Amicus Curiae Brief — Nat'l Mining Ass'n v. Envtl. Prot. Agency, 135 S. Ct. 703 (2014) (No. 14-49)

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Suprenie Court, U.S.

FILED

4+ —-MAR 2 2915

3n The

Nos. 14-46, 14-47, 14-49

Supreme Court of the Anited States

MICHIGAN, et al.,

Petitioners,

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, et ai.

UTILITY AIR REGULATORY GROUP,

Petitioner,

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, et al.

NATIONAL MINING ASSOCIATION,

Petitioner,

Vv.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY, et al.

On Writs Of Certiorari To The United States Court

Of Appeals For The District Of Columbia Circuit

BRIEF OF THE AMERICAN THORACIC

SOCIETY AS AMICUS CURIAE

IN SUPPORT OF RESPONDENTS

ADAM BABICH

Counsel of Record

TULANE ENVIRONMENTAL

LAW CLINIC

TULANE LAW SCHOOL

6329 Freret Street

New Orleans, LA 70118

(504) 865-5789

ababich@tulane.edu

Counsel for Amicus Curiae

American Thoracic Society

SSE EEREeTaneEen

> LEGAL BRIEFS (800) 225-6864

www. COM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Table of Authorities .............:::.-ceeeeeeseeeeeeeneeeetenennens i

GIOSSATY «....-2..eceeseeeceneeetsecenenssernesseseennennennnaanennaenees xxii

Interest of the Amicus Curiae ........-...sssseeeeeeeeseennees 1

Summary of Argument ............:seseecesseeeseeneereseeeree es 2

Argument .......ccscssssesseerssrneesenesnensenstenscnnsnneennnanngses 3

I. EPA REASONABLY OMITTED COST CON-

SIDERATIONS IN ITS DETERMINATION

THAT IT IS APPROPRIATE TO REGU-

LATE HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS

EMITTED BY PUBLIC ELECTRIC UTIL-

II. COAL- AND OIL-FIRED POWER PLANT

EMISSIONS INCREASE RISKS OF DEATH

AND DISEASE .......cccccsssscvevesssesscnseeessessesnces 7

A. Acid Gases from Power Plants Damage

Humnan Health...........0-::-cccssscccsecssesesesenes 8

B. Mercury from Power Plants Harms

Human Healltb...............-.ccscccccsccsessoveseees 10

C. Other Metals from Power Plants Harm

Human Heallthr..............cscssceccsssssccessescees 13

D. Particulate Matter from Power Plants

Injures People...........:cssssscscseeseeetenseneees 14

E. The Danger is Greater to Susceptible

Populations, Including Pregnant Women

ANG Fetuses............ccccosscccccorcccssesssoconesees 21

ConclusiOn...........s-sscescescccsscccscseeesccssccesscnnsenerseecsncess 29

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES

Page

CASES

Am. Farm Bureau Fed’n v. EPA, 559 F.3d 512

a cesutignonesen 14

Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper, Inc., 556 U.S. 208,

129 S. Ct. 1498, 173 L. Ed. 2d 369 (2009)................ 4

Food & Drug Admin. v. Brown & Williamson

Tobacco Corp., 529 U.S. 120, 120 S. Ct. 1291,

I I cscs nnncencesenenccsdescocenceses 4

Lead Indus. Ass’n, Inc. v. Envtl. Prot. Agency,

647 F.2d 1130 (D.C. Cir.), cert. denied, 49 U.S.

1042, 101 S. Ct. 621, 66 L. Ed. 2d 503 (1980)........... 5

North Carolina v. Tenn. Valley Auth., 593

F. Supp. 2d 812 (W.D.N.C. 2009) ...............ccccceeeeees 14

White Stallion Energy Ctr, LLC v. EPA, 748

F.3d 1222 (D.C. Cir. 2014) (Kavanaugh, J.,

concurring in part and dissenting in part) .............. 6

Whitman v. Am. Trucking Ass’ns, 531 U.S. 457,

121 S. Ct. 903, 149 L. Ed. 2d 1 (2001)............0..... 5,6

STATUTES AND LEGISLATIVE MATERIALS

Clean Air Act § 109(a),

ee Oe GUILT... .cccncaccccceccceccoscoooseccoses 5

Clean Air Act § 109(b),

| 5,6

Clean Air Act § 112(dX2),

| 4

Clean Air Act § 112(n\(1XA),

42 U.S.C. § 7412(nX 1A) (2012).............cccccceee 2,4,5

iil

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES -— Continued

FEDERAL REGISTER

Executive Order 12,866, 58 Fed. Reg. 51,735

CES Gs TD siitcscccsctiscnnsicinnsnmintioenaiieaninanenal 6

Preamble to Final Rule, 77 Fed. Reg. 9304

SS. Eee EE Rae 6

OTHER SOURCES

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Asthma Facts, CDC’s National Asthma Control

Program Grantees, Department of Health and

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Andrea Baccarelli et al., Exposure to Particu-

late Air Pollution and Risk of Deep Vein Throm-

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(2008), available at http:/Awww.hsph.harvard.

edu/clarc/pubs/endnote180-baccarelli.pdf.............. 16

Michelle L. Bell et al., Hospital Admissions

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Gs cieicniitssannntitcnanatninnisstnisintianenbaniammdinnnns 13

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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—_ 13

scotia 9

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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&esrce=s&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB4QFJAA&

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Fprofile%2FRoberto_Lucchini%2F publication

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%2F links%2F0deec52d5c30b0b487000000. pdf

&ei=T83iVJ7yEsLEggTG1oH YAg&usg=AFQ

jCNFczE2DPAfi6DTkOIPp9yfaSrjvgA&sig2=

ri — pape canentiapcualeninet 85970519,

| ___ SAPESL ADRESS SBR E SES SIRES SONS PCa PD EH aS RRS oP ALES 12, 14

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resource/docs/bandcofarp.pdf.........................ccesee000 10

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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SECTS EEE EEE E EE E EEE EEE EEE EEE ERR REE EEC RHEE HR REE eee

Leyla Deger et al., Active and uncontrolled

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Vii

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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tt Rete te tt i nee eee ee eee eee 2 |

Page

seoes 17

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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SCE EEE Hee

Page

..10, 24

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ~— Continued

Meredith Franklin et al., Association between

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SPCR TSE EEE EEE TEER EE HOR HEHE PR Ree ee ee ee ee

27, 28

ae 24

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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QT A pAMLOZBEB. PA. -........oessses.ccscconsecousscnceeoncssovess

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

Yun-Chul Hong et al., Effects of Air Pollutants

on Acute Stroke Mortality, 110 Envtl. Health

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Yuh-Chin Huang et al., The Role of Soluble Com-

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Margaret R. Karagas et al., Evidence on the

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RR Eee eee

Catherine Karr et al., Effects of Subchronic

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eet er eee eee eee

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TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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OE EEE AEA

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Page

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES -— Continued

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TTPO OHSS SHES STEHT ESSEHHES TEESE TSESESESESESEEEEES

ew 13

wees 27

xiv

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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I GI TI sctnctncosccsesccscsccsnesscsensosscsens 12

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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Robin C. Puett et al., Chronic Particulate Ex-

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AE 21

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

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Joel Schwartz et al., The Effect of Dose and

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Health Perspectives 64 (2008), available at

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C2199297/pdf/ehp0 116-000064. pdf

Noelle E. Selin et al., Sources of Mercury

Exposure for U.S. Seafood Consumers: Impli-

cations for Policy, 118 Envtl. Health Perspec-

tives 137 (2010), available at http-//dspace.mit.

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M.S. Shakeri et al., Which agents cause reactive

airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS)? A

systematic review, 58 Occupational Med. (Lond.)

205 (2008), available at http://occmed.oxford

journals.org/content/58/3/205. full. pdf

S. Skolnik, Acute inhalation exposure to hydro-

gen fluoride, 7 J. Occupational Envtl. Hy-

giene D31 (2010), available at http://www.

tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/15459621003

741789

See RRR EER RRR ER REE RRR TERR eC PP eR Pee eee ee eee ©

pnsneiil 8

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

James C. Slaughter et al., Effects of Ambient

Air Pollution on Symptom Severity and Med-

ication Use in Children with Asthma, 91 An-

nals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology 346

(Supp. 2003), available at http-//pediatrics.

aappublications.org/content/114/Supplement_1/

535.2. full. pdf

Maciej Strak et al., Respiratory Health Effects

of Airborne Particulate Matter: The Role of

Particle Size, Composition, and Oxidative

Potential — The RAPTES Project, 120 Envtl.

Health Perspectives 1183 (2012), available at

http:?//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC

3440077/pdf/ehp. 1104389. pdf 2... ccceecceeeeeeeees

Deliang Tang et al., Molecular and Neurodevel-

opmental Benefits to Children of Closure of a

Coal Burning Power Plant in China, 9 PLoS

One e91966 (2014), http://www.ncbi.nilm.nih.

gov/pmc/articles/PMC3960 155/pdf/pone.0091966.

Paige E. Tolbert et al., Air Quality and Pediatric

Emergency Room Visits for Asthma in Atlanta,

Georgia, 151 Am. J. Epidemiology 798 (2000),

available at http-//aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/

UE cnnnnsnnscrtentennsuacmmitebemnsniemmapernicieniie

Cathryn Tonne et al., A Case Control Analysis

of Exposure to Traffic and Acute Myocardial

Infarction, 115 Envtl. Health Perspectives 53

(2007), available at http//www-.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

pmce/articles/PMC1797833/pdfehp0 115-000053.

TPP PPP RRR EET REESE EE EERE EEE EERE EERE ERE

xix

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES -— Continued

Page

Toxicological Profile for Mercury, U.S. Dep't of

Health & Human Serv. (Mar. 1999), available

at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp46.

Leonardo Trasande et al., Public Health and

Economic Consequences of Methyl Mercury

Toxicity to the Developing Brain, 113 Envtl.

Health Perspectives 590 (2005), available at

http?//www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/pm¢/articles/PMC

1257552/pdf/ehp0113-000590.pdf..................... 25, 26

Shang-Shyue Tsai et al., Evidence for an Asso-

ciation Between Air Pollution and Daily

Stroke Admissions in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, 34

Stroke 2612 (2003), available at http://stroke.

ahajournals.org/content/34/11/2612.full. pdf .......... 17

L. Tsonis et al., Hydrofluoric acid inhalation

injury, 29 J. Burn Care & Research 852

(2008), available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

gov/pubmed/18695605 (abstract)................0..ccc.ccee0e 9

Bruce Urch et al., Acute Blood Pressure Re-

sponses in Healthy Adults During Controlled

Air Pollution Exposures, 113 Envtl. Health

Perspectives 1052 (2005), available at http://

www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC 1280

348/pdf/ehp0113-001052. pdf................... cece ceeeeee 18

xXx

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

Bruce Urch et al., Relative Contributions of

PM,, Chemical Constituents to Acute Arterial

Vasoconstriction in Humans, 16 Inhalation

Toxicology 345 (2004), available at http://

informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/089583

70490439489?journalCode=iht (abstract).........

Sverre Vedal et al., Air Pollution and Cardiac

Arrhythmias in Patients with Implantable

Cardioverter Defibrilators, 16 Inhalation Tox-

icology 252 (2004), available at http://

informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/089583

70490439506%20 (abstract) ..............csccceseeeeeeees

A.M. Vignola et al., Structural consequences of

airway inflammation in asthma, 105 J. Al-

lergy & Clinical Immunology S514 (Supp.

2000), available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

gov/pubmed/10669534 (abstract).......................

What You Need to Know about Mercury in Fish

and Shellfish, EPA & FDA (2004), available

at http://water.epa.gov/scitech/swguidance/fish

shellfish/outreach/upload/2004_05_24 fish_

MethylmercuryBrochure. pdf .....................c200000-

Emily M. White et al., Spatial variability of

mercury wet deposition in eastern Ohio: sum-

mertime meteorological case study analysis of

local source influences, 43 Envti. Sci. & Tech.

4946 (2009), available at http://www.ncbi.

nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19673290 (abstract)..........

Page

xxi

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ~ Continued

Shaowei Wu et al., Blood Pressure Changes

and Chemical Constituents of Particulate Air

Pollution: Results from the Healthy Volunteer

Natural Relocation (HVNR) Study, 121 Envtl.

Health Perspectives 66 (2013), available at

http//ehp-niehs.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/121/

V/ehp.1104812. pdf

Janelle Yorke et al., Assessment of Dyspnea in

Asthma: Validation of the Dyspnea-12, 48 J.

Asthma 602 (2011), available at http://www.

ncebi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3149863/pdf/

I irintnsaictmicntnesnnsdaanancinendinaddeniaiien

Antonella Zanobetti & Joel Schwartz, The

Effect of Fine and Coarse Particulate Air Pol-

lution on Mortality: a National Analysis, 117

Envtl. Health Perspectives 898 (2009), avail-

able at http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/wp-content/

uploads/117/6/ehp.0800108. pdf

Antonella Zanobetti & Joel Schwartz, The

Effect of Particulate Air Pollution on Emer-

gency Admissions for Myocardial Infarction:

A Miulticity Case-Crossover Analysis, 113

Envtl. Health Perspectives 978 (2005), avail-

able at http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/

PMC1280336/pdf/ehp0113-000978.pdf...............

Antonella Zanobetti et al., Particulate air pol-

lution and survival in a COPD cohort, 7

Envtl. Health 48 (2008), available at http://

www.ehjournal.net/content/pdf/1476-069X-7-

SSCS HES EHEC OPER eRe Eee ee ee eee

ee hh hn ee ee ee

vore 19

roe 15

XXil

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES — Continued

Page

GLOSSARY

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease

Environmental Protection Agency

Mercury and Air Toxics Standards

Micrograms per cubic meter

National Ambient Air Quality Standards

Nitrogen Oxides

Nitrogen Dioxide

Particulate Matter

Fine PM: PM less than or equal to 2.5

microns in diameter

Sulfur Dioxide

]

INTEREST OF AMICUS CURIAE'

The American Thoracic Society is an international,

nonprofit, nonpartisan organization with more than

15,000 members dedicated to improving the health

and wellbeing of patients suffering from respiratory

related diseases through research, clinical care, and

advocacy for cleaner air. The Society participated as

an amicus in the cases under review — No. 12-1100

and consolidated cases — before the D.C. Circuit. The

Society’s members are concerned that the medical

and scientific literature strongly establishes the need

to control the emissions at issue in the rule before

this Court. Emissions from coal- and oil-fired power

plants cause and contribute to avoidable death and

disease in exposed populations and their reduction

will have measurable public health benefits. The So-

ciety intends its participation to show that the sci-

entific literature demonstrates that the harms from

exposure to power plant emissions are serious and, in

the context of those harms, it was reasonable for EPA

to not consider costs when making the threshold de-

cision to include electric utility steam generating

' Pursuant to this Court’s Rule 37.3(a), the 10-day notice

requirement of Rule 37.2(a) does not apply. Counsel for petition-

ers and respondents have consented to the filing of this brief and

their written consent has been lodged with the Court. Pursuant

to this Court’s Rule 37.6, amicus states that this brief was not

authored in whole or in part by counsel for any party and that

no person or entity other than amicus or its counsel made a

monetary contribution intended to fund the preparation or sub-

mission of this brief.

units among the categories of industrial sources re-

quired to control emissions of hazardous air pollu-

tants.

SUMMARY OF ARGUMENT

Amicus curiae submits this brief to assist the

Court in understanding the reach and immanency of

the significant public health risks from hazardous

air pollutant and associated emissions from power

plants, the regulation of which is at issue in this case.

In the context of these risks, EPA reasonably inter-

preted the language in Clean Air Act § 112(nX1)(A),

42 U.S.C. § 7412(nX1XA) (2012) as a Congressional

grant of discretion to consider costs or not when

deciding whether to include electric utility steam

generating units among the categories of sources

required to control emissions of hazardous air pollu-

tants.

Public health risks caused by hazardous air pol-

lutant and associated emissions from power plants

include premature death, disease, abnormal brain

and lung development in children, increased hospital-

ization and medication requirements, and lost work-

days. Constituents of these emissions travel globally.

Power plants emit acid gas, metals including mer-

cury, lead, arsenic, cadmium, nickel, and chromium,

and particulate matter that can penetrate deep into

human lungs. All humans are susceptible to adverse

health effects from these emissions, but pregnant

women, fetuses, infants, children, elderly people, and

people with preexisting health conditions are espe-

cially vulnerable.

Amicus curiae American Thoracic Society sup-

ports EPA’s efforts to protect the public from health

problems arising from hazardous air pollutants and

associated emissions from power plants, including

birth defects, disease, and premature death. EPA's reg-

ulation of these emissions is urgently needed, and

necessary to protect public health. Accordingly, amicus

American Thoracic Society urges this Court to affirm

the D.C. Circuit’s decision.

ARGUMENT

I. EPA REASONABLY OMITTED COST CON-

SIDERATIONS IN ITS DETERMINATION

THAT IT IS APPROPRIATE TO REGULATE

HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS EMITTED

BY PUBLIC ELECTRIC UTILITIES.

In light of the serious health concerns that haz-

ardous air pollutants raise — and in the context of the

wide range of approaches to cost considerations that

Congress has treated as reasonable under the Act —

EPA reasonably interpreted the ph:ase “appropriate

and necessary” as a Congressional grant of discretion

to not consider costs when deciding whether to in-

clude electric utility steam generating units (i.e., power

plants) among the categories of sources required to

control emissions of hazardous air pollutants.

Clean Air Act § 112(n)(1KA) contains no specific

requirement that EPA consider costs in this context;

instead, it authorizes the agency to regulate — or not

— based on a finding of “appropriate and necessary.”

Clean Air Act § 112(nX1)(A), 42 U.S.C. § 7412(n(1A)

(2012). Congress knew the words to use when it

wished to specify that costs be considered. See Clean

Air Act § 112(dX2), 42 U.S.C. §7412(dxX2) (2012)

(“Emissions standards promulgated under this sub-

section and applicable to new or existing sources of

hazardous air pollutants shall require the maximum

degree of reduction in emissions of the hazardous air

pollutants subject to this section that the Admin-

istrator, taking into consideration the cost of achiev-

ing such emission reduction, [inter alia] determines is

achievable for new or existing sources in the category

or subcategory to which such emission standard ap-

plies.”). Congress’ decision here, to instead use broad

language to govern EPA’s decision, is functionally

identical to the “silence” at issue in Entergy Corp. v.

Riverkeeper, Inc., 556 U.S. 208, 222, 129 S. Ct. 1498,

1508, 173 L. Ed. 2d 369, 382 (2009). There, this Court

held it to be “eminently reasonable” to interpret

congressional silence as “nothing more than a refusal

to tie the agency’s hands as to whether cost-benefit

analysis should be used, and if so to what degree.” Id.

Congress enacted the 1990 amendments to the

Clean Air Act “against the background™ of high-profile

* See Food & Drug Admin. v. Brown & Williamson Tobacco

Corp., 529 U.S. 120, 155-56, 120 S. Ct. 1291, 1313, 146 L. Ed. 2d

(Continued on following page)

D.C. Circuit precedent that “economic considerations

play no part in the promulgation of ambient air

quality standards” under a key provision of the Act,

42 U.S.C. § 7409(a). Lead Indus. Ass’n, Inc. v. Envti.

Prot. Agency, 647 F.2d 1130, 1148 (D.C. Cir.), cert.

denied, 49 U.S. 1042, 101 S. Ct. 621, 66 L. Ed. 2d 503

(1980).° Congress therefore knew when enacting Clean

Air Act § 112(n)(1XA) that an ambiguous phrase such

as “appropriate and necessary” would not create a re-

quirement for EPA to consider costs when deciding

whether to include power plants among the categories

of sources that must control emissions of hazardous

air pollutants.“

It is not per se unreasonable for EPA to make

regulatory decisions under the Act without consider-

ing costs, given this Court’s holding in Whitman v.

American Trucking Ass’ns that Clean Air Act § 109(b),

“unambiguously bars cost considerations from the

121, 156 (2000) (considering the backdrop against which Con-

gress enacted tobacco-specific statutes).

* This interpretation prevailed notwithstanding Congress’

provision for development during the decision-making process of

“data relating to the cost of installation and operation [of air

pollution control techniques].” See Whitman v. Am. Trucking

Ass’ns, 531 U.S. 457, 469, 121 S. Ct. 903, 910, 149 L. Ed. 2d 1, 14

(2001) (quoting Clean Air Act § 108(b1), 42 U.S.C. § 7408(b\ 1)

(2000)).

* Cf. id. at 468, 121 S. Ct. at 909, 149 L. Ed. 2d at 13 (2001)

(ruling consistently with Lead Indus. Ass’n because, inter alia, of

the lack of clear “textual commitment of authority to the EPA to

consider costs [in provisions that] are the engine that drives

nearly all of Title I of the CAA”).

NAAQS-setting process.” 531 U.S. 457, 471, 121

S. Ct. 903, 911, 149 L. Ed. 2d 1, 15 (2001). Here, as

in § 109%(b), 42 U.S.C. § 7409(b) (2012), the bottom-

line regulatory purpose is protection of public health.

The reasonableness of EPA’s decision, therefore,

is best appreciated in the context of the significant

public health risks of regulatory inaction. The bal-

ance of this brief, therefore, presents information

about the risks to public health that will be ongoing if

EPA regulation of hazardous air pollutant and associ-

ated emissions from power plants is foreclosed or

delayed. These risks to public health were a factor

in EPA’s conclusion — pursuant to Executive Order

12,866, 58 Fed. Reg. 51,735 (Oct. 4, 1993) — that the

total monetized benefits of the decision at issue out-

weigh the social costs. Preamble to Final Rule, 77

Fed. Reg. 9304, 9305-06 & tbl. 2 (Feb. 16, 2012).

Granted, many of EPA’s calculated risk reduction

benefits ($37 to $90 billion) flow from what D.C. Cir-

cuit Judge Kavanaugh characterized as “indirect ben-

efits of reducing PM,,.” White Stallion Energy Ctr.,

LLC v. EPA, 748 F.3d 1222, 1263 (D.C. Cir. 2014)

(Kavanaugh, J., concurring in part and dissenting in

part). From a public health perspective, however, the

importance of saving lives and reducing disease is not

affected by whether risk reduction is direct or “indi-

rect.”

I. COAL- AND OIL-FIRED POWER. PLANT

EMISSIONS INCREASE RISKS OF DEATH

AND DISEASE.

Coal- and oil-fired power plants (“power plants”)

emit pollutants that endanger the lives and health

of U.S. citizens, including dioxins, formaldehyde,

radium, and benzene, acid gases, metals, and other

hazardous pollutants. These emissions include com-

plex mixtures of hazardous substances such as acid

gases, carcinogenic toxins, mercury and other metals,

and airborne particles. Power plant emissions contain

at least 84 separate air pollutants.° Further, the

emitted vapors contribute to the formation of other

toxic gases in the atmosphere. These emissions have

both local and long-range impacts, as pollutants are

carried throughout the country. Impacts include pre-

mature death, disease, abnormal brain and lung de-

velopment in children, increased hospitalization and

medication requirements, and lost workdays. As shown

below, the medical and scientific literature strongly

establishes the need to control these emissions to

protect human health and the environment.

* 2002 National Emissions Inventory Data & Documenta-

tion, ALLNEI_HAP_Annual_01232008, EPA (2007), available at

http//www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/net/2002inventory. html#inventorydata.

A. Acid Gases from Power Plants Damage

Human Health.

Power plants are the largest anthropogenic

source of acid gas emissions (hydrofluoric and hydro-

chloric acid). Even at trace levels highly corrosive

and water-soluble acid gases can cause irritation and

tissue damage to eyes, skin, and lungs. Inhalation

of acids can cause irritation and constriction of asth-

matic airways.’ Continued exposure may contribute

to development of chronic airway diseases including

bronchitis, asthma, and reactive airway dysfunction

syndrome.”

* Id.

" J.M. Fine et al., The role of titratable acidity in acid aerosol-

induced bronchoconstriction, 135 Am. Review of Respiratory Di-

sease 826 (1987), available at http?//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/

3551704 (abstract); H.C. Francis et al., Defining and investigat-

ing occupational asthma: a consensus approach, 64 Occupational!

& Envtl. Med. 361 (2007), available at http://www.ncbi.nim.nih.

gov/pmc/articles/PMC20785 17/pdf/36 1 .pdf.

* S. Quirce & P. Barranco, Cleaning Agents and Asthma, 20

J. Investigational Allergology & Clinical Immunology 542 (2010),

available at http://www jiaci.org/issues/vol20issue7/1.pdf; George

D. Leikauf, Hazardous Air Pollutants and Asthma, 110 Envtl.

Health Perspectives 505 (2002), available at http://www.

nebi.nim.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC 124 1200/pdf/ehp 110s-000505. pdf;

M. Medina-Ramon et al., Asthma, chronic bronchitis, and ex-

posure to irritant agents in occupational domestic cleaning: a

nested case-control study, 62 Occupational & Envtl. Med 598

(2005), available at http:?//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/

PMC1741089/pdf/v062p00598.pdf; M.S. Shakeri et al., Which

agents cause reactive airways dysfunction syndrome (RADS)? A

systematic review, 58 Occupational Med. (Lond.) 205 (2008),

available at http://occemed_oxfordjournals.org/content/58/3/205 full pdf

Hydrofluoric acid — one of the main acid gases in

power plant emissions — is corrosive to the human

respiratory tract and can cause severe disease.” Hy-

drogen chloride, another major acid gas emitted from

power plants, rapidly converts to hydrochloric acid in

the atmosphere and causes irritation and constriction

of asthmatic airways.” The United Kingdom’s Health

Protection Agency reviewed the toxicology of hydro-

chloric acid/hydrogen chloride in 2007 and reported

that acute exposure causes respiratory irritation,

while chronic or repeated lower exposures cause lung

function deficits and bronchial inflammation.”

Emission of nitrogen and sulfur-based gases from

power plants contributes to formation of other strong

acids in the atmosphere, including nitric acid and sul-

furic acid. Susceptible populations include the young,

the elderly, and those with preexisting diseases like

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and

* S. Skolnik, Acute inhalation exposure to hydrogen fluoride,

7 J. Occupational Envtl. Hygiene D31 (2010), available at http://

www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/1545962 1003741789; L. Tsonis

et al., Hydrofluoric acid inhalation injury, 29 J. Burn Care &

Research 852 (2008), available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

pubmed/18695605 (abstract).

Fine et al., supra note 7.

" S. Bull, Hydrogen chloride/hydrochloric acid Toxicological

Overview, Version 1, Chem. Hazards & Poisens Division Head-

quarters, UK Health Prot. Agency (2007), available at https://

www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/

file/337689/hpa_hydrogen_chloride_toxicological_overview_v1.pdf.

asthma.” Exposure of healthy young adults to NO,

and oxides of nitrogen is associated with acute airway

inflammation and reduced lung function.” Further

reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen

oxides wuuld substantially benefit both human health

and the environment.“

B. Mercury from Power Plants Harms Hu-

man Health.

Coal- and oil-fired electric power plants are the

largest source of anthropogenic mercury emissions in

the United States.“ Mercury emissions come in vari-

ous forms, such as particulate-bound mercury and

mercury in elemental or ionized forms. Microorgan-

isms can convert ionized mercury into an organic

form called methylmercury. While all chemical forms

of mercury are extremely toxic to all cells in the

” A. Faustini et al., Short-term effects of air pollution in a

cohort of patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 23

Epidemiology 861 (2012), available at http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

gov/pubmed/23018970 (abstract).

* Maciej Strak et al., Respiratory Health Effects of Airborne

Particulate Matter: The Role of Particle Size, Composition, and

Oxidative Potential - The RAPTES Project, 120 Envtl. Health

Perspectives 1183 (2012), available at http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

gov/pmc/articles/PMC3440077/pdf/ehp. 1104389. pdf.

“ Lauraine G. Chestnut & David M. Mills, A fresh look at

the benefits and costs of the US acid rain program, 77 J. Envtl.

Mgmt. 252 (2005), available at http-//www.epa.gov/airmarkets/

resource/docs/bandcofarp. pdf.

'** Mercury Study Report to Congress, EPA (Dec. 1997),

available at http://www.epa.gov/hg/report htm.

human body,” methylmercury is a potent neuro-

toxin.'’ Once emitted, mercury returns to the earth

in rain and snow — contaminating land and water.

Elemental mercury persists in the atmosphere for up

to two years and transports globally.” Several studies

from eastern Ohio have found that nearby coal-fired

power plants contribute as much as a 72% increase in

mercury levels in local rainfall.”

* Global Mercury Assessment, United Nations Env't Pro-

gramme (2002), available at http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/

report/Final%20report/final-assessment-report-25nov02. pdf.

" Human Health, EPA, http://www.epa.gov/mercury/health.

htm (last visited Feb. 16, 2015).

* Noelle E. Selin et al., Sources of Mercury Exposure for

U.S. Seafood Consumers: Implications for Policy, 118 Envtl.

Health Perspectives 137, 138 (2010), available at http//dspace.

mit.edu/openaccess-disseminate/1721.1/70492.

* Gerald J. Keeler et al., Sources of Mercury Wet Deposition

in Eastern Ohio, USA, 40 Envtl. Sci. & Tech. 5874, 5879 (2006),

available at http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&

source=webé&cd= 1&ved=0CCAQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F42F www.

researchgate.net%2F profile®2F Matthew_Landis®2F publication

%2F6743580_Sources_of mercury_wet_deposition_in_Eastern_Ohio_

USA®2Flinks%2F09e4 1 50f6b7 465a489000000 pdf&ei=ysriVJa9

DMipgwSMooKYBA&usg=AFQj)CNHM4zz53mg97fstxQWT7SN

mmQSZUwésig2=ypNVQSBJWtZYzvPEMMmXPQ&bvm=bv.85

970519,d.eXY; Emily M. White et al., Spatial variability of

mercury wet deposition in eastern Ohio: summertime meteorolog-

ical case study analysis of local source influences, 43 Envtl. Sci.

& Tech. 4946 (2009), available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

pubmed/19673290 (abstract).

Methylmercury bio-accumulates through the food

chain, especially in fish.” High to moderate doses

of methylmercury can cause debilitating health ef-

fects and, because methylmercury targets the nervous

system and brain, damage from even low doses of

methylmercury can persist over a lifetime.” Even

very low-level methylmercury exposures in adults

who consume contaminated fish can result in sub-

clinical neurobehavioral abnormalities.”

Significant decreases in psycho-motor coordina-

tion have been found in consumers of fish.” All forms

*” Shigeo Ekino et al., Minamata disease revisited: An up-

date on the acute and chronic manifestations of methyl mercury

poisoning, 262 J. Neurological Sci. 131, 131 (2007), available at

http:/Awww.institute-of-mental-health jp/thesis/pdf/thesis-O02/thesis-

02-18.pdf.

" Id.; Katsuyuki Murata et al., Delayed Brainstem Auditory

Evoked Potential Latencies in 14-Year-Old Children Exposed to

Methylmercury, 144 J. Pediatrics 177 (2004), available at https://

www.quicksilverscientific.com/images/art/PDF/DELAYED.PDF.

* Plinio Carta et al., Sub-clinical Neurobehavioral Abnormali-

ties Associated with Low Level of Mercury Exposure Through

Fish Consumption, 24 NeuroToxicology 617 (2003), available at

http-//www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&

cd=1&ved=0CB4QFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.

net%2F profile%2FRoberto_Lucchini%2F publication %2F6406322_

Sub-clinical_neurobehavioral_abnormalities_associated_with_low_

level_of_mercury_exposure_through_fish_consumption®%2F links

%2F 0deec52d5c30b0b487000000. pdf&ei=T83iV J7yEsLEggTG loHY

Ag&usg=AFQjJCNFczE2DPAfi6DTkOIPp9yfaSrjvgA&sig2=fTV-UIZ

40q6O0vdTK_AGyug&bvm=bv.85970519,d.eXY.

* Ekino et al., supra note 20, at 131.

of mercury exposure damage the kidneys, liver, and

immune systems in both adults and children.”

C. Other Metals from Power Plants Harm

Human Health.

Power plants emit particles that contain metals

besides mercury, including lead, arsenic, cadmium,

nickel, and chromium. Lead damages the developing

nervous system. Arsenic is a carcinogen and highly

toxic. Nickel and chromium are associated with an

increased risk of cancer.” While these metals are

toxic on their own, their incorporation into airborne

particulates increases risks — including the risk of

death — posed by their inhalation.”

“ Toxicological Profile for Mercury, U.S. Dep’t of Health &

Human Serv. (Mar. 1999), available at http//www.atsdr.cdc.gov/

toxprofiles/tp46. pdf.

* Rachelle J. Beveridge, Lung cancer risk associated with

occupational exposure to nickel, chromium VI, and cadmium in

two population-based case-control studies in Montreal, 53 Am. J.

of Indep. Med. 476 (2010), available at http://www.collections

canada.gce.ca/obj/thesescanada/vol 1/QMU/TC-QMU-2653. pdf; see

also Juhua Luo et al., Association Between Six Environmental

Chemicals and Lung Cancer Incidence in the United States, 2011

J. Envtl. & Pub. Health 1, 1, http://downloads.hindawi.com/

journals/jeph/2011/463701.pdf.

* Michelle L. Bell et al., Hospital Admissions and Chemical

Composition of Fine Particle Air Pollution, 179 Am. J. Respiratory

& Critical Care Med. 1115 (2009), available at http://www.

atsjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1164/recem.200808-12400C; Shaowei Wu

et al., Blood Pressure Changes and Chemical Constituents of

Particulate Air Pollution: Results from the Healthy Volunteer

(Continued on following page)

D. Particulate Matter from Power Plants

Injures People.

Power plants emit small particles less than 2.5

microns in diameter (PM,,), which can penetrate deep

into the lungs. Power plants also emit gases such as

sulfur dioxide (SO,), oxides of nitrogen (NO,), and

organic compounds that react to form additional PM,,

in the atmosphere. Exposure to PM,, is strongly

linked to premature death.” Epidemiologic and other

data associate PM,, with premature mortality in

infants and adults, systemic inflammation, altered

vascular reactivity and cardiac rhythms, worsened

asthma, chronic bronchitis, and other cardiopulmo-

nary illnesses.“ Chronic exposure to PM.,, increases

the risk of dying from lung cancer and cardiovascular

Natural Relocation (HVNR) Study, 121 Envtl. Health Perspec-

tives 66 (2013), available at http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/wp-content/

uploads/121/l/ehp.1104812.pdf; see also Carta et al., supra note

22 at 617; K. Pasanen et al., Mortality among population with

exposure to industrial air pollution containing nickel and other

toxic metals, 54 J. Occupational Envtl. Med. 583 (2012), availa-

ble at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22569477 (abstract).

” Am. Farm Bureau Fed’n v. EPA, 559 F.3d 512, 515-16, 527

(D.C. Cir. 2009); Expanded Expert Judgment Assessment of the

Concentration-Response Relationship Between PM2.5 Exposure

and Mortality: Final Report, Office of Air Quality Planning &

Standards, EPA, 3-23, 3-24 (Sept. 21, 2006), available at

http//www.epa.gov/ttn/ecas/regdata/Uncertainty/pm_ee_report.pdf

(hereinafter Expanded Expert Judgment].

* North Carolina v. Tenn. Valley Auth., 593 F. Supp. 2d 812,

821-22 (W.D.N.C. 2009); see also Expanded Expert Judgment,

supra note 27.

disease.” Acute exposure increases the risk of death

from respiratory and cardiovascular failure.”

PM,, induces a number of biological processes

that contribute to cardiovascular morbidity and other

life-threatening diseases.” Systemic inflammation

” C. Arden Pope III et al., Cardiovascular Mortality and

Year-round Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution: Epidemiologi-

cal Evidence of General Pathophysiological Pathways of Disease,

109 Circulation 71 (2004), available at http//circ.ahajournals.

org/content/109/1/71.full.pdf; see also C. Arden Pope III et al.,

Lung Cancer, Cardiopulmonary Mortality, and Long-Term Ex-

posure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution, 297 J. Am. Med. Ass’n

1132 (2002), available at http:/§jama.jamanetwork.com/data/

Journals/JAMA/4822/JOC 11435. pdf.

* Meredith Franklin et al., Association between PM,, and

all-cause and specific-cause mortality in 27 US communities, 17

J. Exposure Sci. & Envtl. Epidemiology 279, 285 (2007), availa-

ble at http://www.hsph_ harvard edu/clare/pubs/endnote 132-franklin.

pdf; see also Yun-Chul Hong et al., Effects of Air Pollutants on

Acute Stroke Mortality, 110 Envtl. Health Perspectives 187, 190

(2002), available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/

PMC 1240734/pdf/ehp0110-000187.pdf; Cathryn Tonne et al., A

Case Control Analysis of Exposure to Traffic and Acute Myocar-

dial Infarction, 115 Envtl. Health Perspectives 53, 53 (2007),

available at http://www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/pmce/articles/PMC1797833/

pdffehp0115-000053. pdf.

" Antonella Zanobetti & Joel Schwartz, The Effect of

Particulate Air Pollution on Emergency Admissions for Myocar-

dial Infarction: A Multicity Case-Crossover Analysis, 113 Envtl.

Health Perspectives 978 (2005), available at http://www.ncbi.

nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1280336/pdf/ehp0113-000978. pdf; see

also Daniela D’Ippoliti et al., Air pollution and myocardial

infarction in Rome: a case-crossover analysis, 14 Epidemiology

528 (2003), available at http://www.researchgate.net/publication/

9088068_Air_ pollution_and_myocardial_infarction_in_Rome_a_

case-crossover_analysis (abstract).

caused by PM,, affects the vascular system™ and can

contribute to clots, heart attacks, or strokes.” Changes

in vascular reactivity can alter the caliber of blood

vessels and affect the amount of blood that flows to

organs like the heart or brain.“ PM,, can also inhibit

* See, e.g., Robert D. Brook et al., Air Pollution and Cardi-

ovascular Disease: A Statement for Healthcare Professionals

from the Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science of

the American Heart Association, 109 Circulation 2655, 2663-

2665 (2004), available at http-//circ.ahajournals.org/content/109/

21/2655.full.pdf (describing physiological responses to pollution

leading to mortality and morbidity); Jiu-Chiuan Chen & Joel

Schwartz, Metabolic Syndrome and Inflammatory Responses to

Long Term Particulate Air Pollutants, 116 Envtl. Health Per-

spectives 612, 616 (2008), available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.

gov/pmc/articlea/PMC2367655/pdf/ehp0 116-000612.pdf (finding in-

flammatory response associated with long-term exposure to par-

ticulate matter); Andrew J. Ghio et al., Concentrated Ambient

Air Particles Induce Mild Pulmonary Inflammation in Healthy

Human Volunteers, 162 Am. J. Respiratory & Critical Care Med.

981 (2000), available at http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1164/

ajrecm.162.3.9911115 (finding airway inflammation induced in

healthy volunteers after short-term exposure to PM,, indicated

risk for vascular events).

* Andrea Baccarelli et al., Exposure to Particulate Air

Pollution and Risk of Deep Vein Thrombosis, 168 Archives of

Internal Med. 920, 926 (2008), available at http://www.hsph.

harvard.edu/clarc/pubs/endnote180-baccare'li.pdf (finding associa-

tion between blood clots in legs and exposure to PM10); Andrew

J. Ghio et al., Exposure to Concentrated Ambient Air Particles

Alters Hematologic Indices in Humans, 15 Inhalation Toxicology

1465 (2003), available at http:/Anformahealthcare.com/doi/abs/

10.1080/08958370390249111%20 (abstract) (finding blood changes

in healthy volunteers after PM exposure).

“ Robert D. Brook et al., Inhalation of Fine Particulate Air

Pollution and Ozone Causes Acute Arterial Vasoconstriction in

Healthy Adults, 105 Circulation 1534, 1535 (2002), available at

(Continued on following page)

the body’s ability to vary the heart rate in response to

environmental or situational changes,” which can

result in arrhythmia, the immediate cause of death

for most heart attacks.” In fact, studies have linked

short-term increases in PM to increased hospitaliza-

tion for cardiovascular diseases.” PM., can also affect

http-/circ.ahajournals.org/content/105/13/1534.full pdf (finding vaso-

constriction caused by short-term inhalation of PM.,, reflects risk

for myocardial infarction, stroke, or other cardiovascula™ events):

Miriam Lemos et al., Chronic Exposure to Urban Air ollution

Induces Structural Alterations in Murine Pulmonary Coronary

Arteries, 18 Inhalation Toxicology 247 (2006), available at http://

informahealthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08958370500444247 (ab-

stract) (finding mice exposed to PM and other traffic pollutants

developed significant thickening of arterial wall).

* R.B. Devlin et al., Elderly humans exposed to concentrat-

ed air pollution particles have decreased heart rate variability,

21 European Respiratory J. 76s (Supp. 2003), available at http://

erj.ersjournals.com/content/21/40_suppl/76s.full pdf; Yuh-Chin Huang

et al., The Role of Soluble Components in Ambient Fine Parti-

cles-Induced Changes in Human Lungs and Blood, 15 Inhalation

Toxicology 327 (2003), available at http:/Anformahealthcare.com/

doi/abs/10.1080/08958370304460?journalCode=iht (abstract).

* Sverre Vedal et al., Air Pollution and Cardiac Arrhyth-

mias in Patients with Implantable Cardioverter Defibrilators, 16

Inhalation Toxicology 252 (2004), available at http://informaheaith

care.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08958370490439506%20 (abstract) (find-

ing link between SO, exposure and implanted defibrillator acti-

vation).

* Francesca Dominici et al., Fine Particulate Air Pollution

and Hospital Admission for Cardiovascular and Respiratory

Diseases, 295 J. Am. Med. Assoc. 1127 (2006), available at http://

jama.jamanetwork.com/data/Journals/JAMA/5015/JOC60023. pdf

(finding increase in hospital admissions associated with PM,,);

see also Shang-Shyue Tsai et al., Evidence for an Association Be-

tween Air Pollution and Daily Stroke Admissions in Kaohsiung,

(Continued on following page)

blood vessel reactivity,” and increases diastolic blood

pressure.” Year-round exposure to PM can signifi-

cantly damage the small airways of the lungs.“ Re-

cent studies have strengthened the conclusion that

exposure to PM causes decreased lung function, even

at levels below National Ambient Air Quality Stan-

dards,” and that improvement in air quality can

improve lung function.”

Taiwan, 34 Stroke 2612 (2003), available at http://stroke.aha

journals.org/content/34/11/2612.full. pdf.

“ Bruce Urch et al., Relative Contributions of PM,, Chemi-

cal Constituents to Acute Arterial Vasoconstriction in Humans,

16 Inhalation Toxicology 345 (2004), available at http:/Anforma

healthcare.com/doi/abs/10.1080/089583704904394897?journalCode

=iht (abstract) (finding exposure to PM,, and ozone increased

blood pressure).

* Bruce Urch et al., Acute Blood Pressure Responses in

Healthy Adults During Controlled Air Pollution Exposures, 113

Envtl Health Perspectives 1052, 1052 (2005), available at http:/Avww.

ncbi.nim-nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC 1280348/pdffehp6 113-001052. pdf.

“ Andrew Churg et al., Chronic Exposure to High Levels of

Particulate Air Pollution and Small Airway Remodeling, 111

Envtl. Health Perspectives 714 (2003), available at http//www.ncbi.

nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1241480/pdf/ehp0111-000714. pdf.

“ Sara H. Downs et al., Reduced Exposure to PM10 and At-

tenuated Age-Related Decline in Lung Function, 357 New Eng. J.

Med. 2338, 2346 (2007), available at http://Ateamsofangels.org/

publication/medical_journal_articles/NEJM_PM10_DOwns. pdf:

James McCreanor et al., Respiratory Effects of Exposure to

Diesel Traffic in Persons with Asthma, 357 New Eng. J. Med.

2348 (2007), available at http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/

NEJMoa071535.

“ Downs et al., supra note 41, at 2346 (concluding that rel-

atively small reductions in particulate pollution could have

measurable benefits for lung function).

Exposure to PM,, also has non-morbid effects

that are expensive, harmful, and inconvenient. It can

aggravate asthma.“ Asthma is a medical condition in

which the smooth muscles of the bronchial wall

tighten in response to stimulants, like allergens or

pollutants, and it affects more than 8% of the U.S.

population.“ The onset is often sudden.” Affected

children describe feeling like they are suffocating or

“smothering.” Besides this painful suffering and

inconvenience, untreated asthma can scar the lungs

“ Peter B. Noble et al., Airway smooth muscle in asthma:

Linking contraction and mechanotransduction to disease patho-

genesis and remodeling, 29 Pulmonary Pharmacology & Thera-

available at http//www.cde.gov/asthma/pdfs/asthma_facts _ program _

312142.pdf

. ™ Andrew Harver et al., Descriptors of Breathlessness in

Children With Persistent Asthma, 139 Chest J. 832, 834-35 (2011),

available at http//www.nchi.nlm_nih gov/pmc/articlee/PMC307 1274/

pdf/102388. pdf.

and bronchial tubes,” reducing lung function by as

much as sixty percent.

Reductions in PM,, yield public health benefits.”

A 2009 study explored the effect of improved air

quality by comparing data on PM,, pollution and life

expectancy in fifty-one cities throughout the United

States for two periods of time — from the late 1970s

and early 1980s, and from the late 1990s to the early

2000s." After controlling for socioeconomic, demo-

graphic, and social factors (like smoking), the study

revealed that a decrease of 10 pg/m’ of fine particu-

late matter was associated with an increase in life

expectancy of six months to two years, and reductions

in air pollution accounted for as much as 15% of the

“ AM. Vignola et al., Structural consequences of airway

inflammation in asthma, 105 J. Allergy & Clinical Immunology

S514 (Supp. 2000), available at http:/Avww.ncbi.nim.nih. gov/pubmed/

10669534 (abstract).

“ Kian Fan Chung et al., International ERS/ATS guidelines

on definition, evaluation and treatment of severe asthma, 43 Eur.

Respiratory J. 343 (2014), available at http://erj.ersjournals.

com/content/43/2/343.long.

“@ Joel Schwartz et al., The Effect of Dose and Timing of

Dose on the Association between Airborne Particles and Survival,

116 Envtl. Health Perspectives 64, 67-68 (2008), available at

http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pme/articles/PMC2199297/pdfehp0 116-

000064. pdf (finding no evidence of a threshold in the association

between exposure to PM2.5 and the risk of death, suggesting

that efforts to reduce particle concentrations as low as feasible is

the most effective way to improve public health).

and Life Expectancy in the United States, 360 New Eng. J. Med.

371 (2009), available at http://www.nejm.org/doi/pdf/10.1056/

NEJMsa0805646.

overall increase in life expectancy seen in the study

areas.” Other studies also show that reductions in air

pollution could be expected to produce substantial

improvements in public health.”

F. The Danger is Greater to Susceptible

Populations, Including Pregnant Women

and Fetuses.

Power plant emissions are especially dangerous

to susceptible populations.” These susceptible populations

> ae.

* Robin C. Puett et al., Chronic Particulate Exposure,

Mortality and Coronary Heart Disease in the Nurses’ Health

Study, 168 Am. J. Epidemiology 1161, 1167 (2008), available at

http-//aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/168/10/1161.full. pdf+html ({O}ur

findings add to a growing coherence of the literature across

multiple time scales indicating that the public health benefits of

reducing particle concentrations will be realized within years,

not decades, of the reduction.”); Antonella Zanobetti & Joel

Schwartz, The Effect of Fine and Coarse Particulate Air Pollu-

tion on Mortality: a National Analysis, 117 Envtl. Health Per-

spectives 898, 902 (2009), available at http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/

wp-content/uploads/117/6/ehp.0800108.pdf (concluding that the

strong association between particle pollution and deaths sug-

gests that tens of thousands of early deaths per year could be

avoided by reducing particle concentrations and recommending

controls on power plants); Antonella Zanobetti et al., Particulate

air pollution and survival in a COPD cohort, 7 Envtl. Health 48

(2008), available at http:-//www.ehjournal.net/content/pdf/1476-069X-

7-48.pdf (concluding that results of study heightens urgency for

pollution control measures because “reductions in air pollution

should be followed quickly by improvements in public health”).

“ Parinaz Poursafa & Roya Kelishadi, What health profes-

sionals should know about the health effects of air pollution and

climate change on children and pregnant mothers, 16 Iranian J.

(Continued on following page)

include pregnant women, fetuses, infants, children,

the elderly, and people with pre-existing health

conditions.” Constituents of power plant emissions

can travel and impose harmful effects across large

distances, and can have even greater effects locally.”

Individuals who live near emission sources bear the

brunt of the most concentrated emissions and those

with special] susceptibilities compose a large propor-

tion of the overall population; thus, they represent a

large proportion of those exposed to these emissions.

Power plant emissions disproportionately cause

morbidity and mortality in susceptible populations

but also change the quality of life for susceptible

individuals in ways that are difficult to quantify or

monetize.” Poor air quality changes lifestyles.”

Asthma is the most common chronic childhood

lung disease, and affects more than 9% of all US.

children.” Emissions from power plants worsen

Nursing & Midwifery Research 257, available at http//www.

ncbi.nim.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3249808/?report=classic.

* Id.

*” Global Mercury Assessment, supra note 16.

“ Maureen R. Gwinn et al., Meeting Report: Estimating the

Benefits of Reducing Hazardous Air Pollutants - Summary of

2009 Workshop and Future Considerations, 119 Envtl. Health

Perspectives 125, 126-27 (2010), available at http//www.ncbi.

nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articlea/PMC3018491/pdf/ehp- 119-125. pdf.

" Asthma Facts, supra note 44, at i.

* Asthma Facts, supra note 44, at i.

asthma.” Exposure of children to SO, is associated

with active asthma and poor control of existing asth-

ma.” Exposure to PM,, can aggravate asthma.”

Short-term increases in PM are linked to a rise in

hospitalizations for children with asthma attacks.”

Asthma is not the only lung disease exacerbated by

power plant emissions. Individuals with other lung

* Committee of the Envtl. & Occupational Health Assembly

of the Am. Thoracic Society, Health effects of outdoor air pollu-

tion, 153 Am. J. Respiratory & Critical Care Med. 3 (1996),

available at http:?//www.ncbi.nlm.nih gov/pubmed/8542133 (abstract).

” Leyla Deger et al., Active and uncontrolled asthma among

children exposed to air stack emissions of sulphur dioxide from

petroleum refineries in Montreal, Quebec: A cross-sectional study,

19 Can. Respiratory J. 97 (2012), available at http://www.

nebi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3373279/pdf/crj 19097 pdf.

*" Morgenstern et al., supra note 43.

James C. Slaughter et al., Effects of Ambient Air Pollu-

tion on Symptom Severity and Medication Use in Children with

Asthma, 91 Annals of Allergy, Asthma & Immunology 346

(Supp. 2003), available at http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/

content/114/Supplement_1/535.2.full._ pdf (PM,, associated with

aggravated asthma attacks); see also Shao Lin et al., Childhood

asthma hospitalization and residential exposure to staie route

traffic, 88 Envtl. Research 73 (2002), available at http://www.

sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0013935101943038 (abstract);

Gary Norris et al., An Association Between Fine Particles and

Asthma Emergency Department Visits for Children in Seattle,

107 Envtl. Health Perspectives 489 (1999), available at http://

www.ncebi.nim.nih.gov/pme/articles/PMC 156657 4/pdf/en vhper005 11 -

0105.pdf; Paige E. Tolbert et al., Air Quality and Pediatric

Emergency Room Visits for Asthma in Atlanta, Georgia, 151 Am.

J. Epidemiology 798 (2000), available at http://aje.oxfordjournals.

org/content/151/8/798. full pdf.

diseases such as cystic fibrosis™ or COPD™ are also

negatively affected by air pollutants. Infants face a

9% greater risk of bronchiolitis for each 10 pg/m’

increase in PM,,.~

Power plant emissions can be particularly dan-

gerous for normal growing fetuses as well as infants

and children because emissions alter both overall and

organ-specific growth and development: Pollutant

effects are especially prominent in the brain and

nervous system and the respiratory system.” Expo-

sure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs),

which are emitted from power plants, is associated

with smaller head size at birth and decreased height

as a child grows.” Furthermore, exposure to power

“ Christopher H. Goss et al., Effect of Ambient Air Pollution

on Pulmonary Exacerbations and Lung Function in Cystic

Fibrosis, 169 Am. J. Respiratory & Critical Care Med. 816

(2004), available at http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.1164/

recm.200306-7790C.

“ Faustini et al., supra note 12.

“ Catherine Karr et al., Effects of Subchronic Exposure to

Ambient Air Pollutants on Infant Bronchiolitis, 165 Am. J. Epi-

demiology 553, 557 (2007), available at http///aje.oxfordjournals.

org/content/165/5/553. full. pdf.

“ Sermin Genc et al., The Adverse Effects of Air Pollution

on the Nervous System, 2012 J. Toxicology 1 (2012), http://

downloads. hindawi.com/journals/jt/20 12/782462. pdf.

” Kinga Polanska et al., Effect of Prenatal Polycyclic

Aromatic Hydrocarbons Exposure on Birth Outcomes: The Polish

Mother and Child Cohort Study, 2014 BioMed Research Int’

408939 (2014), http//downloads. hindawi.com/journals/bmri/2014/

408939. pdf.

plant emissions that include SO, during the first

trimester of pregnancy results in lower body mass

in newborns.” Reducing or eliminating exposure to

power plant emissions results in positive effects on

neurocognitive development in children.” Mercury is

particularly hazardous to infants and children, caus-

ing abnormal neurological development including

brain damage, birth defects, diminished intelligence,

and developmental delays.” Methylmercury can ac-

cumulate in a fetus’s blood to a concentration higher

than that in the mother.” Each year, 300,000 to

600,000 U.S. children are born with blood methyl-

mercury levels that exceed the EPA reference dose

* Lucijan Mohorovic, First two months of pregnancy -

critical time for preterm delivery and low birthweight caused by

adverse effects of coal combustion toxics, 80 Early Human Dev.

115 (2004), available at http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/

15500992.

* Deliang Tang et al., Molecular and Neurodevelopmental

Benefits to Children of Closure of a Coal Burning Power Plant in

China, 9 PLoS One e91966 (2014), http://www.ncbi.n)m.nih.

gov/pmc/articles/PMC3960155/pdf/pone.0091966. pdf.

” Jd.: see also Margaret R. Karagas et al., Evidence on the

Human Health Effects of Low-Level Methylmercury Exposure,

120 Envtl. Health Perspectives 799 (2012), available at http-//

www.ncbi.nlm.nih gov/pmc/articles/PMC3385440/pdf/ehp. 1104494.

pdf; Leonardo Trasande et al., Public Health and Economic Con-

sequences of Methyl Mercury Toxicity to the Developing Brain,

113 Envtl Health Perspectives 590 (2005), available at http//www.

ncbi.nim.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC 1257552/pdf/ehp0113-000590.

pdf.

" Toxicological Profile for Mercury, supra note 24, at 179.

(the acceptable oral dose of a toxic substance).” Those

children have more mercury in their blood than will

permit healthy brain development as they grow.”

Thus, those children’s capacity to see, hear, move,

feel, learn, and respond is compromised.“ Reduced

cognitive development can result in significant costs

to society.” Accumulation of mercury in fish, coupled

with the known developmental hazards of mercury

exposure on fetal, infant, and child development,

prompted both the Federal Drug Administration and

™ Kathryn R. Mahaffey et al., Blood Organic Mercury and

Dietary Mercury Intake: National Health and Nutrition Exami-

nation Survey, 1999 and 2000, 112 Envtl. Health Perspectives

562, 562 (2004), available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/

articles/PMC1241922/pdf/ehp0112-000562.pdf; Trasande et al.,

supra note 70, at 590.

™ Trasande et al., supra note 70.

“ Phillip W. Davidson et al., Neurodevelopmental Effects of

Maternal Nutritional Status and Exposure to Methylmercury

from Eating Fish During Pregnancy, 29 Neurotoxicology 767

(2008), available at http:?//www.ncbi.nim.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC

2580738/pdf/nihms72906.pdf; Kathryn R. Mahaffey et al., Adult

Women’s Blood Mercury Concentrations Vary Regionally in the

United States: Association with Patterns of Fish Consumption

(NHANES 1999-2004), 117 Envtl. Health Perspectives 47 (2009),

available at http//www.ncbi.nim.nih gov/pmc/artides/PMC2627864/

pdf/7EHP-117-47.pdf; Mahaffey et al., supra note 72; Trasande et

al., supra note 70; see also Brooks B. Gump et al., Fish Consump-

tion, Low-Level Mercury, Lipids, and Inflammatory Markers in

Children, 112 Envtl. Research 204 (2012), available at http://

pdf.

” Trasande et al., supra note 70.

EPA to advise women of childbearing age to limit

consumption of fish and to check local advisories.”

PM,, adversely impacts lung growth and devel-

opment.” Lung function increases normally during

childhood until twenty to twenty-five years of age,

when lung function peaks at the maximal capacity to

breathe.” A pernicious effect of exposure to damaging

air pollution is reduction in this peak lung function,

which represents a loss of functional reserve.” Further-

more, lower peak lung function as an adult predisposes

" What You Need to Know about Mercury in Fish and

Shellfish, EPA & FDA (2004), available at http://water.epa.gov/

scitech/swguidance/fishshellfish/outreach/upload/2004_05_24 fish_

MethylmercuryBrochure. pdf.

" See, e.g., Thais Mauad et al., Chronic Exposure to Ambi-

ent Levels of Urban Particles Affects Mouse Lung Development,

178 Am. J. Respiratory & Critical Care Med. 721, 727 (2008),

available at http?//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2556454/

pdf/AJRCCM1787721.pdf (suggesting exposure to ambient levels

of PM,, and other urban pollutants may adversely impact lung

growth and development).

™ W. James Gauderman et al., Association Between Air

Pollution and Lung Function Growth in Southern California

Children, 162 Am. J. Respiratory & Critical Care Med. 1383,

1389 (2000), available at http://www.atsjournals.org/doi/pdf/10.

1164/ajrecm.162.4.9909096; see also J. Dubnov et al., Estimating

the effect of air pollution from a coal-fired power station on the

development of children’s pulmonary function, 103 Envtl.

Research 87 (2006), available at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/

pubmed/16618483 (abstract); B.F. Hwang et al., Relationship

between exposure to fine particulates and ozone and reduced lung

function in children, 137 Envtl. Research 382 (2015), available

at http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/256 14339 (abstract).

™ Gauderman et al., supra note 78.

the subject to a greater potential effect of lung dis-

ease later in life as lung function decreases with age.”

Children exposed to NO, acids and PM,, suffer dimin-

ished lung function growth.” Children who grow up

in regions with high levels of NO, and PM air pollu-

tion have decreased lung function as adults.”

These widespread, serious adverse effects that

power plant emissions impose on people, and the

urgent public need for reduction in hazardous air

pollutants and associated emissions form a backdrop

against which EPA reasonably interpreted the phrase

“appropriate and necessary” to allow it to not consider

costs when deciding to include power plants among

the categories of sources required to control emissions

of hazardous air pollutants.

” Id.

" Id.

--_

CONCLUSION

For all the foregoing reasons, the decision of the

United States Court of Appeals for the District of

Columbia Circuit should be AFFIRMED.

Respectfully submitted this March 2, 2015,

ADAM BABICH

Counsel of Record

TULANE ENVIRONMENTAL

Law CLINIC

TULANE LAW SCHOOL

6329 Freret Street

New Orleans, LA 70118

(504) 865-5789

ababich@tulane.edu

Counsel for Amicus Curiae

American Thoracic Society

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