Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition
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Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs,
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CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress
Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition
Summary
The complexities of federal farm and food programs have generated a unique vocabulary.
Common understanding of these terms (new and old) is important to those involved in
policymaking in this area. For this reason, the House Agriculture Committee requested that CRS
prepare a glossary of agriculture and related terms (e.g., food programs, conservation, forestry,
environmental protection, etc.). Besides defining terms and phrases with specialized meanings for
agriculture, the glossary also identifies acronyms, abbreviations, agencies, programs, and laws
related to agriculture that are of particular interest to the staff and Members of Congress. CRS is
releasing it for general congressional use with the permission of the Committee.
The approximately 2,500 entries in this glossary were selected in large part on the basis of
Committee instructions and the informed judgment of numerous CRS experts. Time and resource
constraints influenced how much and what was included. Many of the glossary explanations have
been drawn from other published sources, including previous CRS glossaries, those published by
the U.S. Department of Agriculture and other federal agencies, and glossaries contained in the
publications of various organizations, universities, and authors. In collecting these definitions, the
compilers discovered that many terms have diverse specialized meanings in different professional
settings. In this glossary, the definitions or explanations have been written to reflect their
relevance to agriculture and recent changes in farm and food policies.
This glossary is in alphabetical order and contains an explanation for each term. Acronyms and
abbreviations are not followed by an explanation. However, except for private organizations and
associations, the abbreviations likely are defined under their full name.
The definitions and explanations are not legal in nature, but are explanatory. Hence, this
document should not be used as a legal or administrative reference. For those purposes, the
Statutes at Large, U.S. Code, and the Code of Federal Regulations are the more appropriate
resources.
Congressional Research Service
Agriculture: A Glossary of Terms, Programs, and Laws, 2005 Edition
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AAEA—American Agricultural Economics Association. http://www.aaea.org.
AAFCO—American Association of Feed Control Officials. http://www.aafco.org.
AAM—American Agriculture Movement. http://www.aaminc.org.
AAMP—American Association of Meat Processors. http://www.aamp.com.
AAR—Association of American Railroads. http://www.aar.org.
AARCC—Alternative Agriculture Research and Commercialization Corporation.
Aarhus Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants—This 1998 protocol on persistent organic
pollutants (POPs) is an addition to the 1979 Geneva Convention on Long-Range Transboundary
Air Pollution (LRTAP). The Aarhus POPs Protocol seeks “to control, reduce or eliminate
discharge, emissions and losses of persistent organic pollutants” in Europe, some former Soviet
Union countries, and the United States. The protocol is an executive agreement that does not
require Senate approval. However, legislation is needed to resolve inconsistencies between
provisions of the protocol and existing U.S. laws (specifically the Toxic Substances Control Act
and the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act).
ABA—American Bakers Association. http://www.americanbakers.org. American Bankers
Association. http://www.aba.com/default.htm. American Bar Association. http://www.abanet.org.
Abandoned wells—Abandoned drainage wells and abandoned water wells on vacant farmsteads
are of particular concern for agriculture. Abandoned wells can present both safety risks and a
direct conduit by which groundwater can be contaminated by surface runoff. A number of states
have incentive and/or regulatory programs to cap or seal abandoned wells.
Able-Bodied Adults Without Dependents (ABAWDs)—This term refers to low income
working adults who do not have dependents. The 1996 welfare law (P.L. 104-193) set categorical
requirements for food stamp participation. Among these were restrictions on legal alien
participation and participation by low income persons without dependents. The latter (formerly
eligible based solely on low income) were made ineligible for food stamps if they received food
stamps for three months during the preceding three years without working or participating in a
work program for at least 20 hours a week, or without participating in a workfare program.
ACA—Agricultural Credit Association.
ACE—Agriculture in Concert with the Environment.
Acid deposition / acid rain—Abnormally acidic (low pH) precipitation (or dry deposition)
resulting from emissions of sulfur and nitrogen compounds that transform during chemical
processes in the atmosphere. Acid deposition can affect the chemistry of soils and acidify lakes,
adversely affecting forests and fish. It may adversely affect cropland. The Clean Air Act (42
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U.S.C. 7401 et seq.) includes a program focused on controlling precursor emissions of acid
deposition, primarily sulfur oxides from coal-fired electric utilities.
ACP Countries—African, Caribbean and Pacific countries are former European colonies
associated with the European Union under the Cotonou Agreement negotiated in 2000. EU-ACP
relations were formerly covered by the Lome Convention. ACP countries benefit from
development assistance and trade preferences provided under the Cotonou Agreement.
ACPA—American Crop Protection Association changed its name to CropLife America.
http://www.croplifeamerica.org.
Acquired lands—Lands in federal ownership that were obtained by the federal government
through purchase, condemnation, gift, or exchange. One category of public lands.
ACR—Acreage conservation reserve.
Acre—1 acre = 43,560 sq. ft. = 208.71 ft.2 = 0.405 hectares. Note that 640 acres = 1 sq. mile
(called a “section”).
Acre-foot—The volume of water that would cover one acre of land (43,560 square feet) to a
depth of one foot, equivalent to 325,851 gallons of water. An acre-foot is the basic measure of
agricultural water use. On average, irrigators apply almost 2 feet of water on each acre through
the crop growing season; the amount ranges from 4 feet in the Southwest to a half foot in some
eastern states, and varies, depending on the crop grown. Water withdrawn for irrigation from
ground and surface sources totals about 150 maf (million acre-feet) of water annually.
Acreage allotment—Under provisions of permanent commodity price support law, a farm’s
acreage allotment is its share, based on its previous production, of the national acreage needed to
produce sufficient supplies of a particular crop. Under the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Title I),
acreage allotments are not applicable to the covered commodities, peanuts, or sugar.
Subsequently, allotments and quotas and price support for tobacco were eliminated beginning in
2005 (P.L. 108-357, Title VI).
Acreage conservation reserve—The cropland acreage diverted from production under the
acreage reduction program authorized prior to 1996.
Acreage diversion programs—Historically, commodity programs included provisions to reduce
commodity supplies by diverting acreage to non-crop uses. Examples include paid diversion,
unpaid diversion, set-aside, and acreage reduction programs. The 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127)
eliminated authority for the USDA to implement annual acreage reduction programs. The
Conservation Reserve Program pays farmers for the long-term conversion of fragile cropland land
to conserving uses and is not considered to be an acreage diversion program.
Acreage limitation—With respect to commodity policy, acreage limitation might refer to
planting constraints under an acreage reduction program, set-aside, or paid land diversion. These
programs are no longer authorized. In relation to water policy, it is the maximum number of acres
that may be irrigated with less than full-cost water from Bureau of Reclamation projects.
Generally, the acreage limitation for individuals or legal entities representing 25 people or fewer
is 960 acres; however, amounts vary depending on a landowner’s legal status. Also referred to as
ownership limitation, ownership entitlement, or non-full-cost entitlement.
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Acreage Reduction Program (ARP)—A no-longer authorized annual cropland retirement
program for wheat, feed grains, cotton, or rice in which farmers participating in the commodity
programs (in order to be eligible for nonrecourse loans and deficiency payments) were mandated
to idle a crop-specific, nationally set portion of their base acreage during years of surplus. The
idled acreage (called the acreage conservation reserve) was devoted to a conserving use. The goal
was to reduce supplies, thereby raising market prices. Additionally, idled acres did not earn
deficiency payments, thus reducing commodity program costs. ARP was criticized for
diminishing the U.S. competitive position in export markets. The 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127)
did not reauthorize ARPs. ARP differed from a set-aside program in that under a set-aside
program reductions were based upon current year plantings, and did not require farmers to reduce
their plantings of a specific crop.
ACS—Alternative conservation system.
Action levels—As opposed to tolerances (which are established for pesticide residues occurring
as a direct result of proper usage), action levels are set for inadvertent residues resulting from
previous legal use or accidental contamination. At the action level set by the EPA, Food and Drug
Administration and USDA are required to take enforcement action against the contaminated food
or agricultural commodity. The term is also used in other regulatory programs.
Active ingredient—In any pesticide product, the component that kills, or otherwise controls,
target pests. Pesticides are regulated by the EPA primarily on the basis of active ingredients. See
also Inert ingredient.
Active packaging—Technological advances make it possible for food packaging to prolong shelf
life, monitor freshness, and display information on quality. Active packaging can interact with
food to reduce oxygen levels, or add flavorings and preservatives. Also called intelligent
packaging. The use of such packaging raises issues of regulation and labeling.
ACTPN—Advisory Committee for Trade Policy and Negotiations.
Actual Production History (APH)—A measure of an individual farmer’s annual production of a
commodity over a multi-year period. The APH serves as the basis for the farmer’s “normal” crop
yield in the crop insurance program. When the actual crop yield deviates by more than a certain
percentage from the APH, an insured producer is eligible for an indemnity (loss) payment. The
2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Sec.1101-1102) allows producers of covered commodities
participating in the Direct and Counter-cyclical Program (DCP) the option of updating acreage for
direct payments, and acreage and yield for counter-cyclical payments, using 1998 through 2001
as the base period for actual acreage and yields.
Actual Production History (APH)—A record of an agricultural producer’s crop yields over a
multi-year period. Such records are used in the federal crop insurance program to determine
“normal” production levels for a producer. The term Actual Production History insurance is used
synonymously with Multi-Peril Crop Insurance.
Actuarially sound—The financial goal of any insurance program (including the federal crop
insurance program) is to operate on an actuarially sound basis. That is, total premiums collected
should more than offset total indemnities paid out.
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Acute toxicity—The ability of a substance to cause harmful effects soon after a single exposure
or dose. Also, any severe poisonous effect resulting from a short-term exposure to a toxic
substance. See also Chronic toxicity.
Ad valorem duty—A tariff expressed as a fixed percentage of the value of the imported
commodity or product. Generally, by contrast, a specific rate duty is applied as a charge on each
unit or specified quantity of an imported item (i.e., $5 per ton).
AD—Anti-dumping duty.
ADA—American Dairy Association. http://www.ilovecheese.com/default.htm.
ADA—American Dietetic Association. http://www.eatright.org; American Diabetic Association.
http://www.diabetes.org/home.jsp.
ADC—Animal Damage Control Program.
Additional peanuts—Prior to the complete redesign of the peanut program in the 2002 farm bill
(P.L. 107-171, Sec 1301-1310), a two-tiered pricing scheme provided higher support for quota
peanuts than for additional peanuts. The additional peanuts were those marketed above the
quantity specified as peanut poundage quota for each farm. Additional peanuts had to be exported
or crushed into oil and meal in contrast to quota peanuts that could be sold for domestic edible
uses.
ADI—Acceptable daily intake; usually refers to dietary adequacy.
Adjusted gross income limitation—The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Sec. 1604) established an
eligibility limit on commodity program and conservation payments. For the first time, the law
makes an individual recipient of commodity and conservation subsidies ineligible for payments if
their three-year average adjusted gross income exceeds $2.5 million. This limitation is waived if
the 75% or more of the adjusted gross income is from farming, ranching, or forestry. Separately,
there are annual payment limitations on how much a person can be receive under various farm
programs.
Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR) Insurance—A revenue insurance program implemented in
1999 as a pilot program by USDA and continuing on a limited basis. Where available, it allows
farmers to receive a guarantee of a percentage of their revenue for multiple commodities,
including some livestock revenue, rather than just the revenue from an individual commodity.
Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR)-Lite—Similar to the AGR insurance program described above,
except that AGR-Lite is available to smaller farmers (income below $512,821, and liability below
$250,000). Where the basic AGR program limits eligible livestock coverage to 35% of expected
allowable income, the AGR-Lite contains no limitations on the proportion of livestock income.
Adjusted world price (AWP)—As part of the upland cotton and the rice marketing assistance
loan programs, USDA calculates and publishes, on a weekly basis, what is known as the adjusted
world price (AWP). The AWP is the prevailing world price for upland cotton or rice, adjusted to
account for U.S. quality and location. Producers who have taken out USDA marketing assistance
loans may choose to repay them at either the lesser of the established loan rate, plus interest, or
the announced AWP for that week. The AWP for cotton also is used for determining Step 2
payments.
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Administered price—A price fixed by policy makers in order to determine, directly or indirectly,
domestic market or producer prices. All of the administered price schemes set a minimum
guaranteed support price or target price for a commodity, which is maintained by associated
policy measures such as quantitative restrictions on production and imports; taxes and tariffs on
imports; export subsidies; and public stockholding. Administered prices under the 2002 farm bill
(P.L. 107-171) include loan rates and/or target prices, and price support levels for sugar, and dairy
products.
Administrative Procedure Act of 1946—P.L. 79-404, as amended, establishes, among other
things, minimum procedural requirements or models for federal agency rulemaking and certain
types of hearings. For instance, the APA establishes procedures for informal rulemaking, which
may include notice-and-comment requirements, or formal rulemaking, which includes trial-type
hearings. Exemptions from rulemaking requirements are included in the Act. The APA provides
standards for judicial review of final agency action. The provisions of the APA apply to USDA
rulemaking, unless exempted under the provisions of another statute. For example, hearings
conducted by the USDA’s National Appeals Division (NAD) are not governed by the APA. The
final determination of the NAD is reviewable and enforceable by a U.S. District Court in
accordance with the judicial review provisions of the APA.
Adulterated food—Generally, impure, unsafe, or unwholesome. However, the Federal Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 U.S.C. 321 et seq.), the Federal Meat Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 601
et seq.), and the Poultry Products Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 451 et seq.) contain separate
language defining in very specific (and lengthy) terms how the term adulterated will be applied to
the foods each of these laws regulates. Products that are adulterated under these laws’ definitions
cannot enter into commerce for human food use.
Advanced meat recovery (AMR)—A mechanical process that removes the last traces of usable
meat from bones after the primal cuts have been carved off manually. In 1994, FSIS issued a rule
allowing such meat to be labeled as meat for human consumption, providing that the bones from
which it was removed were still intact after processing. In 1997, following tests indicating that
central nervous system (CNS) tissue was showing up in mechanically removed meat, FSIS issued
a directive to its inspectors instructing them to ensure that spinal cord tissue was removed from
bones before the AMR process. Following the identification of a BSE-infected U.S. dairy cow in
December 2003, FSIS issued new regulations expanding the definition of prohibited CNS tissue
to include additional cattle parts. Furthermore, all AMR-processed product from cattle more than
30 months old now is prohibited from being used for food, and such product from younger cattle
and from other livestock species also is prohibited if it contains CNS material. AMR meat
typically is used as an ingredient in products requiring further processing, such as hot dogs.
Adventitious presence (AP)—The accidental or unintentional appearance of foreign material in
a product. In the case of agriculture, usually this happens in the production, harvesting, storage,
and marketing of grains, seeds, or food products, for example. Grain and seed companies argue
that virtually all shipments contain some type and level of adventitious material, such as some
weed material in a bin of soybeans or wheat. Generally, buyers recognize that some level of
adventitious material is acceptable and foreign material limits are specified in purchase contracts.
AP is now a key issue in the debate over regulation of biotechnology. As more and more crops
and acres are devoted to genetically engineered (GE) varieties, it becomes increasingly difficult to
segregate these from GE-free varieties, which some buyers and countries demand. The European
Union is considering a proposal to require GE labeling of any food or feed product that contains
more than 0.5% of material derived from genetically modified organisms.
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Adverse Effect Wage Rate (AEWR)—The AEWR is the minimum wage that the U.S.
Department of Labor (DOL) has determined “must be offered and paid to U.S. and alien workers
by agricultural employers of nonimmigrant H-2A agricultural workers (Federal Register,
February 10, 1999, p. 6690). Where agricultural employers offer employment to nonimmigrant
foreign workers, payment of at least the AEWR is required. Published once a year, usually in
early February, by DOL with the assistance of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the AEWR
sets a separate minimum wage rate (i.e., a rate that will not adversely effect the employment
opportunities of U.S. workers) for each state (see 20 CFR 655).
Advisory Committee for Trade Policy and Negotiations (ACTPN)—A 45-member group
appointed by the President to provide advice on matters of trade policy and related issues,
including trade agreements. The 1974 Trade Act (P.L. 93-618) requires the ACTPN’s
establishment and broad representation of key economic sectors affected by trade. Below ACTPN
are seven policy committees, including the Agricultural Policy Advisory Committee (APAC). The
Agricultural Policy Advisory Committee is made up of farm sector and industry representatives.
AEWR—Adverse Effect Wage Rate
AFBF—American Farm Bureau Federation (Farm Bureau). http://www.fb.com.
AFDO—Association of Food and Drug Officials. http://www.afdo.org.
AFFI—American Frozen Food Institute. http://www.affi.com.
AFIA—American Feed Industry Association. http://www.afia.org.
Aflatoxin—Aflatoxin is a naturally occurring mycotoxin produced by two types of mold:
aspergillus flavus and aspergillus parasiticus. Both species are common and widespread in
nature, but A. flavus is more likely to infect grain, cotton seed, and peanuts grown under stressful
conditions such as drought. Favorable conditions for mold growth include high moisture content
and high temperature. At least 13 different types of aflatoxin are produced in nature with aflatoxin
B1 considered as the most toxic. While the presence of Aspergillus flavus does not always
indicate harmful levels of aflatoxin, it does mean that the potential for aflatoxin production is
present. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has established action levels for aflatoxin
present in food or feed to protect human and animal health. The FDA will consider action if
aflatoxin levels exceed: 20 ppb for corn and other grains intended for immature animals
(including immature poultry) and for dairy animals, or when its destination is not known; 20 ppb
for animal feeds, other than corn or cottonseed meal; 100 ppb for corn and other grains intended
for breeding beef cattle, breeding swine, or mature poultry; 200 ppb for corn and other grains
intended for finishing swine of 100 pounds or greater; 300 ppb for corn and other grains intended
for finishing (i.e., feedlot) beef cattle and for cottonseed meal intended for beef cattle, swine or
poultry. All corn exported from the United States is required to be tested for aflatoxin. Aflatoxin
testing is available nationwide upon request, for a fee. Grain Inspection Packers and Stockyards
Administration has approved several different types of test kits for this service.
AFPA—Agricultural Fair Practices Act of 1967 (P.L. 90-288) (7 U.S.C. 2301 et seq.).
AFT—American Farmland Trust. http://www.farmland.org.
Agenda 2000—A set of measures involving changes to common EU policies, including the
Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), for the 2000-2006 period agreed by EU Heads of State at the
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March 1999 European Summit in Berlin. Intended in part to prepare the EU’s Common
Agricultural Policy for the enlargement of the European Union in 2004 to include 10 Central and
Eastern European Countries and for the next round of World Trade Organization (WTO)
negotiations on agriculture which began in 2001, the reforms included reductions in market price
support for beef and veal, milk and milk products, and grains and oilseeds. Agenda 2000
established rural development as a “second pillar” of the CAP (price and income support being
the “first pillar”) and set guidelines for spending on commodity support and rural development
for the 2000-2006 period. Under the guidelines, spending on the first pillar would average around
40 billion Euros annually, while rural development spending would average around 4.3 billion
Euros (1999 prices). Total spending on the CAP is to be held at these levels including after
accession of the new member countries in 2004. The Berlin Summit also decided that a mid-term
review of the reforms of the CAP would be carried out by 2003.
After-school nutrition programs—Under the terms of the School Lunch Act, schools and other
entities (child-care programs, local governments) may receive federal subsidies for meals and
snacks served to children in after-school programs (or programs that are sponsored on non-school
days).
Aggregate measurement of support (AMS)—An indicator of the amount of domestic support
for agriculture. As used in the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, the AMS refers to a
measure of the gap between domestic and world prices multiplied by the quantity supported, plus
any other commodity-specific transfers. Internal or domestic support reduction commitments in
the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture are expressed in terms of reductions in a total
AMS covering all trade-distorting internal support measures for agriculture.
Agreement on Agriculture—The Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture reached in 1994
and implemented in U.S. law by the Uruguay Round Agreements Act of 1994 (P.L. 103-465)
brings agricultural trade more fully under international trade rules and obligations. The
Agreement provides for the conversion of quantitative barriers to trade to tariffs or tariff-rate
quotas, and for reductions in export subsidies and trade-distorting domestic support policies.
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade—One of the Uruguay Round agreements, it is
intended to ensure that countries’ various technical standards and regulations, including those for
food and agricultural products (other than sanitary and phytosanitary measures) do not
unnecessarily restrict or distort trade and/or are imposed simply to protect domestic industries.
Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures—See Sanitary and
phytosanitary (SPS) measures and agreements.
Agribusiness—Agriculturally related businesses that supply farm inputs (such as fertilizer or
equipment) or are involved in the marketing of farm products (such as warehouses, processors,
wholesalers, transporters, and retailers). Farms are not usually included when the term
agribusiness is used.
Agricultural Act of 1949—P.L. 81-439, along with the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938
(P.L. 75-430), makes up the major part of the permanent law that mandates commodity price and
farm income support. The original 1949 Act designated mandatory support for basic commodities
and the following nonbasic commodities: wool and mohair, tung nuts, honey, Irish potatoes (later
excluded in the Agricultural Act of 1954, P.L. 83-690), and milk, butterfat, and their products.
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Periodic farm bills (most recently the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171)) make temporary changes in
the levels and design of commodity programs.
Agricultural Act of 1954—P.L. 83-690 established a flexible price support for basic
commodities (excluding tobacco) at 82.5-90% of parity and authorized a Commodity Credit
Corporation (CCC) reserve for foreign and domestic relief. Title VII was designated the National
Wool Act of 1954 and provided for a new price support program for wool and mohair to
encourage increased domestic production. Price support for wool and mohair continued through
marketing year 1995, at which time it was phased down and terminated under the explicit
mandate of P.L. 103-130 (November 1, 1993). Mandatory support for wool and mohair was
restored by the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171, Sec. 1201-1205).
Agricultural Act of 1956—P.L. 84-540 created the Soil Bank Program (Title I was called the
Soil Bank Act), addressed the disposal of Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) inventories of
surplus stocks, contained commodity support program provisions, and contained forestry
provisions. The Soil Bank Act authorized short- and long-term removal of land from production
with annual rental payments to participants (Acreage Reserve Program and Conservation Reserve
Program, respectively). The Acreage Reserve Program, for wheat, corn, rice, cotton, peanuts, and
several types of tobacco, allowed producers to retire land on an annual basis in crop years 1956
through 1959 in return for payments. The Conservation Reserve Program allowed producers to
retire cropland under contracts of 3, 5, or 10 years in return for annual payments. The Soil Bank
Act was repealed by Section 601 of the Food and Agriculture Act of 1965 (P.L. 89-321). The
Conservation Reserve portion of the Soil Bank was a model for the subsequent Conservation
Reserve Program (CRP), enacted in 1985.
Agricultural Act of 1970—P.L. 91-524 initiated a significant change in commodity support
policy. This three-year farm bill replaced some of the more restrictive and mandatory features of
previous law (acreage allotments, planting restrictions, and marketing quotas) with voluntary
annual cropland set-asides and marketing certificate payments to achieve parity prices (the
precursor to target prices and deficiency payments). For the first time, the law adopted an annual
payment limitation per producer (set at $55,000 per crop). Among other things, the Act also
amended and extended the authority of the Class I differential in federal milk marketing order
areas.
Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA) of 1933—P.L. 73-10 was the New Deal initiative to assist
the farm sector during the Great Depression. This was the first comprehensive effort to raise and
stabilize farm prices and income. The law created and authorized the Agricultural Adjustment
Administration to (1) enter into voluntary agreements to pay farmers to reduce production of
designated “basic” commodities (cotton, wheat, corn, rice, tobacco, hogs, and milk), (2) to make
advance payments to farmers who stored crops on the farm, (3) to create marketing agreements
between farmers and middlemen, and (4) to levy processing taxes to pay for production
adjustment and market development. The Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) was
incorporated under the laws of the state of Delaware on October 17, 1933, to carry out financial
activities, including making nonrecourse loans on the basic crops. Support for other commodities
was authorized upon recommendation by the Secretary with the President’s approval. Commodity
loan programs carried out by the CCC for 1933-1937 included cotton, corn, rosin, turpentine,
tobacco, peanuts, dates, figs, and prunes. The provisions for production control and processing
taxes in the Act were later declared unconstitutional in the Hoosac Mills decision of 1936.
Congress responded by adopting the Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936 (P.L.
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74-46), the Agricultural Marketing Act of 1937 (50 Stat. 246), and the Agricultural Adjustment
Act of 1938 (P.L. 75-430), all of which remain as permanent law.
Agricultural Adjustment Act Amendment of 1935—P.L. 74-320 made several important and
lasting changes to the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 (P.L. 73-10). Section 22 of the law
gave the President authority to impose quotas when imports interfered with commodity programs
designed to raise prices and farm income. Section 32 was designed to widen market outlets for
surplus agricultural commodities by permanently appropriating funds (30% of annual gross
customs receipts) to promote food consumption, reduce agricultural surpluses, and provide for the
food needs of low income populations. Section 32 funds are used by the Secretary to purchase
surplus commodities for donation outside normal channels of trade (e.g., to school lunch
programs), and to support the costs of child nutrition programs. Section 22 has been superseded,
but Section 32 continues to operate and is used primarily for child nutrition programs.
Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938—P.L. 75-430 was enacted as an alternative and
replacement for the farm subsidy policies found unworkable in the AAA legislation of 1933. The
1938 Act was the first to make price support mandatory for corn, cotton, and wheat to help
maintain a sufficient supply in low production periods along with marketing quotas to keep
supply in line with market demand. It established permissive supports for butter, dates, figs, hops,
turpentine, rosin, pecans, prunes, raisins, barley, rye, grain sorghum, wool, winter cover-crop
seeds, mohair, peanuts, and tobacco for the 1938-1940 period. Also, Title V of the Act established
the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation. The 1938 Act is considered part of permanent law for
commodity programs and farm income support (along with the Commodity Credit Corporation
(CCC) Charter Act and the Agricultural Act of 1949). Provisions of this law are often superseded
by more current legislation (such as the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101-171)). However, if the current
legislation expires and new legislation is not enacted, the law reverts back to the permanent
provisions of the 1938 Act.
Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1980—P.L. 96-213 amended the Food and Agriculture Act of
1977 (P.L. 95-113) primarily to raise the target prices for wheat and corn.
Agricultural Attache, Counselor, or Trade Officer—An agricultural expert, employed by the
Foreign Agricultural Service, on the staff of a U.S. embassy, consulate, or agricultural trade
office.
Agricultural commodity—No single official definition of this term exists. The term and others,
such as agricultural product, basic commodity, nonbasic commodity, perishable commodity, and
livestock, appear, as statutory language, throughout the U.S. Code and in various federal
regulations. In each case (such terms are defined in at least 20 different places in the U.S. Code
alone), the term is intended to have a specialized or unique meaning, most often to either exclude
or include particular items/producers from eligibility or coverage under a program or activity. A
term might be relatively general and/or expansive, as in the law authorizing foreign food aid
under P.L. 480 (7 U.S.C. 1732): “Agricultural commodity, unless otherwise provided for in this
chapter, includes any agricultural commodity or the products thereof produced in the United
States, including wood and processed wood products, fish, and livestock, as well as value-added,
fortified, or high-value agricultural products.” Or, it may be deliberately exclusive, as in the
Agricultural Fair Practices Act of 1967 (7 U.S.C. 2302): “Agricultural products shall not include
cotton or tobacco or their products.”
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Agricultural cooperative—According to the National Agricultural Law Center, “Although there
is no universally accepted definition, a cooperative can be defined as a legal business entity
created under state law that is owned and operated for the purpose of benefitting those individuals
who use its services.” Functions of an agricultural cooperative can include providing loans to
farmers, supplying agricultural information, selling production inputs, bargaining on behalf of
members, and transporting and/or marketing agricultural products for its members. Land ‘O
Lakes, Ocean Spray, and Southern States are among the some widely recognized and larger
cooperatives. See also Capper-Volstead Act, under which farmer cooperatives receive limited
exemption from antitrust liability. The USDA assists the nation’s 3,140 agricultural cooperatives
(2002 estimate) as part of its rural development activities.
Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP)—Administered by the Farm Service Agency, this
largest and oldest conservation cost-sharing program paid farmers up to $3,500 per year as an
incentive to install approved conservation practices. It was terminated in the 1996 farm bill (P.L.
104-127) and replaced by a new Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP).
Agricultural Credit Act of 1987—P.L. 100-233 was enacted in response to the severe financial
crisis of the early- to mid-1980s, which affected both farmers and their lending institutions. The
Act authorized a $4 billion financial assistance package for financially vulnerable institutions of
the Farm Credit System (FCS), protected the full value of FCS borrower stock when retired,
established a permanent insurance mechanism to ensure the repayment of funds borrowed by the
FCS for lending purposes, required the FCS and USDA’s Farmers Home Administration (now, the
Farm Service Agency) to restructure severely delinquent farm loans that met certain criteria,
mandated FCS consolidation, and established a secondary market for farm real estate loans.
Agricultural Credit Association (ACA)—An institution of the Farm Credit System that has
direct lending authority to make short-, intermediate-, and long-term loans to agricultural
producers, rural homeowners and some farm-related businesses.
Agricultural district—A planning term which defines an area within a local jurisdiction where
farming is the preferred economic activity. Districts may be voluntarily created by landowners
who receive benefits, usually in return for not developing the land for a certain number of years,
or they may be designated in a local land use plan. An agricultural district is not a conservation
district.
Agricultural diversification—A system of farming that encourages production of a variety of
plants and animals and their products as opposed to monoculture or large-scale specialization.
Advocates of diversification argue that it provides greater income stability. Specialized farms
benefit from economies of size.
Agricultural Fair Practices Act of 1967—This law (P.L. 90-288) was enacted to protect farmers
from retaliation by handlers (buyers of their products) because the farmers are members of a
cooperative. The act permits farmers to file complaints with USDA, which can then institute court
proceedings, if they believe their rights under the law have been violated. Several bills have been
introduced in recent years on behalf of producers (among them, some poultry growers who have
contracts with large companies) to give them more bargaining power under the Act, which, some
producers contend, lacks adequate enforcement authorities.
Agricultural literacy—A phrase being used by several universities (e.g., Texas Tech, the
University of Arizona, and California State Polytechnic) to describe programs to promote the
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understanding and knowledge necessary to synthesize, analyze, and communicate basic
information about agriculture to students, producers, consumers, and the public. These programs
focus on assisting educators and others to effectively incorporate information about agriculture
into subjects being taught or examined in public and private forums, and to better understand the
impact of agriculture on society.
Agricultural Management Assistance Program—Authorized in the Agricultural Risk
Protection Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-224, Sec. 133) and permanently authorized and amended in the
2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 2501) to provide mandatory funding of $20 million annually
from FY2003 through FY2007 and $10 million in all other years. FY2004 appropriations law
(P.L. 108-199) limited funding for conservation to $14 million, with the remainder available for
other specified purposes. NRCS administers this program. Participants in 15 designated states,
primarily in the northeast, that had been under-served by crop insurance are to receive financial
assistance, not to exceed $50,000 per year, to help pay to install conservation practices and take
other specified actions that will reduce their financial risk.
Agricultural Market Transition Act (AMTA)—Title I of the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127). It
allowed farmers who had participated in the wheat, feed grain, cotton, and rice programs in any
one of the five years prior to 1996 to enter into seven-year production flexibility contracts for
1996-2002. Total national production flexibility contract payments (sometimes called AMTA
payments, or contract payments) for each fiscal year were fixed in the law. The AMTA allowed
farmers to plant 100% of their total contract acreage to any crop except fruits and vegetables, and
receive a full payment. Land had to be maintained in agricultural uses. Unlimited haying and
grazing and planting and harvesting alfalfa and other forage crops was permitted with no
reduction in payments. AMTA commodity support provisions were replaced by the 2002 farm bill
(P.L. 101-171, Title I), a six-year farm bill.
Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937—This law, signed June 3, 1937 (P.L. 75-137),
provided authority for federal marketing orders, and also reaffirmed the marketing agreements
provisions of the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933 (P.L. 73-10). Under the authority of this
permanent law and subsequent amendments, marketing orders have been established for milk as
well as numerous fruits, vegetables, and specialty crops.
Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS)—A USDA agency that establishes standards for grades
of cotton, tobacco, meat, dairy products, eggs, fruits, and vegetables. AMS also operates
inspection and grading services and market news services; provides supervisory administration
for federal marketing orders; administers USDA’s Section 32 budget account (including
commodity purchasing using Section 32 funds); oversees the National Organic Program; provides
support for various farm marketing activities; and conducts research and analysis of
transportation problems affecting agriculture. http://www.ams.usda.gov.
Agricultural pollution—Wastes, emissions, and discharges arising from farming activities.
Includes runoff and leaching of pesticides and fertilizers; pesticide drift and volatilization; erosion
and dust from cultivation; and improper disposal of animal manure and carcasses. Some
agricultural pollution is point source, meaning that it is derived from a single discharge point,
such as a pipe. Large feedlots are an example of point sources, and they require permits under the
Clean Water Act (P.L. 92-500, 33 U.S.C. 1251-1387). However, much of the pollution from
agriculture is from nonpoint sources, meaning that it derives from dispersed origins (e.g., blowing
dust or nutrients leaching from fields). Most pollution control programs have focused on
particular categories of point sources, although nonpoint and unregulated point sources account
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for an increasingly large proportion of remaining pollution. The EPA concludes that agricultural
sources account for over one-half the pollution impairing surface water quality in the U.S. based
on state surveys. The Clean Water Act mandates that states develop and implement management
programs to control nonpoint sources of water pollution generally, and the Coastal Zone
Management Program requires participating states to develop similar programs for farms within
state-designated coastal zones.
Agricultural product—The term agricultural products is often used as a collective expression
and like agricultural commodity, is defined in different ways to meet different circumstances. For
example, 7 U.S.C. 138 states “The term ‘agricultural product’ means any fresh fruit or vegetable
or any commodity or product derived from livestock or fowl, that is marketed in the United States
for human consumption.” While 7 U.S.C. 451 says “the term ‘agricultural products’ means
agricultural, horticultural, viticultural, and dairy products, livestock and the products thereof, the
products of poultry and bee raising, the edible products of forestry, and any and all products
raised or produced on farms and processed or manufactured products thereof, transported or
intended to be transported in interstate and/or foreign commerce.” And 7 U.S.C. 6502 says “The
term ‘agricultural product’ means any agricultural commodity or product, whether raw or
processed, including any commodity or product derived from livestock that is marketed in the
United States for human or livestock consumption.” With respect to calculating U.S. agricultural
exports, imports and the trade balance, USDA’s definition of agricultural products includes all of
the products found in Chapters 1-24 of the U.S. Harmonized Tariff Schedule (except for fishery
products in Chapters 3 and 16, manufactured tobacco products like cigarettes and cigars in
Chapter 24, and spirits in Chapter 22). Certain other products outside of Chapters 1-24 are
considered agricultural products, including essential oils (Chapter 33), raw rubber (Chapter 40),
raw animal hides and skins (Chapter 41), and wool and cotton (Chapters 51-52). Possibly the
broadest definition may be contained in the Commerce and Trade title, Consumer Credit chapter
of the Code (15 USC1602(t)), which states “The term ‘agricultural products’ includes
agricultural, horticultural, viticultural, and dairy products, livestock, wildlife, poultry, bees, forest
products, fish and shellfish, and any products thereof, including processed and manufactured
products, and any and all products raised or produced on farms and any processed or
manufactured products thereof.”
Agricultural protection zoning—Local zoning codes that include provisions such as large lot
size requirements and use limitations to separate farming and related activities from other land
uses. Some jurisdictions further subdivide agricultural zones, so as to distinguish full time
commercial farming from a mix of uses that might include rural residence farms and retirement
farms on very large lots. See Agricultural zoning.
Agricultural purposes—The term agricultural purposes is sometimes used to categorize a
collection of activities covered by a law or set of regulations. Yet, the agricultural laws assembled
in Title 7 of the U.S. Code do not include a definition. A definition is contained in the Commerce
and Trade title, Consumer Credit chapter, of the Code(15 USC1602(s)), which states: The term
“agricultural purposes” includes the production, harvest, exhibition, marketing, transportation,
processing, or manufacture of agricultural products by a natural person who cultivates, plants,
propagates, or nurtures those agricultural products, including but not limited to the acquisition of
farmland, real property with a farm residence, and personal property and services used primarily
in farming.
Agricultural Quarantine Inspection (AQI)—A program of USDA’s Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (APHIS), part of which was transferred to the new Department of Homeland
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Security (DHS) under the Homeland Security Act of 2002 (P.L. 107-296). As of March 1, 2003,
roughly 2,500 AQI border inspection personnel are part of the DHS Border and Transportation
Security directorate. AQI inspects incoming passengers, luggage, and cargo at U.S. ports of entry
in order to protect U.S. agriculture from foreign animal and plant pests and diseases that may
enter by unintentional or intentional means. The plant and animal quarantine function of AQI
remains in APHIS.
Agricultural Research, Extension, and Education Reform Act of 1998—P.L. 105-185 was
separate legislation that revised and reauthorized federally supported agricultural research,
education, and extension programs from June 1998 through May 2002 (historically, these
authorities have been part of an omnibus farm policy law enacted every four to six years). The
1998 Act built upon reforms that were made in the research title of the farm law in effect at the
time, the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127). Key provisions were new accountability measures for
recipients of federal research funds, and a new competitive research grant program called the
Initiative for Future Agriculture and Food Systems, for which mandatory funds were authorized
(annually appropriated discretionary funds support most of USDA’s research, education and
extension programs). The 1998 law’s provisions, as well as new revisions of research, education,
and extension policies, are included in Title VII of the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171).
Agricultural Research Service (ARS)—A USDA agency employing about 2,100 federal
scientists to conduct agricultural research at more than 100 field locations in the United States,
U.S. insular areas (e.g., Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands), and several foreign countries. According
to its mission statement, ARS scientists conduct research to develop and transfer solutions to
agricultural problems of high national priority and provide information access and dissemination
to: ensure high-quality, safe food, and other agricultural products ; assess the nutritional needs of
Americans ; sustain a competitive agricultural economy; enhance the natural resource base and
the environment; and provide economic opportunities for rural citizens, communities, and society
as a whole. http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/main.htm.
Agricultural Resource Management Survey (ARMS)—ARMS is USDA’s primary source of
information on the financial condition, production practices, resource use, and economic well
being of America’s farm households. Sponsored jointly by the Economic Research Service (ERS)
and the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), ARMS began in 1996 as a synthesis of
the former USDA cropping practice, chemical use, and farm costs and returns surveys, which
dated back to 1975. ARMS data underpin USDA’s annual estimates of net farm income and
fulfills a congressional mandate that USDA provide annual cost-of-production estimates for
commodities covered under farm support legislation. ARMS also provides data regarding
chemical use on field crops required under environmental and food safety legislation.
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS)—This was the USDA agency
once primarily responsible for administering the farm commodity price and income support
programs, and conservation cost-sharing programs. Its functions were folded into a new Farm
Service Agency (FSA) as a consequence of 1994 reorganization. A local field service center is
maintained in nearly all farming localities. http://www.fsa.usda.gov/pas/default.asp.
Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance Act of 1954—P.L. 83-480 is commonly
referred to as both P.L. 480 and Food for Peace. The law established what continues to be the
primary U.S. overseas food assistance program. The program makes U.S. agricultural
commodities available through long-term credit at low interest rates and provides food donations.
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Agricultural Trade Office—The Agricultural Trade Act of 1978 (P.L. 95-501) directed the
establishment of trade offices in major centers of commerce throughout the world. Agricultural
trade offices are operated by the Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) to develop, maintain, and
expand international markets for U.S. agricultural commodities and serve as centers for export
sales promotion and contact points for importers seeking to buy U.S. farm products.
Agricultural zoning—Designations made by local jurisdictions that are intended to protect
farmland and farming activities from incompatible nonfarm uses. Agricultural zoning can specify
many factors, such as the uses allowed, minimum farm size, the number of nonfarm dwellings
allowed, or the size of a buffer separating farm and nonfarm properties.
Agriculture and Consumer Protection Act of 1973—P.L. 93-86 was the four-year farm bill that
adopted target prices and deficiency payments as a tool that would support farm income but
reduce forfeitures to the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) of surplus stocks. (Target prices
were eliminated by the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127), but restored by the 2002 farm bill (P.L.
101-171, Sec. 1104).) It reduced payment limitations to $20,000 (from $55,000 set in 1970) for
all program crops. The Act might be considered the first omnibus farm bill because it went
beyond simply authorizing farm commodity programs. It authorized disaster payments and
disaster reserve inventories; created the Rural Environmental Conservation Program; amended
the Food Stamp Act of 1964 (P.L. 88-525), authorized the use of commodities for feeding low
income mothers and young children (the origin of the supplemental food program); and amended
the Rural Development Act of 1972 (P.L. 92-419).
Agriculture and Food Act of 1981—P.L. 97-98 was the four-year omnibus farm bill that
continued and modified commodity programs through 1985. It set specific target prices for four
years, eliminated rice allotments and marketing quotas, lowered dairy supports, and made other
changes affecting a wide range of USDA activities. The next year this farm bill was amended to
freeze the dairy price support level and mandate loan rates and acreage reserve provisions for the
1983 crops (Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1982, P.L. 97-253). Again in 1984,
amendments were adopted to freeze target prices, authorize paid land diversion for feed grains,
upland cotton, and rice, and provide a wheat payment-in-kind program for 1984 (Agricultural
Programs Adjustment Act of 1984, P.L. 98-258).
Agriculture in Concert with the Environment (ACE)—An EPA program, administered
cooperatively with USDA’s Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) program, to
fund research projects that reduce the risk of pollution from pesticides and soluble fertilizers.
Agriculture Innovation Centers—The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 6402) directed the
USDA to provide grants and to assist in the establishment of Agriculture Innovation Centers that
provide information, training and direct assistance to agricultural producers in the production,
processing, development and marketing of value-added agricultural commodities and products. In
September 2003, the USDA announced $10 million in grants for the establishment of
demonstration centers in Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, New Jersey,
New York, North Dakota, and Pennsylvania.
Agriculture Mediation Program—A program initially authorized by the Agricultural Credit Act
of 1987 (P.L. 100-233, Title V, and recently amended by P.L. 106-472, Sec. 306; 7 U.S.C. 5101),
to facilitate the use of mediation to settle disputes arising in conjunction with USDA actions. If
agreement is not reached through mediation, all parties remain free to pursue other available
administrative appeals or legal actions. Typical areas of dispute include farm loans, farm and
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conservation programs, wetland determinations, rural water loan programs, grazing on national
forest lands, and pesticides. This program is administered by the Farm Service Agency (FSA).
Agriculture Risk Protection Act of 2000—P.L. 106-224 made major revisions to the federal
crop insurance program and provided emergency agricultural assistance. The crop insurance
provisions: significantly increased the government subsidy of the program; improved coverage
for farmers affected by multiple years of natural disasters; and authorized pilot insurance
programs for livestock farmers and growers of other farm commodities that were not served by
crop insurance, among many other provisions. The emergency provisions made available a total
of $7.14 billion in emergency farm assistance, mostly in direct payments (called market loss
payments) to growers of various commodities to compensate for low farm commodity prices.
Agroterrorism—The deliberate introduction of an animal or plant disease with the goal of
generating fear, causing economic losses, and/or undermining stability. Agroterrorism is a subset
of the more general issue of bioterrorism. An agroterrorism event would affect the production
agriculture sector economically in terms of plant and animal health, and affect supply and
demand. Humans could be at risk in terms of food safety or public health, especially if the chosen
disease is transmissible to humans (zoonotic). Losses would accrue to individuals, businesses,
and governments through costs to contain and eradicate the disease, and to dispose of
contaminated products. The economic impact can spread to input suppliers, food processors,
transportation, retailers, and food service providers.
AHI—Animal Health Institute. http://www.ahi.org.
AI—Artificial insemination
AID—See United States Agency for International Development (USAID).
http://www.info.usaid.gov.
AIF—Animal Industry Foundation changed its name to Animal Agriculture Alliance.
http://www.aif.org.
AIIS—See Automated Import Inspection System.
Air pollution—Contamination of the atmosphere by substances that, directly or indirectly,
adversely affect human health or welfare. Air pollution results from human activities, both
deliberate releases (as from smokestacks) and fugitive emissions (as dust blown from streets or
fields), and from natural sources (including sea spray, volcanic emissions, and pollen). The Clean
Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.) authorizes the EPA to regulate air pollution (see National
Ambient Air Quality Standards).
Alar—Trade name for daminozide, a plant regulator and therefore classed as a pesticide, that
makes apples redder, firmer, and less likely to drop off trees before harvest. It was also used to a
lesser extent on peanuts, tart cherries, concord grapes, and other fruits. Alar was suspended by the
EPA in 1989 following a controversy over allegations of cancer risk to children from residues of
Alar and its breakdown product UDMH on apples and in apple products.
Alcohol—The family name of a group of organic chemical compounds that includes methanol,
ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and others. Ethanol is produced from crops or residues with a high
carbohydrate content. Alcoholic beverages contain ethanol, and ethanol is blended with gasoline
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to produce gasohol. Most industrial ethanol produced in the U.S. is from corn wet-milling and
dry-milling.
ALF—Animal Liberation Front. http://www.animalliberationfront.us.
Alien Species Prevention and Enforcement Act of 1992—P.L. 102-393 makes it illegal to ship
certain categories of plants and animals through the mail. The prohibited species are certain
injurious animals, plant pests, plants and materials under federal quarantine, and certain plants
and animals under the Lacey Act (16 U.S.C. 3371-3378), a law that pertains to illegal trade in
fish, wildlife, and plants. Many alien species also are invasive.
Allotment—In conjunction with commodity support programs, acreage allotments and marketing
quotas historically served to limit a farm’s output or volume marketed. For federal lands grazing,
an allotment is an area designated and managed for grazing of livestock. The Bureau of Land
Management and the Forest Service stipulate the number of livestock and time period (season) of
use for each allotment under their respective jurisdictions.
Allowable Sale Quantity (ASQ)—The maximum quantity of timber that may be sold from
national forest lands under a Forest Service forest plan for a period of ten years.
Alternative Agricultural Research and Commercialization Corporation (AARCC)—As
authorized by the 1990 farm bill (P.L. 101-624), AARCC was originally established as the
Applied Agricultural Research Commercialization Center in the USDA to be a public venture
capital agency that would invest in small businesses to help them develop and commercialize new
nonfood products from agricultural and forestry commodities. The 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104-127)
changed the Center from a government agency to a wholly owned venture capital corporation of
USDA. Congress repealed the authority for AARCC in the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec.
6201).
Alternative agriculture—See Sustainable agriculture.
Alternative fuels—According to the Department of Energy, alternative fuels are substantially
nonpetroleum sources of energy. As defined by the Energy Policy Act of 1993 (EP Act) DOE
currently recognizes the following as alternative fuels: mixtures containing 85% or more by
volume of alcohol fuel, including methanol and denatured ethanol; natural gas (compressed or
liquefied); liquefied petroleum gas (propane); hydrogen; coal-derived liquid fuels; fuels derived
from biological materials; electricity (including electricity from solar energy); and 100%
biodiesel (B100). Renewable fuels also are a subset of alternative fuels. The U.S. Department of
Energy maintains an information center for alternative fuels.
http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/index.html.
Alternative test methods—New laboratory procedures that reduce use of animals or reduce the
suffering of animals in evaluating the potential toxicity of chemicals.
Amber box policies—Countries’ agricultural policies that are considered under world trade rules
to have the greatest potential effect on production or trade, and are therefore subject to review and
reduction over time. Amber box policies include market price support, production-based direct
payments, input subsidies, and similar programs. The expressions green box policies, amber box
policies, and blue box policies were developed to categorize agriculture policies using a traffic
light analogy in the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture.
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Amenable species—A term used within the context of USDA’s meat and poultry inspection
program to signify exotic species (livestock and fowl not covered by the statutes) that might be
added to the laws and thus be eligible for mandatory federal inspection, which is taxpayer-funded.
An exotic species is considered an amenable species if its anatomy and biology are substantially
the same as the animals currently inspected. The Poultry Products Inspection Act (P.L. 85-172, as
amended; 21 U.S.C. 451 et seq.) was expanded in 2001 to cover ostrich, rhea, and emu (ratites)
because USDA determined that the hazards they present to food safety are essentially the same as
those posed by chickens, turkeys, ducks, etc., and the existing contamination detection and
prevention systems are sufficient to control them. Bison and buffalo have been considered for
inclusion under the Federal Meat Inspection Act (21 U.S.C. 601 et seq.) because they are bovine
species (like cattle). Deer and elk, on the other hand, are cervids, and pose hazards for food safety
that are not yet fully known or controlled for under the existing meat inspection system. The term
non-amenable sometimes is used to describe cervids and certain other exotics, like rabbits, for
example.
American Heritage Rivers Protection Program—A Clinton Administration (1993-2001)
initiative to deliver federal resources more efficiently and effectively in support of voluntary
community efforts to enhance and protect designated rivers or river segments; the designations
were selected based on proposals submitted by local sponsors. Portions of these designations are
located in or affect agricultural lands.
AMI—American Meat Institute. http://www.meatami.org.
Ammonia—A pungent alkaline gas, a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen (NH3). It is formed
naturally when bacteria decompose nitrogen-containing compounds, such as manures. Emissions
of ammonia can be a problem in enclosed livestock facilities, and in the ambient air they may
contribute to very fine particulate matter. Synthetic ammonia is used as a nitrogen fertilizer. Also
called anhydrous ammonia, it is the basic feed stock for the production of all nitrogen fertilizers
as well as being a direct application material. Synthetic ammonia is made through a reaction
between natural gas and nitrogen.
AMR—Advanced meat recovery
AMS—Aggregate measure of support; Agricultural Marketing Service.
AMTA—Agricultural Market Transition Act (P.L. 104-127, Title I).
ANCOM—Andean Common Market.
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS)—A USDA agency originally established
to conduct border inspections and regulatory and control programs to protect animal and plant
health. The border inspection function became part of the Department of Homeland Security
(DHS) in 2002 (P.L. 107-296). USDA retains the agency’s other functions, including: animal and
plant quarantine; pest and disease monitoring, control and eradication programs; trade facilitation
through sanitary or phytosanitary (SPS) negotiations with foreign countries and certification of
pest- or disease-free status of U.S. exports; and horse protection and animal welfare programs,
among others. http://www.aphis.usda.gov.
Animal biologics—Vaccines, bacterins, antigens, diagnostic kits and other products of biologic
origin. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) has responsibility for approving
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and regulating some animal biologics according to the Viruses, Serums, Toxins, Antitoxins, and
Analogous Products Act (commonly called the Virus, Serum, Toxin Act (21 U.S.C. 151-159).
Animal drugs are regulated by the FDA. See Animal biologics, Biologics, Veterinary biologics.
Animal byproducts—The parts of livestock other than meat cuts from muscle derived during
processing (i.e., fat, organs, blood, edible and inedible offal, hide, bones, bones, horns hooves,
etc.). Inedible animal byproducts typically are rendered for use in livestock feed, pet food,
personal care products, and industrial ingredients.
Animal Damage Control (ADC) Program—Renamed in 1997 as the Wildlife Services (WS)
program, it is an Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) effort to protect
agriculture, natural resources, property or endangered species from unwanted and potentially
harmful effects of wildlife species, including predators and invasive species. The program also
works to prevent wildlife/airplane collision hazards at civilian and military airports.
Animal drugs—Drugs intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or
prevention of disease in animals. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has the broad
mandate under the Federal Food Drug and Cosmetic Act (21 U.S.C. 321 et seq.) to assure the
safety and effectiveness of animal drugs and their use in all animals, including farm animals.
Before FDA formally approves an animal drug, the sponsor or manufacturer of the drug must
document in scientific testing that the drug has been found “safe and effective.” The testing data
also must demonstrate that a methodology is available to detect and measure any residue left in
edible animal products. Farmers and veterinarians using drugs on farm animals must adhere to
guidelines about how much time must elapse before a treated animal can be slaughtered, and any
other use constraints or warnings stated on the drug label. Animal biologics (e.g., vaccines and
tests) are regulated by APHIS.
Animal feeding operation—Facilities where animals are kept and raised in confined situations.
Feed is brought to the animals. Agriculture census data from 1997 show there were 238,000 such
operations nationwide that year. When large enough, these facilities are designated as
concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) and they become subject to regulatory
requirements to prevent point source pollution. USDA and the EPA issued a Unified National
Strategy for Animal Feeding Operations on March 9, 1999. The goal was to minimize water
pollution from confinement facilities and land application of manure through adoption of sitespecific comprehensive nutrient management plans. EPA issued a final rule on December 16,
2002, that will require a total of about 15,500 operations to obtain permits by 2006. At the time
the rule was issued, about 4,500 operations had permits.
Animal Health Protection Act (AHPA)—The AHPA (P.L. 107-171, Title X, Subtitle E; 7 U.S.C.
8301 et seq.) consolidates all of the animal quarantine and related laws on the books, some dating
back to the late 1800s, and replaces them with one statutory framework. While most of the
authorities contained in the consolidated AHPA were taken from existing laws, some new
provisions were added to help fully protect U.S. animal agriculture due to gaps in legal authority.
Animal identification (ID) and traceback—Currently, the private marketing system, assisted by
computerization of records, generally can trace products back to their original suppliers, although
not necessarily all the way to the farm. Animal identification is one component of traceback (or
traceability); it refers to marking individual animals so that they can be tracked from birth to
slaughter. Livestock producers already frequently identify their animals using back-tags, ear tags,
radio frequency identification (RFID) tags, tattoos, and other devices, often for production
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management and animal health purposes. Animal identification and traceback are not programs in
themselves; rather they may be useful tools in animal health, food safety, quality assurance,
country-of-origin labeling, or other regulatory or marketing programs. Interest in a national,
possibly mandatory, animal ID program that can quickly respond to animal disease outbreaks has
grown in the wake of the December 2003 discovery of a cow in the United States with bovine
spongiform encephalopathy (BSE).
Animal protein—Protein used in livestock feed that is derived from meatpacking or rendering
plants, surplus milk or milk products, and marine sources. The Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) has banned proteins derived from certain parts of mammals from inclusion in livestock
feeds in order to protect U.S. consumers from exposure to the agent that causes Creutzfeldt-Jakob
disease (related to mad cow disease, or BSE, in cattle).
Animal Protein Free Certification (APFC) Program—One of the AMS process verification
programs. APFC is a voluntary, user-fee service available to poultry producers and processors to
provide third-party verification that poultry and poultry products have never been fed animal
protein, animal fats, or animal by-products.
Animal unit month (AUM)—An animal unit month (AUM) is the amount of forage needed to
sustain one animal unit, or its equivalent, for one month. One animal unit is a 1,000 pound beef
cow with a daily requirement of 26 pounds of dry matter forage. Therefore, one AUM is equal to
780 pounds of dry matter forage. The carrying capacity of a pasture is expressed in AUMs.
Grazing fees for federal lands are charged by animal unit months or head-months.
Animal unit (AU)—A 1,000-pound beef cow is the standard measure of an animal unit. The dry
matter forage requirement of one animal unit is 26 pounds per day. Animal unit equivalents
(AUE) are calculated for various other animals. A 700-pound steer is 0.80 animal units. A 1,300
pound horse is 1.20 animal units. A 120-pound sheep is 0.20 animal units. Federal land
management agencies, such as the Bureau of Land Management and the Forest Service, may use
different standards for setting grazing fees. The Natural Resources Conservation Service uses
animal units to estimate manure production and manure nutrient content when designing projects
under the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). EPA does not use the term animal
units to define size classes for purposes of compliance with effluent limitations for Concentrated
Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs). Instead it sets thresholds by specifying the actual number
of animals (40 CFR 122.23).
Animal waste management facility—Any structure, such as a waste treatment pond, used to
store, process, or dispose of waste associated with the production of animals.
Animal Welfare Act of 1966—P.L. 89-544 was enacted to curb the theft and mistreatment of
dogs and cats for experimental and research purposes. The principal federal animal protection
law, it has been amended several times to address specific concerns such as the shipping of pets
on public transportation, dog fighting, and using other warm-blooded animals in biomedical
experiments. Although administered by the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS),
the law has always excluded farm animals from its coverage. Generally, USDA is authorized to
“promulgate standards to govern the humane handling, care, treatment, and practices in
experimental procedures to ensure that animal pain and distress are minimized....” The law
excludes from the definition of animal “...horses not used for research purposes and other farm
animals, such as, but not limited to livestock or poultry, used or intended for use as food or fiber,
or livestock or poultry used or intended for use for improving animal nutrition, breeding,
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management, or production efficiency, or for improving the quality of food or fiber.” Animal
welfare has become more controversial in recent years as certain animal protection groups have
argued for more extensive legal protections for animals. The debate over the meaning of animal
welfare revolves around the most appropriate methods for taking care of animals, including farm
animals. Legislation has been proposed (but not enacted) in recent years that would intervene in
animal production operations by regulating confinement facilities; determining the diets of veal
calves; specifying how poultry must be slaughtered; and prohibiting dealers from handling
nonambulatory (downer) livestock unless they are humanely killed. (7 U.S.C. 2131 et seq.).
ANPR—Advance notice of proposed rulemaking.
Antemortem—Before slaughter. As used in the meat and poultry inspection program, the term
refers to the examination that USDA meat inspectors are required to conduct of all live animals
just before they are killed.
Antibiotics—Chemical substances produced by microorganisms or synthetically that inhibit the
growth of, or destroy, bacteria. Antibiotics are used at therapeutic levels to fight disease in
humans and animals. Since the 1950s they have been used at subtherapeutic levels in animal
feeds, where they enhance growth and may help prevent disease in livestock and poultry. Rules
guiding the use of veterinary drugs and medicated animal feeds, including tolerance levels for
drug residues in meats for human consumption, are promulgated by the Center for Veterinary
Medicine of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The Food Safety and Inspection Service
(FSIS) enforces the FDA rules through a sampling and testing program that is part of its overall
meat and poultry inspection program.
Antidumping duty—A duty or levy imposed under authority of Title VII of the Tariff Act of
1930 (P.L. 71-361). Title VII states that if the U.S. Department of Commerce determines that an
imported product is being sold at less than its fair value, and if the International Trade
Commission determines that a U.S. producer is thereby being injured, the Commerce Department
shall apply antidumping duties equivalent to the dumping margin.
Antitrust—Term used to describe a policy or action that seeks to curtail monopolistic power
within a market. Concentration and potential for monopolization have long been agricultural
policy issues. The Sherman Act (15 U.S.C. 1 et seq.), the Clayton Antitrust Act (15 U.S.C. 12 et
seq.), and the Federal Trade Commission Act (15 U.S.C. 41 et seq.) are the powers used to
prevent monopolies.
APA—Administrative Procedure Act (P.L. 79-404).
APEC—Asian Pacific Economic Cooperation Forum. http://www.apec.org.
APH—Actual production history
APHIS—Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. http://www.aphis.usda.gov.
Apple Market Loss Assistance Program—An FSA program that has made payments to apple
producers to partially offset revenue losses from low prices caused by the loss of markets. The
2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 10105) mandated the payment of $94 million by the
Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) for lost markets in crop year 2000. Earlier funding was
mandated for the 2000 crop of apples by P.L. 107-76, Sec. 741 ($75 million), and for the 1998
and 1999 apple crops by P.L. 106-387, Sec. 811 ($100 million).
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Applied tariff—The tariff rate actually levied on imports in contrast to the often higher bound
tariff rate that is incorporated in schedules of commitments made in multilateral trade
negotiations under WTO auspices. Because they are generally lower than bound rates, applied
rates often are proposed by exporting countries as the basis from which tariff reductions should
be made.
Appraised stumpage price (or appraised rate)—On national forests, the Forest Service
estimate of the market price for timber to be cut and removed; it is the advertised minimum for
competitive bidding by purchasers.
Appropriated entitlement—An entitlement program that is funded through annual
appropriations rather than by a permanent appropriation. Examples within USDA are the
Commodity Credit Corporation-funded programs; the federal crop insurance program; the food
stamp program; and child nutrition programs. Because the authorizing statute for these programs
requires the government to provide eligible recipients the benefits to which they are entitled,
whatever the cost, Congress must appropriate the necessary funds. If the amount Congress
provides in the annual appropriations act is not enough, it must make up the difference in a
supplemental appropriation.
Appropriation—The amount of funding Congress provides for a federal program to spend in a
given year. An appropriation provides legal authority for federal agencies to incur obligations and
to make payments out of the Treasury for specified purposes. Thirteen regular appropriations bills
are considered every year by Congress, and supplemental appropriations are considered from
time to time. Appropriations for all of USDA (except for the Forest Service) is provided annually
in the bill that funds USDA and Related Agencies. The Forest Service is funded through the
Interior appropriations bill.
AQI—Agricultural Quarantine Inspection.
Aquaculture—The National Aquaculture Act of 1980 (P.L. 96-362; 16 U.S.C. 2801 et seq.)
defines aquaculture as “the propagation and rearing of aquatic species in controlled or selected
environments, including ocean ranching.” The Act divides responsibility for most aquaculture
research, regulatory, and related activities among the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and
the Interior. Private aquaculture has grown rapidly and diversified in recent years; in the United
States, aquaculture is dominated (80%) by catfish production.
Aquifer—An underground geological formation, or group of formations, containing usable
amounts of groundwater that can supply wells or springs for domestic, industrial, and irrigation
uses. Removing more groundwater from an aquifer than is naturally replenished is called
overdrafting, and can result in a dropping water table, increased pumping costs, land subsidence
(which reduces the future recharge capacity), saltwater intrusion, reduced streamflows in
interconnected ground- and surface-water systems, and exhaustion of groundwater reserves.
Overdrafting groundwater occurs primarily in the Plains States, especially in the Ogallala aquifer
(which stretches from Texas to Nebraska) and in the West more generally.
Arable crops program—A consolidated support system operated under the EU Common
Agricultural Policy for producers of major cereals, oilseeds, and protein crops. Production of
these crops constituted 21% of farm income and 40% of agricultural lands in the EU in 2000.
Main elements of the program include area compensatory payments, reductions in administered
prices (also known as intervention prices), and annual land set-aside program requirements.
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Area compensatory payments—Usually refers to EU subsidies that are tied to acreage and,
sometimes more specifically, to the number of acres planted to a specific crop. Such payments
might also be offered to producers in exchange for removing land from production, under certain
supply control programs. The EU Common Agricultural Policy provides per-hectare area
payments to producers for land in cereals, oilseeds, and protein crops as compensation for lower
administered prices for these crops, so long as they meet land set-aside program requirements.
Area yield options contract—A contract entitling the holder to receive a payment when the area
yield is below (above) the put (call) option strike yield. The strike yield is the yield at which the
holder of an option contract can exercise the option.
Arid—A relatively dry climate in which annual precipitation is less than 10 inches, which
generally is insufficient for crops to be grown without irrigation. Such areas usually are the focus
of debate over federal water policies.
ARMS—Agricultural Resource Management Survey
ARP—Acreage reduction program.
ARS—Agricultural Research Service. http://www.ars.usda.gov.
ASA—American Society of Agronomy. http://www.agronomy.org.
ASA—American Soybean Association. http://www.amsoy.org.
ASA—American Sugar Alliance. http://www.sugaralliance.org.
ASAE—American Society of Agricultural Engineers. http://www.asae.org.
ASCS—Agriculture Stabilization and Conservation Service, predecessor to the Farm Service
Agency (FSA). http://www.fsa.usda.gov/pas/default.asp.
ASEAN—Association of Southeast Asian Nations. http://www.asean.or.id.
ASFSA—American School Food Service Association. http://www.asfsa.org.
ASIA—American Sheep Industry Association. http://www.sheepusa.org.
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum—Established in 1989, APEC is a formal
institution with a permanent secretariat located in Singapore. Its original 12 members include
Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Thailand, Malaysia,
Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Brunei. In 1991, APEC admitted China, Taiwan
(admitted as Chinese Taipei), and Hong Kong. Mexico and Papua New Guinea joined in 1993;
Chile joined in 1994; Peru, Russia, and Vietnam joined in 1998. The 21-nation member APEC
provides a forum for ministerial level discussion and cooperation on a range of economic issues
including trade, investment, technology transfer, and transportation. According to APEC, a key
feature that sets it apart from other international organizations is its commitment to business
facilitation and the regular involvement of the private sector in a wide range of APEC activities.
http://www.apecsec.org.sg/apec.html.
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Asian long-horned beetle—A serious pest of hardwood trees in its native China, that by 1998
had been found in 14 states in the United States, where it has no known natural enemies. The
Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) is now working to detect and destroy the
beetle, which is virtually impossible to eradicate with pesticides because it bores deep inside trees
to lay its eggs; the only known suppression method is to remove and destroy infected trees. The
agency reports that the beetle, which already has led to the destruction of many trees in parts of
New York, could destroy millions of acres of hardwoods (including maples, horse chestnuts,
poplars, willows, and elms) if it becomes established in the environment. APHIS believes that the
beetle has been entering the United States in solid wood packing materials such as pallets and
crates from China. For that reason, in late 1998, it banned all shipments from China containing
such packing materials if they have not been treated to kill the pest.
ASP—American Society for Plasticulture. http://www.plasticulture.org.
ASQ—Allowable sale quantity (timber).
Assessment—Under certain agricultural marketing orders or commodity promotion programs,
assessments may be applied against farm sales receipts to help pay for generic commodity
advertising or research. The term check-off is often used interchangeably with assessment. In a
different context, federal deficit reduction marketing assessments were applied during much of
the decade of the 1990s to certain commodity price support programs (dairy, peanuts, sugar,
tobacco, and soybeans) to help reduce the federal budget deficit, which arguably was higher
because of the programs. Additionally, tobacco quota buyout legislation included an “assessment”
on tobacco product manufacturers and imports as the source of $10.14 billion in financing for the
buyout program (P.L. 108-171).
Assimilative capacity—The ability of a body of water to cleanse itself; its capacity to receive
waste waters or toxic materials without deleterious effects and without damage to aquatic life or
humans who consume the water.
Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)—A multilateral organization formed in 1967
by the governments of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand to promote
economic, social, and cultural cooperation among nations in the Southeast Asian region. Brunei,
Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar joined later. The countries’ total of more than 500
million people constitute the third largest overseas market for U.S. exports generally.
http://www.aseansec.org/home.htm.
ASTA—American Seed Trade Association. http://www.amseed.com.
At-risk species—A term used by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) in
implementing the Environmental Quality Incentive Program and proposed to be used in
implementing the Conservation Security Program (CSP) that includes any plant or animal species
determined by a State Technical Committee to need direct intervention to halt a decline in the size
of the population. At risk species is one of many factors used to decide who will receive funding
under both programs. The at-risk species definition used by NRCS does not make reference to the
terms threatened or endangered as used under the Endangered Species Act.
ATO—Agricultural Trade Office.
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Atrazine—A selective herbicide, widely used on corn. Due to concerns about surface water and
groundwater contamination and worker exposure, EPA initiated a special review of atrazine
registration (as well as registrations of two similar pesticide ingredients, cyanazine and simazine)
in November 1994. Atrazine is still subject to the conditions of the Special Review and is
undergoing reregistration and tolerance reassessment under the Food Quality Protection Act
(FQPA, P.L. 104-170). The review might be completed in 2006.
Attainment area—An area considered to have air quality as good as or better than the National
Ambient Air Quality Standards as defined in the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.). An area
may be an attainment area for one pollutant and a non-attainment area for others.
ATTRA—National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. http://www.attra.org.
Attractant—A chemical or agent that lures insects or other pests by stimulating their sense of
smell. Attractants are a nontoxic technique for luring insects into traps and are heavily used in
orchard crops. Though distinct from toxic baits, attractants are regulated as pesticides.
AU—Animal unit.
Audubon Society—National Audubon Society. http://www.audubon.org.
AUM—Animal unit month.
Australian Wheat Board (AWB)—A statutory marketing agency that handles Australia’s
domestic marketing of wheat and export marketings of wheat and flour. Under the Australian
system, farmers take their wheat to elevators designated as official handling agents for the AWB.
Following delivery, farmers receive an initial payment, then over a period of time (which can be
over a year) they receive additional payments until the full price has been paid. AWB became a
grower-owned and controlled company operating under Australian corporation laws on July 1,
1999, and is listed on the Australian Stock Exchange.
http://www.awb.com.au/awb/user/default.asp.
Automated Import Information System (AIIS)—The AIIS is a computerized tracking system
introduced by FSIS in 2002 to monitor imports of meat and poultry. While all imported products
are inspected in the country of origin and reinspected visually before being released by FSIS, the
AIIS selects shipments for additional reinspection verification. The additional reinspection tasks
could include testing for residues, microbiology or food chemistry. Whether import shipments are
reinspected is statistically based on the annual volume of shipments from the exporting country.
Avian influenza—Avian flu is a form of the Influenza A virus that infects birds, and certain
strains have been known to infect both animals and humans. Many different strains of avian flu
exist throughout the world. Avian influenza has two forms in birds: a low pathogenicity (LPAI)
form that causes mild illness, and a highly pathogenic (HPAI) form that is extremely contagious
and causes severe illness and death. Avian flu is spread by contact with infected feces, nasal or
eye excretions, or contaminated equipment, vehicles, or clothing. The most common method of
control is culling (killing) infected flocks and imposing farm quarantines. Federal agencies
inspect international borders, provide surveillance, diagnostic, and other assistance to state
officials, and may help compensate farmers for destroyed poultry. Although avian influenza
viruses can infect humans through poultry-to-human transmission, officials are concerned that the
H5N1 virus could mutate and cause a pandemic through human-to-human transmission.
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International health organizations conclude that avian flu is not a food-borne disease since the
virus is killed by temperatures reached in normal cooking.
AVMA—American Veterinary Medical Association. http://www.avma.org.
AWA—Animal Welfare Act (P.L. 89-544) (7 U.S.C.2131 et seq.).
AWB—Australian Wheat Board. http://www.awb.com.au.
AWP—Adjusted world price.
AWT—Advanced wastewater treatment.
B&CMA—Biscuit and Cracker Manufacturers’ Association. http://www.thebcma.org.
B&I—Business and Industry Guaranteed Loan Program.
Backgrounding—An intermediate stage sometimes used in cattle production which begins after
weaning and ends upon placement in a feedlot. Background feeding relies more heavily on forage
(e.g., pasture, hay) in combination with grains to increase a calf’s weight by several hundred
pounds and to build up immunity to diseases before it enters a feedlot. Some cattle operations
specialize in backgrounding.
BACT—Best available control technology.
Balance on merchandise trade—Sometimes referred to as balance of trade or trade balance, it is
the difference in value between a country’s merchandise imports and exports in a year.
Agricultural imports and exports are components of merchandise trade. Since 1960, agricultural
exports have exceeded imports every year.
Band application—The spreading of chemicals over, or next to, each row of plants in a field, as
opposed to broadcast application.
Bank for Cooperatives (BC)—Lending institution within the Farm Credit System that provides
credit to agricultural cooperatives and rural utility cooperatives nationwide. Nationally chartered
CoBank has the authority to finance U.S. agricultural exports and to provide international
banking services to farmer-owned cooperatives. http://www.cobank.com.
Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act of 1937—P.L. 75-210 authorized acquisition by the federal
government of damaged lands to rehabilitate and use them for various purposes. Both the Forest
Service and the Bureau of Land Management manage some Bankhead-Jones lands. Some Forest
Service Bankhead-Jones lands are National Grasslands.
Bargaining association—A farmer cooperative intended primarily to influence farm prices or
other terms of trade between the members and the buyers of the commodities they produce.
Barrows and gilts—A barrow is a young castrated male hog. A gilt is a young female hog. Both
are raised for pork. Market news reports of prices paid for barrows and gilts are of keen interest to
producers and packers alike, as those are the primary slaughter animals.
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Barter—A form of countertrade in which goods having comparable values are exchanged under
a single contract, within a specified period of time, and without any flow of money taking place.
The U.S. government ran a barter program from 1950 to 1973, exchanging surplus agricultural
commodities for strategic materials and for goods and services it otherwise would have
purchased. In addition, barter agreements between the United States and Jamaica were signed in
1982 and 1983.
Base acreage—A farm’s crop-specific acreage of wheat, corn, grain sorghum, barley, oats,
upland cotton, soybeans, canola, flax, mustard, rapeseed, safflower, sunflowers, and rice eligible
to enroll in the Direct and Counter-cyclical Program (DCP) under the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 101171, Sec. 1101-1108). A farmer’s crop acreage base is reduced by the portion of cropland placed
in the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), but increased by CRP base acreage leaving the CRP.
Farmers have the choice of base acreage used to calculate Production Flexibility Contract
payments for crop year 2002, or the average of acres planted for crop years 1998 through 2001.
Base acres (or acreage base)—For purposes of Direct and Counter-cyclical Program (DCP)
payments under the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 1101), a farm’s average planted acreage of
specific crops (covered commodities and peanuts) over the four years 1998-2001, plus land
cropland prevented by disaster from being planted, or 2002 contract acreage under the 1996 farm
bill (P.L. 104-127). Payments acres are equal to 85% of base acres.
Base period price—The average price for an item in a specified time period used as a base for an
index, such as 1910-14, 1957-59, 1967, 1977, or 1982. Time series of data are often deflated to a
base period price. Such deflated time series are referred to as constant dollar values (versus
nominal dollar values).
Base property—For the Bureau of Land Management: land or water resources, owned or
controlled by a holder of a grazing permit or lease, that are suitable to support livestock for a part
of the year. For the Forest Service: lands and improvements owned and used by a permittee for a
farm or ranch and designated by the permittee to qualify for a grazing permit. One must own or
control base property to be eligible for permits or leases to graze private livestock on federal
lands.
Baseline budget estimate (agriculture)—A 10-year projection of mandatory spending
(commodity support, crop insurance, food assistance, and certain conservation and trade
programs) based on current law and current policy. Critical for commodity and trade program
spending are the long-run projections of supply/use, trade, and prices for major U.S.
commodities, while participation estimates are critical for food assistance, crop insurance and
conservation. The baseline projections are developed on specific assumptions regarding
macroeconomic conditions, weather, and international developments. The baseline is most
important as a reference scenario for evaluating changes in the underlying economic assumptions
and in alternative policy proposals. The Congressional Budget Office (CBO) baseline is used in
the preparation of the congressional budget resolution, in developing reconciliation instructions,
and in estimating the cost of pending legislation as bills are debated. The USDA, as part of the
President’s annual budget process develops its own annual baseline, which is released with the
budget request sent to Congress in early February. Both CBO and USDA re-estimate the baseline
in mid-year, which is called the mid-session review. The CBO baseline takes on added
importance when Congress imposes upon itself extraordinary spending constraints.
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Baseline budget estimate—A projection of future revenues, expenditures, and other budget
amounts under assumed economic conditions and participation rates, and assuming no change in
current policy. The baseline is usually projected annually by the Congressional Budget Office for
each of the subsequent five to ten years. It is used in the preparation of the congressional budget
resolution and reconciliation instructions, and in estimating the amount of deficit reduction in
reconciliation bills and the effects of legislation on the budget. USDA, in conjunction with the
Office of Management and Budget also develops its own annual agriculture baseline budget. It
projects what would be expected to happen under a continuation of current U.S. and international
farm policy, trade agreements, and specific assumptions about external conditions. The baseline
scenario provides a reference projection from which USDA analysts make comparisons of
alternate scenarios by altering any of the assumed underlying policies or conditions.
Basic commodities—Six agricultural crops (corn, cotton, peanuts, rice, tobacco, and wheat)
declared by permanent law (in the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938) as requiring federal price
support. Nonbasic commodities are the others for which USDA is authorized to provide price
support in permanent law.
Basic formula price (BFP)—Up until January 2000, the BFP was calculated monthly by USDA
and used as the base price for all milk regulated by federal milk marketing orders. Subsequently, a
different and more complex formula currently is used by USDA to establish minimum farm milk
prices under federal milk marketing orders.
Basing point—A geographical site used to establish minimum fluid milk prices for federal milk
marketing orders. Generally, minimum fluid farm milk prices increase according to the distance
from the basing point. When federal milk marketing orders began in the 1930s, Eau Clare,
Wisconsin was viewed as the principal surplus milk production region in the nation and hence
served as the basing point for most milk priced under federal milk marketing orders. Generally,
the further a region is from the Upper Midwest, the higher that region’s minimum price for fluid
farm milk. Some have argued that there currently are other surplus production regions in the
country (e.g., in the northeast and southwest) which should serve as basing points. An attempt by
USDA to establish a pricing structure using multiple basing points was thwarted by legislation in
1999 (P.L. 106-113, Sec. 1000(a)(8), which enacted H.R. 3428).
Basis risk—The possibility of unexpected variation in basis and a resulting loss of expected
revenue when a futures contract is liquidated and the commodity sold on the cash market.
Basis—The difference between the current spot price (or cash price) of a commodity and the
price of the nearest futures contract for the same or a related commodity. Basis is usually
computed in relation to the futures contract next to expire and may reflect different time periods,
product forms, qualities, or locations.
Baskets—Used in free trade agreements (FTAs) to categorize products by tariff reduction and/or
quota elimination periods. For example, the U.S.-Chile FTA uses five baskets for removing trade
barriers on most products traded between both countries. Tariffs on products placed in the A
basket are eliminated immediately. Products in the B, C, D, and E baskets have phase-out periods
of 4, 8, 10, and 12 years respectively. Sensitive agricultural products (many of which are
currently protected by tariff-rate quotas) are usually placed in the last basket.
BAT—Best available technology.
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bbf—Billion board feet.
BC—Banks for Cooperatives. http://www.cobank.com.
BCS—Basic conservation systems.
Beef (cattle) price index (BPI)—An index of the weighted average annual price for beef cattle,
excluding calves, for a 16 western state area as compared with a specific base period equal to
100. This index is used in calculating federal grazing fees.
Beef Export Verification (BEV) Program—USDA’s Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS)
initiated BEV in August 2003 as a voluntary, user-fee funded service. Under BEV, U.S. exporters
desiring to sell beef to Japan (or any other country that may request similar documentation) can
apply for BEV certification from AMS after satisfying a list of requirements enabling the agency
to verify the origin of the beef. The program was in response to Japanese officials’ demands that
the United States verify that none its beef exports were of Canadian origin, in the wake of the
May 2003 discovery in Canada of a cow with bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). After
the December 2003 discovery of a BSE cow in the United States, Japan was among the first of
the many countries to suspend some or all imports of U.S. cattle, beef and related products, so the
future of BEV is clouded.
Beefalo—Beefalo are a cross between Bison (American Buffalo ) and domestic cattle. This
produces meat very low in fat and cholesterol. When emergency livestock assistance has been
implemented, beefalo and buffalo have been eligible if maintained on the same basis as beef
cattle. Also, beefalo and buffalo were eligible for Livestock Compensation Program payments.
Beginning farmer or rancher—An eligibility term used in some farm programs, usually to
identify a subgroup who may benefit from additional assistance. Under the Conservation Security
Program (CSP) and the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), it includes any
individual or entity who has been operating a farm or ranch for less than 10 years and materially
participates in its operation. People meeting this classification may be eligible for additional
incentives to encourage conservation stewardship, such as higher percentages of cost-sharing
payments. Under Farm Service Agency (FSA) farm ownership and operating loan programs, the
beginning farmer or rancher must have an operation be no larger than 30% of the average size
farm in the county. For direct operating loans, a further requirement is that the applicant must
have participated in the business operation of a farm for at least three years. People who meet
these requirements get preferential access to federal financial assistance.
Below-cost timber sale—A timber sale from national forest lands in which the expected federal
revenues are less than the estimated federal expenses to sell the timber.
Benefit/cost analysis—A quantitative and sometimes qualitative evaluation of the costs which
would be incurred by some action (such as building a dam, or implementing an environmental
regulation) versus the overall benefits to society of the proposed action. See Risk-benefit analysis.
Best management practices (BMP)—A conservation practice or combination of practices
designed to maintain agricultural productivity while reducing point- and nonpoint- source water
pollution. State water quality agencies (or their designees) determine BMPs to fit local conditions
and to make the most efficient use of natural resources and purchased inputs.
BEV—Beef Export Verification Program
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BFP—Basic formula price.
BFW—Bread for the World. http://www.bread.org.
BGH—Bovine growth hormone (see Bovine somatotropin).
B&I—Business and industry.
BICO Report—The Foreign Agricultural Service’s report of U.S. export and import data on
Bulk, Intermediate, and Consumer-Oriented (BICO) agricultural commodities. In addition, the
data base includes forest products and edible fish and seafood products. These trade data are
further classified among dozens of separate product groups. Data are available in both calendar
and fiscal year format and for numerous world regions and individual country markets. See also
FATUS and U.S. Trade Internet System.
Bidding down—A process that has been used in several conservation programs to increase the
cost-effectiveness to the government by allowing potential participants who would provide the
same conservation benefits if they are accepted into a program to offer to participate at lower
rental rates in the Conservation Reserve Program or less federal financial assistance in the
Environmental Quality Incentives Program.
Bilateral aid—Development assistance provided directly by a donor country to a recipient
country in contrast to multilateral aid that is provided through international agencies.
Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Act of 1996—P.L. 104-210 (42 U.S.C. 1791) was named in
honor of the late Missouri Representative who championed efforts to expand food donations to
the poor and provide legal protections for those making food donations. This law makes
permanent the Model Good Samaritan Food Donation Act (P.L. 101-610, Sec. 402) and
incorporates it into the Child Nutrition Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-642, Sec. 22; 42 U.S.C. 1791). Good
Samaritan laws are designed to encourage the donation of food and groceries to nonprofit
charitable agencies by minimizing the risks of legal actions against donors and distributors of
foods. The amended law excludes from civil or criminal liability a person or nonprofit food
organization that, in good faith, donates or distributes donated foods for food relief. This does not
supersede state or local health regulations and its protections do not apply to an injury or death
due to gross neglect or intentional misconduct.
Bill Emerson Humanitarian Trust—A reserve of commodities and cash held in trust to
supplement food aid made available under P.L. 480 programs. The Trust can hold up to 4 million
metric tons of wheat, corn, sorghum, and rice; the authorizing statute also authorizes the Trust to
hold cash in lieu of commodities. The Trust was first established as the Food Security Wheat
Reserve in 1980 in P.L. 96-494, Title III. Subsequently the authorization for this reserve was
expanded to include corn, rice, and sorghum in addition to wheat by the 1996 farm bill (P.L. 104127, Sec. 225). Renamed the Bill Emerson Humanitarian Trust in 1998 legislation (P.L. 105-385,
Sec. 211), which also authorized it to hold cash in addition to commodities, it was extended
through 2007 by the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 3202). Commodities (or cash) can be
released from the Trust to meet unanticipated needs for emergency food assistance or when
domestic supplies are insufficient to meet P.L. 480 (7 U.S.C. 1736f-1) programming
requirements.
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Bioaccumulation—The increase in concentration of toxic chemicals, heavy metals, and certain
pesticides in plants and animals as they take in contaminated air, water, or food, because the
substances are very slowly broken down in the body or excreted. Toxicity can be expressed in
several ways: lead that is ingested by calves can bioaccumulate in their bones, interfering with
calcium absorption and bone development; stored chemicals may be released to the blood stream
at a later time, for example, during gestation or weight loss; and, chemicals may concentrate to
lethal levels at upper ends of the food chain. Bioconcentration is a synonym for bioaccumulation.
Biobased Products—Commercial and consumer products produced from biomass, including
chemicals and plastics. The term generally applies to products that typically are produced from
other sources (e.g., lubricants), as opposed to those traditionally produced from biomass (e.g.,
paper).
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)—A measure of the amount of oxygen consumed by
natural, biological processes that break down organic matter, such as those that take place when
manure or sawdust is put in water. High levels of oxygen-demanding wastes in waters deplete
dissolved oxygen (DO) thereby endangering aquatic life. Sometimes referred to as biological
oxygen demand. BOD is a standard measure of water quality. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is
a measure of the oxygen consumed when organic or inorganic matter is oxidized in water
chemically, rather than biologically.
Bioconcentration—See Bioaccumulation.
Biodiesel—An alternative renewable fuel, produced from vegetable oils or animal fats through a
refinery process called transesterification. Biodiesel contains no petroleum, but it can be blended
at any level with petroleum diesel to create a biodiesel blend. Biodiesel is most commonly used
as a blend of 20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel (called “B20”). Its use can result in
substantial reduction of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter.
However, nitrogen oxide emissions tend to increase with biodiesel use. Provisions of the Energy
Conservation Reauthorization Act (ECRA) of 1998 (P.L. 105-388) amended the Energy Policy
Act (EPACT) of 1992 (P.L. 102-486) to allow that the use of biodiesel added to conventional
diesel at blends of 20% and higher would produce credits to offset up to 50% each year of
alternative fuel vehicle acquisition requirements. Farmers and processors anticipate that increased
use of biodiesel will strengthen the market for soybean oil.
Biodiversity (or biological diversity)—In general, the variety and variation among plants,
animals, and microorganisms, and among their ecosystems. It has three levels: ecosystem
diversity, species diversity, and genetic (within species) diversity. Genetic diversity provides
resources for genetic resistance to pests and diseases. In agriculture, biodiversity is a production
system characterized by the presence of multiple plant and/or animal species, as contrasted with
the genetic specialization of monoculture. Advocates of maintaining biodiversity hold that
civilization should preserve the greatest possible number of existing species so that a highly
diverse genetic pool, which might be tapped for useful and beneficial characteristics, will be
available into the future; and argue further that damage to the planet’s biodiversity risks harm
with effects on humans that can not be predicted with current knowledge.
Bioenergy Program—An initiative of the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) in 2000 that
was codified into law by the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 9010). The program makes
payments to ethanol and biodiesel producers who expand their production capacity. In the year of
the expansion, the program payments help offset the cost of the additional commodity feedstocks
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(usually corn for ethanol and soybeans for biodiesel) needed for the expansion. Spending for the
program is capped at $150 million annually. The Congressional Budget Office estimates that
$204 million total will be spent between FY2002 and FY2006.
Bioenergy—Electricity, motor fuels (e.g., ethanol, biodiesel), or other energy products produced
from biomass.
Bioengineering—See Genetic engineering.
Biofuels—Fuels made from biomass, which in the United States largely include corn-based
ethanol (blended into gasoline and called gasohol) and soybean-based biodiesel. Biofuels are a
subset of renewable fuels, which are a subset of alternative fuels.
Biological control—The practice of using beneficial natural organisms to attack and control
harmful plant and animal pests and weeds is called biological control, or biocontrol. This can
include introducing predators, parasites, and disease organisms, or releasing sterilized individuals.
Biocontrol methods may be an alternative or complement to chemical pest control methods.
Biocontrol is part of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) program to control
several economically important pests of food and fiber crops; it also is researched and used by
other USDA agencies that promote integrated pest management.
Biological monitoring—Using living organisms to test the quality of either effluent to be
discharged into receiving waters, or waters downstream from a discharge.
Biological oxygen demand (BOD)—See Biochemical oxygen demand.
Biologics—Immunization vaccines, bacterins, antigens, and antitoxins and other preparations
made from living organisms and their products, intended for use in diagnosing, immunizing, or
treating humans or animals, or in related research. The Animal and Plant Health Inspection
Service has responsibility for approving some animal biologics. See Veterinary biologics.
Biomagnification (or biological magnification)—The increase in the concentration of
bioaccumulated toxic chemicals in organisms higher on the food chain due to preferential storage
of the toxic chemical in edible body parts. For example, chlorinated pesticides concentrate in the
fat and skin of fish in contaminated lakes and streams and are biomagnified when those fish are
eaten by larger fish, and perhaps eventually by mammals or birds of prey.
Biomass—The Biomass Research and Development Act of 2000 (P.L. 106-224, Title III) defines
biomass as “any organic matter that is available on a renewable or recurring basis, including
agricultural crops and trees, wood and wood wastes and residues, plants (including aquatic
plants), grasses, residues, fibers, and animal wastes, municipal wastes, and other waste
materials.” The objective of this Biomass Act is to encourage the development of biomass as a
feedstock in the production of fuels, chemicals, and other products.
Biopesticide—A pesticide that is biological in origin (i.e., viruses, bacteria, pheromones, natural
plant compounds) in contrast to synthetic chemicals. Transgenic Bt cotton and corn are
biopesticides because Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a naturally occurring soil bacterium that has
been genetically engineered into the plants.
Biopharmaceutical (biopharm) crops—Crops that are bioengineered to produce
pharmaceuticals, industrial chemicals and other medical and industrial products (sometimes
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called plant-made pharmaceuticals). Controversy surrounds the effect that these crops might have
on native plants if cross pollination takes place. The flow of genetic modifications from
bioengineered crops to their conventional native counterparts is a matter of concern to scientists
and regulators. FDA, EPA, and USDA have a coordinated effort to assure that field tests are
designed to prevent biotechnology-derived genes and gene products from appearing in
commercial seed, commodities, and processed food and feed.
Biorefinery—A facility that converts biomass into fuels and chemicals.
Biosafety Protocol—Adopted in January 2000 by parties to the U.N. Convention on Biological
Diversity, this protocol (sometimes referred to as the Cartagena Protocol) “seeks to protect
biological diversity from the potential risks posed by living modified organisms resulting from
modern biotechnology.” It establishes a procedure for advanced notification so that countries are
provided with the “information necessary to make informed decisions before agreeing to the
import of such organisms into their territory.” It is tied to the so-called “precautionary approach”
and also establishes a biosafety clearinghouse. The United States is not among the more than 100
countries that signed the protocol.
Biosecurity—Biosecurity refers to agricultural practices intended to reduce or prevent the
introduction of infectious diseases on a farm or other production facility, and includes practices
such as limiting access by personnel and vehicles, reviewing and screening introduced items such
a seed, feed and new animals, and controlling vermin. More recently, biosecurity programs have
incorporated elements to protect against terrorism, vandalism, and other intentional acts that
could compromise disease control, whether or not they were the primary aim of the illicit acts.
Biotechnology and Agricultural Trade Program—The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171 Sec. 3204)
authorizes appropriations of up to $6 million annually for technical assistance and public and
private sector project grants to remove or mitigate significant foreign regulatory nontariff barriers
to U.S. exports involving: agricultural commodities produced through biotechnology. Funds can
also be used to address trade-related food safety, disease, and other sanitary and phytosanitary
trade concerns.
Biotechnology—Broadly defined as transferring genes from one living entity (plant, animal, or
microbe) into another (or into a synthetic compound) using advanced recombinant DNA
technology (also called genetic engineering (GE)). Biotechnology has been used to develop Bt
crops, herbicide-tolerant crops, and quality enhanced crops, and currently is being investigated as
a way to develop crops (or animals) containing pharmaceuticals for use in animals or humans
(called farmaceuticals). Prior to the emergence of biotechnology, scientists made improvements in
plants or animals through selective breeding.
Bioterrorism—Bioterrorism, with regard to agriculture, refers to threats to the nation’s food
supply and agricultural resources (including agricultural research and testing laboratories) from
deliberate acts of terrorism, such as introducing pests intended to kill U.S. food crops; spreading a
virulent disease among animal production facilities; or poisoning water and food supplies.
Congress passed the Public Health Security and the Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act
of 2002 (P.L. 107-188) in order to bolster protections against bioterrorism aimed at the nation’s
food and water supplies, and prevent unauthorized access to certain animal and plant disease
organisms in laboratories.
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Blair House Agreement—The November 1992 agreement between the United States and the
European Union on export subsidy and domestic subsidy reduction commitments in the Uruguay
Round of multilateral trade negotiations. The agreement also dealt with some bilateral
agricultural trade issues.
Blend price—Primarily used in the federal milk marketing order program. It is the weighted
average price of milk, per 100 pounds, paid to each farmer based on how Grade A (fluid grade)
milk is allocated by processors to different usage classes (e.g., fluid, manufacturing).
Blending—In grain marketing, the combining of two different qualities of grain in order to
change the total value of both lots. For example, it is common to blend grains of differing
moisture or different foreign material content to achieve the requirements of a contract order.
BLM—Bureau of Land Management. http://www.blm.gov.
Blocked stocks—See Overall allotment quantity.
BLS—Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://www.bls.gov.
Blue box policies—Direct payments, under the definition of “production-limiting” measures as
defined in Article 6 of the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture, that are not subject to the
commitment to reduce domestic support. To qualify for the exemption, payments must be based
on fixed areas or yields, on a fixed number of livestock, or on 85% or less of the base level of
production. See Green box policies, and Amber box policies.
BMP—Best management practice(s).
Board foot—A measure for lumber, equal to a 1-inch thick board that is 12 inches wide and 1
foot long in nominal dimensions (a 2x6, for example, is less than 2 inches thick and 6 inches
wide, but a 1-foot long 2x6 is still counted as 1 board foot); typically reported in thousands of
board feet (mbf). Also used to estimate the volume of lumber that can be produced from logs and
standing trees.
Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources—See National Academy of Sciences.
http://www7.nationalacademies.org/banr.
BOD—Biochemical oxygen demand; biological oxygen demand.
Boll weevil—An insect pest of cotton whose eradication is the object of an Animal and Plant
Health Inspection Service program cooperatively funded and managed by cotton producers.
Bonus commodities—From the agricultural perspective, these are commodities donated to
domestic feeding programs that USDA acquires for unexpected surplus removal reasons or
because the Commodity Credit Corporation (CCC) holdings acquired under its price support
programs are not needed for other purposes, or are in danger of waste or spoilage. For example, if
meat prices fall, USDA may buy beef and donate it to the National School Lunch Program, or if
the CCC is holding an excess of cornmeal that is in danger of spoiling, it might donate this to the
Emergency Food Assistance Program (EFAP/TEFAP). From the food program perspective, these
are commodities that are donated in addition to the commodities that must be provided under
mandatory requirements in food program statutes.
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BOR—Bureau of Reclamation. http://www.usbr.gov.
Border price—See Reference price.
Botanical pesticides—Pesticides whose active ingredients are plant-produced chemicals such as
nicotine, rotenone, or strychnine. Also called plant-derived pesticides. Being natural pesticides, as
distinct from synthetic ones, they are typically acceptable to organic farmers.
Bottom—Usually synonymous with vessel or ship. A ship of American registry may be referred
to as a U.S. bottom, whereas if registry is other than U.S., the ship, in U.S. usage, may be called a
foreign bottom.
Bound tariff rate—The most-favored-nation tariff rate resulting from negotiations under the
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and incorporated as an integral component of a
country’s schedule of concessions or commitments to other World Trade Organization members.
If a country raises a tariff to a higher level than its bound rate, those adversely affected can seek
remedy through the dispute settlement process and may obtain the right to retaliate against an
equivalent value of the offending country’s exports or the right to receive compensation, usually
in the form of reduced tariffs on other products they export to the offending country. See Tariff,
and Applied tariff.
Bovine (cattle) Tuberculosis (TB)—TB is a contagious disease that can affect all warm blooded
vertebrates, including humans and cattle, and can cross species. Bovine TB, which has affected
animal and human health since antiquity, was once the most prevalent—and costly—infectious
disease of cattle and swine in the United States. Starting in 1917, the Cooperative State-Federal
Tuberculosis Eradication Program, which is administered by USDA’s Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (APHIS), State animal health agencies, and U.S. livestock producers, has
nearly eradicated bovine TB from the Nation’s livestock population. Its presence in humans has
been reduced as a result of the eradication program, advances in sanitation and hygiene, the
discovery of effective drugs, and pasteurization of milk.
Bovine growth hormone (BGH)—See Bovine somatotropin (bST).
Bovine somatotropin (bST)—Also called bovine growth hormone, bST is a naturally occurring
protein that has been genetically engineered as a synthetic compound (now manufactured in large
quantities and commercially available to farmers) that causes cows to increase the efficiency of
milk production per unit of feed consumed. Its use has caused public controversy, and some states
require retail dairy product labels to identify the use of synthetic bST.
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)—Commonly known as mad cow disease, BSE is a
slowly progressive, incurable disease affecting the central nervous system of cattle. It was first
diagnosed in 1986 in Great Britain, where most of the world’s estimated 187,000 known cases
have occurred. The first indigenous North American cases were discovered in a Canadian cow in
May 2003 and in a U.S. cow in December 2003. Prior to these findings, USDA already was
banning the imports of live cattle from Great Britain (since 1989) and later the rest of Europe, and
the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was partially banning the use of ruminant protein in
animal feed (since 1997). Consumption by cattle of BSE-contaminated ruminant proteins in
animal feed has been cited as the most likely means of transmission, and the North American
cows are believed to have contracted the disease prior to the feed ban (although that has never
been verified). Despite the link scientists have made between BSE in cattle and several dozen
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European cases of a human variant of BSE, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, BSE is not viewed by
most experts as a major public health threat here. However, the recent outbreaks have had major
implications for the U.S. and Canadian beef industries, because most foreign markets have closed
their borders to their beef and cattle exports (as the United States itself routinely has done). By
early 2004, U.S. officials had announced additional regulatory actions to test for BSE in the cattle
herd, to contain any possible spread, and to keep it out of the food supply, all in hopes of
maintaining consumer confidence in beef and in regaining foreign markets.
Boxed beef—Beef that a packer cuts into relatively small pieces, seals in vacuum packs, and
ships in cardboard boxes, often ready for retail sale. Prior to the 1970s, most beef left the packer
as partial carcasses.
BPI—Beef (Cattle) Price Index.
BPT—Best practicable technology, best practicable treatment.
Bracero—Term often applied generically to alien agricultural workers and to programs allowing
them into the United States for agricultural work. Originally this term was given to a series of
formal agreements between the U.S. and Mexico in 1942 that allowed Mexican nationals to enter
the U.S. for short term agriculture and other types of work. These guestworkers were afforded
some labor standard protections and a portion of their earnings was set aside to be paid to them
upon their return to Mexico. Controversial in both countries, the bracero program, as it popularly
was termed, remained in place in varied forms until the mid-1960s.
Breastfeeding promotion—Relates to activities required to be carried out by state and local
agencies using federal funds provided for nutrition education and administrative services under
the WIC program. States are required to use a portion of funds they receive to promote
breastfeeding by postpartum mothers participating in the program.
Broadcast application—The spreading of pesticides or fertilizers over an entire area. See Band
application.
Broiler—A young chicken, usually 5 to 8 weeks old and 3 to 5 pounds, raised primarily for its
meat. Broilers, unlike laying hens, are raised on the floor of chicken houses and not in cages.
Most broiler production in done by growers under contract with processing plants, following
prescribed management plans. Broiler production and marketing is one of the most vertically
coordinated livestock systems.
Brownfields—Under the Brownfields Revitalization and Environmental Restoration Act of 2001
(Title II of P.L. 107-118), the term brownfield site means “real property, the expansion,
redevelopment, or reuse of which may be complicated by the presence or potential presence of a
hazardous substance, pollutant, or contaminant.” This EPA program provides grants for
brownfield assessment and cleanup, and for job training. Other agencies also have brownfield
programs; worth noting is the Department of Housing and Urban Development’s Brownfield
Economic Development Initiative (BEDI).
Brucellosis—A highly contagious disease of cattle, goats, sheep, and swine that weakens
livestock and causes spontaneous abortion in breeding herds. The Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service (APHIS), as part of its brucellosis eradication program, destroys affected herds
and makes payments to farmers in partial compensation for their losses. APHIS also has been
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working with the U.S. Park Service and western states to eliminate the threat to ranch cattle of
becoming infected with brucellosis from free-ranging bison. Brucellosis also can be transmitted
to humans (undulant fever).
BSE—Bovine spongiform encephalopathy.
bST—Bovine somatotropin.
Bt crops—Crops that have been genetically engineered to carry the gene from the soil bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis. This bacterium produces a protein that is toxic when ingested by certain
moth and butterfly caterpillars that are destructive to crops. Crops containing the Bt gene are able
to produce this toxin, thereby providing protection throughout the entire plant. For example, Bt
corn is genetically engineered to provide protection exclusively against the European corn borer
and other caterpillar pests and Bt cotton is genetically engineered to control exclusively tobacco
budworms, bollworms, and pink bollworms, and other caterpillar pests.
Bt—Bacillus thuringiensis is a naturally occurring soil bacterium, commonly known as Bt, that
produces a natural protein that kills insects after the protein is ingested. Bt is a biological
pesticide (biopesticide) that can be used as a spray or dust. Alternatively, the Bt gene can be
genetically engineered into a crop variety and produce the toxic protein, which is specific to a
small subset of insects, within the plant. Cotton has been genetically altered to control the tobacco
budworm, bollworm and pink bollworm. Potatoes have been altered to control the Colorado
potato beetle. A new hybrid of Bt corn, altered to be resistant to the European corn borer, has been
available since 1997. Bt degrades rapidly to non-toxic compounds. It is not known to present any
human or animal hazards. Pest resistance management (PRM) plans are required by the EPA as
part of the registration.
bu.—Bushel (see Bushel, below.)
Budget authority—Authority provided by law to incur financial obligations that will result in
immediate or future outlays of federal government funds. Budget authority may be provided in an
appropriation act or authorization act. The laws requiring mandatory spending for commodity
support, several conservation programs, crop insurance, and food stamps create budget authority.
Most other programs operated by the USDA receive budget authority from appropriation acts.
Budget resolution—The annual framework that Congress uses to set targets for total spending
and revenues. These targets, which are initially reported by the House and Senate Budget
Committees, guide the appropriations committees’ deliberations. It also may include binding
instructions on the level of savings each committee must produce (see Reconciliation). A budget
resolution does not become law and is not binding on the Executive Branch.
Buffer Initiative—An initiative led by the Natural Resources Conservation Service, with
numerous partners, and started in 1997 to enroll 2 million miles (up to 7 million acres) in
conservation buffers by 2002, using the Conservation Reserve Program’s continuous enrollment
option, and drawing on the resources of several other agricultural conservation programs,
including EQIP, Wildlife Habitat Incentive Program, Wetlands Reserve Program, and Emergency
Watershed Protection Program.
Buffer strips—Slender areas of permanent vegetation, often planted along the edge or the
contour of a field, usually to slow the flow of water or the velocity of wind, in order to trap
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sediment and other materials (nutrients, pesticides, and certain pathogens) before they leave the
farm and become pollutants. Types of buffers include filter strips, field borders, grassed
waterways, field windbreaks, shelterbelts, contour grass strips, and riparian buffers. Also called
conservation buffers.
Bulgur—Wheat that has been parboiled, dried, and partially debranned for later use in cracked or
whole grain form.
Bulk carrier—Refers to two types of cargo ships: the dry-bulk carrier; and the liquid-bulk
carrier, better known as a tanker. Bulk cargo is a shipment such as oil, grain, or ore, that is not
packaged, baled, bottled, or otherwise packed and is loaded without counting or marking.
Bulk commodities—Generally, high volume, low value unprocessed agricultural commodities
that are treated as though they are homogeneous (fungible) prior to processing. Grains, oilseeds,
and cotton are considered bulk commodities. Contrasting categories are high value or valueadded commodities, semiprocessed and processed commodities, and consumer ready
commodities. Historically, bulk commodities constituted the major portion of U.S. agricultural
exports. Beginning in 1991, high value commodities have surpassed bulk commodities as the
leading agricultural export category. See Intermediate agricultural products, and Consumeroriented agricultural products.
Bureau of Land Management (BLM)—A bureau within the Department of the Interior that has
jurisdiction over about 264 million acres of land. A majority of this land is in the western states,
and approximately one-third of the land is in Alaska. BLM also is responsible for 700 million
acres of federal subsurface mineral resources, supervises mineral operations on 56 million acres
of Indian trust lands, and carries out a fire management program on 370 million acres of land.
http://www.blm.gov.
Bureau of Reclamation (BOR)—A bureau within the Department of the Interior, whose mission
is to manage, develop, and protect water and related resources. The agency replaced the
Reclamation Service, which was established to implement the Reclamation Act of 1902 to
“reclaim (arid lands) throughout the West through irrigation.” The Bureau built, operates, and
maintains more than 300 storage dams on rivers throughout the western United States.
http://www.usbr.gov.
Burley tobacco—The main type of air-cured tobacco; a cigarette tobacco that together with fluecured tobacco accounts for more than 90% of total U.S. production. Burley production is centered
in Kentucky. Burley tobacco production, until 2005, was limited by national marketing quotas
and was eligible for nonrecourse price support loans.
Bushel—A dry volume measure of varying weight for grain, fruit, etc., equal to four pecks or
eight gallons (2150.42 cubic inches). A bushel of wheat, soybeans, and white potatoes each
weighs 60 pounds. A bushel of corn, rye, grain sorghum, and flaxseed each weighs 56 pounds. A
bushel of barley, buckwheat, and apples each weighs 48 pounds.
Business incubator—A facility that supports the development and operation of a number of
small start-up businesses. Tenants of the facility share a number of support services including
computers, support staff, telecommunications equipment, and janitorial services. Occupants also
may receive technical assistance, business planning, legal, financial, and marketing advice.
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Butter-Powder Tilt—The farm bill requires USDA to support the farm price of milk at
$9.90/cwt. by standing ready to purchase surplus butter, cheese and nonfat dry milk when
wholesale prices for these commodities fall below administratively set levels. The 2002 farm bill
(P.L. 107-171, Sec. 1501) allows USDA to adjust the government purchase price of butter and
nonfat dry milk twice annually in order to better manage its inventories of surplus milk products
and minimize government costs. However, whenever the purchase price of one commodity is
reduced by USDA, it must increase the purchase price of the other commodity so that the overall
support price of milk remains at $9.90 per cwt. This price adjustment is referred to as the butterpowder tilt.
Buy-up coverage—The portion of crop insurance coverage for which a participating farmer pays
a premium. Current law offers catastrophic (CAT) crop insurance coverage without any premium
payments required of the farmer. Any coverage that is purchased above the CAT level is referred
to as buy-up coverage, and is partially subsidized by the federal government.
Buying-in price—The percentage of the intervention price at which EU national intervention
agencies actually purchase commodities into intervention.
Buyout—In the context of commodity and farm support policy, the term buyout relates to
compensation for the loss or decline in value of assets due to a change in policy or program
design. For example, the 2002 farm bill, (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 1309) established a buyout of peanut
quotas in conjunction with the complete redesign of the peanut support program. A buyout of
tobacco quotas was enacted in 2004 (P.L. 108-357, Title VI). A whole-herd dairy buyout program
was authorized by the Food Security Act of 1985 (P.L. 99-198) and was called the Dairy
Termination Program.
Byrd Amendment—Formally the Continued Dumping and Subsidy Offset Act of 2000, this
amendment to the FY2001 agricultural appropriations law (P.L. 106-387, Sec. 1003) requires that
anti-dumping (AD) and countervailing duties (CVD), whether non-agricultural or agricultural, be
redistributed to the domestic industries that were found to be injured by the imports. Such duties
previously went into the general U.S. Treasury. The World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2004
determined that the amendment violates its rules. The 108th Congress did not enact legislation to
comply with the WTO decision.
CAA—Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.).
Cabotage—Trade or transport in coastal waters between ports within the same country. U.S.
cabotage legislation, notably the so-called Jones Act (Sec. 27 of the Merchant Marine Act of
1920) is designed to support the maritime industry.
CACFP—Child and Adult Care Food Program.
CAFO—Concentrated animal feeding operation.
Cairns Group—A coalition of 17 agricultural exporting countries, formed in 1986 at Cairns,
Australia, for the purpose of influencing the outcome of agricultural negotiations in the Uruguay
Round of multilateral trade negotiations. During those negotiations and subsequently in the Doha
Development Agenda negotiations, the Cairns Group has pressed WTO member countries to
eliminate agricultural export subsidies, and to substantially reduce agricultural tariffs and tradedistorting farm subsidies. Members are Argentina, Australia, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile,
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Colombia, Costa Rica, Guatemala, Indonesia, Malaysia, New Zealand, Paraguay, the Philippines,
South Africa, Thailand, and Uruguay.
Call option—A contract that entitles the buyer the right, but not the obligation, to purchase an
underlying futures contract at a stipulated basis or strike price at any time up to the expiration of
the option. The buyer pays a premium to the seller for this contract. A call option is bought with
the expectation of a rise in prices. See Put option.
Campylobacteriosis—A diarrheal disease caused by the type of bacteria known as
Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) associated with poultry, raw milk, and water. There are an
estimated 2.5 million cases annually in the United States with 13,000 hospitalizations and more
than 100 deaths. Campylobacteriosis has been linked to Guillain-Barre syndrome (a disease
which paralyzes limbs and breathing muscles). USDA has estimated that this disease costs the
United States between $1.2 to $1.4 billion annually in medical costs, productivity losses, and
residential care.
Canadian Dairy Commission (CDC)—A Crown corporation established under the Canadian
Dairy Commission Act (1966-1967) and accountable to Parliament through the Minister of
Agriculture. The CDC has dual responsibilities: (1) the dairy support program operations
financed by the government through parliamentary appropriation; and (2) marketing operations
financed by milk producers under the provisions of the National Milk Marketing Plan. The CDC
also chairs the Canadian Milk Supply Management Committee, which coordinates the
management of industrial milk and cream supplies in Canada. http://www.cdc.ca.
Canadian Wheat Board (CWB)—A quasi-governmental self-financed agency, established in
1935, that markets Canadian wheat, oats, and barley on behalf of producers. Commercial grain is
put into annual marketing pools by grade, with the pool period lasting 12 months and ending July
31. The CWB markets the grain to domestic and foreign buyers, with unsold grain transferred to
the pool established for the next year. The overall procedure ensures a uniform per-bushel return,
excluding storage costs, to all producers for each grade, regardless of the time they deliver their
grain to elevators. The flow of grain from farm to terminal is closely regulated. The CWB also
works to develop new markets for Canadian wheat and has authority to enter into long-term
supply contracts with foreign countries. http://www.cwb.ca/en/index.jsp.
Cancellation—Refers to an action taken under Section 6(b) of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide
and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA;7 U.S.C. 136d) to cancel a pesticide registration for one or more
specific uses when the EPA finds the use results in unreasonable adverse effects to the
environment or public health when a product is used according to widespread and commonly
recognized practice, or if its labeling or other material required to be submitted does not comply
with FIFRA provisions.
Caneberries—The 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Sec. 10601) authorizes marketing orders for
caneberries, which the Act defines to include “raspberries, blackberries, and loganberries.”
Canola—Canola is one of the “other oilseed” crops eligible for support from marketing
assistance loans and loan deficiency payments, direct payments and counter-cyclical payments
under the 2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171, Title I). North Dakota accounts for about 98% of national
production (based on 2003 crop data). Canola is the name used in Canada and the United States
for a rapeseed with low levels of two anti-nutritional compounds, erucic acid in the oil and
glucosinolates in the meal, that were present in all rapeseed at one time. Canola oil was granted
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GRAS status in 1985. Canola oil is widely used as a cooking oil, salad oil, and for making
margarine. Of all edible vegetable oils widely available today, it has the lowest saturated fat
content, making it appealing to some health-conscious consumers. In contrast to this edible
rapeseed, industrial rapeseed has a high content of erucic acid in the oil.
CAP—Common Agricultural Policy.
Capper-Volstead Act—P.L. 67-146 (February 18, 1922), the Co-operative Marketing
Associations Act (7 U.S.C. 291, 292). The law was passed in response to challenges made against
cooperatives using the Sherman Act (15 U.S.C. 1 et seq.), the Clayton Antitrust Act (15 U.S.C. 12
et seq.), and the Federal Trade Commission Act (15 U.S.C. 41 et seq.). It gave “associations” of
persons producing agricultural products certain exemptions from antitrust laws. The law carries
the names of its sponsors, Senator Arthur Capper of Kansas and Representative Andrew Volstead
of Minnesota. It is sometimes called the Magna Carta of Cooperation.
Captive supply—Products that manufacturers or processors own or contract to purchase for
future delivery to have a predictable source of raw materials for their plants. In agriculture, the
term often is used, for example, to refer to the cattle that beef packers own or contract to purchase
2 weeks or more before slaughter. Examples of such contracts include an exclusive agreement
with an individual feedlot in which the price is based on market prices at time of slaughter; or a
contract in which the price is specified in advance or is based on some other formula. At issue is
the effect that captive supplies have on prices paid to cattle producers in cash markets.
Carbon sequestration—Retention of carbon through physical or biological processes that
prevent or delay its emission to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide by holding it in a carbon sink.
This may help mitigate climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. Silvicultural practices that encourage rapid, long term tree growth are an example.
Crop residue retention practices designed to prevent erosion and improve the productivity of soil,
such as conservation tillage, also retain larger amounts of carbon compared to many traditional
cultivation practices.
Carbon sink—A process or activity that absorbs, or takes up, released carbon from another part
of the carbon cycle. The four types of sinks, within which carbon behaves in a systematic manner,
are the atmosphere, the terrestrial biosphere (including agricultural, forest, and freshwater
systems); oceans, and sediments (including fossil fuels).
Carcass weight—The weight of an animal after slaughter and removal of most internal organs,
head, and skin. On average the carcass weight of beef is about 60% of the live animal weight, for
hogs it is about 73%.
Carcass-by-carcass inspection—See continuous inspection.
Carcinogen—Any substance that produces or promotes cancer. This is a key consideration in
evaluating the safety of pesticides and other chemicals.
CARD—Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Iowa State University.
http://www.card.iastate.edu.
Cargo preference—The Cargo Preference Act (P.L. 83-664) requires that whenever the federal
government pays for equipment, material, or commodities shipped to other countries, a minimum
percentage of the gross tonnage shipped by sea must go by U.S. flag vessels. Cargo preference
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requirements have been an issue in U.S. international food aid and export subsidy programs.
Because U.S. vessels generally cost more to use, agricultural and food aid groups contend that
resources otherwise available for commodities must be diverted to transportation costs.
Cargo Preference Act—P.L. 83-644 (August 26, 1954), as amended, contains permanent
legislation concerning the transportation of waterborne cargoes in U.S.-flag vessels. The Act
requires that 75% of the volume of U.S. agricultural commodities financed under P.L. 480 and
other concessional financing arrangements be shipped on privately owned U.S.-registered vessels.
Maritime interests generally support cargo preference, but proponents of P.L. 480 argue that it
increases the costs of shipping U.S. commodities to poor countries and potentially reduces the
volume of food aid that is provided.
Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act of 1983 (CBERA)—P.L. 98-67 (August 5, 1983),
Title II, authorized unilateral preferential trade and tax benefits for eligible Caribbean countries,
including duty-free treatment of eligible products. Often referred to as the Caribbean Basin
Initiative (CBI). Amended several times, the last substantive revisions were made in the
Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Expansion Act of 1990 (P.L. 101382, Title II, August 20,
1990). This made trade benefits permanent (repealing the September 30, 1995, termination date).
The law gives preferential trade and tax benefits for eligible Caribbean countries, including dutyfree entry of eligible products. To be eligible, an article must be a product of a beneficiary country
and imported directly from it, and at least 35% of its import value must have originated in one or
more CBERA beneficiaries. Slightly different import value rules apply to articles entering from
Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. The duty-free import of sugar and beef products is subject to a
special eligibility requirement intended to ensure that increased production of sugar and beef will
not adversely affect overall food production. Preferential tariff treatment does not extend to
imports of: textiles and apparel subject to textile agreements, specified footwear, canned tuna,
petroleum and its products, and watches and watch parts containing any material originating in
countries denied normal trade relations (most-favored-nation) trade status. Special criteria applied
to the duty-free import of ethanol through FY2000. Import-sensitive products, not accorded dutyfree tariff treatment, are eligible to enter at lower than normal trade relations tariff rates. These
products include handbags, luggage, flat goods (such as wallets, change purses, and key and
eyeglass cases), work gloves, and certain leather wearing apparel.
Carrier—An inert material added to an active ingredient in a pesticide to enhance its delivery or
effectiveness.
Carrying capacity—The maximum stocking rate for livestock possible without damaging
vegetation or related resources. Carrying capacity may vary from year to year on the same area,
due to fluctuating forage production. Used by the government in decisions about how many
livestock will be allowed on an allotment on public lands. This term also is used in ecology,
wildlife management, recreation facility planning, and other subjects to describe the maximum
use level that can be sustained without resulting in an unacceptable deterioration in quality.
Carryover—The supply of a farm commodity not yet used at the end of a marketing year and
carried over into the next marketing year. An excessively large carryover is typically described as
a surplus condition that causes prices to fall. When the carryover falls below normal, there may
be concerns of a shortage contributing to price escalation.
Cartagena Biosafety Protocol—See Biosafety Protocol.
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Cartagena Protocol—See Biosafety Protocol.
Cartel—An alliance or arrangement among industrial or commercial enterprises or nations aimed
at limiting competition or exercising monopoly power in a market.
Casein—The major portion of milk protein, manufactured from skim milk and used in processed
foods (such as dessert toppings and coffee whiteners) and in industrial products such as glue,
paint and plastics. Casein may be blended with nonfat dry milk to produce milk protein
concentrate.
Cash commodity—The physical or actual commodity as distinguished from the futures contract.
Sometimes called spot commodity, or actuals.
Cash forward sale—See Forward contracting.
Cash grain farm—A farm where corn, grain sorghum, small grains, soybeans, or field peas and
beans account for at least 50% of the value of farm products sold.
Cash in lieu of commodities—Refers to cash provided to food program operators (e.g., elderly
nutrition programs, child care food programs, and some school food programs) in lieu of
mandated commodity assistance. Meal program operators receive funding in lieu of commodities
to buy whatever foods they need to operate their meal service programs.
Cash market—The market for the cash commodity (as contrasted to a futures contract), taking
the form of; (1) an organized, self-regulated central market (e.g., a commodity exchange); (2) a
decentralized over-the-counter market; or (3) a local organization, such as a grain elevator or
meat processor, which provides a market for a small region.
Cash price—The price in the marketplace for actual cash or spot commodities to be delivered via
customary market channels.
Cash settlement—A method of settling certain futures contracts or option contracts whereby the
seller (or short position) pays the buyer (or long position) the cash value of the commodity traded
according to a procedure specified in the contract.
CAST—Council for Agricultural Science and Technology. http://www.cast-science.org.
CAT—Catastrophic crop insurance.
Catastrophic crop insurance (CAT)—A component of the federal crop insurance program,
originally authorized by the Federal Crop Insurance Reform Act of 1994 (P.L. 103354). CAT
coverage compensates farmers for crop yield losses exceeding 50% of their average historical
yield at a payment rate of 55% of the projected season average market price. CAT coverage
requires that a farmer realize a yield loss of more than 50% and only makes payments on losses
exceeding the 50% threshold. Producers pay no premium for CAT coverage, but except for cases
of financial hardship must pay an administrative fee of $100 per crop. A producer has the ability
to purchase additional insurance coverage (or buy-up coverage) beyond CAT coverage, but must
pay a premium, partially subsidized by the government.
Cattle cycle—The approximately 10-year period in which the number of U.S. beef cattle is
alternatively expanded and reduced over several consecutive years in response to perceived
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changes in profitability by producers. Generally, low prices occur when cattle numbers (or beef
supplies) are high, precipitating several years of herd liquidation. As cattle numbers decline,
prices gradually begin to rise, causing producers to begin adding cattle to their herds. The cycle is
relatively long due to the long period of time it takes between the time a cow-calf operator
decides to expand a cow herd to breed more beef cattle and the time those animals reach slaughter
weight.
CBI—Caribbean Basin Initiative.
CBT—Chicago Board of Trade. http://www.cbot.com.
CCA—See U.S.-Canada Consultative Committee on Agriculture.
CCC—Commodity Credit Corporation.
CCHP—Comprehensive Conservation Enhancement Program, which replaces ECARP in the
2002 farm bill (P.L. 107-171).
CCI—Cotton Council International. http://www.cottonusa.org/cci.htm.
CCP—Counter-cyclical payments.
CD—Conservation district.
CDC—Canadian Dairy Commission. http://www.cdc.ca.
CDC—Centers for Disease Control and Prevention http://www.cdc.gov. Canadian Dairy
Commission. http://www.cdc.ca/cdc/index.asp.
CED—County Executive Director.
CEFTA—Central European Free Trade Agreement.
Census of Agriculture—A comprehensive set of quantitative information on the agricultural
sector of the U.S. economy, broken down to the state and county levels (i.e., number of farms,
land in farms, crop acreage and production, livestock numbers and production, production
expenses, farm facilities and equipment, farm tenure, value of farm products sold, farm size, type
of farm, among other data). Special reports are issued on such subjects as irrigation, land
ownership, economics, and an atlas of agriculture. The Census, conducted every five years, was
the responsibility of the Commerce Department’s Bureau of the Census. However, the FY1997
USDA appropriations act (P.L. 104-180) transferred funding for the Census of Agriculture to
USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). Data from the 2002 Census was
released throughout 2004. http://www.nass.usda.gov/census.
Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition (CFSAN)—The agency within the Food and
Drug Administration responsible for developing and overseeing enforcement of food safety and
quality regulations and coordinating FDA and states’ surveillance and compliance programs,
among other activities. FDA’s roughly 800 field inspectors (located administratively within FDA’s
Office of Regulatory Affairs) enforce CFSAN’s food safety regulations at 53,000 processing
facilities. Among other activities, this center is engaged in surveillance of imported fruits and
vegetables, investigating the risk of Listeria, approving additives to safeguard the nation’s food
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supply and adopting HACCP rules for manufacturers of fruit juices, seafood and shell eggs.
http://www.cfsan.fda.gov.
Center for Veterinary Medicine—An agency within the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
that is responsible for assuring that all animal drugs, feeds (including pet foods), and veterinary
devices are safe for animals, are properly labeled, and produce no human health hazards when
used in food-producing animals. http://www.fda.gov/cvm.
Center pivot irrigation—A self-propelled irrigation system in which a single pipeline supported
on towers rotates around a central point. These systems are typically about one-quarter mile long
and serve 128- to 132-acre circular fields.
Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and Prevention—An agency within the U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services that monitors and investigates foodborne disease outbreaks and
compiles baseline data against which to measure the success of changes in food safety programs.
The CDC operates the FoodNet and PulseNet survey systems for tracking and identifying the
causal organisms of foodborne disease outbreaks. http://www.cdc.gov.
CEQ—Council on Environmental Quality. http://www.whitehouse.gov/CEQ.
Cereals—Generally, grains suitable for human or animal food. The EU Common Agricultural
Policy, for example, recognizes the following cereals as eligible for support under its arable crops
program: durum wheat, rye, barley, oats, maize, grain sorghum, buckwheat, millet, and canary
seed.
Certificates (commodity)—Legal instruments, entitling a qualified bearer to a specific dollar
value of USDA surplus commodities. Payment-in-kind (PIK) “certs” either can specify the types
of commodities or be generic. Certificates were heavily used during the 1980s as a means of
meeting financial obligations and simultaneously disposing of Commodity Credit Corporation
(CCC)-owned commodities. The USDA, in 1999, approved the sale to farmers of commodity
certificates at posted county prices that could be used to pay off marketing assistance loans. This
administrative action was followed by explicit legislative authority in P.L. 106-78 (Sec. 812). The
use of commodity certificates to repay commodity loans is not subject to payment limitations that
otherwise constrain the amount of marketing loan gain or loan deficiency payments persons may
receive each year.
Certified crop consultant (advisor)—Individuals who are certified by a professional group as
having the expertise needed to advise producers on how to improve production of a crop, whether
a crop is threatened by pests or disease, or how to protect a crop from pests and disease. Crop
consultants are paid by producers for their services. They are likely to be third party providers for
USDA programs requiring such technical expertise when Natural Resources
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