Amicus Curiae Brief — William P. Barr, Attorney General, et al., Petitioners v. American Association of Political Consultants, Inc., et al.

Supreme Court briefMar 2, 2020

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No. 19-631

IN THE

Supreme Court of the United States

________________________________________________________________________

WILLIAM P. BARR, ATTORNEY GENERAL, ET AL.,

Petitioners,

AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF POLITICAL CONSULTANTS,

INC., ET AL.,

Respondents.

________________________________________________________________________

On Writ of Certiorari to the United States

Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit

________________________________________________________________________

BRIEF OF INDIANA, NORTH CAROLINA,

AND 31 OTHER STATES

IN SUPPORT OF PETITIONERS

________________________________________________________________________

JOSHUA H. STEIN

Attorney General

MATTHEW W. SAWCHAK

Solicitor General

RYAN Y. PARK

Deputy Solicitor General

NICHOLAS S. BROD

Assistant Solicitor

General

CURTIS T. HILL, JR.

Indiana Attorney General

*THOMAS M. FISHER

Solicitor General

KIAN J. HUDSON

Deputy Solicitor General

JULIA C. PAYNE

Deputy Attorney General

NORTH CAROLINA

DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

Post Office Box 629

Raleigh, NC 27602

(919) 716-6400

msawchak@ncdoj.gov

OFFICE OF THE INDIANA

ATTORNEY GENERAL

302 W. Washington St.

Indianapolis, IN 46204

(317) 232-6255

Tom.Fisher@atg.in.gov

*Counsel of Record

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES ................................... iii

INTEREST OF AMICI STATES ............................. 1

SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT ......................... 5

ARGUMENT ............................................................ 7

II.

The Robocall Ban Safeguards Personal and

Residential Privacy in Conformity with the

First Amendment ............................................. 7

The ban prohibits highly intrusive

robocalls regardless of content and

therefore passes First Amendment

scrutiny ..................................................... 7

The federal-government-debt exemption

applies regardless of call content and

complies with the First Amendment ..... 12

The federal-government-debt

exemption does not depend on

a call’s content .............................. 13

The federal-government-debt

exemption survives intermediate

scrutiny ......................................... 13

If Invalid, the Federal-Government-Debt

Exemption Is Severable from the Remainder

of the Robocall Ban ......................................... 16

CONCLUSION ....................................................... 26

ADDITIONAL COUNSEL ..................................... 27

iii

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES

CASES

Alaska Airlines v. Brock,

480 U.S. 678 (1987) .................................. 20, 21, 23

Ayotte v. Planned Parenthood of N. New

Eng.,

546 U.S. 320 (2006) ............................ 17, 20, 22, 24

Bd. of Trs. of the State Univ. of N.Y. v. Fox,

492 U.S. 469 (1989) ..............................................14

Bland v. Fessler,

88 F.3d 729 (9th Cir. 1996)....................................7

Brockett v. Spokane Arcades, Inc.,

472 U.S. 491 (1985) ........................................17, 23

Buckley v. Valeo,

424 U.S. 1 (1976) (per curiam) ............................20

Cahaly v. Larosa,

796 F.3d 399 (4th Cir. 2015)..................................4

Carpenter v. United States,

138 S. Ct. 2206 (2018)..........................................11

Carter v. Carter Coal Co.,

298 U.S. 238 (1936) ..............................................21

Champlin Refining Co. v. Corporation

Comm’n of Okla.,

286 U.S. 210 (1932)..............................................16

CASES [CONT’D]

City of Ladue v. Gilleo,

512 U.S. 43 (1994) ................................................12

Duguid v. Facebook, Inc.,

926 F.3d 1146 (9th Cir. 2019), petition

for cert. pending, No. 19-511 (filed Oct.

17, 2019) ...............................................................14

Fed. Commc’ns Comm’n v. Pacifica Found.,

438 U.S. 726 (1978) ..............................................10

Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Co.

Accounting Oversight Bd.,

561 U.S. 477 (2010) ............................ 16, 17, 20, 24

Gomez v. Campbell–Ewald Co.,

768 F.3d 871 (9th Cir. 2014), aff’d on

other grounds, 136 S.Ct. 663 (2016) ......................7

Greater New Orleans Broad. Ass’n, Inc. v.

United States,

527 U.S. 173 (1999) ..............................................19

Greater New Orleans Broad. Ass’n, Inc. v.

United States,

1999 WL 642904 (E.D. La. Aug. 23,

1999) .....................................................................19

Hershey v. City of Clearwater,

834 F.2d 937 (11th Cir. 1987)..............................23

Hill v. Wallace,

259 U.S. 44 (1922) ................................................21

CASES [CONT’D]

I.N.S. v. Chadha,

462 U.S. 919 (1983) ..........................................7, 23

McCullen v. Coakley,

573 U.S. 464 (2014) ..........................................9, 13

Mims v. Arrow Fin. Servs., LLC,

565 U.S. 368 (2012) ............................................2, 3

Moser v. Fed. Commc’ns Comm’n,

46 F.3d 970 (9th Cir. 1995)..............................8, 11

Nat. Fed. of Indep. Businesses v. Sebelius,

567 U.S. 519 (2012) ..............................................20

Nat’l Coal. of Prayer, Inc. v. Carter,

455 F.3d 783 (7th Cir. 2006)................................16

New York v. United States,

505 U.S. 144 (1992)..............................................20

Olson v. Nebraska ex rel. W. Reference &

Bond Ass’n,

313 U.S. 236 (1941) ..............................................21

Patriotic Veterans, Inc. v. Zoeller,

845 F.3d 303 (7th Cir. 2017)............................7, 13

Reed v. Town of Gilbert,

135 S. Ct. 2218 (2015)............................................8

Regan v. Time, Inc.,

468 U.S. 641 (1984) ..............................................17

CASES [CONT’D]

Reno v. Am. Civil Liberties Union,

521 U.S. 844 (1997) ..............................................21

Riley v. California,

573 U.S. 373 (2014) ..............................................11

Sorrell v. IMS Health Inc.

564 U.S. 552 (2011) ..............................................18

United States v. Booker,

543 U.S. 220 (2005) ........................................24, 25

Van Bergen v. Minnesota,

59 F.3d 1541 (8th Cir. 1995)............................7, 13

Victory Processing, LLC v. Michael,

333 F. Supp. 3d 1263 (D. Wyo. 2018),

appeal filed, No. 18-8063 (10th Cir.) .....................4

Ward v. Rock Against Racism,

491 U.S. 781 (1989) ................................ 8, 9, 10, 14

Williams v. Standard Oil Co. of La.,

278 U.S. 235 (1929)..............................................21

Williams-Yulee v. Florida Bar,

575 U.S. 433 (2015) ..............................................12

Wisconsin v. Mitchell,

508 U.S. 476 (1993) ..............................................13

STATUTES

47 U.S.C. § 227 ..........................................................22

vii

STATUTES [CONT’D]

47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A) ........................................2, 18

47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A)(iii)............................... passim

47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(B) ............................................23

47 U.S.C. § 227(f)(1) ....................................................3

47 U.S.C. § 227(g)(1)....................................................3

47 U.S.C. § 608 ........................................ 21, 22, 23, 25

Ala. Code § 8-19A-3(3)(a) ............................................3

Alaska Stat. § 45.50.475 .............................................4

Alaska Stat. § 45.50.475(a)(4).....................................3

Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 44-1282 ..................................4

Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 13-2919 ..................................3

Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 44-1278 ..................................3

Ark. Code § 5-63-204 ...................................................3

Bipartisan Budget Act of 2015, Pub. L. No.

114-74, § 301(a), 129 Stat. 584 ............................12

Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code § 17591...................................4

Cal. Civ. Code § 1770(a)(22)(A) ..................................3

Cal. Pub. Util. Code § 2871 .........................................3

viii

STATUTES [CONT’D]

Colo. Rev. Stat. § 6-1-904 ............................................4

Colo. Rev. Stat. § 18-9-311 ..........................................3

Colo. Rev. Stat. § 6-1-302(2)(a) ...................................3

Conn. Stat. § 16-256e ..................................................3

Conn. Stat. § 52-570c ..................................................3

Fla. Stat. § 501.059(8)(a) ............................................3

Ga. Code Ann. § 46-5-27 .............................................4

Ga. Code § 46-5-23 ......................................................3

Haw. Rev. Stat. § 481P-2 ............................................4

Idaho Code Ann. § 48-1003A ......................................4

815 Ill. Comp. Stat. § 305/1 ........................................3

Ind. Code § 24-4.7-4-1 .................................................4

Ind. Code § 24-5-14-5 ..................................................3

Kan. Stat. § 50-670..................................................3, 4

Ky. Stat. § 367.461 ......................................................3

La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 45:844.16 ..................................4

La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 45:810 .......................................3

Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 159C, § 1 ...................................4

STATUTES [CONT’D]

Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 159C § 3 ....................................3

Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 159 § 19B ..................................3

Md. Pub. Util. Code § 8-204 ........................................3

Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 10, § 1498 ......................................3

Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 10, § 1499-B...................................4

Mich. Comp. Laws § 445.111a ....................................4

Mich. Stat. § 484.125 ..................................................3

Minn. Stat. § 325E.26 .................................................3

Minn. Stat. § 332.37(13) .............................................3

Miss. Code §§ 77-3-451–59..........................................3

Mont. Code Ann. § 30-14-1602....................................4

Mont. Code § 45-8-216(1)(a)–(d) .................................3

N.C. Gen. Stat. § 75-102 .............................................4

N.C. Stat. § 75-104 ......................................................3

N.D. Cent. Code § 51-28-04.....................................3, 4

N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 359-E:11 .................................4

N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 359-E:1 to E:6 ........................3

N.J. Stat. Ann. 56:8-130 .............................................4

STATUTES [CONT’D]

N.J. Stat. Ann. § 48:17-28 ...........................................3

N.M. Stat. Ann. § 57-12-22 .....................................3, 4

N.Y. Gen. Bus. Law § 399-p ........................................3

Neb. Stat. §§ 86-236 to 86-258 ....................................3

Nev. Rev. Stat. § 228.550 ............................................4

Nev. Stat. § 597.812 ....................................................3

Nev. Stat. § 597.814 ....................................................3

Nev. Stat. § 597.816 ....................................................3

Nev. Stat. § 597.818 ....................................................3

15 Okla. Stat. § 755.1 ..................................................3

21 Okla. Stat. § 1847a .............................................3, 4

Or. Rev. Stat. § 646A.370 ...........................................4

73 Pa. Stat. § 2245.2 ...................................................4

73 Pa. Stat. § 2245.2(j) ................................................4

Pub. L. 114-74, Title III, § 301(a), 129 Stat.

588 ........................................................................17

R.I. Gen. Laws § 5-61-3.5 ............................................4

R.I. Stat. § 5-61-3.4 .....................................................4

STATUTES [CONT’D]

R.I. Stat. § 11-35-26 ....................................................4

S.C. Code Ann. § 37-21-70 ..........................................4

S.C. Stat. § 16-17-446..................................................4

S.D. Codified Laws § 49-31-99 ....................................4

S.D. Stat. § 37-30-23 ...................................................4

Telephone Consumer Protection Act of

1991, Pub. L. No. 102-243, 105 Stat.

2394 ........................................................ 2, 9, 10, 17

Tenn. Code Ann. § 47-18-1502 ....................................4

Tenn. Code Ann. § 65-4-410 ........................................4

Tex. Bus. & Com. Code Ann. § 304.051 ......................4

Tex. Bus. & Com. Code § 305.001...............................4

Utah Code Ann. § 13-25a-109 .....................................4

Utah Code § 13-25a-103 ..............................................4

Va. Code Ann. § 59.1-514 ............................................4

Va. Code § 59.1-518.2 ..................................................4

Vt. Stat. Ann. tit. 9, § 2464a .......................................4

Vt. Stat. tit. 18, § 4631 ..............................................18

Wash. Code § 80.36.400 ..............................................4

xii

STATUTES [CONT’D]

Wis. Stat. § 100.52 ......................................................4

Wis. Stat. § 100.52(4) ..................................................4

Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 37-2-132 .........................................4

Wyo. Stat. § 6-6-104 ....................................................4

OTHER AUTHORITIES

Comment from the State Attorneys General

Supporting Enactment of the Telephone

Robocall Abuse Criminal Enforcement

and Deterrence (“TRACED”) Act 1 (Mar.

5, 2019), available at

http://bit.ly/390krVu ..............................................1

Eric S. Fish, Severability as Conditionality,

64 Emory L.J. 1293 (2015) ..................................23

Fed. Trade Comm’n, Call It Quits: Robocall

Crackdown 2019: Federal, State, and

Local Actions (June 25, 2019) available

at http://bit.ly/2wxX0F9 .........................................3

Kenneth A. Klukowski, Severability

Doctrine: How Much of a Statute Should

Federal Courts Invalidate, 16 Tex. Rev.

L. & Pol. 1 (2011) .................................................23

xiii

OTHER AUTHORITIES [CONT’D]

Marguerite M. Sweeney, Do Not Call: The

History of Do Not Call and How

Telemarketing Has Evolved, Nat’l

Attorneys Gen. Training & Research

Inst. (Aug. 2016), available at

http://bit.ly/2SbCCkn ...........................................10

S. Rep. No. 102-178, reprinted in 1991

U.S.C.C.A.N. 1968 ...........................................2, 10

Stephen J. Blumberg & Julian V. Luke,

Nat’l Ctr. for Health Statistics, Wireless

Substitution: Early Release of Estimates

from the National Health Interview

Survey, July–December 2017, available

https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nhis/early

release/wireless201806.pdf ..................................11

Truecaller, Phone Scams Cause Americans

To Lose $10.5 Billion In Last 12 Months

(Apr. 17, 2019), available at

http://bit.ly/2HCT08r .............................................2

YouMail Robocall Index, January 2020

Nationwide Robocall Data (last visited

Feb. 19, 2020), available at

https://robocallindex.com/2020/january ................2

INTEREST OF AMICI STATES1

The States of Indiana, North Carolina, Alabama,

Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii,

Idaho, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West

Virginia, and Wisconsin respectfully submit this brief

as amici curiae in support of the United States Attorney General.

For decades, the States and the federal government have sought to protect consumers from unwanted robocalls—automated telephone calls that deliver a prerecorded message. These calls invade consumer privacy with harassing messages that come at

all hours, day and night. Indeed, robocalls are the

most common source of consumer complaints at many

State Attorney General offices. Comment from the

State Attorneys General Supporting Enactment of the

Telephone Robocall Abuse Criminal Enforcement and

Deterrence (“TRACED”) Act 1 (Mar. 5, 2019), available

at http://bit.ly/390krVu. By seeking to eliminate the

robocall ban in its entirety, respondents threaten the

ability of States to fight one of the most pressing consumer-protection issues that their residents face.

1 No counsel for any party authored this brief, in whole or in part,

and no person or entity other than Amici contributed monetarily

to its preparation.

The robocall problem shows no signs of abating. In

January 2020 alone, Americans received more than

4.7 billion robocalls. YouMail Robocall Index, January

2020 Nationwide Robocall Data (last visited Feb. 19,

2020), available at https://robocallindex.com/2020/

january. And technological advances have helped robocalls proliferate. Robocalls inflict “more of a nuisance and a greater invasion of privacy than calls

placed by ‘live’ persons.” S. Rep. No. 102-178, at 4

(1991), reprinted in 1991 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1968, 1972.

They are notoriously cheap, which allows telemarketers to use them to bombard consumers with vast numbers of unwanted sales pitches and survey demands.

Id. at 2. And because robocalls cannot engage with call

recipients except in preprogrammed ways, they “do

not allow the caller to feel the frustration of the called

party.” Id. at 4. Moreover, these calls have become far

more than just a nuisance. Last year alone, robocalls

defrauded Americans of more than $10 billion. Truecaller, Phone Scams Cause Americans To Lose $10.5

Billion In Last 12 Months (Apr. 17, 2019), available at

http://bit.ly/2HCT08r.

The Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991

(TCPA), Pub. L. No. 102-243, 105 Stat. 2394, is a critical piece of federal consumer-protection legislation

that generally prohibits the use of any “automatic telephone dialing system or an artificial or pre-recorded

voice” to make a call to numbers assigned to a cellular

telephone service. 47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A). The TCPA

also grants both state and federal courts concurrent

jurisdiction over TCPA claims, Mims v. Arrow Fin.

Servs., LLC, 565 U.S. 368, 372 (2012), and State Attorneys General have partnered with federal agencies

to enforce the robocall ban, see, e.g., Fed. Trade

Comm’n, Call It Quits: Robocall Crackdown 2019:

Federal, State, and Local Actions (June 25, 2019) (describing recent enforcement actions), available at

http://bit.ly/2wxX0F9; Comment from the State Attorneys General, at 2–3 (same); accord 47 U.S.C.

§ 227(g)(1) (permitting parens patriae actions by

states to sue for any “pattern or practice” of violating

the TCPA).

In addition, as the TCPA expressly forecloses federal preemption of state telephone privacy laws, 47

U.S.C. § 227(f)(1), forty States have enforceable prohibitions or restrictions on the use of robocalls.2 Many of

2 Ala. Code § 8-19A-3(3)(a); Alaska Stat. § 45.50.475(a)(4);

Ariz. Rev. Stat. Ann. §§ 13-2919, 44-1278; Ark. Code § 563-204; Cal. Civ. Code § 1770(a)(22)(A); Cal. Pub. Util.

Code § 2871; Colo. Rev. Stat. §§ 18-9-311, 6-1-302(2)(a);

Conn. Stat. §§ 16-256e, 52-570c; Fla. Stat. § 501.059(8)(a);

Ga. Code § 46-5-23; 815 Ill. Comp. Stat. § 305/1; Ind. Code

§ 24-5-14-5; Kan. Stat. § 50-670; Ky. Stat. § 367.461; La.

Rev. Stat. Ann. § 45:810; Me. Rev. Stat. tit. 10, § 1498; Md.

Pub. Util. Code § 8-204; Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 159C § 3, ch.

159 § 19B; Mich. Stat. § 484.125; Minn. Stat. §§ 325E.26,

332.37(13); Miss. Code §§ 77-3-451–59; Mont. Code § 45-8216(1)(a)–(d); Neb. Stat. §§ 86-236 to 86-258; Nev. Stat. §§

597.812, 597.814, 597.816, 597.818; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. §

359-E:1 to E:6; N.J. Stat. Ann. § 48:17-28; N.M. Stat. Ann.

§ 57-12-22; N.Y. Gen. Bus. Law § 399-p; N.C. Stat. § 75104; N.D. Cent. Code § 51-28-04; 15 Okla. Stat. § 755.1; 21

these state laws were patterned on the federal robocall ban at issue here. In addition, many States also

have separate restrictions on placing telemarketing

calls of any type (even by a live operator) to consumers

who register for no-call lists.3

Okla. Stat. § 1847a; Or. Rev. Stat. § 646A.370; 73 Pa. Stat.

§ 2245.2(j); R.I. Stat. §§ 5-61-3.4, 11-35-26; S.D. Stat. § 3730-23; Tenn. Code Ann. § 47-18-1502; Tex. Bus. & Com.

Code § 305.001; Utah Code Ann. § 13-25a-103; Va. Code §

59.1-518.2; Wash. Code § 80.36.400; Wis. Stat. § 100.52(4).

Two more States have enacted robocall prohibitions that

have been enjoined. See S.C. Stat. § 16-17-446 (enjoined by

Cahaly v. Larosa, 796 F.3d 399 (4th Cir. 2015)); Wyo. Stat.

§ 6-6-104 (enjoined by Victory Processing, LLC v. Michael,

333 F. Supp. 3d 1263 (D. Wyo. 2018), appeal filed, No. 188063 (10th Cir.)).

3 See Ind. Code § 24-4.7-4-1; Alaska Stat. § 45.50.475; Ariz.

Rev. Stat. Ann. § 44-1282; Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code § 17591;

Colo. Rev. Stat. § 6-1-904; Ga. Code Ann. § 46-5-27; Haw.

Rev. Stat. § 481P-2; Idaho Code Ann. § 48-1003A; Kan.

Stat. Ann. § 50-670; La. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 45:844.16; Me.

Rev. Stat. tit. 10, § 1499-B; Mass. Gen. Laws ch. 159C, § 1;

Mich. Comp. Laws § 445.111a; Mont. Code Ann. § 30-141602; Nev. Rev. Stat. § 228.550; N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann.

§ 359-E:11; N.J. Stat. Ann. 56:8-130; N.M. Stat. Ann. § 5712-22; N.C. Gen. Stat. § 75-102; N.D. Cent. Code § 51-2804; 73 Pa. Cons. Stat. § 2245.2; R.I. Gen. Laws § 5-61-3.5;

S.C. Code Ann. § 37-21-70; S.D. Codified Laws § 49-31-99;

Tenn. Code Ann. § 65-4-410; Tex. Bus. & Com. Code Ann.

§ 304.051; Utah Code Ann. § 13-25a-109; Vt. Stat. Ann. tit.

9, § 2464a; Va. Code Ann. § 59.1-514; Wis. Stat. § 100.52;

Wyo. Stat. Ann. § 37-2-132.

Notwithstanding the compelling government interests at stake, the Fourth Circuit deemed a narrow

TCPA exemption for calls to collect debt backed by the

federal government to be impermissible content-based

discrimination. But that ruling overlooks that the exception applies based on a call’s purpose and the relationship between the parties—not based on the call’s

content.

The Fourth Circuit correctly held, however, that

the proper remedy for any First Amendment problem

with the federal-government-debt exemption was to

sever the exemption and leave in place the robocall

ban. Similar to the TCPA, state telephone privacy

laws frequently include minor, incidental exemptions

justified on content-neutral grounds. Because such

laws protect the privacy of consumers, Amici States

have a compelling interest in defending the TCPA’s

robocall ban as written—and in preserving the underlying restriction even if the challenged exemption is

unlawful. The Amici States also have a strong interest

in ensuring this Court reaches a ruling that will preserve their ability, under state law, to protect their

citizens from the harms caused by robocalls.

SUMMARY OF THE ARGUMENT

No court has ever questioned the constitutionality

of the TCPA’s robocall restriction. Not even respondents argue that the robocall ban, standing alone, violates the First Amendment. Nor could they: the robocall restriction is a classic content-neutral speech

regulation. It applies to anyone who makes a robocall

to speak on any topic—or no topic at all—and is narrowly tailored to serve the government’s compelling

interests to protect individual and residential privacy.

Respondents instead claim that a single, narrow

exemption from the robocall ban—the federal-government-debt exemption, which exempts calls made

“solely” to collect a debt owed to or backed by the federal government, 47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A)(iii)—violates the First Amendment. That exemption, however,

is content-neutral—it applies depending on a call’s

purpose (to collect a debt) and depending on the

debtor-creditor relationship between the call recipient

and the federal government. Its applicability does not

depend on the content of the call. And as a contentneutral speech regulation, the federal-governmentdebt exemption easily survives intermediate scrutiny

by directly—and narrowly—advancing a substantial

government interest in protecting the public fisc.

Even if the Court holds that the federal-government-debt exemption does violate the First Amendment, it should abide by the TCPA’s severability

clause and sever the exemption from the remaining

robocall ban rather than invalidate the ban entirely.

The robocall ban is fully functional even without the

exemption; it was enforced for twenty-four years before Congress added the exemption to the TCPA in

2015, which proves Congress did not intend the ban to

be conditioned on the exemption. Indeed, the case for

severability is sufficiently straightforward that the

Court may wish to consider it first. See I.N.S. v.

Chadha, 462 U.S. 919, 931 n.7 (1983) (“In this case we

deem it appropriate to address questions of severability first.”).

ARGUMENT

I. The Robocall Ban Safeguards Personal and

Residential Privacy in Conformity with the

First Amendment

A. The ban prohibits highly intrusive robocalls regardless of content and therefore passes First Amendment scrutiny

The TCPA permissibly prohibits the use of any

“automatic telephone dialing system or an artificial or

prerecorded voice” to make “any call” to a cell phone.

47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A)(iii). No court has ever held

that such a blanket ban on robocalls violates the First

Amendment. Indeed, every court to consider the matter has held that such laws are valid, content-neutral

regulations on the manner by which speech is delivered. See Patriotic Veterans, Inc. v. Zoeller, 845 F.3d

303 (7th Cir. 2017) (upholding Indiana’s robocall ban);

Gomez v. Campbell–Ewald Co., 768 F.3d 871 (9th Cir.

2014) (upholding the TCPA before it was amended to

add the federal-government-debt exemption), aff’d on

other grounds, 136 S.Ct. 663 (2016); Bland v. Fessler,

88 F.3d 729 (9th Cir. 1996) (upholding California’s robocall ban); Van Bergen v. Minnesota, 59 F.3d 1541,

1549–56 (8th Cir. 1995) (upholding the TCPA and

Minnesota’s robocall ban); Moser v. Fed. Commc’ns

Comm’n, 46 F.3d 970 (9th Cir. 1995) (upholding the

TCPA).

These decisions are well-justified. Under the First

Amendment, laws that “serve[ ] purposes unrelated to

the content of expression” are constitutional so long as

they “promote[ ] a substantial government interest

that would be achieved less effectively absent the regulation.” Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U.S. 781,

791, 799 (1989) (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). The robocall ban concerns the manner,

not the content, of speech, and is narrowly tailored to

serve the government’s interests in protecting consumers’ personal and residential privacy.

1. To decide whether a statute is content-based,

the Court first looks to the statute’s text and asks

whether the statute draws content distinctions “on its

face.” Reed v. Town of Gilbert, 135 S. Ct. 2218, 2228

(2015). If the statute is facially neutral, the Court then

looks to the statute’s purpose, subjecting it to strict

scrutiny only if it “cannot be justified without reference to the content of the regulated speech” or was

adopted because of the government’s disagreement

with the message the speech conveys. Id. at 2227.

Here, neither the text nor the purpose of the robocall

ban pertain to the content of a telephone call’s speech.

First, the text of the robocall ban does not draw

content-based distinctions. By its terms, the robocall

ban applies to “any call,” 47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A)(iii),

so content is irrelevant. Instead, the prohibition applies based on the technology used to make and receive calls: It prohibits calling a cell phone with an

“automatic telephone dialing system” or an “artificial

or prerecorded voice.” Id. The statute therefore bans

robocalls selling products, promoting candidates,

pranking friends, or addressing any other topic. Indeed, a caller could violate the statute without saying

a word. See McCullen v. Coakley, 573 U.S. 464, 480

(2014) (explaining that the challenged law was content-neutral because one could violate it “without . . .

uttering a word”).

Second, the purpose of the robocall ban does not

reflect impermissible content-based discrimination.

Congress enacted the restriction because “telephone

subscribers consider automated or prerecorded calls,

regardless of the content or the initiator of the message, to be a nuisance and an invasion of privacy”—

not because the calls discussed any specific subject.

Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991, Pub. L.

No. 102-243, § 2(10), 105 Stat. 2394. Nothing in the

legislative record shows that Congress adopted the restriction because of disagreement with the messages

that robocalls convey.

2. Because the robocall ban is content-neutral, it

is reviewed under intermediate scrutiny. Ward, 491

U.S. at 791. Under that standard, restrictions on

speech are constitutional so long as they are narrowly

tailored to further an important government interest.

See id. The robocall ban principally serves the important government interest in protecting personal

and residential privacy.

The Court has recognized that “in the privacy of

the home . . . the individual’s right to be left alone

plainly outweighs the First Amendment rights of an

intruder.” Fed. Commc’ns Comm’n v. Pacifica Found.,

438 U.S. 726, 748 (1978). When Congress enacted the

TCPA, it found robocalls to be “pervasive” and an “intrusive invasion of privacy” that “outraged” consumers. Telephone Consumer Protection Act of 1991, Pub.

L. No. 102-243, § 2(1), (5), (6), 105 Stat. 2394. Congress observed that consumers found robocalls to be a

particularly severe invasion of privacy because “automated calls cannot interact with the customer except

in preprogrammed ways,” and “do not allow the caller

to feel the frustration of the called party.” S. Rep. No.

102-178, reprinted in 1991 U.S.C.C.A.N. 1968, 1972.

Advances in technology have enabled even more

widespread privacy invasions. Robocall software is inexpensive and easy to access online. Marguerite M.

Sweeney, Do Not Call: The History of Do Not Call and

How Telemarketing Has Evolved, Nat’l Attorneys

Gen. Training & Research Inst. (Aug. 2016), available

at http://bit.ly/2SbCCkn. Robocalls have proliferated

as a result. See id.

Although the specific provision challenged here applies to calls made to cellphones—calls that may or

may not take place in the home—the privacy interests

at stake are no less compelling. 47 U.S.C.

§ 227(b)(1)(A)(iii). After all, residential landline

phones are increasingly rare. See Stephen J. Blumberg & Julian V. Luke, Nat’l Ctr. for Health Statistics,

Wireless Substitution: Early Release of Estimates from

the National Health Interview Survey, July–December

2017 2, available at https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/

nhis/earlyrelease/wireless201806.pdf (finding that

more than half all households in the United States no

longer have landline phones). As a result, in the modern era, protecting residential telephone privacy

means protecting against harassing calls to cell

phones. In any event, individuals have constitutionally protected expectations of privacy in their cellphones. Carpenter v. United States, 138 S. Ct. 2206,

2218 (2018); Riley v. California, 573 U.S. 373, 393–94

(2014). The proliferation of robocalls undermines that

compelling privacy interest.

The robocall ban is narrowly tailored to serve these

government interests. By prohibiting calls using an

automatic telephone dialing system or an artificial or

prerecorded voice, Congress targeted precisely the

kinds of calls that are most likely to invade individual

privacy. See Moser v. Fed. Commc’ns Comm’n, 46 F.3d

970, 975 (9th Cir. 1995) (“Congress may reduce the

volume of intrusive telemarketing calls without completely eliminating the calls.”).

For these reasons, the general robocall ban easily

passes intermediate scrutiny.

B. The federal-government-debt exemption

applies regardless of call content and

complies with the First Amendment

Exemptions from a prohibition on speech necessarily facilitate speech. Thus, “[i]t is always somewhat

counterintuitive to argue that a law violates the First

Amendment by abridging too little speech.” WilliamsYulee v. Florida Bar, 575 U.S. 433, 448 (2015). Although a law’s underinclusivity can “raise[ ] a red flag,

the First Amendment imposes no freestanding underinclusiveness limitation.” Id. at 449 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). Exemptions raise

First Amendment concerns only when they discriminate based on content and thereby betray government

disfavor of a particular topic or viewpoint, or when

they reveal insufficient tailoring. See id.; see also City

of Ladue v. Gilleo, 512 U.S. 43, 50–51 (1994).

Neither of these concerns is implicated here. In

2015, Congress amended the TCPA to add an exemption for calls “made solely to collect a debt owed to or

guaranteed by the United States.” Bipartisan Budget

Act of 2015, Pub. L. No. 114-74, § 301(a), 129 Stat.

584, 588, codified at 47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A)(iii). The

federal-government-debt exemption is both contentneutral and sufficiently tailored to advance important

government goals.

1. The federal-government-debt exemption does not depend on a call’s content

The federal-government-debt exemption depends

only on the purpose of the call and the relationship of

the call recipient to the federal government—not on

the call’s content. It applies only when the call is

placed for a specific purpose—“solely to collect a

debt”—and only when the call recipient is in debt to

the government or a government-backed creditor. 47

U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A)(iii).

As courts have held, speech regulations of this

kind are content-neutral. See Wisconsin v. Mitchell,

508 U.S. 476, 489 (1993) (holding that motive-based

speech regulations are content-neutral); Zoeller, 845

F.3d at 304 (same, for laws that regulate communications based on the relationship of the parties involved); Van Bergen, 59 F.3d at 1550 (same).

Deciding whether a call fits within the federal-government-debt exemption does not require delving into

the content of speech. What the caller says on the call

does not determine whether the federal-governmentdebt exemption applies. The exemption is therefore

content-neutral. See McCullen, 573 U.S. at 479.

2. The federal-government-debt exemption survives intermediate scrutiny

As discussed, a content-neutral speech regulation

need only satisfy intermediate scrutiny; it is constitu-

tional if it advances a substantial or important government interest without substantially burdening

more speech than necessary. Ward, 491 U.S. at 799–

800. Here, the federal-government-debt exemption

serves the substantial government interest of protecting the public fisc. See Duguid v. Facebook, Inc., 926

F.3d 1146, 1156 (9th Cir. 2019) (crediting this interest), petition for cert. pending, No. 19-511 (filed Oct.

17, 2019). The exemption is also sufficiently tailored

to achieve that interest. Ward, 491 U.S. at 800.

The Fourth Circuit held otherwise, but only by concluding, without evidence, that the federal-government-debt exemption would swallow any residentialprivacy benefit conferred by the general robocall ban.

But to be sufficiently narrowly tailored, a contentneutral law prohibiting a manner of speech need only

have a “reasonable fit” with its objective. See Bd. of

Trs. of the State Univ. of N.Y. v. Fox, 492 U.S. 469, 480

(1989) (“What our decisions require is a ‘fit’ between

the legislature’s ends and the means chose to accomplish those ends—a fit that is not necessarily perfect,

but reasonable.” (internal citations omitted)). And

here, even with the federal-government-debt exemption, the robocall ban is reasonably tailored to advance

the government’s interest in protecting individual and

residential privacy. The exception applies only to calls

made “solely to collect a debt owed to or guaranteed

by”

the

federal

government,

U.S.C.

§ 227(b)(1)(A)(iii), and the record contains no evidence

showing that such calls make up such a significant

percentage of all robocalls that the exemption would

significantly erode the robocall ban’s privacy benefits.

The Fourth Circuit also erred when it faulted the

federal-government-debt exemption for lacking the

consent rationale of the TCPA’s exceptions for emergency calls and calls pertaining to certain business relationships. Consent underscores the content neutrality of those exemptions, but (as explained above) the

federal-government-debt exemption achieves contentneutrality in its own way. The relevant question for

narrow-tailoring purposes is whether, notwithstanding the federal-government-debt exemption, the robocall ban reasonably advances the mission of safeguarding individual and residential privacy. While

many people may owe debts backed by the federal government, robocalls are used far beyond this narrow

context. It therefore stands to reason that the general

commercial use of low-cost robocalls is far more massive, and correspondingly far more intrusive, than automated calls made “solely” to collect federal-government debts.

In any case, without actual proof that governmentdebt robocalls would erase the privacy gains of the

general robocall ban, the Court should not presume

such a result. By way of example, nearly two decades

ago Indiana adopted a do-not-call registry law that exempted calls placed by employees or volunteers of

newspapers, real estate and insurance agents, and

charities. Notwithstanding these exemptions, nearly

98% of those registered for the no-call list reported

that they observed benefits from the law. Nat’l Coal.

of Prayer, Inc. v. Carter, 455 F.3d 783, 785 (7th Cir.

2006).

As this experience shows, even exemptions from

telephone privacy protections that seem significant on

the surface may not significantly diminish the benefits of a basic underlying prohibition on intrusive and

unwanted calls. Similarly here, notwithstanding the

federal-government-debt exemption, the TCPA’s robocall ban advances the government’s robust interest

in protecting individual and residential telephone privacy. Accordingly, the law is sufficiently narrowly tailored overall to withstand First Amendment scrutiny.

II. If Invalid, the Federal-Government-Debt Exemption Is Severable from the Remainder of

the Robocall Ban

Because the TCPA’s robocall ban is itself a valid,

content-neutral prohibition, see supra Part I.A., even

if the federal-government-debt exemption is invalid,

the Court should sever the exemption and permit enforcement of the underlying robocall ban.

The Court has repeatedly held that “[t]he unconstitutionality of a part of an Act does not necessarily

defeat or affect the validity of its remaining provisions.” Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Co. Accounting

Oversight Bd., 561 U.S. 477, 508 (2010) (quoting

Champlin Refining Co. v. Corporation Comm’n of

Okla., 286 U.S. 210, 234 (1932)). Accordingly, “the

‘normal rule’ is ‘that partial, rather than facial, invalidation is the required course.’” Id. (quoting Brockett

v. Spokane Arcades, Inc., 472 U.S. 491, 504 (1985));

see also Regan v. Time, Inc., 468 U.S. 641, 652 (1984)

(“[A] court should refrain from invalidating more of

the statute than is necessary”).

That is, “[w]hen confronting a constitutional flaw

in a statute,” the Court generally “sever[s] any ‘problematic portions while leaving the remainder intact.’”

Free Enterprise Fund, 561 U.S. at 508. (quoting Ayotte

v. Planned Parenthood of N. New Eng., 546 U.S. 320,

328–29 (2006)). The Court declines to sever only when

(1) the statute’s other provisions are “incapable of

functioning independently,” or (2) when “the statute’s

text or historical context makes it evident that Congress . . . would have preferred no [statute] at all to”

one without the offending provision. Id. at 509 (internal quotation marks and citations omitted). Neither of

these conditions is present here.

1. The TCPA is plainly capable of functioning without the federal-government-debt exemption. It operated without the exemption for more than two decades, from the time the TCPA was originally enacted

in 1991, see Pub. L. 102-243, 105 Stat. 2394, until the

exemption was added in 2015, see Pub. L. 114-74, Title

III, § 301(a), 129 Stat. 588. During that time, no one

ever claimed that the robocall ban was somehow ineffective because it lacked an exception for calls to collect debts owed to the federal government. Moreover,

many Amici States have enacted robocall bans patterned, except for the federal-government-debt exemption, after the TCPA, which confirms that the exemption is not critical to the ban’s proper functioning.

In addition, the TCPA prohibits “any call” made

“using any automatic telephone dialing system or an

artificial or prerecorded voice,” and provides just three

narrow exemptions to this rule—(1) calls made for

“emergency purposes,” (2) calls made with the “prior

express consent of the called party,” and (3) calls

“made solely to collect a debt owed to or guaranteed

by the United States.” 47 U.S.C. § 227(b)(1)(A) (emphasis added). Faced with such a statute, the commonsense solution is to invalidate the narrow federalgovernment-debt exemption and allow the broad prohibition on robocalls to continue in force.

That is, for example, what the Court did in Sorrell

v. IMS Health Inc. 564 U.S. 552 (2011). There, the

challenged law permitted pharmacies to “share prescriber-identifying information with anyone for any

reason save one: They must not allow the information

to be used for marketing.” Id. at 572 (citing Vt. Stat.

tit. 18, § 4631). The Court held that singling out marketing for disfavored treatment was unconstitutional

and that the exemption therefore could not be enforced. Id. at 580.

Indeed, the Court has declined to invalidate an entire statute on First Amendment grounds even when

the regulation is “pierced by exemptions and inconsistencies.” Greater New Orleans Broad. Ass’n, Inc. v.

United States, 527 U.S. 173, 190 (1999). The federal

statute at issue in Greater New Orleans Broadcasting

prohibited radio and television stations from broadcasting advertisements for lotteries and similar

games of chance, but exempted gaming conducted by

(1) an Indian tribe pursuant to a tribal-state compact,

(2) state and local governments, (3) nonprofits, and (4)

commercial organizations where the promotional activity was ancillary to the organization’s primary

business. Id. at 178–79. Although the Court concluded

that these exemptions undermined the government’s

rationale for the broadcast prohibition, it did not invalidate the entire law; it instead “h[e]ld that [the

law] may not be applied to advertisements of private

casino gambling that are broadcast by radio or television stations located in Louisiana, where such gambling is legal.” Id. at 176 (emphasis added); see also

1999 WL 642904 (E.D. La. Aug. 23, 1999) (decision on

remand “declaring unconstitutional those portions of

[federal law] which prohibit advertisements of private

casino gambling that are broadcast by radio or television stations located in Louisiana”).

The TCPA’s broad prohibition on robocalling is far

more workable than the exemption-riddled broadcasting prohibition the Court allowed to remain in place

in Greater New Orleans Broadcasting. Accordingly,

the Court’s First Amendment cases reinforce the conclusion that the robocalling prohibition’s independent

functionality should ensure the prohibition continues

in force even if the Court concludes that the federalgovernment-debt exemption is unconstitutional.

2. Because the TCPA “remains ‘fully operative as a

law’” without the federal-government-debt exemption,

the Court “must sustain its remaining provisions

‘[u]nless it is evident that the Legislature would not

have enacted those provisions . . . independently of

that which is [invalid].’” Free Enterprise Fund, 561

U.S. at 509 (quoting New York v. United States, 505

U.S. 144, 186 (1992)) (alterations in original); see also

Alaska Airlines v. Brock, 480 U.S. 678, 685 (1987). “[A]

court cannot use its remedial powers to circumvent

the intent of the legislature,” Nat. Fed. of Indep. Businesses v. Sebelius, 567 U.S. 519, 586 (2012) (quoting

Ayotte, 546 U.S. at 330), and the “relevant inquiry” is

therefore “whether the statute [as severed] will function in a manner consistent with the intent of Congress,” Alaska Airlines, 480 U.S. at 685 (emphasis in

original). Accordingly, the TCPA’s robocall ban should

be allowed to continue in force “[u]nless it is evident

that the Legislature would not have enacted those

provisions which are within its power, independently

of that which is not.” Id. at 684 (quoting Buckley v.

Valeo, 424 U.S. 1, 108 (1976) (per curiam)).

The surest way to determine whether Congress

would have adopted the statute even absent the invalid provision is the existence of an explicit severability

clause. “[T]he inclusion of such a clause creates a presumption that Congress did not intend the validity of

the statute in question to depend on the validity of the

constitutionally offensive provision.” Id. at 686. And

here the TCPA does include a severability clause: “If

any provision of this chapter or the application thereof

to any person or circumstance is held invalid, the remainder of the chapter and the application of such

provision to other persons or circumstances shall not

be affected thereby.” 47 U.S.C. § 608.

While the Court has in some circumstances declined to apply severability clauses, it has done so only

where the challenger has shown a “clear probability

that the Legislature would not have been satisfied

with the statute unless it had included the invalid

part.” Carter v. Carter Coal Co., 298 U.S. 238, 312–13

(1936). The Court may invalidate an entire statute

notwithstanding a severability clause only if “the provisions . . . are so interwoven that one being held invalid the others must fall.” Id. at 313; see also Reno v.

Am. Civil Liberties Union, 521 U.S. 844, 884 (1997)

(ignoring severability clause where “[t]he open-ended

character of the [statute] provides no guidance whatever for limiting its coverage”); Williams v. Standard

Oil Co. of La., 278 U.S. 235, 242–43 (1929) (refusing

to apply severability clause where non-severable provisions were “mere adjuncts” or “mere aids” to the unconstitutional provision), overruled in part on other

grounds, Olson v. Nebraska ex rel. W. Reference &

Bond Ass’n, 313 U.S. 236 (1941); Hill v. Wallace, 259

U.S. 44, 70 (1922) (explaining that provision was “so

interwoven” with the remaining statute “that they

cannot be separated”).

The TCPA is far from such extreme circumstances.

Again, Congress enacted the robocall ban in 1991,

more than two decades before it added the federalgovernment-debt exemption in 2015. This timing

proves both that the ban and exemption are not so interwoven as to justify disregarding the law’s express

severability clause. It also shows that Congress was

satisfied with the ban sans exemption. One cannot

plausibly infer that Congress would have repealed the

ban altogether in 2015 if it had lacked the votes for

the exemption. Thus, Congress would never have intended for the exemption to threaten the validity of

the robocall ban itself. See Ayotte, 546 U.S. at 330

(“[T]he touchstone for any decision about remedy is

legislative intent, for a court cannot use its remedial

powers to circumvent the intent of the legislature”).

Moreover, retaining the robocall ban while striking

the exemption fulfills the legislative purpose of “protecting telephone consumers from th[e] nuisance and

privacy invasion” of robocalls—not to mention the severability clause. 47 U.S.C. §§ 227, 608. Congress enacted the TCPA in light of evidence that “residential

telephone subscribers consider automated or prerecorded telephone calls, regardless of the content or the

initiator of the message, to be a nuisance and an invasion of privacy.” Id. § 227. The robocall ban protects

that privacy with or without the federal-governmentdebt exemption, and it did so for twenty-four years before Congress added the exemption.

3. In respondents’ view, however, the TCPA’s express severability directive merely requires the Court

to sever the robocall ban from the remainder of the

TCPA. Similar to many severability clauses, section

608 directs courts to sever an invalid “provision” from

the “remainder” of the statute. Id. § 608. But while

respondents argue that the entirety of section

227(b)(1)(B) constitutes the relevant severable “provision,” the term “provision” does not imply any particular level of generality. Over the run of the Court’s

precedents, a severable “provision” has included “anywhere from six words to 281.” Kenneth A. Klukowski, Severability Doctrine: How Much of a Statute

Should Federal Courts Invalidate, 16 Tex. Rev. L. &

Pol. 1, 78 (2011). In some cases it has meant “one subpart of one subsection of a statute,” id. (citing I.N.S. v.

Chadha, 462 U.S. 919, 932 (1983)), but in other cases

it has meant “one paragraph of an otherwise-valid section,” id. (citing Alaska Airlines v. Brock, 480 U.S. 678,

697 (1987)), or even “a single clause,” id. (citing Brockett v. Spokane Arcades, Inc., 472 U.S. 491, 494 (1985)).

Indeed, it is not too much to say that the fundamental unit of a statute subject to severability can be

but a single word—“[t]hat is, a court can remedy a violation of the Constitution by striking down a single

word or a group of words, but it need not strike down

the larger legislative unit (be it a section, statute,

chapter, or title) that contains those words.” Eric S.

Fish, Severability as Conditionality, 64 Emory L.J.

1293, 1313 (2015); see also Hershey v. City of Clearwater, 834 F.2d 937, 939 (11th Cir. 1987) (“The fact that

an invalid portion of a statute is not self-contained in

separate sections does not prohibit the court from applying the severability rule to strike the invalid portion and to preserve the rest of the enactment.”).

Respondents also contend that because they have

“challenged the TCPA’s restriction on automated

calls,” not the exemption, they have fully answered

the severability question. Br. of Respondents in Support of Cert. 18–19 (emphasis in original). But legislative intent and functionality—not the relief claimants

demand—is the test for severability. See Ayotte, 546

U.S. at 330.

If severability were answered simply by deferring

to the plaintiff, the Court’s discussion of severability

in Free Enterprise Fund, for example, would have

been much shorter—and would have reached the opposite result. There, the plaintiffs wanted “a declaratory judgment that the [Public Company Accounting

Oversight] Board is unconstitutional and an injunction preventing the Board from exercising its powers.”

561 U.S. at 487. The Court, however, refused to grant

such relief: It held that the constitutional problem

should be fixed by simply refusing to enforce the restrictions on Board members’ removal, rejecting the

“far more extensive” alterations to the statute the

plaintiffs had proposed. Id. at 510.

Similarly, in United States v. Booker, the Court enjoined provisions of the federal sentencing guidelines

that made their application mandatory, even though

Booker challenged the judicial determination of the

sentencing enhancements, not their mandatory nature. 543 U.S. 220, 245 (2005). Salvaging maximum

application of the statute was most “consistent with

Congress’ likely intent in enacting the Sentencing Reform Act” because it “preserve[d] important elements

of that system while severing and excising two provisions.” Id. at 265.

The same is plainly true here. The principles of

minimal judicial intervention and maximum statutory salvage require that, if the federal-governmentdebt exemption violates the First Amendment, the

Court should, per 47 U.S.C. § 608, sever that “provision” from the “remainder” of the robocall ban, which

should remain fully enforceable.

CONCLUSION

The judgment of the Fourth Circuit should be reversed.

Respectfully submitted,

JOSHUA H. STEIN

Attorney General

MATTHEW W. SAWCHAK

Solicitor General

RYAN Y. PARK

Deputy Solicitor General

NICHOLAS S. BROD

Assistant Solicitor

General

NORTH CAROLINA

DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE

Post Office Box 629

Raleigh, NC 27602

(919) 716-6400

msawchak@ncdoj.gov

CURTIS T. HILL, JR.

Indiana Attorney General

*THOMAS M. FISHER

Solicitor General

KIAN J. HUDSON

Deputy Solicitor General

JULIA C. PAYNE

Deputy Attorney General

OFFICE OF THE INDIANA

ATTORNEY GENERAL

302 W. Washington St.

Indianapolis, IN 46204

(317) 232-6255

Tom.Fisher@atg.in.gov

*Counsel of Record

ADDITIONAL COUNSEL

STEVE MARSHALL

Attorney General

State of Alabama

KWAME RAOUL

Attorney General

State of Illinois

KEVIN G. CLARKSON

Attorney General

State of Alaska

TOM MILLER

Attorney General

State of Iowa

LESLIE RUTLEDGE

Attorney General

State of Arkansas

DEREK SCHMIDT

Attorney General

State of Kansas

WILLIAM TONG

Attorney General

State of Connecticut

JEFFREY M. LANDRY

Attorney General

State of Louisiana

KATHLEEN JENNINGS

Attorney General

State of Delaware

AARON M. FREY

Attorney General

State of Maine

CLARE E. CONNORS

Attorney General

State of Hawaii

BRIAN E. FROSH

Attorney General

State of Maryland

LAWRENCE G. WASDEN

Attorney General

State of Idaho

MAURA HEALEY

Attorney General

Commonwealth of

Massachusetts

DANA NESSEL

Attorney General

State of Michigan

ELLEN F. ROSENBLUM

Attorney General

State of Oregon

KEITH ELLISON

Attorney General

State of Minnesota

JOSH SHAPIRO

Attorney General

Commonwealth of

Pennsylvania

ERIC SCHMITT

Attorney General

State of Missouri

TIMOTHY C. FOX

Attorney General

State of Montana

AARON FORD

Attorney General

State of Nevada

GORDON MACDONALD

Attorney General

State of New

Hampshire

WAYNE STENEHJEM

Attorney General

State of North Dakota

MIKE HUNTER

Attorney General

State of Oklahoma

JASON R. RAVNSBORG

Attorney General

State of South Dakota

HERBERT H. SLATERY

III

Attorney General

State of Tennessee

SEAN REYES

Attorney General

State of Utah

MARK R. HERRING

Attorney General

Commonwealth of

Virginia

ROBERT W. FERGUSON

Attorney General

State of Washington

PATRICK MORRISEY

Attorney General

State of West Virginia

ERIC J. WILSON

Deputy Attorney

General

State of Wisconsin

Counsel for Amici States

This is a copy of a public record, reproduced as it was published. It is not legal advice, and it may not be the version a court would rely on. Check the official source before you cite it.