Opposition Brief — Peter B. Chiafalo, Levi Jennet Guerra, and Esther Virginia John, Petitioners v. Washington

No. 19-465

In the Supreme Court of the United States

PETER BRET CHIAFALO, LEVI JENNET GUERRA, AND

ESTHER VIRGINIA JOHN,

PETITIONERS,

v.

STATE OF WASHINGTON,

RESPONDENT.

ON PETITION FOR WRIT OF CERTIORARI

TO THE SUPREME COURT OF WASHINGTON

BRIEF IN OPPOSITION

ROBERT W. FERGUSON

Attorney General

NOAH G. PURCELL

Solicitor General

Counsel of Record

TERA HEINTZ

CALLIE CASTILLO

Deputy Solicitors General

1125 Washington Street SE

Olympia, WA 98504-0100

360-753-6200

noah.purcell@atg.wa.gov

i

QUESTION PRESENTED

If a person volunteers to serve as a presidential

elector for a State and pledges, as a condition of their

appointment, to vote for the presidential candidate

nominated by their political party and selected by the

State’s voters, is it unconstitutional for the State to

fine the person for violating that pledge?

ii

PARTIES

Petitioners are Peter Bret Chiafalo, Levi

Jennet Guerra, and Esther Virginia John. The

Respondent below was Washington Secretary of State

Kim Wyman, in her official capacity as Chief Elections

Officer for the State of Washington.

JURISDICTION

Petitioners invoke this Court’s jurisdiction

under 28 U.S.C. § 1257(a).

OPINION BELOW

The opinion of the Supreme Court of

Washington is available at In the Matter of Levi

Guerra, Esther V. John, and Peter B. Chiafalo, 193

Wash. 2d 380 (2019), and is reproduced in the

Petitioner’s Appendix at App. 1a-29a.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION ........................................................ 1

STATEMENT OF THE CASE .................................... 4

I.

History of the Electoral College .......................... 4

II.

Washington State’s 2016 Election .................... 10

A.

Petitioners are Nominated as Electors

After Pledging Their Votes ....................... 10

B.

Petitioners Violated Their Pledge

at Washington’s Meeting of the

Electoral College........................................ 13

III. Proceedings Below ............................................. 15

REASONS FOR DENYING THE PETITION .......... 17

I.

The Washington Court’s Decision Does

Not Create Any Meaningful Conflict

Warranting This Court’s Review ...................... 17

A.

B.

The Washington Court’s Decision

Carefully Applies This Court’s Cases ....... 17

1.

The State Court Followed This

Court’s Precedent Under Article II

and the Twelfth Amendment ............ 18

2.

The State Court Decision is

Consistent With this Court’s

First Amendment Decisions ............. 22

There is No True Conflict in the Lower

Courts Justifying This Court’s Review..... 23

1.

There is No Direct Conflict With

the Tenth Circuit Because the

Cases Concern Materially

Different Issues ................................. 24

iv

2.

II.

The Other Cases Petitioners

Cite as Creating a Split Predate

This Court’s Decision in Ray ............ 27

This Case is a Poor Vehicle to Address

the Question Presented ..................................... 30

III. The Limited Historical Impact of Faithless

Electors Does Not Raise an Issue

Warranting This Court’s Intervention ............. 31

CONCLUSION .......................................................... 33

v

APPENDIX

Pledge of Presidential Elector

Nominee Esther V. John ........................................... 1a

Canvass of the Returns of the General

Election Held on November 8, 2016 ......................... 2a

Certificate of Ascertainment of the

Votes Cast for Presidential Electors

of the State of Washington ...................................... 27a

Proceedings of the Electoral College of

the State of Washington December 19,

2016, Olympia, Washington .................................... 35a

Official Ballot, President

Esther V. John ......................................................... 39a

Official Ballot, Vice President

Esther V. John ......................................................... 40a

Pledge of Presidential Elector

Nominee P. Bret Chiafalo ....................................... 41a

Official Ballot, President

Peter Bret Chiafalo ................................................. 42a

Official Ballot, Vice President

Peter Bret Chiafalo ................................................. 43a

Pledge of Presidential Elector

Nominee Levi Guerra .............................................. 44a

Official Ballot, President

Levi Guerra.............................................................. 45a

Official Ballot, Vice President

Levi Guerra.............................................................. 46a

vi

TABLE OF AUTHORITIES

Cases

Anderson v. Celebrezze

460 U.S. 780 (1983)................................................ 23

Baca v. Colorado Dep’t of State

935 F.3d 887 (10th Cir. 2019) ............ 2-3, 24-27, 30

Breidenthal v. Edwards

57 Kan. 332, 46 P. 469 (1896)................................ 29

Burdick v. Takushi

504 U.S. 428 (1992)................................................ 23

Bush v. Gore

531 U.S. 98 (2000)............................................ 25, 32

Chiafalo v. Inslee

224 F. Supp. 3d 1140 (W.D. Wash. 2016) ............. 13

Fitzgerald v. Green

134 U.S. 377 (1890)......................... 17-18, 20-21, 23

Goodyear Atomic Corp. v. Miller

486 U.S. 174 (1988)................................................ 21

McPherson v. Blacker

146 U.S. 1 (1892).............................. 4-5, 9-10, 17-20

Mistretta v. United States

488 U.S. 361 (1989)................................................ 20

Moore v. Ogilvie

394 U.S. 814 (1969)................................................ 32

Nebraska Republican State Cent. Comm. v. Wait

92 Neb. 313, 138 N.W. 159 (1912) ......................... 28

Nevada Comm’n on Ethics v. Carrigan

564 U.S. 117 (2011)...........................................22-23

vii

NLRB v. Noel Canning

573 U.S. 513 (2014) ................................................20

Opinion of the Justices

250 Ala. 399, 34 So. 2d 598 (1948) ........................28

Ray v. Blair

257 Ala. 151, 57 So. 2d 395,

rev’d, 343 U.S. 154,

supplemented, 343 U.S. 214 (1952) .......................28

Ray v. Blair

343 U.S. 214 (1952) ................ 1-2, 6-9, 18-21, 23, 28

State ex rel. Beck v. Hummel

150 Ohio St. 127, 80 N.E.2d 899 (1948) .......... 28-29

Will v. Michigan Dep’t of State Police

491 U.S. 58 (1989) ..................................................27

Williams v. Rhodes

393 U.S. 23 (1968) ..................................................23

Orders

Order, Baca v. Hickenlooper, No. 16-1482

(10th Cir. Dec. 16, 2016) ....................................2, 27

Order, Chiafalo v. Inslee, No. 16-36034

(9th Cir. Dec. 16, 2016) (Docket No. 16) ...............13

Constitutional Provisions

U.S. Const. amend. I ............................... 13, 17, 22-23

U.S. Const. amend. XII ............................. 7, 13, 15-19

U.S. Const. art. II .................................... 13, 16-18, 20

U.S. Const. art. II, § 1 ...............................................10

U.S. Const. art. II, § 1, cl. 2 .........................................5

U.S. Const. art. II, § 1, cl. 3 (original text) .................5

U.S. Const. art. II, § 1, cl. 4 .......................................14

viii

Statutes

3 U.S.C. § 1 ................................................................ 10

3 U.S.C. § 4 ................................................................ 14

3 U.S.C. § 5 ................................................................ 22

3 U.S.C. § 7 ................................................................ 14

3 U.S.C. § 10 .............................................................. 15

3 U.S.C. § 11 .............................................................. 15

Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.36.161(4) ............................. 12

Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.090 ................................. 11

Former Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.320 (2016) ....11-12

Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.320 ........................... 12, 24

Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.320(1) ............................. 11

Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.320(2) ............................. 12

Former Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.330 (2016) ......... 12

Former Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.340 (2016) ........ 12,

14-16

Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.340 ........................... 13, 30

2019 Wash. Sess. Laws 755-58 (ch. 143) ............ 11, 30

Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 16-212 ........................................... 10

D.C. Code § 1-1001.08 ............................................... 10

Mich. Comp. Laws § 168.47 ...................................... 10

Minn. Stat. § 208.46 .................................................. 10

N.C. Gen. Stat. § 163-212 ......................................... 10

Okla. Stat. tit. 26, § 10-108 ....................................... 10

S.C. Code § 7-19-80 ................................................... 10

ix

Other Authorities

Historical Materials

6 Annals of Cong. 2096-98 (1797) ...............................6

10 Annals of Cong. 1022-28 (1801) .............................7

11 Annals of Cong. 1289-90 (1802) ............... 6, 7, 8, 18

163 Cong. Rec. H185-90 (daily ed. Jan. 06, 2017) ....15

3 Records of the Federal Convention of 1787

(Max Farrand ed. 1911) ...........................................4

S. Rep. No. 22, 19th Cong., 1st Sess. (1826) .......1, 6, 8

The Federalist No. 68 (Alexander Hamilton) .............4

Joseph Storey,

Commentaries on the Constitution of

the United States (1833) ......................................6, 8

Nat’l Archives & Records Admin., Office of

the Fed. Register, U.S. Electoral College,

2016 Presidential Election,

https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/

electoral-college/2016/ ..............................................9

Nat’l Archives & Records Admin., Office of

the Fed. Register, U.S. Electoral College,

About the Electors,

https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/

electoral-college/electors.html

(last visited Nov. 4, 2019) ......................................10

Nat’l Archives & Records Admin., Office of

the Fed. Register, U.S. Electoral College,

Historical Elections Results,

https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/

Electoral-college/historical.html ...........................31

x

Books

III Cyclopedia of American Government

(Appleton, 1914) (Presidential Elections

by Albert Bushnell Hart) ......................................... 8

Samuel Johnson,

A Dictionary of the English Language

(Dublin, 3d ed. 1768) ............................................... 5

Websites

Derek T. Muller,

Why “faithless electors” have little power

to change the winner of presidential elections,

Excess of Democracy Blog (Oct. 19, 2019),

https://excessofdemocracy.com/blog/2019/10/

why-faithless-electors-have-little-power-tochange-the-winner-of-presidential-elections ........ 31

Equal Citizens,

The Legal Argument,

https://equalcitizens.us/electors-freedom/

(last visited Nov. 5, 2019) ...................................... 33

Nat’l Ass’n of Sec’ys of State,

Summary: State Laws Regarding

Presidential Electors (Nov. 2016),

https://www.nass.org/node/131 ....................9-10, 26

Richard L. Hasen,

The Coming Reckoning Over the Electoral

College: A ploy to bring the issue to the

Supreme Court could backfire, Slate.com

(Sept. 4, 2019), https://slate.com/news-andpolitics/2019/09/electoral-college-supremecourt-lessig-faithless-electors.html ..................... 33

1

INTRODUCTION

Petitioners ask the Court to grant review to

avoid the possibility of a constitutional crisis; in

reality, a crisis is far more likely if the Court grants

review and issues the ruling Petitioners seek. The

Court should deny certiorari.

From the very “ ‘first election held under the

constitution, the people looked beyond these agents

[electors], fixed upon their own candidates for

President and Vice President, and took pledges from

the electoral candidates to obey their will. In every

subsequent election, the same thing has been done.’ ”

Ray v. Blair, 343 U.S. 214, 228 n.15 (1952) (alteration

in original) (quoting S. Rep. No. 22, 19th Cong., 1st

Sess. (1826), p. 4). While the Framers of the original

constitutional text may not have anticipated this, by

the time the Twelfth Amendment was adopted in

1804, elector pledges had become standard practice,

and were discussed and accepted in the debate over

that amendment. Id. at 224 n.11, 228 n.15.

Petitioners ask the Court to grant review and

upend this original understanding and unbroken

practice by holding that electors have a constitutional

right to vote however they wish. Accepting their view

would mean that only 538 Americans—members of

the Electoral College—have a say in who should be

President; everything else is simply advisory. Their

avowed purpose in seeking this ruling is to destroy

public faith in the Electoral College so that the people

decide to do away with it.

Whatever the merits of Petitioners’ views about

the Electoral College, this Court should not allow

itself to be used as a forum for resolving theoretical

2

disputes. Applying the Court’s normal rules for

granting certiorari, the petition should be denied.

The Washington Supreme Court’s decision

below is entirely consistent with this Court’s

precedent. This Court has repeatedly made clear,

most recently in Ray, that States have plenary

authority in appointing electors, and that electors

have never had a constitutional right to violate the

conditions of their appointment or vote however they

wish. Petitioners here signed a pledge as a condition

of their appointment as electors promising to vote for

the candidates supported by a majority of Washington

voters. They broke that pledge, casting their ballots

for other candidates. Under Washington law at the

time, their ballots were still counted and transmitted

to Congress, but Petitioners were each fined $1,000

for breaking their pledge. In upholding these fines,

the Washington Supreme Court faithfully applied this

Court’s decisions about State and elector authority.

The only post-Ray decision in any tension with

the decision below is Baca v. Colorado Department of

State, 935 F.3d 887 (10th Cir. 2019), but even that

decision creates no direct conflict. That case dealt with

the “materially different” issue of whether a State can

remove an elector before he votes. Id. at 950 n.30.

While the reasoning in the cases differs, the holdings

are reconcilable. And the full Tenth Circuit might

reach a different holding if presented with the issue,

given that a prior panel did so. Order, Baca v.

Hickenlooper, No. 16-1482 (10th Cir. Dec. 16, 2016).

Given this shallowest of disagreements in the

lower courts, there is no good reason to take up this

issue now, and several good reasons not to.

3

First, though Petitioners claim the Court

should take this issue up now because of the risk that

faithless electors will affect the outcome of a future

election, that has never occurred and is very unlikely.

Petitioners imagine a hypothetical scenario in which

faithless electors defect from the winning candidate to

vote for the runner-up, but not a single elector has

done that in over a century. As in this case, faithless

electors have almost always come from the losing

candidate’s ranks or have voted for someone other

than the runner-up, having no impact.

Second, this issue would benefit from further

percolation both because very few courts have

addressed the topic and because States use many tools

to ensure electors’ compliance with the State’s vote,

from removal to criminal prosecution. As Baca itself

indicates, different courts may reason differently

about these varied approaches, presenting this Court

with a fuller picture of the issues presented.

Finally, this case is a poor vehicle to address

these issues because Washington has completely

rewritten the statutes challenged here since the 2016

election. Washington was the only State in the

country that allowed electors to vote as they wished

and simply fined them for breaking their pledge. But

in 2019, Washington eliminated that system and

switched to one in which electors are removed if they

violate their pledge. Thus, if the Court ruled on the

legality of Washington’s 2016 approach, it would be

issuing an opinion about a system currently used

nowhere in the country.

The Court should deny certiorari.

4

STATEMENT OF THE CASE

I.

History of the Electoral College

The Framers of the Constitution established

the Electoral College as part of a compromise to select

the President and Vice President. Delegates proposed

a wide range of methods for selecting the chief

executive. Some supported direct popular elections,

some wanted Congress to choose the President, and

others wanted electors to be chosen by state

legislatures or by the people in each State.

See McPherson v. Blacker, 146 U.S. 1, 28 (1892).

Of those who favored a system of electors, some

intended for electors to be independent and free to

vote for the candidate of their choice. E.g., The

Federalist No. 68 (Alexander Hamilton). Delegates

could not reach consensus, however, and voted down

several proposals for selecting president “by the

people,” “by electors to be chosen by the people of

several states instead of by congress,” and “by electors

appointed for that purpose by the legislatures of the

states[.]” McPherson, 146 U.S. at 26-29 (internal

quotation marks omitted).

Ultimately, the Framers “reconciled [all]

contrariety of views” by adopting a system of electors

but leaving it to state legislatures “exclusively to

define the method” of appointing electors. Id. at 28,

27; accord 3 Records of the Federal Convention of

1787, pp. 209-11 (Max Farrand ed. 1911) (James

Madison to Thomas Jefferson, Oct. 24, 1787,

describing final reconciliation as according “pretty

general satisfaction to the members. . . . The President

also derives his appointment from the States, and is

periodically accountable to them.”). To facilitate a

5

broad range of options, the States’ power to “appoint”

electors “was manifestly used as conveying the

broadest power of determination.” McPherson, 146

U.S. at 27; see also Samuel Johnson, A Dictionary of

the English Language (Dublin, 3d ed. 1768) (appoint:

to “fix any thing,” to “establish any thing by decree,”

or to “settle any thing by compact”).

Each state shall appoint, in such Manner

as the Legislature thereof may direct, a

Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number

of Senators and Representatives to which the

State may be entitled in the Congress: but no

Senator or Representative, or Person holding

an Office of Trust or Profit under the United

States, shall be appointed an Elector.

U.S. Const. art. II, § 1, cl. 2.

Under the original constitutional text, the

electors were to “meet in their respective States, and

vote by Ballot for two persons, of whom one at least

shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with

themselves.” U.S. Const. art. II, § 1, cl. 3 (original

text). The person with the greatest number of

electoral votes would be President. Id. If that person

did not also receive a majority, however, the House of

Representatives would choose the President from a

list of the top five candidates, with “each State having

one Vote.” Id. In either event, the person having the

next greatest number of votes would be Vice President

unless there was also a tie between the next two

candidates, in which case the Senate would choose. Id.

6

Two unanticipated developments quickly

rendered this system problematic. See Ray, 343 U.S.

at 224 n.11.

First, political parties immediately emerged

and began supporting candidates for President and

Vice President. Id. at 229 n.16; see also Joseph Storey,

Commentaries on the Constitution of the United States

322, § 1457 (1833). Because the Vice President was

simply the runner up in the electoral count, this

system created the risk of a President and Vice

President of different parties, an outcome that

occurred in 1796 and “which could not commend itself

either to the Nation or to most political theorists.”

Ray, 343 U.S. at 224 n.11; see also 6 Annals of Cong.

2096-98 (1797).

Second, from the very “ ‘first election held under

the constitution,’ ” electors began pledging themselves

to vote for particular candidates: “ ‘the people looked

beyond these agents [electors], fixed upon their own

candidates for President and Vice President, and took

pledges from the electoral candidates to obey their

will.’ ” Ray, 343 U.S. at 228 n.15 (alteration in

original) (quoting S. Rep. No. 22, 19th Cong., 1st Sess.

(1826), p. 4); see also id. (“ ‘[T]he people do not elect a

person for an elector who, they know, does not intend

to vote for a particular person as President.’ ” (quoting

11 Annals of Cong. 1289-90, 7th Cong., 1st Sess.

(1802)). “ ‘In every subsequent election, the same thing

has been done.’ ” Id. (quoting S. Rep. No. 22, 19th

Cong., 1st Sess. (1826), p. 4). But “[i]f all the electors

of the predominant party voted for the same two men,”

who they wanted to be President and Vice President,

“the election would result in a tie, and be thrown into

the House, which might or might not be sympathetic

to that party.” Id. at 224 n.11. This is what occurred

7

in the presidential election of 1800, when two

Republican candidates for President—Jefferson and

Burr—received the same number of electoral votes,

and the House of Representatives, controlled by

Federalists, had to choose between them, with

each State receiving one vote. See 10 Annals of Cong.

1022-28 (1801). It ultimately took thirty-six ballots for

the States to break the tie and declare Thomas

Jefferson the third President of the United States.

10 Annals of Cong. 1028.

To avert similar “intolerable” results, Congress

proposed what ultimately became ratified in 1804 as

the Twelfth Amendment. See Ray, 343 U.S. at 224

n.11. The Twelfth Amendment required the States’

electors to vote by separate ballot for President and

Vice President. U.S. Const. amend. XII. The electors

would then make “distinct lists of all persons voted for

as President, and of all persons voted for as VicePresident, and of the number of votes for each,” and

transmit the lists to the President of the Senate. Id.

The stated purpose of this proposal was to

embrace the by-then standard practice of parties

choosing preferred candidates and electors pledging to

support them, thereby eliminating the problems

encountered in 1796 and 1800. “Under this procedure,

the party electors could vote the regular party ticket

without throwing the election into the House. Electors

could be chosen to vote for the party candidates for

both offices, and the electors could carry out the

desires of the people, without confronting the

obstacles which confounded the elections of 1796 and

1800.” Ray, 343 U.S. at 224 n.11 (citing 11 Annals of

Cong. 1289-90, 7th Cong., 1st Sess. (1802)); id. at

228 n.15 (“ ‘[T]he people do not elect a person for an

8

elector who, they know, does not intend to vote for a

particular person as President. Therefore, practically,

the very thing is adopted, intended by this

amendment.’ ” (quoting 11 Annals of Cong. 1289-90,

7th Cong., 1st Sess. (1802))).1

Just as the drafters of the Twelfth Amendment

expected, in subsequent elections electors continued

to pledge to vote for particular candidates, and voters

chose electors on that basis. See, e.g., Ray, 343 U.S. at

230 n.15 (explaining that in every Presidential

election, including the “ ‘first election held under the

constitution, the people looked beyond these agents

[electors], fixed upon their own candidates for

President and Vice President, and took pledges from

the electoral candidates to obey their will.’ ”

(alteration in original) (quoting S. Rep. No. 22, 19th

Cong., 1st Sess. (1826), p. 4)). Thus, from the earliest

days of American history, “whether chosen by the

legislatures or by popular suffrage on general ticket

or in districts, [electors] were so chosen simply to

register the will of the appointing power in respect of

a particular candidate.” McPherson, 146 U.S. at 36. By

the early 1800s, for an elector to vote against his

pledge “would be treated[] as a political usurpation,

dishonourable to the individual, and a fraud upon his

constituents.” Joseph Storey, Commentaries on the

Constitution of the United States 322, § 1457 (1833).

1 See also Ray, 343 U.S. at 229 n.16 (“ ‘[F]rom 1796 on

there were always . . . regular party candidates. In practice most

of the members of the electoral colleges belonged to a party, and

expected to support it[.]’ ” (quoting III Cyclopedia of American

Government 8 (Appleton, 1914) (Presidential Elections by Albert

Bushnell Hart)).

9

The States initially employed a variety of

modes to appoint their respective electors. See

McPherson, 146 U.S. at 28-35 (chronicling each

State’s practice for appointing electors through the

1877 election). Some States directly appointed their

electors through a legislative process, while others

provided for a popular election. See id. at 29. By the

mid-1800s, however, most States transitioned to the

popular vote as the means of appointing their

presidential electors. Id. at 32-33. It also became the

standard practice across the nation for States to allow

political parties to nominate electors pledged to the

parties’ preferred candidates. See Ray, 343 U.S. at

228-29 & nn.15-16. States then held popular elections

in which state citizens voted either for the slate of

electors nominated by the political parties or, more

commonly, for the presidential and vice presidential

candidates themselves. Id. at 229. In the latter case,

a vote for specific presidential and vice presidential

candidates counted as a vote for the slate of electors

pledged to those candidates. Id.

Today, all fifty States and the District of

Columbia vest the right to vote for President in their

respective citizens. See Nat’l Archives & Records

Admin., Office of the Fed. Register, U.S. Electoral

College, 2016 Presidential Election, https://www.ar

chives.gov/federal-register/electoral-college/2016/; see

also Nat’l Ass’n of Sec’ys of State, Summary: State

Laws Regarding Presidential Electors (Nov. 2016),

https://www.nass.org/node/131 (summarizing state

electoral laws as of November 2016). Each State has

exercised its “plenary power” over “the appointment

and mode of appointment of electors” by tying

their appointment of electors to the results of their

10

respective popular elections. McPherson, 146 U.S. at

35; accord 3 U.S.C. § 1 (tying the date for States’

appointment of electors to Election Day). The names

of presidential electors do not appear on most States’

general election ballots; rather, when state voters cast

their ballots, they vote for a particular President and

Vice President. See Nat’l Archives & Records Admin.,

Office of the Fed. Register, U.S. Electoral College,

About the Electors, https://www.archives.gov/federalregister/electoral-college/electors.html (last visited

Nov. 4, 2019).

States have also exercised their constitutional

authority by enacting myriad mechanisms to ensure

that electors adhere to their State’s popular vote.

See Nat’l Ass’n of Sec’ys of State, Summary: State

Laws Regarding Presidential Electors (Nov. 2016),

https://www.nass.org/node/131. Some States will

count a faithless elector’s ballot but impose a fine

(Washington) or criminal prosecution, while other

States prevent the counting of such a ballot, imposing

automatic resignation or forfeiture of the elector’s

office when an elector attempts to vote contrary to his

or her pledge. See, e.g., Ariz. Rev. Stat. § 16-212;

D.C. Code § 1-1001.08; Mich. Comp. Laws § 168.47;

Minn. Stat. § 208.46; N.C. Gen. Stat. § 163-212;

Okla. Stat. tit. 26, § 10-108; S.C. Code § 7-19-80.

II.

Washington State’s 2016 Election

A.

Petitioners are Nominated as

Electors After Pledging Their Votes

Washington State exercised its authority under

Article II, Section 1 by enacting multiple statutes

governing the State’s participation in the Electoral

11

College. Pet. App. 51a-54a (former Wash. Rev. Code

§§ 29A.56.310-.360 (2016)). In 2019, the State

significantly revised its procedures and requirements,

including eliminating the provision at issue in this

case. See 2019 Wash. Sess. Laws 755-58 (ch. 143)

(codified as Wash. Rev. Code §§ 29A.56.080-.092, .320.350). The State describes here the laws as they

existed during the 2016 presidential election.2

In a presidential election year, each major and

minor political party in Washington that nominates

candidates for President and Vice President “shall

[also] nominate presidential electors for this state.”

Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.320(1). The party or

convention must then submit to the Washington

Secretary of State a certificate listing the names and

addresses of the party’s presidential electors. Wash.

Rev. Code § 29A.56.320(1). For the 2016 election, the

Democratic Party certified a slate of twelve electors,

including all three Petitioners. See Pet. App. 39a.

As a condition of appointment, state law

required that “[e]ach presidential elector shall execute

and file with the secretary of state a pledge that, as

an elector, he or she will vote for the candidates

nominated by [their] party.” Former Wash. Rev. Code

§ 29A.56.320 (2016). State law also provided that

“[a]ny elector who votes for a person or persons not

nominated by the party of which he or she is an elector

2 Under the 2019 amendments, Washington now follows

twenty-eight other States in explicitly binding the electors’ votes

to their pledges. State law now would require the Secretary of

State to invalidate any elector ballot marked in violation of the

elector’s pledge. See Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.090.

12

is subject to a civil penalty of up to one thousand

dollars.” Former Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.340

(2016). Washington law thus did not disqualify

faithless electors or exclude their ballots, it simply

imposed a financial penalty if they violated their

pledge. All three Petitioners signed and submitted

pledges agreeing to “vote for the candidates

nominated by the Democratic Party for the President

of the United States and Vice President of the United

States.” State App. 1a (John), 41a (Chiafalo), 44a

(Guerra).

As with most States, the names of individual

electors do not appear on Washington’s general

election ballot. Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.320(2).

Rather, voters in Washington cast their ballots for a

singular pair of presidential and vice presidential

candidates. Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.36.161(4); Wash.

Rev. Code § 29A.56.320. Each vote for President and

Vice President then counts for the paired candidates’

respective slate of electors. Wash. Rev. Code §

29A.56.320. Once the general election votes are

canvassed and certified, the winner of Washington’s

popular vote for President and Vice President

determines which candidates’ designated electors

serve as Washington’s electors in the Electoral

College. Former Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.320, .330

(2016); see also State App. 6a, 27a-34a.

Hillary Clinton and Tim Kaine, candidates for

the Democratic Party, won Washington’s 2016

popular vote for President and Vice President. State

App. 6a. The Democratic Party’s slate of electors,

including Petitioners, thus served as Washington’s

presidential electors. State App. 27a, 33a-34a.

13

B.

Petitioners Violated Their Pledge at

Washington’s

Meeting

of

the

Electoral College

Shortly before the meeting of the Electoral

College, Petitioners Chiafalo and Guerra sought an

injunction in federal district court, arguing that

Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.340 violated the

Constitution. Chiafalo v. Inslee, 224 F. Supp. 3d 1140,

1144 (W.D. Wash. 2016). The district court denied

their request, clarifying that Washington does not

preclude presidential electors from voting as they

choose, and concluding that Chiafalo and Guerra were

unlikely to prevail on their constitutional claims.

Id. at 1144. The district court found that this Court

has implicitly recognized that Article II and the

Twelfth Amendment do not give electors absolute

freedom to vote for the candidates of their choice. Id.

And because an Electoral College vote is akin to an

official duty and the electors voluntarily sought

nomination, subject to Washington’s rules and

limitations, the district court found that their First

Amendment rights were not likely implicated. Id. at

1145. Finally, the district court concluded that, even

if Petitioners had protectable First Amendment rights

in their electoral votes, Washington’s financial

penalty imposes only a minimal burden, outweighed

by several compelling state interests that support the

penalty. Id. The Ninth Circuit denied Chiafalo and

Guerra’s emergency motion for an injunction pending

appeal, finding that they had not “shown a likelihood

of success or serious questions going to the merits.”

Order, Chiafalo v. Inslee, No. 16-36034 (9th Cir.

Dec. 16, 2016) (Docket No. 16).

14

Washington’s Electoral College convened on

December 19, 2016, as required by Article II, Section

1, Clause 4 and 3 U.S.C. § 7. See State App. 35a.

Federal law provides that “[e]ach State may, by law,

provide for the filling of any vacancies which may

occur in its college of electors when such college meets

to give its electoral vote.” 3 U.S.C. § 4. State law

provides that “[i]f there is any vacancy in the office of

an elector occasioned by death, refusal to act, neglect

to attend, or otherwise, the electors present shall

immediately proceed to fill [the vacancy] by voice vote,

and plurality of votes.” Former Wash. Rev. Code

§ 29A.56.340 (2016). Electors thus have the option of

refusing to participate in the Electoral College, in

which case, the remaining electors would select an

alternate to fill any vacancy. Former Wash. Rev. Code

§ 29A.56.340 (2016).

Petitioners each cast a ballot as one of the duly

appointed electors for the State of Washington. State

App. 35a. Petitioner John cast ballots for Colin Powell

for President and Susan Collins for Vice President.

State App. 39a-40a. Petitioner Chiafalo cast ballots

for Colin Powell for President and Elizabeth Warren

for Vice President. State App. 42a-43a. Petitioner

Guerra cast ballots for Colin L. Powell for President

and Maria Cantwell for Vice President. State App.

45a-46a. These votes violated each elector’s pledge to

vote for the candidates nominated by their party.

Washington’s twelve electors signed six

original certificates memorializing all of the electoral

votes cast for President and Vice President for the

State. State App. 35a-38a. The certificates were then

15

transmitted to various recipients as required by

federal law. State App. 37a; see also U.S. Const.

amend. XII; 3 U.S.C. §§ 10, 11. On January 6, 2017,

Congress met in joint session to count the electoral

votes submitted by the States. 163 Cong. Rec.

H185-90 (daily ed. Jan. 06, 2017). In total,

Washington submitted twelve electoral votes exactly

as cast by each of the electors. 163 Cong. Rec. H188

(daily ed. Jan. 6, 2017); see also State App. 35a-38a.

III.

Proceedings Below

On December 29, 2016, Washington Secretary

of State Kim Wyman, in her capacity as Chief

Elections Officer for the State of Washington, issued

Notices of Violation to each of the Petitioners

apprising them of their violation of former Wash. Rev.

Code § 29A.56.340 (2016), issuing a civil penalty of

$1,000 under the statute, and informing them of their

administrative appeal rights. See Pet. App. 36a-43a.3

Each of the Petitioners appealed and requested

an administrative hearing. Pet. App. 36a-43a.

Petitioners stipulated to the facts alleged in their

respective Notices of Violation, but challenged the

constitutionality of their penalties. Pet. App. 37a n.1.

The administrative law judge affirmed the Notices of

Violations based solely on the plain language of the

governing statutes, having no authority to rule on

constitutional issues. Pet. App. 42a-43a.

3 A fourth elector also cast electoral ballots for persons

not nominated by the Democratic Party for President and Vice

President. See State App. 35a-36a. The elector did not seek

further judicial review of the administrative order affirming his

Notice of Violation.

16

Petitioners sought judicial review of the

administrative orders in state court. Pet. App.

30a-35a. The superior court denied the petition,

finding that Petitioners had not met their burden of

showing that former Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.340

(2016) was unconstitutional. Pet. App. 34a.

Petitioners then sought direct review by the

Washington State Supreme Court. Pet. App. 5a.

The Washington State Supreme Court affirmed

the superior court. Pet. App. 1a. The state court held

it was within the State’s “absolute authority in the

manner of appointing electors” under Article II,

Section 1 “to impose a fine on electors for failing to

uphold their pledge[.]” Pet. App. 20a. Applying this

Court’s cases, the state court rejected Petitioners’

contention that either Article II or the Twelfth

Amendment “demands absolute freedom for

presidential Electors,” or “prohibits a state from

imposing certain conditions on electors as part of the

state’s appointment powers, including requiring

Electors to pledge their votes.” Pet. App. 23a, 16a.

The state court also rejected Petitioners’

claim that the state penalty impermissibly interfered

with a “federal function” carried out by the electors.

Pet. App. 19a. “Unlike the cases appellants rely on for

support that states cannot interfere with a federal

function, here, the Constitution explicitly confers

broad authority on the states to dictate the manner

and mode of appointing presidential electors.”

Pet. App. 19a.

17

Finally, the state court concluded that, because

electors “act by authority of the State,” “no First

Amendment right is violated when a state imposes a

fine based on an elector’s violation of his pledge.”

Pet. App. 26a-27a.

REASONS FOR DENYING THE PETITION

I.

The Washington Court’s Decision Does

Not Create Any Meaningful Conflict

Warranting This Court’s Review

Certiorari is unwarranted here because the

Washington State Supreme Court’s decision is

consistent with over a century of this Court’s

jurisprudence regarding the States’ plenary authority

over electors under Article II and the Twelfth

Amendment. The state court decision also creates no

meaningful conflict with decisions of other courts—

including the Tenth Circuit—that requires this

Court’s resolution.

A.

The Washington Court’s Decision

Carefully Applies This Court’s Cases

The decision below directly follows this Court’s

precedent acknowledging the States’ expansive

authority over electors. As the Washington court

recognized, the “Electoral College vote belongs to the

State, not the individual elector.” Pet. App. 19a (citing

Fitzgerald v. Green, 134 U.S. 377, 379 (1890)); see also

McPherson, 146 U.S. at 36 (electors have always

served “simply to register the will of the appointing

power”—the State). And no court, anywhere, has ever

held that electors have a First Amendment right to

ignore state law.

18

1.

The State Court Followed This

Court’s

Precedent

Under

Article II and the Twelfth

Amendment

This Court has uniformly interpreted Article II

and the Twelfth Amendment as granting States

plenary power to regulate electors. Fitzgerald, 134

U.S. at 380; see also McPherson, 146 U.S. at 26-28;

Ray, 343 U.S. at 224-25. Unable to reach consensus

about how electors should be chosen, the Framers

decided to leave the manner of appointing electors and

regulation of the mode of appointment “to the control

of the states.” Fitzgerald, 134 U.S. at 380; McPherson,

146 U.S. at 27. This Court has therefore concluded

that the “sole function of the presidential electors is to

cast, certify, and transmit the vote of the state for

president and vice-president of the nation.”

Fitzgerald, 134 U.S. at 379 (emphasis added).

While this Court has recognized that some

Founders expected electors to exercise independent

judgment, it has also acknowledged that that

expectation disappeared almost immediately and was

abandoned by the time the Twelfth Amendment was

adopted. Ray, 343 U.S. at 224 n.11, 228 n.15. Indeed,

this Court has described the very purpose of the

Twelfth Amendment as ensuring that “[e]lectors could

be chosen to vote for the party candidates for both

offices, and the electors could carry out the desires of

the people, without confronting the obstacles which

confounded the elections of 1796 and 1800.” Ray, 343

U.S. at 224 n.11 (citing 11 Annals of Cong. 1289-90,

7th Cong., 1st Sess. (1802)). Recognizing this history

and purpose, the Court has said that, “whether chosen

by the legislatures or by popular suffrage on general

19

ticket or in districts, [electors] were so chosen simply

to register the will of the appointing power in respect

of a particular candidate.” McPherson, 146 U.S. at 36

(alteration in original).

In light of these principles and historical

understandings, this Court has held that the States’

appointment power includes the right to require a

pre-vote pledge by electors to abide by the results

of a state primary election. Ray, 343 U.S. at 228.

While Ray only directly addressed a primary pledge,

its reasoning applies equally to a general election,

which this Court recognized formed “a single

instrumentality” with the primary for selection of

President and Vice President. Id. at 227. In so holding,

this Court rejected the argument that the Twelfth

Amendment “demands absolute freedom” for the

elector, uninhibited by a pledge. Id. at 228. From the

first election under the Constitution and well before

the Twelfth Amendment was ratified, electors routinely pledged themselves to particular candidates.

Id. at 228 n.15. This practice quickly became knitted

into the fabric of the electoral system, with many

States not even printing the names of electors on the

ballot, and instead allowing a vote for the presidential

candidate to be counted as a vote for that candidate’s

nominees for the Electoral College. Id. at 229. This

Court placed significant weight on the uniform

historical treatment of electors as a mechanism for

expressing the will of the States and the use of pledges

to accomplish that purpose. See id. at 228-29.

The Washington State Supreme Court’s

decision follows this established jurisprudence and

the electoral framework that has been built upon it.

The court concluded that the fines imposed by the

20

Secretary of State fell within States’ plenary

appointment authority. Pet. App. 27a. In following the

uninterrupted historical treatment of electors as

“instruments for expressing the will of those who

selected them,” the Washington court properly

followed the dictates of Fitzgerald, McPherson, and

Ray. Pet. App. 8a. And given that the Founders

themselves made and kept pledges, which have been

used in every election in American history, Ray, 343

U.S. at 230 n.15, the Washington court properly

applied this Court’s direction to give significant

weight to uninterrupted historical understandings

and practices on matters of governance. Pet. App. 8a,

16a-20a; see, e.g., Mistretta v. United States, 488 U.S.

361, 399 (1989) (the “contemporaneous practice by the

Founders themselves is significant evidence” of the

meaning of constitutional provisions); NLRB v. Noel

Canning, 573 U.S. 513, 526 (2014) (in interpreting

constitutional provisions for the first time in 200

years, courts should “hesitate to upset the

compromises and working arrangements that the

elected branches of Government themselves have

reached”).

Petitioners incorrectly claim that Washington’s

law regulates a “federal function” in a way

impermissible under this Court’s precedent. But this

Court has repeatedly interpreted Article II as limiting

Congress’s powers over electors to those specifically

delineated in the Constitution, with the “power and

jurisdiction” of the States in all other respects deemed

“exclusive” so that “congressional and federal

influence might be excluded.” McPherson, 146 U.S. at

35; see also Fitzgerald, 134 U.S. at 379-80; Ray, 343

U.S. at 225-29. The States’ constitutional authority

21

over electors distinguishes the cases cited by

Petitioners, which each involve exclusively federal

domains such as national banks, national parks, or

federal nuclear facilities on federal property. Pet. App.

18a; Pet. at 30-31 (citing Goodyear Atomic Corp. v.

Miller, 486 U.S. 174, 181 n.3 (1988)). This Court has

explicitly rejected Petitioners’ comparison of electors

to federal officers like United States senators. Pet. 32.

Electors are “not federal officers or agents any more

than the state elector who votes for congressmen.

They act by authority of the State that in turn receives

its authority from the Federal Constitution.” Ray, 343

U.S. at 224-25.

Petitioners’ argument seems to be that once

States appoint electors, any other State involvement

is impermissible “interference.” Pet. at 31. But this

ignores a variety of roles States can undoubtedly play

after appointment, such as filling vacancies caused by

an elector’s unavailability. If Petitioners’ argument

were accepted, States could take no action once

electors are appointed—including removing an elector

upon proof of fraud or bribery. This Court has rejected

such limitations on state power, confirming the

jurisdiction of States to “regulate the conduct of such

[popular] election[s], or to punish any fraud in voting

for electors[.]” Fitzgerald, 134 U.S. at 380. Indeed,

federal law mandates that a State’s determination

of any “controversy or contest concerning the

appointment” of a State’s electors shall be “conclusive,

and shall govern in the counting of electoral votes as

provided in the Constitution” when such final

determination is made at least six days before the

22

electors meet and pursuant to state law enacted

before the electors are appointed. 3 U.S.C. § 5.

Congress has thus also long recognized that the

authority of States over electors extends beyond their

initial appointment.

In sum, the Washington court’s decision flows

directly from this Court’s case law regarding the

States’ plenary appointment authority over electors,

weighing against granting certiorari here.

2.

The State Court Decision is

Consistent With this Court’s

First Amendment Decisions

The Washington State Supreme Court’s

determination that electors do not have a personal

First Amendment right in their votes also directly

follows this Court’s precedent. The court below

compared electors’ votes to the vote of the legislator at

issue in Nevada Commission on Ethics v. Carrigan,

564 U.S. 117, 125-26 (2011), which this Court held

was not personal to the legislator, but rather belonged

to the people as the “commitment of his apportioned

share of the legislature’s power to the passage or

defeat of a particular proposal.” See Pet. App. 26a.

This Court further held in Nevada Commission on

Ethics that the legislator’s “act of voting” was neither

speech nor expressive conduct because “it symbolizes

nothing. It discloses, to be sure, that the legislator

wishes (for whatever reason) that the proposition on

the floor be adopted, just as a physical assault

discloses that the attacker dislikes the victim.

But neither the one nor the other is an act of

communication.” Nevada Comm’n on Ethics, 564

U.S. at 125-26 (emphasis in original).

23

The same is true here. As explained by the state

court below, electors “act by authority of the State,”

Pet. App. 26a (citing Ray, 343 U.S. at 224), to register

the vote of the State, Pet. App. 26a (citing Fitzgerald,

134 U.S. 379). Like the legislator’s vote, the elector’s

vote is the commitment of the State’s “apportioned

share” of power to elect the President and Vice

President. And the elector’s vote itself is similarly an

“act” that “symbolizes nothing,” Nevada Comm’n on

Ethics, 5564 U.S. at 126, and thus does not fall within

First Amendment protection in the first instance.

Given this Court’s clear ruling in Nevada

Commission on Ethics, it is not surprising that no

court has found that presidential electors have a First

Amendment right to vote as they please.4 That no

lower court has ever so held weighs strongly against

granting certiorari here.

B.

There is No True Conflict in the

Lower Courts Justifying This

Court’s Review

The decision below presents no true conflict

with the decision of the Tenth Circuit or any other

appellate court.

4 Even if there were such a right, courts would still need

to engage in the appropriate balancing to weigh the burden on

electors against the State’s interests. Cf. Anderson v. Celebrezze,

460 U.S. 780, 788 (1983); Burdick v. Takushi, 504 U.S. 428, 434

(1992); Williams v. Rhodes, 393 U.S. 23, 28-29 (1968).

24

1.

There is No Direct Conflict

With

the

Tenth

Circuit

Because the Cases Concern

Materially Different Issues

The Washington court decision presents no

direct conflict with the Tenth Circuit’s decision in

Baca, 935 F.3d 887. As the Tenth Circuit

acknowledged, the cases concern “materially

different” issues. Id. at 950 n.30.

To assert a direct conflict, Petitioners

mischaracterize the Washington court as holding that

“after appointment, a state may by law direct how

presidential electors cast their votes for President and

Vice President, and enforce that direction through

legal penalties.” Pet. 3 (emphases added). The State,

however, never directed Petitioners’ vote, much less

after it appointed Petitioners. Rather, Petitioners

voluntarily pledged their votes before, and as a

condition of, their appointment. State App. 1a, 41a,

44a; see also Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.320.

Petitioners then cast their ballots exactly as they

wished and their votes were recorded as electoral

votes for Washington. State App. 35a-38a. The

Washington court held only that fining Petitioners for

violating their voluntary pre-appointment pledge falls

within the scope of the State’s plenary authority to

appoint electors. Pet. App. 27a.

The Tenth Circuit, in contrast, did not decide

whether States could issue a monetary penalty

against electors who had violated their pledge. It

identified the “precise” issue before it as whether

States could “remove a presidential elector during

voting and nullify his vote based on the elector’s

25

failure to comply with state law dictating the

candidate for whom the elector must vote.” Baca, 935

F.3d at 930. The Tenth Circuit found this specific

power fell outside the State’s appointment authority.

Id. at 939.

Petitioners overstate the impossibility of

reconciling this decision with the decision reached by

the Washington court. While the courts reached

different conclusions about certain issues and their

analysis is in tension, their holdings can be reconciled

without significant difficulty. The Tenth Circuit, like

the Washington court, acknowledged that “the state

legislature’s power to select the manner for

appointing electors is plenary.” Baca, 935 F.3d at 939

(quoting Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98, 104 (2000));

Pet. App. 27a. It did not, however, identify the outer

limits of that appointment power, only that the

appointment power “does not include the power to

remove [electors] or to nullify their votes.” Id. at 941.

This is not necessarily inconsistent with the

Washington court’s determination that fining electors

for violating their voluntary pledge while not

removing electors or cancelling their votes is within

the State’s expansive appointment power.5 The

conclusion that one of these state actions falls outside

constitutional limits does not necessarily mean that a

less aggressive state action does as well. The decisions

are in tension, not direct conflict.

5 Washington does not suggest that removal of electors

exceeds the State’s appointment authority, only that Petitioners

have overstated the extent to which the Tenth Circuit and

Washington decisions are irreconcilable.

26

Petitioners similarly exaggerate the degree of

conflict in the courts’ respective analysis of the

“federal function” issue. While there is tension in how

the courts analyzed the issue, the Tenth Circuit

seemed to agree with the Washington court that, if the

power to perform a particular act fell within the

State’s “appointment power,” the State would not be

limited by this Courts’ federal function case law from

exercising such power. See Baca, 935 F.3d at 939-40.

The Tenth Circuit itself recognized the question

whether the appointment power includes the power to

fine “faithless electors” was a “materially different”

question than the limited question before it. See id. at

941, 950 n.30. Thus, the decisions by the courts on this

issue can be reconciled in much the same manner as

their core holdings can be.

Given the shallow disagreement between the

Tenth Circuit and the Washington court decisions,

this issue would benefit from additional development

of the case law. This is particularly so given the broad

spectrum of state law governing electors, ranging

from fines, to pledges, to criminal prosecution, to

removal. See Nat’l Ass’n of Sec’ys of State, Summary:

State Laws Regarding Presidential Electors (Nov.

2016), https://www.nass.org/node/131. The Court

would benefit from lower courts considering a wider

range of these approaches before weighing in,

especially when there is not yet any disagreement in

the lower courts about the legality of any particular

approach.

Further development in the case law would be

particularly helpful given the uncertain impact of

Baca itself. The Tenth Circuit did not order injunctive,

declaratory, or prospective relief against the state

27

statute at issue. Rather, the decision applies only to a

single elector’s claims for retrospective relief and

nominal damages. Baca, 935 F.3d at 911-12, 915

(rejecting any claim for prospective relief because of

Article III standing issues). Moreover, while the

Tenth Circuit panel in Baca concluded that a

constitutional violation had occurred, it is not clear

that the full Tenth Circuit would reach the same

conclusion. A different Tenth Circuit panel reviewing

the same electors’ emergency request for a

preliminary injunction found no likelihood of success

on the merits of their claims. See Order, Baca v.

Hickenlooper, No. 16-1482 (10th Cir. Dec. 16, 2016), at

10-11 (finding that plaintiffs “raise at best a debatable

argument”). And in the future States within the Tenth

Circuit will have the opportunity to seek en banc

review of this issue, which could resolve even the

putative “conflict” alleged here without review by this

Court.6

2.

The Other Cases Petitioners

Cite as Creating a Split

Predate This Court’s Decision

in Ray

Petitioners also mischaracterize the purported

split on this issue among state courts. See Pet. 20-22.

Until Baca, the State is aware of no post-Ray court

decision—state or federal—concluding that electors

6 If the Court believes that Baca creates too much

uncertainty, it could summarily reverse that decision without

reaching the merits on the ground that Plaintiff ’s claim for

nominal damages necessarily fails because the State is not a

person under § 1983. See Will v. Michigan Dep’t of State Police,

491 U.S. 58, 71 (1989).

28

have the unfettered independence claimed by

Petitioners here. The only three opinions that

Petitioners identify were decided well before Ray and

none bear any relevance to the issue decided by the

Washington court.7

The Alabama State Supreme Court’s advisory

opinion in Opinion of the Justices, 250 Ala. 399,

34 So. 2d 598 (1948), concerned proposed legislation

that would have required electors to cast their ballots

for the nominee of the national convention of the party

by which they were elected. The opinion later became

the adopted rationale for the decision by the Alabama

court that this Court reversed in Ray. Ray v. Blair,

257 Ala. 151, 57 So. 2d 395, 398 (“The Court is now

willing to adopt that Opinion of the Justices as its

own.”), rev’d, 343 U.S. 154, supplemented, 343 U.S.

214 (1952). Thus, in reversing the Alabama Court’s

decision in Ray, this Court rejected the reasoning and

rationale of Opinion of the Justices. See Ray, 343 U.S.

at 222-23.

The Ohio State Supreme Court decision in

State ex rel. Beck v. Hummel, 150 Ohio St. 127, 80

N.E.2d 899 (1948), likewise pre-dates Ray and did not

even concern the scope of States’ authority to appoint

electors. Id. at 129-31. It concerned whether the Ohio

7 Several cases before Ray also reached outcomes

consistent with the Washington Supreme Court’s decision here.

See State ex rel. Nebraska Republican State Cent. Comm. v. Wait,

92 Neb. 313, 138 N.W. 159, 165 (1912); Thomas v. Cohen, 262

N.Y.S. 320, 326 (N.Y. App. Div. 1933).

29

Secretary of State could refuse to certify certain

independent presidential electors to the State’s

general election ballot under Ohio law because they

were communists. State ex rel. Beck, 150 Ohio St. at

129-31. To the extent the court commented on elector

rights, it did so only in dicta. Id. at 146 (describing the

elector pledge as a mere “moral obligation”). The

actual holding of the court turned on an interpretation

of state law—not the federal constitution. The court

held that because “the office of presidential elector is

a state office” and no state law precluded the

otherwise qualified electors from serving in such a

state office, the electors had a “right” to appear on the

ballot. Id. at 147. The Ohio Court’s holding thus

supports the expansive authority of States over

electors.

Petitioners likewise cite unsupported dicta in

Breidenthal v. Edwards, 57 Kan. 332, 46 P. 469

(1896), regarding a hypothetical situation that was

not before the court. There, the court considered a

mandamus action to preclude a slate of electors from

being certified to the general election ballot on behalf

of a certain presidential candidate on the supposition

that they would not vote for his chosen vice president.

Id. at 470-71. The court recognized that the allegation

was “clearly not one of fact, and the court should not

be guided by the pretense of any one to the powers of

divination.” Id. at 470. While the court went on to say

that the electors could vote for whomever they chose

without interference by the Secretary of State, it

provided no analysis or support. Id. at 470-71. In any

event, the statement does not conflict with the lower

court’s decision when, here, the Petitioners could—

and did—vote for the candidates of their choosing.

30

In short, though States have long used a variety

of mechanisms to discourage “faithless electors,” very

few cases have ever addressed this topic, and only

one modern case (Baca) holds that electors have

a right to vote as they choose. There is no meaningful

disagreement in the lower courts, and this Court

would benefit from allowing the issue to percolate

further in the modern era.

II.

This Case is a Poor Vehicle to Address the

Question Presented

Petitioners contend that this case is “the best

possible vehicle” for the Court to resolve the scope of

States’ powers to direct how presidential electors cast

their ballots. Pet. 29. If that claim is true, it is a

commentary on how poor other vehicles are, not the

strength of this one.

In 2016, Washington’s electoral laws were

unique amongst the States. Washington alone

provided a means to hold electors to their pledge in

the form of a financial penalty, but did not require

further action such as ballot invalidation or removal

of the electors. And the only provision of state law

before the Court—Wash. Rev. Code § 29A.56.340—

has since been modified to eliminate the financial

penalty in question. 2019 Wash. Sess. Laws 755-58

(ch. 143). Thus, if the Court granted review in this

case, it would be determining the constitutionality of

an approach no State currently uses. This is a poor

vehicle by any objective measure.

31

III.

The Limited Historical Impact of

Faithless Electors Does Not Raise an Issue

Warranting This Court’s Intervention

Petitioners also exaggerate the purported

“crisis” created by faithless electors and the need or

utility of immediate intervention by this Court. In

truth, few electors have been faithless in this

country’s entire electoral history. See Nat’l Archives &

Records Admin., Office of the Fed. Register, U.S.

Electoral College, Historical Elections Results,

https://www.archives.gov/federal-register/Electoralcollege/historical.html. They have never before

sparked a constitutional crisis and are unlikely to do

so in the future. Most faithless electors have voted

against their pledges only after their States voted for

the losing presidential candidate. Derek T. Muller,

Why “faithless electors” have little power to change the

winner of presidential elections, Excess of Democracy

Blog (Oct. 19, 2019), https://excessofdemocracy.com/

blog/2019/10/why-faithless-electors-have-little-pow

er-to-change-the-winner-of-presidential-elections.

Petitioners hypothesize a scenario in which a group of

faithless electors swing from the winning candidate to

the runner-up, changing the result of the election, but

since 1900, no faithless elector has cast their vote for

the runner-up candidate. Id.

Petitioners seek to recast the history of

faithless electors as evidencing an absolute right by

electors to vote their conscience. But if electors always

had the right to vote their conscience, there is no good

explanation for the obedience of the vast majority of

them to the will of their States since the first

presidential election held under the Constitution. The

thousands of electors who remain anonymous in their

32

fidelity to their ministerial roles convey far more than

the historical aberrations who did not. And the limited

impact of faithless electors over hundreds of years of

elections cuts against Petitioners’ arguments that any

uncertainty over their roles will suddenly conflagrate

into a constitutional crisis.

While intervention by this Court would have

limited benefit, adopting Petitioners’ arguments

would itself threaten a constitutional crisis. The

historical treatment of presidential electors is firmly

embedded in our electoral system and the national

consciousness. Most Americans have no idea who

their States’ “electors” are, and would be shocked to

learn—as Petitioners ask this Court to believe—that

when they vote for President, they are really just

voting for someone else who gets to choose who to vote

for as President. And important principles of law have

been built upon this understanding, including the

“fundamental” nature of the individual franchise once

States “vest” their appointment authority in their

citizens. Bush, 531 U.S. at 107; Moore v. Ogilvie, 394

U.S. 814, 819 (1969) (“The idea that one group can be

granted greater voting strength than another is

hostile to the one man, one vote basis of our

representative government.”). To adopt Petitioners’

position that 538 presidential electors have the right

to vote their conscience is to render meaningless the

right of all other American citizens to help choose the

President. Such a decision would leave hundreds of

millions of voices a nullity. This vision cannot be

reconciled with the weight of history and this Court’s

prior decisions.

Indeed, electoral chaos appears to be part of

Petitioners’ goal: to use this litigation to precipitate a

33

national crisis of confidence in the hopes of spurning

a movement against the Electoral College.8 This

Court should decline Petitioners’ invitation to create

electoral chaos.

CONCLUSION

The petition for writ of certiorari should be

denied.

RESPECTFULLY SUBMITTED.

ROBERT W. FERGUSON

Attorney General

NOAH G. PURCELL

Solicitor General

Counsel of Record

TERA HEINTZ

CALLIE CASTILLO

Deputy Solicitors General

November 8, 2019

1125 Washington Street SE

Olympia, WA 98504-0100

360-753-6200

8 See, e.g., Equal Citizens, The Legal Argument,

https://equalcitizens.us/electors-freedom/ (last visited Nov. 5,

2019) (explaining that Petitioners’ counsel hopes that a Supreme

Court ruling in their favor will prompt States to respond by

joining the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact); Richard

L. Hasen, The Coming Reckoning Over the Electoral College: A

ploy to bring the issue to the Supreme Court could backfire,

Slate.com (Sept. 4, 2019), https://slate.com/news-and-politics/

2019/09/electoral-college-supreme-court-lessig-faithless-elect

ors.html (explaining that Petitioners’ counsel “hopes the

uncertainty created by the case would create the necessary

groundswell of public support” to do away with the Electoral

College).

APPENDIX

1a

AR000014

Exhibit B

2a

AR000015

Exhibit C

Canvass of the Returns of the General Election

Held on November 8, 2016

I, Kim Wyman, Secretary of State of the State of

Washington, do hereby certify that according to the

provisions of RCW 29A.60.240, I have canvassed the

returns of the 3,363,440 votes cast for candidates in

the November 8, 2016 General Election by the

registered voters of the state for all federal and

statewide offices, and those legislative and judicial

offices whose jurisdiction encompasses more than one

county, as received from the County Auditors, and

that the votes cast for these measures and these

candidates for office are as follows:

Initiative Measure No. 1433

Initiative Measure No. 1433 concerns labor standards.

This measure would increase the state minimum

wage to $11.00 in 2017, $11.50 in 2018, $12.00 in

2019, and $13.50 in 2020, require employers to

provide paid sick leave, and adopt related laws.

Yes

No

1,848,583

1,370,907

Initiative Measure No. 1464

Initiative Measure No. 1464 concerns campaign

finance laws and lobbyists. This measure would create

a campaign-finance system; allow residents to direct

state funds to candidates; repeal the non-resident

3a

sales-tax exemption; restrict lobbying employment by

certain former public employees; and add enforcement

requirements.

Yes

No

1,415,798

1,642,784

Initiative Measure No. 1491

Initiative Measure No. 1491 concerns court-issued

extreme risk protection orders temporarily preventing

access to firearms. This measure would allow police,

family, or household members to obtain court orders

temporarily preventing firearms access by persons

exhibiting mental illness, violent or other behavior

indicating they may harm themselves or others.

Yes

No

2,234,799

985,658

Initiative Measure No. 1501

Initiative Measure No. 1501 concerns seniors and

vulnerable individuals. This measure would increase

the penalties for criminal identity theft and civil

consumer fraud targeted at seniors or vulnerable

individuals; and exempt certain information of

vulnerable individuals and in-home caregivers from

public disclosure.

Yes

No

2,247,906

934,365

Initiative Measure No. 732

Initiative Measure No. 732 concerns taxes. This

measure would impose a carbon emission tax on

certain fossil fuels and fossil-fuel-generated

electricity, reduce the sales tax by one percentage

4a

point and increase a low-income exemption, and

reduce certain manufacturing taxes.

Yes

No

1,265,123

1,839,414

5a

AR000016

Exhibit C

Initiative Measure No. 735

Initiative Measure No. 735 concerns a proposed

amendment to the federal constitution. This measure

would urge the Washington state congressional

delegation to propose a federal constitutional

amendment that constitutional rights belong only to

individuals, not corporations, and constitutionallyprotected free speech excludes the spending of money.

Yes

No

1,923,489

1,138,453

Advisory Vote No. 14

House Bill 2768

The legislature extended, without a vote of the people,

the insurance premium tax to some insurance for

stand-alone family dental plans, costing an

indeterminate amount in the first ten years, for

government spending.

Repealed 2,038,321

Maintained 909,701

Advisory Vote No. 15

Second Engrossed Substitute House Bill 2778

The legislature imposed, without a vote of the people,

certain limitations on the retail sales and use tax

exemptions for clean alternative-fuel vehicles, costing

$2,000,000 in the first ten years, for government

spending.

Repealed

1,754,489

Maintained 1,174,345

6a

Senate Joint Resolution No. 8210

The legislature has proposed a constitutional

amendment on the deadline for completing state

legislative and congressional redistricting. This

amendment would require the state redistricting

commission to complete redistricting for state

legislative and congressional districts by November

15 of each year ending in a one, 46 days earlier than

currently required.

Approved 2,246,030

Rejected

658,927

United States President/ Vice President

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Hillary Clinton / Tim

Democratic Party

Kaine

Nominees

Votes

1,742,718

Donald J. Trump /

Michael R. Pence

Republican Party

Nominees

Alyson Kennedy /

Osborne Hart

Socialist Workers

Party Nominees

4,307

Gloria Estela La Riva /

Eugene Puryear

Socialism &

Liberation Party

Nominees

3,523

Jill Stein / Ajamu Baraka

Green Party

Nominees

58,417

Darrell L. Castle / Scott

N. Bradley

Constitution Party

Nominees

17,623

Gary Johnson / Bill Weld

Libertarian Party

Nominees

160,879

Write-ins

1,221,747

107,805

7a

United States Senator

Ballot Name

Patty Murray

Chris Vance

Party Preference

(Prefers Democratic

Party)

Votes

1,913,979

(Prefers Republican

Party)

1,329,338

8a

AR000017

Exhibit C

Congressional District 1 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Suzan DelBene

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Robert J. Sutherland (Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

193,619

155,779

Congressional District 2 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Rick Larsen

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Marc Hennemann

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

208,314

117,094

Congressional District 3 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Jaime Herrera Beutler (Prefers Republican Party)

Jim Moeller

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

193,457

119,820

Congressional District 4 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Dan Newhouse

(Prefers Republican Party)

Clint Didier

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

132,517

97,402

Congressional District 5 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Cathy McMorris Rodgers (Prefers Republican

Party)

Joe Pakootas

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Congressional District 6 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Derek Kilmer

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Todd A. Bloom

(Prefers Republican Party)

Congressional District 7 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Pramila Jayapal

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Brady Pinero Walkinshaw (Prefers Democratic

Party)

Votes

192,959

130,575

Votes

201,718

126,116

Votes

212,010

166,744

9a

Congressional District 8 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Dave Reichert

(Prefers Republican Party)

Tony Ventrella

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

193,145

127,720

Congressional District 9 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Adam Smith

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Doug Basler

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

205,165

76,317

10a

AR000018

Exhibit C

Congressional District 10 U.S. Representative

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Denny Heck

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Jim Postma

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

170,460

120,104

Washington State Governor

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Jay Inslee

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Bill Bryant

(Prefers Republican Party)

Write-Ins

Votes

1,760,520

1,476,346

8,416

Washington State Lt. Governor

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Cyrus Habib

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Marty McClendon

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

1,698,297

1,424,277

Washington State Secretary of State

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Kim Wyman

(Prefers Republican Party)

Tina Podlodowski

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

1,713,004

1,416,299

Washington State Treasurer

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Duane Davidson

(Prefers Republican Party)

Michael Waite

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

1,576,580

1,134,843

Washington State Auditor

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Mark Miloscia

(Prefers Republican Party)

Pat (Patrice) McCarthy(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

1,455,771

1,597,011

Washington State Attorney General

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Bob Ferguson

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Joshua B. Trumbull

(Prefers Libertarian Party)

Votes

2,000,804

979,105

11a

Washington State Commissioner of Public Lands

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Votes

Steve McLaughlin

(Prefers Republican Party)

1,436,817

Hilary Franz

(Prefers Democratic Party)

1,630,369

Washington State Superintendent of Public Instruction

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Votes

Erin Jones

Nonpartisan

1,309,896

Chris Reykdal

Nonpartisan

1,337,547

12a

AR000019

Exhibit C

Washington State Insurance Commissioner

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Mike Kreidler

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Richard Schrock

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

1,763,134

1,258,827

Legislative District 1 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Mindie Wirth

(Prefers Republican Party)

Guy Palumbo

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

30,850

40,758

Legislative District 1 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Derek Stanford

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Neil Thannisch

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

43,207

27,661

Legislative District 1 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Jim Langston

(Prefers Republican Party)

Shelley Kloba

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

31,739

39,076

Legislative District 2 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Randi Becker

(Prefers Republican Party)

Marilyn Rasmussen (Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

36,739

23,149

Legislative District 2 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Andrew Barkis

(Prefers Republican Party)

Amy Pivetta Hoffman (Prefers Independent Dem.

Party)

Votes

34,167

24,544

13a

Legislative District 2 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

JT Wilcox

(Prefers Republican Party)

Derek Maynes

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

39,033

20,413

Legislative District 7 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Shelly Short

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

56,589

Legislative District 7 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Joel Kretz

(Prefers Republican Party)

Mike Foster

(Prefers Libertarian Party)

Votes

49,635

14,946

Legislative District 9 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Mark G. Schoesler

(Prefers G.O.P Party)

Votes

41,951

14a

AR000020

Exhibit C

Legislative District 9 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Mary Dye

(Prefers Republican Party)

Jennifer Goulet

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

35,640

17,944

Legislative District 9 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Joe Schmick

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

42,695

Legislative District 10 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Barbara Bailey

(Prefers Republican Party)

Angie Homoia

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

42,309

32,309

Legislative District 10 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Norma Smith

(Prefers Republican Party)

Michael Scott

(Prefers Libertarian Party)

Votes

48,178

18,778

Legislative District 10 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Dave Hayes

(Prefers Republican Party)

Doris Brevoort

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

42,962

29,756

Legislative District 12 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Brad Hawkins

(Prefers Republican Party)

Jon Wyss

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

30,882

24,258

Legislative District 12 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Cary Condotta

(Prefers Republican Party)

Dan Maher

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

36,748

21,653

15a

Legislative District 12 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Mike Steele

(Prefers Republican Party)

Jerry Paine

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

30,397

20,112

Legislative District 13 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Tom Dent

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

41,673

Legislative District 13 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Matt Manweller

(Prefers Republican Party)

Jordan Webb

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

35,071

14,507

16a

AR000021

Exhibit C

Legislative District 14 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Curtis King

(Prefers Republican Party)

Amanda Richards

(Prefers Independent GOP

Party)

Votes

31,156

19,900

Legislative District 14 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Norm Johnson

(Prefers Republican Party)

Susan Soto Palmer

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

35,787

18,393

Legislative District 14 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Gina McCabe

(Prefers Republican Party)

John (Eric) Adams

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

36,848

16,914

Legislative District 16 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Maureen Walsh

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

40,354

Legislative District 16 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Rebecca Francik

(Prefers Democratic Party)

William ‘Bill’ Jenkin (Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

18,252

29,812

Legislative District 16 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Terry R. Nealey

(Prefers Republican Party)

Gary Downing

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

32,860

15,507

17a

Legislative District 19 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Dean Takko

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Sue Kuehl Pederson (Prefers Independent GOP

Party)

Votes

30,850

25,064

Legislative District 19 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Jim Walsh

(Prefers Republican Party)

Teresa Purcell

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

28,693

28,134

Legislative District 19 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Brian E. Blake

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Jimi O’Hagan

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

33,629

22,504

18a

AR000022

Exhibit C

Legislative District 20 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

John Braun

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

49,936

Legislative District 20 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Richard DeBolt

(Prefers GOP Party)

Votes

47,206

Legislative District 20 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Ed Orcutt

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

49,195

Legislative District 24 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Kevin Van De Wege (Prefers Democratic Party)

Danille Turissini

(Prefers Independent GOP

Party)

Votes

40,808

31,342

Legislative District 24 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Mike Chapman

(Prefers Democratic Party)

George Vrable

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

43,847

28,150

Legislative District 24 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Steve Tharinger

(Prefers Democratic Party)

John D. Alger

(Prefers GOP/Independent

Party)

Legislative District 26 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Jesse L. Young

(Prefers Republican Party)

Larry Seaquist

(Prefers Indep’t Democrat

Party)

Votes

40,704

30,895

Votes

39,857

30,224

19a

Legislative District 26 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Michelle Caldier

(Prefers Republican Party)

Randy Spitzer

(Prefers Independent Dem.

Party)

Votes

40,755

28,387

Legislative District 30 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Mike Pellicciotti

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Linda Kochmar

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

26,820

22,465

Legislative District 30 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Kristine Reeves

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Teri Hickel

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

25,206

24,124

20a

AR000023

Exhibit C

Legislative District 31 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Drew Stokesbary

(Prefers Republican Party)

John Frostad

(Prefers Libertarian Party)

Legislative District 31 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Phil Fortunato

(Prefers Republican Party)

Lane Walthers

(Prefers Independent Dem.

Party)

Votes

42,776

16,976

Votes

36,000

26,364

Legislative District 32 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Cindy Ryu

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Alvin Rutledge

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

50,061

15,950

Legislative District 32 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Ruth Kagi

(Prefers Democratic Party)

David D. Schirle

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

47,908

18,115

Legislative District 35 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Dan Griffey

(Prefers Republican Party)

Irene Bowling

(Prefers Independent Dem.

Party)

Legislative District 35 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Drew C. MacEwen

(Prefers Republican Party)

Craig Patti

(Prefers Independent Dem.

Party)

Votes

36,235

29,658

Votes

35,384

29,888

21a

Legislative District 39 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Kirk Pearson

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

50,942

Legislative District 39 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Dan Kristiansen

(Prefers Republican Party)

Linda M. Wright

(Prefers Democrat Party)

Votes

37,503

23,306

Legislative District 39 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

John Koster

(Prefers Republican Party)

Ronda Metcalf

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

37,250

23,854

22a

AR000024

Exhibit C

Legislative District 40 State Senator

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Kevin Ranker

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Daniel R. Miller

(Prefers Republican Party)

Votes

47,108

23,081

Legislative District 40 State Representative

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Kristine Lytton

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

53,429

Legislative District 40 State Representative

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Jeff Morris

(Prefers Democratic Party)

Votes

52,376

Supreme Court Justice Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Mary Yu

Nonpartisan

David DeWolf

Nonpartisan

Votes

1,577,495

1,174,263

Supreme Court Justice Position 5

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Barbara Madsen

Nonpartisan

Greg Zempel

Nonpartisan

Votes

1,679,786

1,031,698

Supreme Court Justice Position 6

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Charles (Charlie) Wiggins Nonpartisan

Dave Larson

Nonpartisan

Votes

1,535,554

1,135,285

Court of Appeals, Division 2, District 3 Judge

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Jill M. Johanson

Nonpartisan

Votes

211,205

23a

Court of Appeals, Division 3, District 2 Judge

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

George Fearing

Nonpartisan

Patrick McBurney

Nonpartisan

Votes

86,411

74,813

Court of Appeals, Division 3, District 3 Judge

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Rebecca Pennell

Nonpartisan

Votes

106,059

Asotin, Columbia, Garfield Superior Court

Judge Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Scott D. Gallina

Nonpartisan

Votes

10,406

24a

AR000025

Exhibit C

Benton, Franklin Superior Court Judge

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Bruce A. Spanner

Nonpartisan

Votes

75,587

Benton, Franklin Superior Court Judge

Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Joe Burrowes

Nonpartisan

Sam Swanberg

Nonpartisan

Votes

48,499

43,603

Benton, Franklin Superior Court Judge

Position 3

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Alexander Carl Ekstrom Nonpartisan

Alicia Marie Berry

Nonpartisan

Votes

49,528

41,433

Benton, Franklin Superior Court Judge

Position 4

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Cameron Mitchell

Nonpartisan

Votes

78,206

Benton, Franklin Superior Court Judge

Position 5

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Vic L. VanderSchoor Nonpartisan

Votes

75,928

Benton, Franklin Superior Court Judge

Position 6

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Carrie Runge

Nonpartisan

Votes

75,210

Benton, Franklin Superior Court Judge

Position 7

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Jackie Shea Brown

Nonpartisan

Votes

75,697

25a

Ferry, Pend Oreille, Stevens Superior Court

Judge Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Patrick A. Monasmith Nonpartisan

C. Olivia Irwin

Nonpartisan

Votes

21,247

7,477

Ferry, Pend Oreille, Stevens Superior Court

Judge Position 2

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Jessica (Taylor) Reeves Nonpartisan

Terry L. Williams

Nonpartisan

Votes

17,459

11,324

Klickitat, Skamania Superior Court Judge

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Randall Krog

Nonpartisan

Votes

10,035

26a

AR000026

Exhibit C

Pacific, Wahkiakum Superior Court Judge

Position 1

Ballot Name

Party Preference

Douglas E. Goelz

Nonpartisan

Michael S. Turner

Nonpartisan

Votes

5,743

5,666

In Testimony Whereof, I have hereunto

set my hand and affixed the Seal of the

State of Washington on this 7th day of

December 2016, at Olympia, the State

Capital.

s/Kim Wyman

Kim Wyman

Secretary of State

27a

AR000027

Exhibit D

Certificate of Ascertainment

of the Votes Cast for Presidential Electors

of the State of Washington

Pursuant to Article II, Section 1, of the Constitution

of the United States, Section 1 of Title 3, United

States Code, and the related constitutional and

statutory provisions of the United States and the

State of Washington, an election of presidential

electors was held on Tuesday, November 8, 2016. The

numbers of votes cast for each slate of electors at this

general election, as certified by the Secretary of State

pursuant to RCW 29A.60.50, are as follows:

Electors of the Democratic Party

Varisha

M

Khan

Peter

Bret

Chiafalo

Ryleigh

Levi

Ivey

Jennet Guerra

Phillip

W

Tyler

Julie

Chris

A

L

Johnson

Porter

Dan

William Carpita

Esther

Virginia John

1,742,718

20320 - 217th Woodinville WA 98077

Ave NE

WA 98204

2106 - 13lst Pl Everett

SW

1022 W 39th St Vancouver WA 98660

WA 98857

20507 Rd 11

Warden

SE

WA 99223

5216 S

Spokane

Altamont Ln

PO Box 187

Neah Bay WA 98357

WA 98136

8424 - 46th Ave Seattle

SW

39235 - 258th Enumclaw WA 98022

Ave SE

WA 98144

1807 - 13th Ave Seattle

S

28a

Eric

PW

Robert

K

Elizabeth Jean

Herde

12305 Golden

Given Rd E

Satiacum 8216 42nd

Street Ct W

Caldwell 12540 N Park

Ave N

Tacoma

WA 98445

University WA 98466

Place

WA 98133

Seattle

Alternate electors

Richard Arthur Marshall 8001 - 156th St Snohomish WA 98296

SE

Lona

Wilbur

PO Box 309

La Conner WA 98257

Ralph

E

Schmidt 9705 NE 109th Vancouver WA 98662

Ct

WA 98951

Mathew K M

Tomaskin PO Box 302

Wapato

WA 99025

Rebecca K

Graham 4613 N Malta Newman

St

Lake

WA 98359

Payton Oliver Swinford 6465 SE

Olalla

Fragaria Rd

WA 98199

Kimiko Richard- Rutledge 2621 - 24th Ave Seattle

son

W

Emilie Sakiye Reitz

15910 Uplands North Bend WA 98045

Way SE

WA 98122

Orson

William- 816 - 21st Ave Seattle

son

Patti

A

Dailey

3131 Bridgeport University WA 98466

Way W, #29

Place

Julian

FS

Wheeler 6416 Steilacoom Lakewood WA 98499

Blvd SW

WA 98026

Carin

B

Chase

8432 228th St Edmonds

SW

29a

AR000028

Exhibit D

Electors of the Republican Party

Ronald

Rob

H

Laura

David

Kurt

William Bruce

Garry

Daniel

F

Joy

Debra

Robert

Susan

Lyle

1,221,747

2523 Graf Rd Centralia WA 98531

WA’ 98001

34040 46th Ave Auburn

S

WA 98109

Day

1212 5th Ave N Seattle

#3

Flint

17417 55th Pl Lynnwood WA 98037

W

WA 98272

Goering 19960 Raven- Monroe

wood Rd SE

WA 99352

Heath

1760 Kapalua Richland

Ave

WA 98506

Holland 5442 Sleater- Olympia

Kinney Rd NE

Nims

2450 Wallula

Walla Walla WA 99362

Ave

Omlid

9412 Thomle Rd Stanwood WA 98292

WA 98023

Sabin

32320 20th Pl Federal

SW

Way

Leavenworth WA 98826

Schneider PO Box 206

Shotthafer 214 Alderview Port

WA 98362

Dr

Angeles

Averill

Barrans

Electors of the Socialist Workers Party

Geoffrey B

Hamill

Deborah L

Higdon

James

Miller

F

Dean

Denno

Edwin

B

Fruit

Mary

J

Martin

4903 Fremont

Ave N

308 E Republican St #308

308 E Republican St #308

14643 7th Ave

SW

4431 37th Ave

SW #36

4431 37th Ave

SW #36

4,307

Seattle

WA 98103

Seattle

WA 98102

Seattle

WA 98102

Burien

WA 98166

Seattle

WA 98126

Seattle

WA 98126

30a

John

F

Scott

A

Rachel

Cecelia

H

Jeanne

Ann

Henry

Clay

Naubert

3332 172nd St Burien

SW

Breen

5902 Eastwood Seattle

Dr S

Knapik

5902 Eastwood Seattle

Dr S

Moriarity 9201 Rainier

Seattle

Ave S #312

Fitzmaurice 5913 Rainier

Seattle

Ave S #303

Dennison 5913 Rainier

Seattle

Ave S #303

WA 98166

WA 98178

WA 98178

WA 98118

WA 98118

WA 98118

Electors of the Socialism and Liberation Party 3,523

Jane

N

Cutter

Andrew T

Freeman

Rachel

C

Freeman

Elizabeth A

DeLeon

Adam

Evans

Andrew

Clemens

Aaron

Devlin

Meredith

Michael

Brian

Maher

Kennedy

Arena

Buchert

Brown

Andrew M

Snyder

14521 6th Ave Shoreline

NE

14521 6th Ave Shoreline

NE

14521 6th Ave Shoreline

NE

14521 6th Ave Shoreline

NE

411 B Filbert

Burlington

Ln

7632 13th Ave Olympia

NE

713 N 33rd St Renton

3923 14th Ave S Seattle

3923 14th Ave S Seattle

1823 26th Ave Seattle

4420 326th Ave Carnation

NE

3923 14th Ave S Seattle

WA 98155

WA 98155

WA 98155

WA 98155

WA 98733

WA 98516

WA 98056

WA 98108

WA 98108

WA 98122

WA 98104

WA 98108

31a

AR000029

Exhibit D

Electors of the Green Party

Jody

Rvan

Nan

Grage

Jones

McMurry

Todd

Daniel

Lisa

Ethan

Boyle

Lee

Canar

Rourke

Claude

William B

Chuck

David

Allison

Ginsburg

Dickinson

Richards

Jette

Strong

2428 NW 56th Seattle

216 23rd E #C4 Seattle

3401 W Govern- Seattle

ment Way #304

6057 3rd NW

Seattle

139 23rd S

Seattle

915 N 79th

Seattle

11745 15th NE Seattle

#201

3011 NW 75th Seattle

2428 NW 56th Seattle

8325 9th NW

Seattle

134 N 81st

Seattle

5531 25th NE Seattle

Electors of the Constitution Party

Teodore

Gregory

Miles

Robert

P

D

Dan’l

W

Baker

Thom

Adams

Peck

4817 N Stone St Spokane

PO Box 2077

Brewster

7500 50th Pl

Marysville

4610 S Bates

Spokane

Rd

Valley

Karen

Y

Murray

127 N Street

Quincy

SW

Douglas Franklin 215 W GoodPaul

Selah

lander Rd

Montgomery 4715 E Sumac Spokane

Marilyn J

Dr

Roy

W

Hagle Jr. 1112 S Comax Spokane

Ct

Jonathan Caleb Collier

11307 E 42nd Spokane

Ct

Valley

Michael Earl

Johnson

2014 W Broad- Spokane

wav Ave #7

58,417

WA 98107

WA 98112

WA 98199

WA 98107

WA 98144

WA 98103

WA 98125

WA 98117

WA 98107

WA 98117

WA 98103

WA 98105

17,623

WA 99207

WA 98812

WA 98270

WA 99206

WA 98848

WA 98902

WA 99223

WA 99224

WA 99206

WA 99201

32a

Derral

White

Douglas A

Olson

2146 Heritage

Way

524 E Timberwood Cir

Addy

WA 99101

Spokane

WA 99208

33a

AR000030

Exhibit D

Electors of the Libertarian Party

Jason

Don

Rory

Jeff

Robert

Gavin

Larry

Jacob

C

Heather

Tiffany

Steven

160,879

WA 98802

645 S Lawler

E

Ave

Wenatchee

Myers

901 E Hagdon Moses Lake WA 98837

.

Dr

WA 99206

Leckband 10501 E Sinto Spokane

Ave

Valley

McCardel 903 N 9th Way Ridgefield WA 98642

Straton

11 Wisteria Ln Bellingham WA 98229

WA 98908

Keefe

415 N 44th Ave Yakima

A

Nicholas 2618 Huron St Bellingham WA 98226

WA 98230

D

Lamont

8241 Harbor- Blaine

view Rd

Michael Pickens

WA 98040

3010 67th Ave Mercer

SE

Island

WA 98003

Fensch

2101 S 324th St Federal

#200

Way

WA 98366

Diaz de

11013 SE Rae Port

Leone

Ct

Orchard

WA 98367

Nielson

512 Mansfield Port

Ct SW #301

Orchard

Fonville

Having received the greatest number of votes cast for

the positions of Presidential Elector, the nominees for

the Democratic Party for those positions are hereby

declared duty elected and qualified to perform the

duties and discharge the responsibilities of these

offices.

In Witness Whereof, I have hereunto

set my hand and caused the Seal of the

State of Washington to be affixed this

7th day of December, 2016.

34a

s/ Jay Inslee

Jay Inslee

Governor

Attest:

s/Kim Wyman

Kim Wyman

Secretary of State

35a

AR000031

Exhibit E

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ELECTORAL COLLEGE

OF THE STATE OF WASHINGTON

DECEMBER 19, 2016

OLYMPIA, WASHINGTON

At the state general election held on November 8,

2016, the followlng persons received the highest

number of votes for the office of Presidential Elector

of the State of Washington and were certified by the

Secretary of State to be duly elected and qualified:

ELECTORS OF THE DEMOCRATIC PARTY

Elizabeth Caldwell Dan Carpita

Levi Guerra

Eric Herde

Esther John

Julie Johnson

Chris Porter

Robert Satiacum

Peter Chiafalo

Ryleigh Ivey

Varisha Khan

Phillip Tyler

The Presidential Electors of the State of Washington

met at twelve o’clock noon on the nineteenth day of

December, 2016, in the State Reception Room of the

Capitol. The electors were welcomed by Governor Jay

lnslee. Six original copies of the Certificate of

Ascertainment were presented to the Presidential

Electors by Secretary of State Kim Wyman.

The electors voted to select their chairperson. Julie

Johnson was elected Chairperson of the Electoral

College of the State of Washington.

The chairperson led the electors in the vote for the

position of President of the United States. Ballots

were distributed on which each elector indicated his

36a

or her choice for the position of President of the United

States. The ballots were returned to the chairperson.

The result of the voting on the position of the

President of the United States was as follows:

Hillary Clinton................. Eight (8) Votes

Colin Powell ..................... Three (3) Votes

Faith Spotted Eagle ......... One (1) Vote

The presidential electors proceeded to vote for the

position of Vice President of the United States. Ballots

were distributed on which each elector indicated his

or her choice for the position of Vice President of the

United States. The ballots were returned to the

chairperson. The result of the voting on the position of

the Vice President of the United States was as follows:

Tim Kaine ........................ Eight (8) Votes

Elizabeth Warren ............ One (1) Vote

Susan Collins ................... One (1) Vote

Maria Cantwell ................ One (1) Vote

Winona LaDuke. .............. One (1) Vote

Six original certifications of the votes cast for the

positions of President and Vice President were

prepared. The certification of the votes cast was read

to the presidential electors. The presidential electors

then executed the six original copies of the certificate

attesting to their votes and instructed the Secretary

of State to distribute them as follows:

37a

AR000032

Exhibit E

1.

One original of the certificate to be sent to the

President of the United States Senate at

Washington, D.C.;

2.

Two original copies of the certificate to be sent

to the Archivist of the United States at

Washington, D.C.;

3.

One original copy of the certificate to be sent to

the Presiding Judge of the Federal District

Court of the Western District, Seattle,

Washington;

4.

Two original copies of the certificate to be

retained by the Secretary of State of the State

of Washington as required by law.

Having completed their official business, the

presidential electors executed this certificate of these

proceedings and adjourned sine die.

WITNESS OUR SIGNATURES AND THE SEAL OF THE

STATE OF WASHINGTON, on this first Monday, the

19th of December, 2016.

/s Elizabeth Caldwell

Elizabeth Caldwell

s/ Ester John

Esther John

s/ Dan Carpita

Dan Carpita

s/ Julie A. Johnson

Julie Johnson

s/ Peter Chiafalo

Peter Chiafalo

s/ Varisha Khan

Varisha Khan

38a

s/ Levi Guerra

Levi Guerra

s/ Chris L. Porter

Chris Porter

s/ Eric Herder

Eric Herde

s/ Robert Satiacum

Robert Satiacum

s/ Ryleigh Ivey

Ryleigh Ivey

s/ Phillip Tyler

Phillip Tyler

Attest: s/Kim Wyman

KIM WYMAN

Secretary of State

39a

AR000033

Exhibit F

40a

AR000034

Exhibit G

41a

AR000653

42a

AR000672

43a

AR000673

44a

AR000334

45a

AR000353

46a

AR000354