU FTA is very comprehensive. It would reduce and eliminate tariffs and other trade
barriers in manufactured goods, agricultural products, and services and would also cover such
trade-related activities as government procurement, intellectual property rights, labor rights, and
environmental issues.
Most studies done on the potential impact of the KOREU FTA estimate that the agreement will
have a small but positive effect on the economies of the EU and South Korea as a whole and that
the larger relative impact would be on the South Korean economy. The greatest economic impact
of the KOREU FTA would be on specific sectors in each economy. EU services providers would
be expected to experience gains from the agreement, especially in the areas of retail and
wholesale trade, transportation services, financial services, and business services. In terms of
trade in goods, EU exporters of pharmaceuticals, auto parts, industrial machinery, electronics
parts, and some agricultural goods and processed foods would be expected to gain from the
KOREU FTA’s implementation. At the same time, South Korean manufacturers of cars, ships,
wireless telecommunications devices, chemical products, and imaging equipment would be
expected to increase their exports to the EU market.
The KOREU FTA is similar to the KORUS FTA in many respects. Both agreements are
comprehensive and both would eliminate tariffs on most trade in goods soon after they enter into
force. However, they differ in other respects. Phase-out periods for tariffs on some manufactured
goods differ. In addition, the KOREU FTA does not cover investment protection. Unlike the
KORUS FTA, the KOREU FTA does not allow trade sanctions to be applied where violations of
the workers’ rights and environment provisions have been deemed to occur. In addition, the
KORUS FTA covers a broader range of trade in services than does the KOREU FTA. It is not
clear whether these differences in the structures of the FTAs result in appreciable differences in
outcomes in terms of economic gains and losses.
Congressional Research Service
The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
EU-South Korean Economic Ties.................................................................................................... 2
Merchandise Trade .................................................................................................................... 2
Trade in Commercial Services and FDI Flows.......................................................................... 4
The KOREU FTA and EU and South Korean Trade Strategies....................................................... 5
South Korea’s Strategy .............................................................................................................. 6
An Overview and Key Provisions of the KOREU FTA .................................................................. 6
Trade in Manufactured Goods ................................................................................................... 7
Auto Trade........................................................................................................................... 7
Other Manufactured Goods............................................................................................... 11
Cross-Cutting Manufactured Goods Provisions................................................................ 12
Agriculture............................................................................................................................... 13
Market Access for Agricultural Products .......................................................................... 13
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Commitments ........................................................................ 14
Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products.......................................................... 15
Services Trade ......................................................................................................................... 15
Other Provisions ...................................................................................................................... 17
Trade Remedies................................................................................................................. 17
Government Procurement ................................................................................................. 18
Intellectual Property Rights............................................................................................... 18
Trade and Sustainable Development—Labor and Environmental Standards ................... 19
Potential Economic Impact of the KOREU FTA........................................................................... 19
Figures
Figure 1. EU and U.S. Total Merchandise Trade with South Korea, 2000-2009............................. 3
Tables
Table 1. Relative Importance of EU and U.S. to South Korea ........................................................ 4
Table 2. Comparison of Automobile Tariff Reductions ................................................................... 9
Table A-1. Selected Economic and Tariff Indicators for European Union, United States,
and South Korea, 2009 ............................................................................................................... 21
Table A-2. EU and U.S. Trade with South Korea, 2009 ................................................................ 22
Table A-3. EU FTAs Since 2006.................................................................................................... 23
Table A-4. South Korea’s FTAs ..................................................................................................... 24
Appendixes
Appendix. Selected Economic Indicators, Tariff, and Trade Tables .............................................. 21
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 24
Congressional Research Service
The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Introduction
After more than two years of negotiations, the European Union (EU) and South Korea signed a
bilateral free trade agreement (FTA) on October 6, 2010. Both the South Korean National
Assembly and the EU Parliament have ratified the agreement, and it went into effect on July 1,
2011. The South Korea-EU FTA (KOREU FTA) is the largest FTA in terms of market size that
South Korea has entered into. The U.S.-South Korea FTA (KORUS FTA) will be South Korea’s
second-largest. The KOREU FTA reflects the EU and South Korean trade strategies to use FTAs
to strengthen economic ties outside their home regions. It also builds upon the surge in trade and
investment flows between South Korea and the EU over the past decade, a period of time in
which the 27 member states of the EU countries collectively passed the United States in
economic importance to South Korea.1
The KOREU FTA is very comprehensive, generally mirroring the scope of the KORUS FTA,
with some exceptions. As with the KORUS FTA, the KOREU FTA reduces and eliminates tariffs
and other trade barriers in manufactured goods, agricultural products, and services and would also
cover such trade-related activities as government procurement, intellectual property rights, labor
rights, and environmental issues. However, the two agreements contain some basic differences in
coverage, reflecting differing circumstances and priorities. For example, unlike the KORUS FTA,
the KOREU FTA does not include a specific chapter on foreign direct investment2 and does not
allow trade sanctions to be applied where violations of the labor and environment provisions have
taken place. Differences also exist in how sensitive sectors such as automobiles are treated. For
example, the KOREU FTA includes a duty drawback mechanism,3 while the KORUS FTA has
added a special safeguard for motor vehicles in the event of a surge in South Korean automobile
exports to the United States. The KOREU FTA has drawn the attention and interest of U.S.
policymakers, including Members of Congress and the U.S. business community. The KOREU
FTA could have an impact on U.S.-South Korean trade by possibly diverting some South Korean
trade away from the United States to the EU and could provide the EU with a “first mover”
advantage since it entered into force on July 1, 2011, and the KORUS FTA is expected to enter
into force no earlier than early 2012.
This report is designed to shed some light on the KOREU FTA for Congress.4 It briefly reviews
EU-South Korean economic ties and the respective EU and South Korean objectives regarding
the KOREU FTA. It then discusses the KOREU FTA in general and examines some of its major
provisions in more detail, with special focus on autos and some other manufacturing sectors,
1
The 27 member states of the EU are Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia,
Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, the Netherlands,
Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
2
However, South Korea has bilateral investment treaties with 20 EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Czech
Republic, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
3
Duty drawback permits the refund of duties paid on parts used for the production of a final product to be refunded
when the final product is exported.
4
The report supplements other CRS reports on the KORUS FTA, including CRS Report RL34330, The Proposed U.S.South Korea Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA): Provisions and Implications, coordinated by (name redacted) ,
CRS Report R41389, Pending U.S. and EU Free Trade Agreements with South Korea: Possible Implications for
Automobile and Other Manufacturing Industries, by (name redacted), and CRS Report RL34528,
U.S.-South Korea
Beef Dispute: Issues and Status, by (name redacted) and (name redacted). See also CRS Report R41544,Trade
Promotion Authority and the U.S.-South Korea Free Trade Agreement, by (name redacted).
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
agriculture, services, and labor—areas of particular interest to U.S. policymakers and the U.S.
business community. The report does not attempt to determine if either the KORUS FTA or the
KOREU FTA is better than the other. That determination can largely be subjective, since the
priorities of the EU and the United States differed in some respects. In addition, the models used
in measuring the quantifiable effects of the two agreements likely differ, leading to incompatible
measurements. Nevertheless, where possible and relevant, the report draws general comparisons
and contrasts with the KORUS FTA. Finally, the report analyzes the prospects for the KOREU
FTA and the agreement’s potential implications for the United States.
EU-South Korean Economic Ties
Trade in goods and services and two-way foreign direct investment (FDI) are generally the most
important aspects of the EU-South Korea relationship.5
Merchandise Trade
South Korea, with 48.6 million consumers and a gross domestic product (GDP) of $1.4 trillion, is
a much smaller market than either the U.S. or EU markets. In 2009, it accounted for 2% of EU
merchandise exports, ranking 12th as an export market, and accounted 3% of EU merchandise
imports, ranking 9th as a source of EU imports. On the other hand, the much larger EU market of
492 million people with a GDP of $14.4 trillion is much more important to South Korea. In 2009,
the EU was the second-largest market for South Korean merchandise exports, with a 13% share
of total South Korean exports, second to China with a 24% share. The EU was the third-largest
source of South Korean imports in 2009 with a 10% share of South Korean merchandise imports
behind China with a 17% share and Japan with a 15% share. In contrast, the United States
accounted for 10% of South Korean exports and 9% of South Korean imports. (See Table 1.)
Over the last 10 years (2000-2009), EU-South Korean trade (exports plus imports) has increased
an average of 8.4% per year and exceeds total U.S.-South Korea trade. (See Figure 1.) Among
the EU-27 member countries, South Korea’s largest trading partners are Germany, France, and the
United Kingdom. (For additional comparative data, see tables in the Appendix.)
5
In contrast to the 19th and early 20th centuries, when European colonial powers were formative influences in Northeast
Asia, the EU and its members currently play somewhat secondary or tertiary roles in security issues on the Korean
Peninsula and in East Asia. For instance, the EU is not a participant in the Six-Party Talks over North Korea’s nuclear
programs. However, it has supported the process diplomatically and financially. During the Korean War, 10 European
countries contributed to the United Nations’ military forces that were deployed to assist South Korea.
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Figure 1. EU and U.S.Total Merchandise Trade with South Korea, 2000-2009
$120
in billions of dollars
$100
$80
$60
$40
$20
$0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
EU-South Korea Total Trade
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
U.S.-South Korea Total Trade
Source: Global Trade Atlas.
Note: Total trade is defined as exports plus imports.
Manufactured goods dominate EU-South Korean trade. In 2009, 80% of EU exports to South
Korea consisted of manufactured goods. Within that category, 49% were of machinery and
transportation equipment, 18% of chemical products, and 13% of other manufactured goods.6
Similarly, in 2009, 87% of South Korean exports to the EU consisted of manufactured goods. Of
that group, 72% were of machinery and transportation equipment, 10% were other manufactured
goods, and 5% were of chemical products. The dominance of manufacturing in trade in both
directions suggests the presence of intra-industry trade and reflects the existence of transnational
production networks where various stages within a production cycle are performed in different
countries before the final product is assembled, marketed, and sold.7
6
The data were obtained from Eurostat.
Intra-industry trade is the export and import of the same products or similar products within one industry. The
products are distinguished by model, style, price, or other factors or by their place in the production process, for
example, auto parts versus a fully assembled car. For more information on intra-industry trade and global supply chains
see CRS Report R40167, Globalized Supply Chains and U.S. Policy, by (name redacted).
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Table 1. Relative Importance of EU and U.S. to South Korea
EU
U.S.
Share of South Korean
Merchandise Exports (2009)
13%
10%
Share of South Korean
Merchandise Imports (2009)
10%
9%
Share of South Korean Inward FDI
(2008)
32%
20%
Share of South Korean Outward
FDI (2008)
10%
15%
Source: Derived from official South Korean data.
Trade in Commercial Services and FDI Flows
EU-South Korean services trade has also increased over the years but still accounts for a small
share (15.8% in 2008) of total bilateral trade.8 EU exports of services to South Korea increased
42% between 2004 and 2008 (latest data available), and South Korean exports of services to the
EU increased 36% during the same period.9 Among the leading types of EU services exports to
South Korea in 2008 were transportation services, business services, travel, receipts and royalties
from the use of intellectual property, financial services, and construction. Leading South Korean
services exports in 2008 to the EU included transportation, business services, travel, receipts and
royalties, and insurance.10
Besides trade in goods and services, the EU and South Korea are building economic ties through
foreign direct investment (FDI). From 2004 to 2007, the value of EU FDI in South Korea
increased 62.8% before decreasing 10.8% in 2008, possibly a result of the global economic
downturn. However, EU FDI in South Korea accounted for only 0.3% of total EU FDI in 2008
based on current value. South Korean FDI in the EU increased 80.4% from 2004 to 2007 before
declining 20.6% in 2008. They accounted for about 0.1% of total FDI in the EU.11 On the other
hand, the EU is a significant source of FDI in South Korea. In 2008, it accounted for 32.3% of
total FDI in South Korea, and as a group was the largest source of FDI in South Korea. The EU27 also accounted for 10.3% of South Korean FDI abroad in 2008 and was the second-largest
target next to the United States.12
8
CRS calculations based on data found in European Commission, DG Trade, Bilateral Trade with South Korea,
September 15, 2010.
9
The data were obtained from Eurostat and values were converted into dollars using prevailing exchange rates during
the relevant years.
10
WTO, International Trade Statistics, 2010, p.123-158.
11
CRS calculations based on Eurostat data.
12
CRS calculations based on official South Korean data as reported to the OECD.
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
The KOREU FTA and EU and South Korean
Trade Strategies
The KOREU FTA reflects the larger trade strategies that the EU and South Korea have pursued.
Prior to the mid-2000s, both were reluctant to enter into bilateral FTAs, preferring to conduct
trade through the World Trade Organization (WTO) and, in the case of the EU, through regional
preferential trade arrangements with former colonies. However, over the last decade, they both
have not only been negotiating FTAs, but have done so at an accelerated pace. (See Table A-3
and Table A-4 for lists of EU and South Korean FTAs.)
The EU was a pioneer in negotiating preferential trade arrangements (PTAs)—a general term
applied to an arrangement in which member countries agree to eliminate barriers to commerce
among them. The EU itself is a single market, one of the most comprehensive PTAs, but has also
used PTAs to anchor trade relations with neighboring countries, such as members of the European
Free Trade Area (EFTA—Iceland, Lichtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland) and as a transition
mechanism in trade relations with countries slated to accede to the EU. The EU has also
employed PTAs to preserve preferential trade relationships with former colonies among
developing countries. However, the EU imposed a moratorium on the formation of FTAs and
other PTAs from 1999-2006 to focus attention on the Doha Development Agenda (DDA)
negotiations.13
The FTA with South Korea is part of a new wave of EU FTAs and part of an overall strategy—
referred to as Global Europe—which the European Commission’s Directorate General for Trade
announced in 2006. The strategy was developed to respond to the challenges faced by EU
members in a rapidly globalizing economy. An objective of that strategy is to work towards
reducing tariff and non-tariff barriers in trade and to liberalize markets for foreign investment.
The EU also places a priority on multilateral negotiations in the WTO and concluding the DDA to
accomplish this objective.
However, the EU also has determined that some barriers are currently too complex for
multilateral negotiations or are otherwise beyond the purview of the WTO, for example,
competition policy, regulatory issues, government procurement, and stronger intellectual property
rights enforcement. As part of the Global Europe strategy, the EU has engaged in FTA
negotiations with the objective that the FTAs are more appropriate vehicles to address these more
complex issues and can serve as building blocks toward a more robust multilateral trading
system. The Global Europe strategy sets down two main criteria for selecting FTA partners: (1)
that the partner country offers sufficient market potential and (2) a sufficient level of growth
opportunities that would result from the removal of tariff and non-tariff barriers as a result of the
FTA. Based on these criteria, along with the fact that South Korea had negotiated an agreement
with the United States (a chief EU competitor) the European Commission identified South Korea
as a priority country for an FTA.14 The EU has FTAs in force with Chile and Mexico and has been
13
For an analysis of the European Union’s FTAs in the context of its trade strategy, see CRS Report R41143, Europe’s
Preferential Trade Agreements: Status, Content, and Implications, by (name redacted).
14
European Commission Directorate-General for Trade, Global Europe: Competing in the World, 2006, pp. 10-11.
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
negotiating FTAs with Canada, India, and South Africa. (See Table A-3.)15 The KOREU FTA
would be the EU’s first completed FTA in Asia.
South Korea’s Strategy
For nearly a decade, South Korea has been transforming itself into an FTA hub in Northeast Asia.
(See Table A-4.)16 Signing a network of FTAs has been a key part of the national economic
strategy of President Lee Myung-bak, a conservative, and his predecessor, the left-of-center Roh
Moo-hyun. Both presented FTAs as necessary for advancing South Korea’s economic well-being.
Ongoing competitive pressure from Japanese firms, increased competition from Chinese
enterprises, and the rapid ageing of the South Korean workforce have heightened the sense of
urgency about boosting national competitiveness. President Lee has set a goal of building a “freetrade network” that by 2014 would enable over 70% of South Korean exports to enjoy duty free
access. He has explicitly tried to diversify the composition of South Korea’s FTA partners,
simultaneously negotiating FTAs with large advanced economies as well as with natural resourcerich developing countries.17 The KOREU FTA also fits into Lee’s goal of creating a “Global
Korea” by expanding South Korea’s engagement with and presence in the international
community.
An Overview and Key Provisions of the
KOREU FTA
Similar to the KORUS FTA, the KOREU FTA is a comprehensive pact that covers the broad
range of economic activities in the EU-South Korean bilateral economic relationship. The
KOREU FTA is organized into 15 chapters plus special sector specific annexes, which cover
automotive products, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, and consumer electronics. The KOREU FTA
eliminates tariffs on virtually all manufactured goods in South Korea-EU bilateral trade within
seven years and reduces or eliminates many nontariff barriers (NTBs). The agreement also
establishes rules and procedures in trade in goods and services and addresses trade-related
activities pertaining to intellectual property rights (IPR), labor rights, and environmental
protection.
Similar to the objectives of the KORUS FTA, the provisions in the pending KOREU FTA are
intended to boost goods and services exports from the EU to South Korea by eliminating South
Korean import duties and other barriers to trade in industries from autos and pharmaceuticals to
15
CRS Report R41143, Europe’s Preferential Trade Agreements: Status, Content, and Implications.
In addition to completing FTA negotiations with the EU and United States, South Korea has entered into FTAs with
Chile, Singapore, European Free Trade Area (EFTA), the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and India
and has just concluded an agreement with Peru. ASEAN is comprised of Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia,
Myanmar (Burma), Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. South Korea continues to negotiate FTAs with
Canada, Mexico, Australia, New Zealand, Peru, Colombia, and Turkey and is considering FTA negotiations with
China, Japan, (as well as a South Korea-China-Japan trilateral arrangement), MERCOSUR, Russia, Israel, and the
South African Customs Union (SACU).
17
Office of the [South Korean] President, Global Korea. The National Security Strategy of the Republic of Korea, June
2009, p.29; South Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade, “Building [sic] Global FTA Network,” in 2009
Diplomatic White Paper.
16
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
consumer electronics and textiles and apparel. Exports from South Korea to the EU might
increase in various manufacturing sectors but are not expected to surge since many EU tariffs are
already relatively low and the EU’s NTBs are for the most part not as significant as in South
Korea. The KOREU FTA also is intended to increase FDI flows between the two partners,
especially EU investment in South Korea.
The following discussion provides an overview of the KOREU FTA as a whole but also focuses
on possible areas of particular importance with implications for the ongoing debate in the United
States over the future of the proposed KORUS FTA. These areas include trade in certain
manufactured goods sectors (the automobile sector in particular), agricultural products, and
services; and issues pertaining to IPR, worker rights, and environmental protection. Where
feasible and appropriate, the following discussion includes references to and comparisons of the
KOREU FTA with relevant provisions of the KORUS FTA.
Trade in Manufactured Goods
A major portion of South Korea-EU trade in both directions is in manufactured goods. Thus, an
important element of the KOREU FTA consists of the removal of tariffs and NTBs on
manufactured goods. In negotiating their respective FTAs with South Korea, the United States
and the EU worked to ensure that provisions in their agreements responded to concerns expressed
by those vocal constituencies about free trade and imports (e.g., the U.S. and EU automotive
sectors).
Auto Trade
Bilateral trade in cars has been a major point of contention in EU-South Korea trade relations and
consequently a major sticking point in negotiations on the KOREU FTA, as has been the case in
the KORUS FTA. The sensitivity of the issue has only grown as South Korea has become a major
producer and exporter of cars in competition with European manufacturers of cars, especially
smaller cars, and has attained expanding shares of the European market for passenger cars.18
During the negotiations, South Korea sought to obtain the elimination of EU tariffs on imports of
South Korean cars in order to increase their market share. The EU sought not only the elimination
of South Korean tariffs on cars but also changes in regulations, including safety and emissions
regulations, that EU manufacturers have complained are discriminatory and impede their access
to the South Korean market, an issue that U.S. manufacturers constantly cite, that is addressed in
the KORUS FTA.
Tariff Elimination on Passenger Cars and Trucks
As shown in Table 2, under the KOREU FTA, the EU and South Korea eliminate all of their
tariffs on passenger cars and trucks over five years, including tariffs on electric vehicles. Their
respective tariffs on auto parts—8% for South Korea and 3% to 4.5% for the EU—were
immediately removed.
18
For more details about the South Korean automotive market see CRS Report R41389, Pending U.S. and EU Free
Trade Agreements with South Korea: Possible Implications for Automobile and Other Manufacturing Industries, by
(name redacted).
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
The 2007 KORUS FTA would have eliminated their respective passenger car tariffs more quickly
than under the KOREU FTA upon implementation. But the 2010 supplemental agreement
changed the original terms of the KORUS FTA.19 It now puts the U.S. and EU on roughly the
same tariff elimination schedule, rather than abolishing them immediately. For instance, South
Korea will eliminate its 8% tariff on U.S. passenger cars (including electric cars and plug-in
hybrids) within five years following implementation. One exception is the U.S. truck tariff of
25%, which will remain for the first seven years following implementation and will then be
phased out completely in year 10.
Another difference is the 2010 KORUS FTA agreement added a special motor vehicle safeguard
whereas the KOREU FTA offers protection in case of a sudden surge in imports via a general
safeguard clause. The two agreements also diverge on rules of origin, which are used to verify
that products are eligible for duty-free status under preferential trading programs. Under the
KORUS FTA, automakers and most component manufacturers can use one of three options for
calculating regional value content.20 The KOREU FTA requires importers of automotive products
to use a different method for calculating regional vale content, the ex-works price method, than is
allowed under the KORUS FTA.21 The foreign (non-originating) content level for autos under
KOREU FTA should not exceed 45% of the ex-works price of the product, thus it follows that
55% of the content must come from either the European Union or South Korea. Administration
experts assert that the regional value content requirements in the KORUS FTA and KOREU FTA
are essentially equivalent since the KORUS FTA also requires that at least 55% of the value of the
vehicle be comprised of content from South Korea or the United States. What differs are the
methodologies used to calculate RVC.22
19
White House, Increasing U.S. Auto Exports and Growing U.S. Auto Jobs Through the U.S.-Korea Trade Agreement,
December 3, 2010, http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/
fact_sheet_increasing_us_auto_exports_us_korea_free_trade_agreement.pdf.
20
For finished automobiles and light trucks, the three options are: 35% under net cost, 35% under the adjusted
value/build-up, and 55% under the adjusted value-build-down. Rules of origin provisions are found in Chapter 6-A of
the proposed KORUS FTA agreement.
21
Free Trade Agreement Between the European Union and its Member States, of the One Part, and the Republic of
Korea, of the Other Part (KOREU FTA), Section A, Rules of Origin.
22
For more information on rules of origin see CRS Report R41868, The Proposed U.S.-South Korea Free Trade
Agreement (KORUS FTA): Automobile Rules of Origin, by (name redacted) and (name redacted).
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Table 2. Comparison of Automobile Tariff Reductions
Proposed Tariff Reduction Commitments and Time Frame for Tariff Elimination
under the Proposed KORUS FTA and KOREU FTA
South Korea
Current
Base
Tariff
Rate
Passenger Cars
8%
Time Frame
KORUS FTA:
Reduce tariff
from 8% to 4%
immediately and
fully eliminate
the tariff in year
5.
European Union
Current
Base
Tariff
Rate
8%
KORUS FTA:
Reduce tariff to
4% immediately
and fully
eliminate by
year 5.
Current
Base Tariff
Rate
Time Frame
10%
KOREU
FTA:
Eliminated
over 3 or 5
years
depending
on engine
size.a
2.5%
KORUS FTA:
Eliminated in
year 5 (no
linear phaseout).
10%
KOREU
FTA:
Eliminated
over 5 years.
2.5%
KORUS FTA:
Eliminated over
5 years.
22%
KOREU
FTA:
Eliminated
over 3 or 5
years
depending
on truck
size.
25%
KORUS FTA:
Remains in
place until year
8 and phased
out by year 10.
KOREU FTA:
Eliminated over
3 or 5 years
depending on
engine size.
Electric
Vehicles/Plug-in
Hybrid
Vehiclesb
Time
Frame
United States
KOREU FTA:
Eliminated over
5 years.
Trucksc
10%
KORUS FTA:
Eliminated
immediately.
KOREU FTA:
Eliminated
immediately or
3 to 5 years
depending on
truck size.
Source: CRS, compiled from South Korean, EU, and U.S. Tariff Schedules.
a.
The European Union 10% tariff would be phased out over three years for some passenger vehicles that fall
into certain HTS codes like passenger vehicles with engines over 3,000 cc (HTS 8703.24) or five years for
smaller cars: cars with engines over 1,000 cc, but not over 1,500 cc (HTS 8703.22). South Korea would also
eliminate its tariffs over three to five years, depending on engine size.
b.
Not all hybrid vehicles are covered by this category. Vehicles in this tariff classification are those in which
the gas- or diesel-powered engine “does not give the vehicle’s power system its essential character,” which
in the case of South Korea include electric vehicles (HSK 8703.90.70) and Other Vehicles (HSK 8703.90.90).
c.
Tariffs on trucks apply to “motor vehicles for the transport of goods,” which basically cover pickup trucks,
panel vans, and commercial vehicles. Trucks are categorized by gross vehicles weight (GVW) and by engine
type (gas or diesel) but not by engine size. Many light trucks (i.e., SUVs and minivans) are counted as
passenger cars.
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Duty Drawback
One of the more controversial provisions of the KOREU FTA is a duty drawback mechanism.
Duty drawback allows an exporter to receive a rebate of any customs duties paid on imports that
were integrated into the exported product. The KOREU FTA marks the first time the EU included
such a provision in a bilateral or multilateral trading agreement.23
Duty drawback may be particularly important for automotive exports. Under this procedure, a
South Korean car manufacturer could buy auto parts from manufacturers in low-cost countries
such as China, import them into South Korea, and claim the duties back when the assembled
vehicles are shipped to the European Union. As an example, Chinese radios could enter the EU
duty-free as part of South Korean cars, whereas EU companies pay a 14% tariff when importing
the same radios directly from China.
This duty drawback provision raises the question of whether the KOREU FTA will allow South
Korean producers to relocate parts of their production chain to lower cost countries. European
auto manufacturers have warned that the text could open the EU car market to autos with a
significant percentage of Chinese components. The KOREU FTA includes a provision that could
allow a Party to permanently cap refundable tariffs at 5% should there be a “notable increase” in
foreign sourcing by South Korean manufacturers starting five years after the agreement goes into
effect, but the European Automobile Manufacturers’ Association has nonetheless strongly
opposed the inclusion of the duty drawback provision in the KOREU FTA. No explicit reference
to duty drawback is included in the KORUS FTA and therefore the practice with no
accompanying safeguards will be allowed.
Safety and Environmental Automotive Standards
South Korea is a relatively small market for autos, with domestic sales of 1.2 million passenger
cars in 2010.24 Foreign manufacturers wishing to sell in this market must meet South Korea’s
safety and environmental standards. This means foreign, including European and U.S.,
automakers must customize their vehicles for the South Korean market, which, these automakers
claim, raises their costs and discourages imports. (Fewer than 61,000 foreign automobiles were
sold in South Korea in 2009). U.S. car manufacturers, particularly Ford, consider South Korea’s
unique automobile standards a significant barrier to imports of U.S.-made cars to South Korea.
Standards-related issues have been an important factor in holding up further consideration of the
agreement in Congress.
EU negotiators also made automotive standards a priority in the negotiations on the KOREU
FTA. NTB reforms on automotive trade include a regulatory convergence approach based on the
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) standards,25 which commits South
23
The mechanics of the KOREU FTA duty drawback provision are covered in Protocol 1: Rules of Origin, Title IV,
Article 14: Drawback of, or Exemption From, Customs Duties in the KOREU FTA, which can be found on the
European Commission’s website, EU-Korea Free Trade Agreement online, http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/press/
index.cfm?id=443&serie=273&langId=en.
24
Korea Automobile Manufacturers Association, Reports & Statistics, http://www.kama.or.kr/eng/R&s/Rsoften_e?
key=Production.
25
The World Forum for the Harmonization of Vehicle Regulations is a working party (WP.29) of the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe. Its aims to develop harmonized motor vehicle regulations worldwide covering
vehicle safety, environmental standards, energy efficiency and anti-theft performance. Neither the United States nor
(continued...)
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Korea to recognize as equivalents international automotive standards set upon implementation of
the KOREU FTA.26 Another 29 safety standards related to such things as seat belts, passenger
seats, headlamps, and rearview mirrors will be brought into line with UNECE standards over a
five-year transitional period. All other standards not subject to harmonization or equivalence
should be applied in a manner which does not limit market access. Any new standards would be
based on UNECE standards, and going forward the KOREU FTA states new features and
technologies should not hinder trade.27
The KORUS FTA takes a different approach and includes a “low volume seller exemption” which
would allow each U.S. automaker to sell up to 25,000 vehicles per year in South Korea built to
U.S. safety standards without any additional modification.28 This is four times the level permitted
in the 2007 KORUS FTA, which would have limited each U.S. automaker to 6,500 vehicles per
year. Raising the level means U.S. carmakers will be able to build more cars to U.S. safety
standards and export these automobiles to the smaller South Korea market without incurring any
additional costs that alterations and adjustments to South Korean standards would require.
The KOREU FTA, like the KORUS FTA, includes provisions on auto emissions standards and
both would establish a working group on motor vehicles and parts to serve as an early warning
system for potential trade barriers related to testing and certification standards and the
implementation of future standards on requirements related to autos, particularly automotive
environmental standards.
Other Manufactured Goods
Of particular interest to EU manufacturers (and to U.S. manufacturers) is the KOREU FTA’s
coverage of the following industries.
•
Pharmaceuticals and medical devices: Many of South Korea’s tariffs on
imports of pharmaceutical products of 8% are to be phased out immediately upon
implementation of the KOREU FTA; others will be eliminated within three years.
Tariffs on medical device exports will also be removed—immediately for many
products, phased in over three years for others, and over a longer period of time
for a few selected products. The two FTAs tackle NTBs, as they are among the
most important barriers to trade in pharmaceutical products and medical devices.
The KOREU FTA also specifically provides that the South Korean authorities
will introduce new rules to align their practices with international standards and a
more secure regulatory environment will be introduced through a better
recognition of the value of innovative products. In addition, the KOREU FTA
(...continued)
Canada recognizes UNECE motor vehicle standards.
26
The automotive standards are listed in Appendix 2-C-3 and cover such things as steering control, seating systems,
head restraints, sun visor impact, and lighting and signaling systems, see http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2009/
october/tradoc_145157.pdf.
27
European Commission, DG Trade, EU-Korea FTA: A Quick Reading Guide, October 20, 2009, p. 3.
http://trade.ec.europa.eu/doclib/docs/2009/october/tradoc_145203.pdf.
28
White House, Increasing U.S. Auto Exports and Growing U.S. Auto Jobs Through the U.S.-Korea Trade Agreement,
December 5, 2010, http://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/
fact_sheet_increasing_us_auto_exports_us_korea_free_trade_agreement_v2_0.pdf.
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
also introduces detailed binding rules on transparency regarding decisions on
reimbursement, and stipulates the possibility that pricing decisions can be
reviewed by a court. The KOREU FTA provisions on pharmaceuticals also
require that decisions on reimbursement and pricing be objective and clear. The
pending KORUS FTA also includes NTB provisions which, among other
things, aim to improve transparency in the reimbursement process; put less
complex regulatory policies in place; and ensure adequate enforcement of
pharmaceutical patent rights to specifically protect proprietary data that
manufacturers must submit for market approval. To further regulatory
cooperation in the pharmaceutical and medical device sector, the KOREU FTA
establishes a Working Group on Pharmaceutical Products and Medical Devices as
would the KORUS FTA.
•
Consumer electronics: Included in the KOREU FTA is a special annex on nontariff barriers related to consumer electronics with an objective of addressing
technical barriers, especially a lack of recognition of international standards. The
KOREU FTA permits EU exporters to conduct safety testing in the EU, under
certain conditions, effectively reducing their costs and cutting back on
bureaucratic hurdles. In contrast, the KORUS FTA does not include separate
provisions on standards, testing, and certification specifically for consumer
electronics exports from the United States to South Korea.
•
Textiles and apparel: Implementation of the KOREU FTA will result in the
abolition of most tariffs on textiles and apparel, 92% of which will be eliminated
immediately, with the others to be eliminated over five years. This is similar to
the KORUS FTA. The KOREU FTA maintains the European Union’s standard
rules of origin with only a small number of exceptions. The KORUS FTA adopts
a “yarn forward” rule, which means generally apparel using yarn and fabric from
the United States and South Korea would qualify for preferential treatment. A
special textile safeguard is included in the KORUS FTA, which will allow the
United States to impose tariffs on certain goods should injury occur due to import
surges.
Cross-Cutting Manufactured Goods Provisions
The KOREU and KORUS FTA contains provisions that apply primarily to trade in other
manufactured goods. EU manufacturers currently pay tariffs on the overwhelming majority of all
industrial products they export to South Korea, which applied an average most-favored-nation
(MFN) tariff rate of 6.6% on non-agricultural goods in 2008.29 Tariffs are higher for appliances,
pharmaceuticals, and textiles. Under the terms of the KOREU FTA, the EU agreed to eliminate
all of its import tariffs on industrial goods within five years and South Korea would remove all of
its tariffs within seven years. This would be faster than under the KORUS FTA, where the United
States would eliminate virtually all of its industrial tariffs over 10 years.30
29
World Trade Organization, World Tariff Profiles 2009, Republic of Korea, p. 102. http://www.intracen.org/
marketanalysis/Docs/Tariff_Profiles/Tariff_Profiles_09_ENG_LR.pdf.
30
Lee Jong-Kyu, Korea-EU FTA: Major Features and Implications, Samsung Economic Research Institute, August
2009, p. 8.
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To further facilitate bilateral trade in manufactured goods, the KOREU and KORUS FTAs
include provisions on cross-cutting non-tariff barriers in major industrial sectors. These
provisions include
•
Technical barriers to trade: to ensure standards and regulations are not applied
in manner that unnecessarily inhibits trade in their development and applications;
•
Customs administration and trade facilitation: to ensure compliance with
each other’s customs laws and regulations;
•
Rules of origin: to define goods that originate in the FTA region and therefore
are eligible for preferential treatment (these are in addition to the special rules of
origin for autos as discussed earlier);
•
Competition laws and regulations: to promote cooperation in enforcing
antitrust laws through the exchange of information and consultation; and,
•
Regulatory transparency: by publishing relevant regulations and administrative
decisions as well as proposed regulations; to allow persons from the other party
to make comments and to ask questions regarding proposed regulations; to notify
such persons of administrative proceedings and to allow them to make
presentations before final administrative action is taken; and to allow such
persons to request review and appeal of administrative decisions.
In addition, protocols are attached to the KOREU FTA agreement that affect manufactured goods
trade. One protocol is on rules of origin, that is the criteria, such as allowable foreign (nonKOREU FTA) content, for determining a product’s eligibility for preferential treatment under the
FTA. The protocol also contains the duty drawback provision discussed earlier. A second
protocol calls for the two Parties to work together in facilitating customs issues.
Agriculture
Under the KOREU FTA, the EU’s agricultural sector is expected to realize export gains as South
Korea implements its commitments to open up its market. This trade agreement acknowledges
South Korea’s sensitivity on some agricultural products—reflected in provisions that require
some opening—but indefinitely leave in place a few quotas and some high tariffs. Rice and rice
products are excluded from coverage, as they also are in the KORUS FTA. Since the EU imports
little in agricultural products from South Korea, those provisions are not discussed below.
Market Access for Agricultural Products
In 2009, EU agricultural exports to South Korea ($1.4 billion) accounted for almost 5% of total
EU merchandise exports to that country. The leading five agricultural/food products shipped—
pork, whiskies, corn, wine, and other vegetable fat and oil—accounted for 48.8% of the value of
the EU’s agricultural exports to the Korean market. In 2009, the EU-27 ranked fourth as the
source of Korea’s agricultural imports, while the United States placed first.
The KOREU FTA will reduce South Korea’s high tariffs and restrictive quotas on most
agricultural imports from the EU over a 20-year period. More than two thirds of these products
(in value terms) that now enter the Korean market will benefit from free access by year five
following its implementation as tariffs are eliminated and quotas increase. However, EU exporters
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
will receive immediate duty-free status for almost 30% ($430 million) of the agricultural exports
they currently ship to South Korea. For comparison, under the KORUS FTA, U.S. exporters will
immediately benefit from duty-free access for 62% (almost $2.7 billion) of their agricultural
products shipped to Korea.31
The KOREU FTA includes tariff reduction schedules and quota expansion provisions for
agricultural products that are nearly similar to those found in the KORUS FTA. However, both
agreements differ slightly in how South Korea will be allowed to protect some of its more
sensitive products. Because the EU is a smaller supplier of several such products compared to the
United States, the size of many of the EU’s preferential quotas in the Korean market may reflect
this fact. For example, in year five, the EU’s quota for natural honey will be 54 metric tons (MT),
compared to the 225 MT quota granted to the United States. Further, South Korea’s quotas for
imports of three dairy products (non-fat dry milk, whole dry milk, and evaporated milk), natural
honey, and seasonal oranges from the EU-27 will be indefinitely capped at the end of their
respective transition periods. However, the size of the preferential quotas granted to the United
States for these three same product categories will continue to increase 3% annually in perpetuity.
Similarly, South Korea secured protection against import surges of nine agricultural products
from the EU (compared to 30 products under the KORUS FTA). A “safeguard” will be
automatically triggered when the quantity of a commodity entering the South Korean market
exceeds a specified amount. When triggered, tariffs will temporarily revert to a higher level to
give producers additional time to adjust to increased import competition.
Though EU agricultural exports to South Korea are a small share of its total, observers note that
the elimination of tariffs will particularly facilitate additional exports of pork products, wine,
spirits, and processed foods. EU agricultural exporters will also benefit from the substantial
savings associated with tariff reductions. Most acknowledge, though, that the KORUS FTA will
have a more significant impact on agricultural exports to South Korea than is expected under the
KOREU FTA.32
Sanitary and Phytosanitary Commitments
The KOREU FTA’s sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) chapter details the commitments and the
process both countries would follow to address human, animal, and plant health issues that may
arise in bilateral trade of agricultural products. It identifies those issue areas that will receive
special attention (i.e., animal welfare standards, designation of pest- or disease-free areas and
areas of low pest or disease prevalence). The KOREU FTA establishes a SPS committee to
facilitate consultations on, and resolve, bilateral SPS problems as they arise, as will the KORUS
FTA. While the KOREU FTA emphasizes this committee’s responsibilities to implement
commitments on the issue areas identified, the focus of the committee to be created under the
KORUS FTA emphasizes the use of science and risk-based assessment to resolve SPS matters
through bilateral technical cooperation and consultation. Both agreements prescribe that dispute
settlement provisions cannot be used as recourse to address any SPS issue that might arise in
bilateral trade.
31
These figures are derived by CRS by applying Korea’s tariff reduction schedule commitments made in each trade
agreement against EU and U.S. agricultural exports in calendar year 2009.
32
European Parliament, “An Assessment of the EU-Korea FTA,” July 2010, pp. 15, 23.
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Geographical Indications for Agricultural Products
The KOREU FTA has more expansive provisions on geographic indications (GIs) than does the
KORUS FTA. GIs (similar to a trademark) refer to marks that “identify a good as originating in
the territory of a country, or a region or locality in that territory, where a given quality, reputation
or other characteristic of the good is essentially attributable to its geographical origin.”33 The use
of GIs applies primarily to wines, spirits, and agricultural products. For example, “Rocquefort”
cheese from France is an EU-designated GI.
Because GIs are commercially valuable in international trade, the EU in negotiating its bilateral
trade agreements sought to secure additional protection for its GI-designated agricultural and
beverage products in FTA partner country markets beyond what multilateral trading rules
currently provide. This means that GI-designated products are eligible for relief from acts of
infringement and/or unfair competition under a country’s trademark laws and regulations.
Reflecting this objective, the EU in its FTA with South Korea secured protection for 162 GIdesignated products (e.g., wines, spirits, cheeses, hams, and beers). South Korea secured GI
recognition in the EU market for 64 of its GI-designated products (teas, spices, vegetables, rices,
fruits, meats, among others). The U.S. dairy sector expressed concern that the GI-designation of
various EU cheeses in the South Korean market could undercut the sale of U.S. generically
labeled cheeses in that market with identical names. Accordingly, Members of Congress have
urged the USTR to work with their counterparts to ensure that South Korean regulations drafted
to implement the KOREU FTA do not impair the dairy market access concessions that the United
States would receive under the KORUS FTA.
Services Trade
The EU made increased market access to the South Korean market for services a high priority,
given the relative competitiveness of EU-based services providers and the openness of EU
markets going into the negotiations compared to South Korean providers and markets. As WTO
members, the EU-27 and South Korea adhere to and have made commitments under the WTO’s
General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS).34 However, competitive services providers,
especially from the EU and the United States, view the GATS, that resulted from the Uruguay
Round negotiations, as just a first step in establishing a multilateral framework on trade in
services. As a result, its trade liberalizing commitments are far below what many WTO members
consider necessary to effectively reduce barriers to trade in services. The KOREU FTA expands
the commitments that the EU members and South Korea have made under the GATS.
KOREU FTA addresses the overall rules for EU-South Korea trade in services, such as allowing
for the establishment of a commercial presence by a service provider from one Party to the
agreement through investment in the other Party, reaffirming rules established in the multilateral
GATS. The KOREU FTA establishes the basic principles by which the two Parties would conduct
bilateral trade in services covered by the agreement. These principles include non-discriminatory
treatment—both most-favored-nation treatment and national treatment and market access which
proscribes government restrictions on trade in covered services but allows for exceptions for
33
Uruguay Round Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), Article 22.1.
The GATS is the WTO multilateral trade agreement that establishes rules of the road for trade in services as the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade does for trade in goods. Under the GATS rules, each WTO member has made
sector-specific commitments to liberalize trade in services.
34
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
government restrictions for prudential objectives. Among other things, the chapter also calls for
transparency in establishing regulations on services.
The KOREU FTA uses the “positive list approach” rather than the “negative list approach,” in
laying out the schedule of these commitments. The positive list requires each Party to specifically
identify the types of services for which it will provide national treatment and market access to
providers from the other Party.35 By contrast, the KORUS FTA uses the negative list.
Notwithstanding the “positive list,” the EU-Korea FTA covers a broad range of services,
including transportation services, telecommunications, finance, legal services, environmental
services and construction, and largely mirrors coverage found in the KORUS FTA.36 South Korea
obtained increased access to EU markets for architecture, engineering, urban planning,
landscaping, printing and publishing, telecommunication, construction, finance, and
transportation services. However, the KOREU FTA does not open markets for audiovisual
services.37
Because South Korea’s services market is much more restricted that the EU’s, the EU had
particular interest in obtaining increased market access in South Korea for its legal, financial,
retail, transportation, and telecommunications services. In general, South Korea agreed to provide
similar access for its markets for EU providers as would be given to U.S. providers under the
KORUS FTA. According to the European Commission, the KOREU FTA provides the most
comprehensive treatment of services trade of any EU FTA.38
For example, in the area of legal services, an EU priority during the negotiations was to secure
South Korea’s commitment to allow EU firms to increase their onsite presence. In that regard, by
the date the agreement enters into force, EU-based law firms have been permitted to open
representative offices in South Korea to advise foreign investors and local clients on non-Korean
law. No later than two years after that effective date, EU law firms’ representative offices will be
able to enter into cooperative agreements with Korean law firms, and no later than five years after
that date, they will be permitted to form joint ventures with Korean firms. The KORUS FTA
contains similar provisions for U.S. law firms.
In the area of telecommunication services, under the KOREU FTA, South Korea will allow a
deemed foreign person owned or controlled by EU telecommunications providers to own 100%
of the voting shares of Korean-based providers of facility-based public telecommunications
services, except for the KT Corporation and SK Telecom Co., Ltd., for which the share of
ownership will be limited to 49% or less. Under the KORUS FTA, U.S. telecommunications
firms will have similar access to ownership. In addition, under the KOREU FTA, South Korea
will allow EU satellite television providers’ cross-border supply of television and radio signals
35
The “negative list” approach requires each Party to list only those types of services for which it is not prepared to
provide national treatment and market access. In addition, under the negative list approach new types of services that
are developed after the trade agreement enters into force, are considered part of the trade liberalizing schedule of
commitments unless otherwise identified. On balance, the negative list is considered to be the more trade liberalizing
approach. It is also the approach that the United States has employed in its FTAs, including the proposed KORUS FTA.
WTO members employ the positive list in the GATS.
36
Lee, Jong-Kyu. KOREA-EU FTA: Major Features and Implications. Samsung Economic Research Institute, August
2009, p. 10.
37
Ibid.
38
European Commission, DG Trade, EU-Korea FTA: A Quick Reading Guide, October 20, 2009, p.7.
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
transmission services without the need to have a business tie with a domestic telecom company.
The EU views this as an important benefit to EU providers.39 The KORUS FTA does not appear
to mention such operations; so it is not clear if U.S. satellite broadcasters will have similar access.
In general, the EU and South Korea agreed to provide access to their respective financial markets
as the United States and South Korea agreed to under the KORUS FTA. Because of the positive
list approach, EU commitments in services are member-specific, so not all of the 27 members
may have committed to any specific trade liberalization measure. In insurance, 21 of the EU 27
countries and South Korea agreed to open up their respective markets for direct insurance in
maritime shipping, commercial aviation, and space launching and in insurance for the
international transport of goods. South Korea and some EU members will also open their markets
for risk management services. In banking and other financial services, South Korea and 20 of the
27 EU members will allow financial institutions from each others’ territories to provide and
transfer financial information and data across their borders and to provide advisory and other
auxiliary services. While the KOREU FTA appears to be cautious regarding financial services
liberalization in some respects, it appears to be forward looking in other respects. For example, its
provisions will apply to all financial services including new financial services.
The KORUS FTA handles financial services somewhat differently. It distinguishes two broad
categories of delivery of services. One category is services sold by a service provider located in
one FTA partner country to residents in the other partner country through an affiliate located in
the territory of the latter partner country (commercial presence). The second category is services
sold by a provider located in one partner country to a national of the other partner country no
matter the location of that national (cross-border trade).
In the case of providers with a commercial presence, the KORUS FTA applies to all financial
services. As with the KOREU FTA, it would also automatically cover any new financial service.
In the case of cross-border trade, the KORUS FTA coverage is limited to those banking and
insurance services listed in the agreement.40 It is not clear whether the difference in approaches
between these two FTAs yields different levels of trade liberalization.
Other Provisions
Trade Remedies
The trade remedy provisions in the KOREU FTA (anti-dumping, countervailing duty, and
safeguard measures) closely resemble those in the KORUS FTA. Among other things, they
include
•
special bilateral safeguard provisions allowing either Party to either suspend
phase-out of tariff rates or increase customs duties on an import of a product
39
European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, An Assessment of the EU-Korea
FTA, July 2010, p. 75.
40
Regarding insurance, the FTA’s coverage would be limited to cross-border trade in marine, aviation, and transit
insurance; reinsurance; services auxiliary to insurance, such as consultancy, risk assessment, and actuarial and claim
settlement services; and insurance intermediation services such as brokerage and agency services. Regarding banking
and securities, the agreement’s coverage in cross-border trade would be limited to providing financial information and
data processing, advisory, and other auxiliary financial services.
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from the other Party, if surges in imports of that product cause or threaten to
cause serious injury to the domestic industry;
•
special safeguard measures to counter the adverse effects of imports surges of
specified agricultural products;
•
special notification to one Party of a global safeguard measure imposed by the
other Party, if the former would be one of the top five suppliers of the product in
question; and
•
a commitment by both sides to abide by WTO agreements on antidumping and
countervailing duty measures when imposing those measures.
Government Procurement
The Government Procurement Agreement (GPA) is a WTO plurilateral pact that applies to only
those WTO members that are signatories. Under the GPA, government contracts for goods and
services to be used for public purposes are opened up to bids from providers from other signatory
countries. The GPA applies to contracts valued above a specified threshold and to contracts let by
those agencies that each signatory country lists in its schedule of commitments. The EU, South
Korea, and the United States are GPA signatories. Under the KOREU FTA, both sides reaffirm
their commitments to open up government procurement contracts to bidding by foreign providers
under the GPA. Under the KOREU FTA (and the KORUS FTA) South Korea will apply the trade
liberalization provisions to a larger number of public agencies than required under the GPA.
Under the KORUS FTA, the United States and South Korea will lower the thresholds beyond
those established under the GPA for eligibility of contracts for goods and services, thus
potentially opening up more government procurement opportunities to bilateral trade. The EUKorea FTA will adhere to the GPA thresholds. The KOREU FTA includes a special section that
opens up build-operate-transfer (BOT) and public works contracts valued above 15 million SDRs
(or about $22.5 million).41 The EU considers this provision to be an important contribution of the
agreement because these contracts are not covered by the WTO GPA.42 The KORUS FTA states
that BOT contracts are one of the contractual means for procurement covered by the agreement.
Intellectual Property Rights
The KOREU FTA reaffirms each of the EU and South Korean commitments to uphold the
provisions of the WTO Trade-Related Intellectual Property (TRIPS) agreement as well as other
international conventions on the protection of owners of intellectual property (IP)—copyrights,
trademarks, and patents. While at one time an issue, South Korea protection of IP has improved to
the point it is not an issue, at least in U.S.-South Korean trade relations. The agreement also
contains provisions to assist owners to obtain payment for the use of their IP and expands on
protection of the rights of designers. The agreement extends authors’ rights to 70 years after the
41
In the agreement, a BOT contract is defined as “any contractual arrangement the primary purpose of which is to
provide for the construction or rehabilitation of physical infrastructure, plant, buildings, facilities, or other governmentowned works and under which, as consideration for a supplier’s execution of a contractual arrangement, a procuring
entity grants to the supplier, for a specified period of time, temporary ownership or a right to control and operate, and
demand payment for the use of, such works for the duration of the contract.”
42
Europa, EU-Korea Free Trade Agreement: 10 Key Benefits for the European Union.Memo/10/423,
http://www.europa.eu.
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death of the author, the same as under the KORUS FTA. As mentioned in the discussion on
agriculture, the KOREU FTA commits both sides to preserve the integrity of certain geographical
indications (GIs), an issue important to EU producers of food products for which they want to
emphasize the origin of the region in which those products are produced.
Trade and Sustainable Development—Labor and Environmental Standards
The KOREU FTA combines provisions on workers’ rights and on environmental standards into
one chapter devoted to trade and sustainable development, unlike the KORUS FTA, which
handles them separately. Similar to provisions in the KORUS FTA, the KOREU FTA commits
both sides to uphold International Labor Organization (ILO) core labor standards as well as make
continued and sustained efforts to ratify all ILO conventions that go beyond the core labor
standards.43
Under the KOREU FTA, both sides also agree to uphold and effectively implement all
multilateral environment agreements to which they are a party. In addition, the EU and South
Korea commit to not lowering enforcement of labor standards or environmental standards in a
way that would affect trade or investment between them. The two sides are also to set up advisory
groups to monitor the implementation of workers rights and environmental provisions and to set
up a panel of independent experts to resolve issues that arise during implementation. In this
respect, the treatment of labor rights and environmental issues under the KOREU FTA is similar
to that under the KORUS FTA. However, the KORUS FTA provides for disputes under the labor
and environmental chapter to be resolved through the agreement’s dispute settlement mechanism,
and thus the possibility of sanctions, if consultations do not resolve the dispute. In contrast, the
KOREU FTA states that disputes can only be resolved through consultations and does not provide
for any sanctions.
Potential Economic Impact of the KOREU FTA
Most of the studies done on the impact of the KOREU FTA estimate that the agreement will have
a small but positive affect on the economies of the EU and South Korea as a whole and that the
larger relative impact would be on the South Korean economy. This conclusion logically follows
from the fact that the South Korean economy is much smaller than the EU, more dependent on
the EU market than is the opposite case, and has higher trade barriers than the EU; therefore, the
effects of trade liberalization under the KOREU FTA would be greater in relative terms for South
Korea. However, in both cases, the impact of the agreement on the overall economy on both sides
will be small, reflecting the larger role played by other countries in their trade and also the larger
impact that other economic activities—domestic consumption, government spending, and
business investment—have in their economies.
Most studies indicate that South Korea’s GDP will increase 1%-2% after the KOREU FTA is
implemented, while the EU GDP will increase less than 0.05%.44 Studies regarding the impact of
43
To many outside observers, South Korea’s labor rights regime is generally considered to be strong for regular
workers. South Korea ranks in the top third of the OECD’s 30 members in terms of employment protection for regular
workers. Indeed, for years, a major complaint by multinational corporations is that restrictions in the South Korean
labor market, such as mandatory severance pay, significantly raise the cost of investing and doing business in Korea.
44
European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, An Assessment of the EU-Korea
(continued...)
Congressional Research Service
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
the KORUS FTA on the United States and South Korea yielded comparable magnitudes, an
expected result given the similarities in the size and comparable levels of development of the EU
and the United States and the similarities in the KOREU FTA and the KORUS FTA.45
As with most other FTAs, the greatest economic impact of the KOREU FTA will be on specific
sectors in each economy. Those having a comparative advantage vis-a-vis those in their other
country are most likely to experience the greatest benefits while import-sensitive sectors will
experience the least gains, if not losses, when the agreement is implemented. EU services
providers will be expected to experience gains from the agreement, especially in the areas of
retail and wholesale trade; transportation services; financial services; and business services.46 This
conclusion follows from the fact that EU service providers are among the world’s most
competitive and EU markets the most open, while the South Korean services market is relatively
closed. In terms of trade in goods, EU exporters of pharmaceuticals, auto parts, industrial
machinery, electronics parts, and some agricultural goods and processed foods will be expected to
gain from the KOREU FTA’s implementation. At the same time, South Korean producers of cars,
ships, wireless telecommunications devices, chemical products, and imaging equipment will be
expected to increase their exports to the EU market.47
(...continued)
FTA, July 2010, p. 23.
45
A study by the U.S. International Trade Commission estimates that U.S. GDP would increase approximately 0.1%
and a study by the Korea Institute for International Economic Policy estimates that South Korean GDP would increase
0.42% to 0.59% if and when the KORUS FTA is fully implemented. These estimates are discussed in CRS Report
RL34330, The Proposed U.S.-South Korea Free Trade Agreement (KORUS FTA): Provisions and Implications,
coordinated by (name redacted).
46
European Parliament, Directorate-General for External Policies, Policy Department, An Assessment of the EU-Korea
FTA, July 2010, pp. 23-24.
47
Ibid.
Congressional Research Service
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Appendix. Selected Economic Indicators, Tariff, and
Trade Tables
Table A-1. Selected Economic and Tariff Indicators for European Union,
United States, and South Korea, 2009
European Union
United States
South Korea
Population in millions (July 2010 estimate)
492
310
49
GDP - Purchasing Power Parity in trillions of U.S. $ (2009)
$14.43
$14.14
$1.36
GDP - Real Growth Rate in percent (2009 est.)
-4.1%
-2.6%
0.2%
GDP - Per Capita (PPP) in U.S. $ (2009 est.)
$32,500
$46,000
$28,100
All Goods
5.3%
3.5%
12.1%
Agricultural Goods
13.5%
4.7%
48.6%
Non-Agricultural Goods
4.0%
3.3%
6.6%
MFN Average Applied Tariffs, 2009a (percent)
Sources: CIA, The World Factbook, as updated November 9, 2010; WTO, Country Profiles, October 2010.
a.
Simple average of import duties
Congressional Research Service
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Table A-2. EU and U.S. Trade with South Korea, 2009
European
Union
TOTAL MERCHANDISE TRADE
United
States
billion US $
Exports to South Korea
$29.9
$28.6
Imports from South Korea
$44.9
$39.2
Trade Balance
-$15.0
-$10.6
TRADE BY SELECTED SECTORS
million US $
Automobiles
Exports to South Korea
2,037
388
Imports from South Korea
7,185
4,665
Exports to South Korea
1,405
3,961
Imports from South Korea
85
324
Exports to South Korea
6,740
4,417
Imports from South Korea
5,193
8,546
Exports to South Korea
1,321
501
Imports from South Korea
38
96
Exports to South Korea
839
859
Imports from South Korea
634
328
Exports to South Korea
611
210
Imports from South Korea
800
934
Agriculture
Machinery; Reactors, Boilers
Pharmaceuticals
Medical Devices
Textiles & Apparel
Sources: Global Trade Atlas; World Trade Organization.
Congressional Research Service
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Table A-3. EU FTAs Since 2006
Partner
Status
ASEANa
Negotiations begun in June 2007 but suspended.
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Agreement in force
Canada
Negotiations ongoing
CARIFORUM Statesb
Agreement pending ratification
Central America (Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama)
Negotiations concluded
Colombia and Peru
Negotiations ongoing
GCC (Gulf Cooperation Councilc)
Negotiations suspended
India
Negotiations ongoing
Malaysia
Negotiations ongoing
MERCOSURd
Negotiations ongoing
Montenegro
Agreement in force
South Korea
Agreement signed
Serbia
Agreement in force
Singapore
Negotiations ongoing
Ukraine
Negotiations ongoing
Vietnam
Negotiations ongoing
South Africa
Negotiations ongoing
Note: The EU has established a network of various preferential trade arrangements besides FTAs. For more
information see CRS Report R41143, Europe’s Preferential Trade Agreements: Status, Content, and Implications, by
(name redacted).
a.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ 10 members are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia,
Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, The Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
b.
The CARIFORUM states are Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Dominica, the Dominican
Republic, Grenada, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint Christopher
and Nevis, Suriname, and Trinidad and Tobago.
c.
The Gulf Cooperation Council consists of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates,
and Oman.
d.
Mercosur is the Common Market of the South established by Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay.
Congressional Research Service
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The EU-South Korea Free Trade Agreement and Its Implications for the United States
Table A-4. South Korea’s FTAs
FTAs in effect
Korea-Chile FTA
Korea-ASEAN FTAa
Korea-Singapore FTA
Korea-India Comprehensive Economic Partnership
Agreement (CEPA)
Korea-EFTA FTAb
Concluded FTAs
Korea-U.S. FTA
Korea-Peru FTA
Korea-EU FTA
FTAs under negotiation
Korea-Canada FTA
Korea-New Zealand FTA
Korea-Mexico FTA
Korea-Colombia FTA
Korea-GCCc FTA
Korea-Turkey FTA
Korea-Australia FTA
FTAs under consideration
Korea-Japan FTA
Korea-Russia Bilateral Economic Partnership Agreement
(BEPA)
Korea-China FTA
Korea-Israel FTA
Korea-China-Japan FTA
Korea-SACU FTAd
Korea-MERCOSUR FTAe
Source: South Korea Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade.
a.
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations’ 10 members are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia,
Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, The Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.
b.
EFTA is comprised of Iceland, Norway, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein.
c.
The Gulf Cooperation Council consists of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates,
and Oman.
d.
The five members of the Southern African Customs Union are Botswana, Lesotho, Namibia, South Africa,
and Swaziland.
e.
Mercosur is the Common Market of the South established by Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay.
Author Contact Information
(name redacted)
Specialist in International Trade and Finance
[redacted]@crs.loc.gov, 7-....
(name redacted)
Specialist in Industrial Organization and Business
[redacted]@crs.loc.gov, 7-....
(name redacted)
Specialist in Agricultural Policy
[redacted]@crs.loc.gov, 7-....
(name redacted)
Specialist in Asian Affairs
[redacted]@crs.loc.gov, 7-....
Congressional Research Service
24
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