In re Motors Liquidation Co.

DECISION ON MOTION TO ENFORCE SALE ORDER

ROBERT E. GERBER, UNITED STATES BANKRUPTCY JUDGE:

Introduction... 520

Summary of Conclusions... 523

1. Due Process... 523

(a) Notice Before Entry of Sale Order ...524

(b) Notice Before Expungement of Claims... 525

(c) Requirement for Prejudice... 525

2. Remedies... 527

3. Assumed Liabilities... 528

4. Equitable Mootness... 528

5. Fraud on the Court.. .529

6. Certification to the Circuit.. .529 Facts... 529

1. Background... 529

2. Chapter 11 Filing.. .530

3. The Sale Motion and Notice Order... 530

4. Notice of the Sale.. .531

5. Objections to Free and Clear Provisions ... 531

6. Sale Agreement — Relevant Provisions. . .533

7. The Sale Order... 534

8. Matters After the Sale... 535

9. The GUC Trust and its Operation ...536

10. Knowledge of the Ignition Switch Defect.. .538

11. The Motion to Enforce... 538

12. The Threshold Issues... 539 Discussion... 540

I.Due Process... 540

A. Underlying Principles... 540

1. Mullane.. .540

2. Second Circuit Guidance... 543

3. Guidance from Lower Courts... 546

4. The Known-Unknown Creditor Distinction. . .547

*520 B. The Particular Issues Here... 550

1. Do Due Process Requirements Apply?... 550

2. Notice by Publication...555

3. Known Claim Analysis... 556

4. The Requirement for Prejudice ...560

5. Application of Those Principles to Economic Loss Plaintiffs... 565

(a) Successor Liability.. .566

(b) New GMs Own Wrongful Acts... 568

(c) The Used Car Purchasers... 570

6. Application of Those Principles to Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs... 572

7. Application to Filing of Claims... 573

II. Remedies... 574

A. The Sale Order... 574

1. Prejudice As Affecting Remedy...575

2. Attaching Claims to Sale Proceeds ...575

3. Protection of Purchasers of Estate Assets.. .576

4. Effect of Constitutional Violations ...577

5. Remedies Conclusion... 582

B.' Claims... 583

III. Assumed Liabilities... 583

IV. Equitable Mootness... 583

A. Underlying Principles... 584

B. Applying Those Principles Here... 585

1. Ability to Fashion Effective Relief. ..586

2. Effect on Re-emergence of Debtor as Revitalized Corporate Entity... 587

3. Unraveling Intricate Transactions. ..587 •

4. Adversely Affected Parties... 589

5. Pursuit of Stay Remedies... 590

V. Fraud on the Court.. .592

1. Effect on Process of Adjudication ...594

2. Victim of the Fraud... 595

3. Particular Standards to Apply.. .596

VI. Certification to Circuit.. .597

Conclusion... 598

Introduction

In this contested matter in the chapter 11 case of Debtor Motors Liquidation Company, previously known as General Motors Corporation (“Old GM”), General Motors LLC (“New GM”) — the acquirer of most of Old GM’s assets in a section 363 sale back in July 2009 — moves for an order enforcing provisions of the July 5, 2009 order (the “Sale Order”) by which this Court approved New GM’s purchase of Old GM’s assets. 1

The Sale Order, filed in proposed form on the first day of Old GM’s chapter 11 case with Old GM’s motion for the sale’s approval, was entered, in a slightly modified form, within a few hours after this Court issued its opinion approving the sale. 2 There were approximately 850 ob *521 jections to the 363 Sale, the proposed Sale Order, or both. But the most serious were those relating to elements of the Sale Order (“Free ánd Clear Provisions”), discussed in more detail below, that provided that New GM would purchase Old GM’s assets “free and clear” of successor liability claims. After lengthy analysis, 3 the Court overruled those objections.

In March 2014, New GM announced to the public, for the first time, serious defects in ignition switches that had been installed in Chevy Cobalts and HHRs, Pontiac G5s and Solstices, and Saturn Ions and Skys (the “Ignition Switch Defect”), going back to the 2005 model year. In the Spring of 2014 (though many have queried why Old GM and/or New GM failed to do so much sooner), New GM then issued a recall of the affected vehicles, under which New GM would replace the defective switches, and bear the costs for doing so.

New GM previously had agreed to assume responsibility for any accident claims involving post-sale deaths, personal injury, and property damage — which would include any that might have resulted from the Ignition Switch Defect. But New GM’s announcement was almost immediately followed by the filing of about 60 class actions in courts around the United States, seeking compensatory damages, punitive damages, RICO damages and attorneys fees for other kinds of losses to consumers — “Economic Loss” — alleged to have resulted from the Ignition Switch Defect. The claims for Economic Loss include claims for alleged reduction in the resale value of affected cars, other economic loss (such as unpaid time off from work when getting an ignition switch replaced), and inconvenience. The Court has been informed that the number of class actions now pending against New GM — the great bulk of which were brought by or on behalf of individuals claiming Economic Loss (“Economic Loss Plaintiffs”) — now exceeds 140. Though the amount sought by Economic Loss Plaintiffs is for the most part unliquidated, it has been described as from $7 to $10 billion. Most of those actions (“Ignition Switch Actions”) are now being jointly administered, for pretrial purposes, in a multi-district proceeding before the Hon. Jesse Furman, U.S.D.J., in the Southern District of New York (the “MDL Court”).

New GM here seeks to enforce the Sale Order’s provisions, quoted below, blocking economic loss lawsuits against New GM on claims involving vehicles and parts manufactured by Old GM. 4 New GM argues that while it had voluntarily undertaken, under the Sale Order, to take on an array of Old GM liabilities (for the post-sale accidents involving both Old GM and New GM vehicles just described; under the express warranty on the sale of any Old GM or New GM vehicle (the “Glove Box Warranty”); to satisfy statutory recall obligations with respect to Old GM and New GM vehicles alike; and under Lemon *522 Laws, again with respect to Old GM and New GM vehicles alike), the Sale Order blocked any others — including those in these suits for Economic Loss.

The Sale Order, as discussed below, plainly so provides. But as to 70 million Old GM cars whose owners had not been in accidents of which they’d advised Old GM, the Sale Order was entered with notice only by publication. And those owning cars with Ignition Switch Defects (again, those who had not been in accidents known to Old GM) — an estimated 27 million in number — were given neither individual mailed notice of the 363 Sale, nor mailed notice of the opportunity to file claims for any losses they allegedly suffered. And more importantly, from the perspective of these car owners, they were not given recall notices which (in addition to facilitating switch replacement before accidents took place), they contend were essential to enabling them to respond to the published notices to object to the 363 Sale or to file claims.

Then, after New GM filed the Motion to Enforce, two other categories of Plaintiffs came into the picture. One was another group of Ignition Switch Defect plaintiffs (the “Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs”) who (unlike the Economic Loss Plaintiffs) are suing with respect to actual accidents. But because those accidents involved Old GM and took place before the 363 Sale Closing- — and taking on pre-closing accident liability was not commercially necessary to New GM’s future success — -they were not among the accidents involving Old GM vehicles for which New GM agreed to assume responsibility. The Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs have (or at least had) the right to assert claims against Old GM (the only entity that was in existence at the time their accidents took place), but they nevertheless wish to proceed against New GM. New GM brought a second motion to enforce the Sale Order 5 with respect to the Pre-Clos-ing Accident Plaintiffs, and issues with respect to this Plaintiff group were heard in tandem with the Motion to Enforce.

The other category of Plaintiffs later coming into the picture (“Non-Ignition Switch Plaintiffs”) brought actions asserting Economic Loss claims as to GM branded cars that did not have Ignition Switch Defects, including ears made by New GM and Old GM alike. In fact, most of their cars did not have defects, and/or were not the subject of recalls, at all. But they contend, in substance, that the Ignition Switch Defect caused damage to “the brand,” 6 resulting in Economic Loss to *523 them. New GM brought still another motion 7 to enforce the Sale Order with respect to them, though this third motion has been deferred pending the determination of the issues here.

In this Court, the first two groups of Plaintiffs, whose issues the Court could consider on- a common set of stipulated facts and is in major respects considering together, 8 contend that by reason of Old GM’s failure to send out recall notices, they never learned of the Ignition Switch Defect, and that the Sale Order is unenforceable against them.

Summary of Conclusions

New GM is right when it says that most of the claims now asserted against it are proscribed under the Sale Order. But that is only the start, and not the end, of the relevant inquiry. And assuming, as the Plaintiffs argue, that Old GM’s and then New GM’s delay in announcing the Ignition Switch Defect to the driving public was unforgiveable, that too is only the start, and not the end of the relevant inquiry.

The real issues before the Court involve questions of procedural due process, and what to do about it if due process is denied: (1) what notice was sufficient; (2) to what extent an assertedly aggrieved individual’s lack of prejudice from insufficient notice matters; (3) what remedies are appropriate for any due process denial; and (4) to what extent sale orders can be modified after the fact at the expense of those who purchased assets from an estate on the expectation that the sale orders would be enforced in accordance with their terms. They also involve the needs, and concerns of Old GM creditors whose claims are pending, and of holders of units of the Old GM General Unsecured Creditors Trust (“GUC Trust”), formed for the benefit of unsecured creditors when Old GM confirmed its liquidating plan of reorganization (the “Plan”) — all of whom would be prejudiced if Old GM’s remaining assets were tapped to satisfy an additional $7 to $10 billion in claims.

For the reasons discussed at length below, the Court concludes:

1. Due Process

Notice must be provided in bankruptcy cases, as in plenary litigation, that is “reasonably calculated, under all the circumstances” to apprise people of the pendency of any proceeding that may result in then-being deprived of any property, and to “afford them an opportunity to present their objections.” 9 The Second Circuit, like many other courts, has held that “the Due Process Clause requires the best notice practical under the circumstances.” 10 *524 But “actual” (ie., personalized) notice is required for “known” creditors — those whose names and addresses are “reasonably ascertainable.” 11 “Constructive” notice (typically provided by publication) can be used when it is the best notice practical under the circumstances. But publication notice, as a substitute for actual notice, at least normally is insufficient for “known” creditors.

In the bankruptcy context, those general principles apply to both the notice required incident to sale approval motions, on the one hand, and to claims allowance, on the other. And in this case, the Court ultimately reaches largely the same conclusions with respect to each. But the different circumstances applicable to the sale process (to be completed before a grievously bleeding Old GM ran out of money) and the claims process (which lacked comparable urgency) cause the Court to reach those conclusions in different ways.

(a) Notice Before Entry of Sale Order

The Court disagrees with New GM’s contention that imposing free and clear provisions doesn’t result in a potential deprivation of property, and thus concludes that due process requirements apply. But the caselaw — in plenary litigation and in bankruptcy cases alike — permits, and indeed requires, consideration of practicality.

There was extraordinary urgency in connection with the 363 Sale. In June 2009, Old GM was bleeding cash at an extraordinary rate. And U.S. and Canadian governmental authorities, who had agreed to provide cash to keep Old GM alive until the closing of a 363 sale, had conditioned their willingness to continue the necessary funding on the approval of the 363 Sale by July 10, 2009, only 40 days after the chapter 11 filing.

Given that urgency, with the sale hearing to commence 29 days after the Petition Date; objections due 18 days after the Petition Date; and 70 million Old GM vehicles on the road, notice by publication to vehicle owners was obviously proper. Indeed, it was essential. It would be wholly unreasonable to expect actual notice of the 363 Sale hearing then to have been mailed to the owners of the 70 million GM cars on the road at the time, or even the 27 million whose ears were then (or later became) the subject of pending recalls. Though notice by publication would at least normally also be acceptable in instances involving considerably smaller bodies of creditors, this is exactly the kind of situation for which notice by publication is the norm. Under normal circumstances, notice by publication would easily be sufficient under Mullane, Drexel Burnham, and their respective progeny.

But the Court must also determine whether the knowledge of many Old GM personnel of the Ignition Switch Defect removes this case from the general rule. While there is no indication on this record, if there ever will be, that Old GM’s bankruptcy counsel knew of the need to focus on notice to owners of cars with Ignition Switch Defects, at least 24 business and in-house legal personnel at Old GM were aware of the problem. As of June 2009, when entry of the Sale Order was sought, Old GM had. enough knowledge of the Ignition Switch Defect to be required, under the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act (the “Safety Act”), to send out mailed recall notices to owners of affected Old GM vehicles. And Old GM knew to *525 whom it had to mail the recall notices, and had addresses for them.

The adequacy of notice issue is nevertheless close, however, because while Old GM had a known recall obligation, and knew the names and addresses of those owning the vehicles that were affected, Old GM gave actual notice of the 363 Sale to anyone who had previously asserted a claim against it for injury or death — by reason of Ignition Switch Defects or otherwise. And only a subset (and, possibly a small subset) of the others who were entitled to Ignition Switch Defect recall notices would later turn out to have been injured, killed, or economically damaged as a result of the circumstances that led to the recall, or want to object to the 363 Sale or any of its terms. That some of them would be killed or injured was known; who they would he was not.

But on balance the Court believes that the distinction is insufficient to be meaningful. The known safety hazard that engendered the unsatisfied recall obligations gave rise to claims associated with the repair (and assertedly, though this is yet to be decided, decreases in value) of the cars and would give rise to more claims if car occupants were killed or injured as a result. Old GM knew — even if it knew the particular identities of only some cars that had been in Ignition Switch Defect accidents — that the defect had caused accidents; that is exactly why this particular recall was required. And Old GM also knew, from the same facts that caused it to be on notice of the need for the recall, that others, in the future, would be in accidents as well.

The publication notice here given, which otherwise would have been perfectly satisfactory (especially given the time exigencies), was not by itself enough for those whose cars had Ignition Switch Defects— because from Old GM’s perspective, the facts that gave rise to its recall obligation resulted in “known” claims, as that expression is used in due process jurisprudence. Because owners of cars with Ignition Switch Defects received neither the notice required under the Safety Act nor any reasonable substitute (either of which, if given before Old GM’s chapter 11 filing, could have been followed by the otherwise satisfactory post-filing notice by publication), they were denied the notice that due process requires.

(b) Notice Before Expungement of Claims

By contrast to the 363 Sale, there was no particular urgency with respect to the allowance of claims. Claims could be (and ultimately were) considered in a less hurried fashion. And while notice only by publication to 70 million (or even 27 million) vehicle owners not known by Old GM to have been in accidents would be the norm for the claims process as well (and notice by publication, applicable in this respect and others, is what this Court then approved), the fact is that even at the later times set as deadlines for the filing of claims, Old GM still had not sent out notice of the recall, and Old GM car owners were still unaware of any resulting potential claims.

In the claims allowance respect too, the Court concludes that Old GM’s knowledge of facts sufficient to justify notice of a recall, and its failure to provide the recall notice, effectively resulted in a denial of the notice due process requires.

(c) Requirement for Prejudice

Though the Court has found failures, insofar as the Plaintiffs are concerned, to provide the notice that due process requires, that does not by itself mean that they have established a due process violation. The Court categorically rejects the Plaintiffs’ contention that prejudice is ir *526 relevant. Rather, in order to establish a due process violation, they must demonstrate that they have sustained prejudice as a result of the allegedly insufficient notice. 12

In some instances, a lack of notice plainly results in prejudice, as in instances in which the earlier judicial action cannot be undone. In others, it does not — and it can be cured by providing the opportunity to be heard at a later time, and, where the law permits and requires, vacating or modifying the earlier order, or exempting parties from the order’s effect. In every case, however, a denial of notice need not result in an automatic win for the party that failed to get appropriate notice the first time around. Instead that party should get the full and fair hearing it was initially denied, with the Court, then focusing on the extent to which prejudice actually resulted — and, of course, on achieving the right outcome on the merits, which in a perfect world would have been reached the first time. 13

Both groups of Plaintiffs were plainly prejudiced with respect to the bar date for filing claims. But the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs were not prejudiced at all, and the Economic Loss Plaintiffs were prejudiced only in part, by the failure to give them the requisite notice in connection with the 363 Sale. Neither the Economic Loss Plaintiffs nor the Pre-Closing Sale Plaintiffs were prejudiced with respect to the Sale Order’s Free and Clear Provisions. Back in 2009, the Court heard many others make the same arguments, and rejected them. The Court now has heard from both the Economic Loss Plaintiffs and Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs with respect to the Free and Clear Provisions and successor liability, with full and fair opportunity to be heard. And neither Plaintiff group has advanced any arguments on successor liability that were not previously made, and made exceedingly well before. Their principal contention— that they would have won by reason of public outrage, political pressure, or the U.S. Treasury’s anger with Old GM, when they would not have won in the courtroom — is the very speculation that they rightfully criticize. Thus insofar as successor liability is concerned, while the Plaintiffs established a failure to provide them with the notice due process requires, they did not establish a due process violation. The Free and Clear Provisions stand. 14

But the Economic Loss Plaintiffs were prejudiced in one respect. Nobody else had argued a point that they argue now: that the proposed Sale Order was overly broad, and that it should have allowed them to assert claims involving Old GM vehicles and parts so long as they were basing their claims solely on New GM *527 conduct, and not based on any kind of successor liability or any other act by Old GM. If the Economic Loss Plaintiffs had made that argument back in 2009, the Court would have agreed with them. And by contrast to their predictions as to possible results of public outrage, this is not at áll speculative, since the Court had ruled on closely similar issues before, seven years earlier, and, indeed, again in that very same Sale Opinion. Here, by contrast, the failure to provide the notice that due process requires was coupled with resulting prejudice. The Economic Loss Plaintiffs were not furnished the opportunity to make the overbreadth argument back in 2009, and in that respect they were prejudiced. The failure to be heard on this latter argument necessarily must be viewed as having affected the earlier result.

Thus, with respect to Sale Order over-breadth, the Economic Loss Plaintiffs suffered a denial of due process, requiring the Court to then turn to the appropriate remedy.

2. Remedies

As noted above, the Court has rejected the Plaintiffs’ contention that prejudice is irrelevant to a claim for denial of due process. And it has likewise rejected the notion that the denial of the notice that due process requires means that the Plaintiffs should automatically win. But to the extent they were prejudiced (and the Court has determined that the Economic Loss Plaintiffs were prejudiced with respect to Sale Order overbreadth), they deserve a remedy tailored to the prejudice they suffered, to the extent the law permits.

The Court rejects, for reasons discussed below, New GM’s contention that the principles under which property is sold free and clear of liens, with the liens to attach instead to sale proceeds, apply universally to interests other than liens — as relevant here, interests permitting the assertion of successor liability. But New GM’s next several points — that purchasers of assets acquire property rights too, and that taking away purchasers’ contractually bargained-for rights strikes at the heart of understandings critically important to the bankruptcy system — have great merit. They have so much merit, in fact, that were it not for the fact that the Plaintiffs’ claim is a constitutional one, the Court would not deny enforcement of the Sale Order, in whole or in part. There is no good reason to give creditors asserting successor liability claims recovery rights greater than those of other creditors. And as importantly or more so, the interests inherent in the enforceability of 363 orders (on which the buyers of assets should justifiably be able to rely, and on which the interests of creditors, keenly interested in the maximization of estate value, likewise rest) are hugely important.

But the Court concludes that remedying a constitutional violation must trump those concerns. Decisions of the Second Circuit and other courts hold, or suggest (with little in the way of countervailing authority), that with or without reliance on Fed. R. Civ. P. 60(b), lower courts may — and should — deny enforcement, against those who were prejudiced thereby, of even cherry-picked components of sale orders that have been entered with denials of due process. Those cases make clear that it is not necessary for a court to invalidate the sale order in full. That is so whether or not the Court declares the order, or part of-it, to be “void.” And if the order can be declared to be void (or if it can be selectively enforced, to avoid enforcing it against one denied due process), provisions in the order providing that it is nonsevera-ble fall as well.

*528 In the absence of a constitutional violation, the Court suspects that the power to deny full enforcement of a salé order (assuming that such is even permissible) will rarely, if ever, be invoked. The principles underlying the finality of 363 sale orders are much too important. But in cases where a sale order can be declared to be void (and orders entered without due process are subject to such a consequence), sale orders may be modified, or selectively enforced, as well.

S. Assumed Liabilities

In light of the Court’s conclusions, summarized above, New GM’s concerns as to the limited liabilities that New GM assumed are not as significant as they might otherwise have been. New GM is right that it expressly declined to assume any liabilities based on Old GM’s wrongful conduct, and that these were “retained liabilities” to be satisfied by Old GM. But the Court’s ruling that- it will continue to enforce prohibitions against successor liability makes New GM’s concerns as to that academic. And to the extent, if any, that New GM might be liable on claims based solely on any wrongful conduct on its own part (and in no way relying on wrongful conduct by Old GM), New GM would have such liability not because it had assumed any Old GM liabilities, or was responsible for anything wrong that Old GM did, but only because it had engaged in independently wrongful, and otherwise actionable, conduct on its own.

But it is plain that to the extent the Plaintiffs seek to impose successor liability, or to rely, in suits against New GM, on any wrongful conduct by Old GM, these are actually claims against Old GM, and not New GM. It also is plain that any court analyzing claims that are supposedly against New GM only must be extraordinarily careful to ensure that they are not in substance successor liability claims, “dressed up to look like something else.” 15 Claims premised in any way on Old GM conduct are properly proscribed under the Sale Agreement and the Sale Order, and by reason of the Court’s othér rulings, the prohibitions against the assertion of such claims stand.

k. Equitable Mootness

Because the successor liability claims start by being claims against Old GM, the Court also must consider the GUC Trust’s concerns as to Equitable Mootness. The Court recognizes that mootness concerns will materially, if not entirely, impair the Plaintiffs’ ability to collect on any allowed claims against Old GM (or more precisely, the GUC Trust) that they otherwise might have. But nevertheless, the Court concludes, contrary to its original instincts at the outset of this controversy, that the GUC Trust is right in its mootness contén-tions, and that the rights of GUC Trust beneficiaries cannot be impaired at this late time.

Mootness doctrine already made a return of past distributions from all of Old GM’s many thousands of creditors unthinkable. But the Court, being mindful of the Second Circuit’s holdings that mootness doctrine does not foreclose relief where some meaningful relief can be fashioned, originally thought that mootness concerns would not foreclose at least some relief — such as permitting the late fifing of claims, and thereby permitting Economic Loss Plaintiffs to share in assets remaining in the GUC Trust. In the course of subsequent briefing, however, the GUC *529 Trust and its unit holders (the “Unithold-ers”) pointed out (along with other reasons for denial of relief) that granting relief now to the Plaintiffs would require not just the allowance of late claims (which by itself would be acceptable), but also the modification of the confirmation order — and with it, impairment of the rights of the Unitholders, especially those who acquired those units in post-confirmation trading. Though late claims filed by the Plaintiffs might still be allowed, assets transferred to the GUC Trust under the Plan could not now be tapped to pay them. Under the mootness standards laid down by the Second Circuit in its leading decisions in the area, 16 GUC Trust Unitholders must be protected from a modification of the Plan.

5. Fraud on the Court

Believing that rulings now might expedite or moot further litigation down the road, the Court also undertook to rule on the legal standards applicable to litigation over whether, in connection with the entry of the Sale Order, there might have been a fraud on the Court. Though they become less important for reasons discussed below, the Court provides them in Section V.

Of the standards for establishing fraud on the Court, discussed below, three are particularly relevant here. One is that fraud on the court requires action that does or attempts to defile the court itself. Another, related to the first, is that establishing a fraud on the Court requires defrauding the court, as contrasted to a nonjudicial victim (such as a vehicle owner). A third is because it involves an effect on the Court (as contrasted to any injured third parties), it turns on the knowledge and intent of those actually interfacing with the Court. In each of those respects, and its application otherwise, establishing a fraud on the Court requires a knowing and purposeful effort to subvert the judicial process.

6. Certification to the Circuit

The issues here are important, difficult, and involve the application of often conflicting authority. Their prompt determination will affect further proceedings not just in this Court, but also the MDL Court. The Court believes that it should certify its judgment for direct review by the Circuit.

Facts 17

1. Background

In late 2008 and the first half of 2009, Old GM — then the only “GM” — was in ex-tremis. As the Court found in the Sale Opinion, Old GM had suffered a steep erosion in revenues, significant operating losses, and a dramatic loss of liquidity, putting its future in grave jeopardy. It was bleeding cash at an extraordinary rate.

Old GM was assisted in December 2008 by an emergency infusion of cash by the Bush administration, and then again, in January and February 2009, by two more emergency infusions of cash by the Obama administration. But the latter declared *530 that its financial support would last for only a limited period of time, and that Old GM would have to address its problems as a matter of great urgency.

In March 2009, the U.S. Treasury (“Treasury”), whose Presidential Task Force on the Auto Industry (“Auto Task Force”) was quarterbacking the rescue effort, gave Old GM 60 days to submit a viable restructuring plan. Failure to accomplish that would force Old GM to liquidate. But Old GM was unable to achieve an out-of-court restructuring. It quickly became obvious that Old GM’s only viable option was to file a chapter 11 case and to sell its assets through a 363 Sale, shed of the great bulk of its prepetition liabilities. The acquirer ultimately became New GM.

The urgency at the time is apparent. The cash bleeding was brutal; Old GM suffered negative cash flow of $9.4 billion in the first quarter of 2009 alone. 18 Without a very quick end to the bleeding, Old GM would plunge into liquidation. Apart from the loss to Old GM’s creditors, Old GM’s liquidation would result in the loss of over 200,000 jobs at Old GM alone, and grievous loss.to the approximately 11,500 vendors, with more than 500,000 workers, in the Supplier Chain. 19 Liquidation would also result in virtually no recovery for any of Old GM’s prepetition creditors — including Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs and Economic Loss Plaintiffs before the Court now.

2. Chapter 11 Filing

On June 1, 2009 (the “Petition Date”)— 40 days prior to the deadline imposed under the critical DIP Financing — Old GM and three affiliates commenced these now jointly administered chapter 11 cases before this Court. That same day, Old GM filed the motion (the “Sale Motion”) for authority to engage in the required 363 Sale.

3. The Sale Motion and Notice Order

In its Sale Motion, GM asked the Court to authorize the 363 Sale “free and clear of all other ‘liens, claims, encumbrances and other interests,’ including, specifically, ‘all successor liability claims.’ ”

Specifically, GM submitted a proposed order to the Court (the “Proposed Sale Order”) containing provisions directed at cutting off successor liability except in the respects where successor liability was contractually assumed. As the Court noted in 2009, the Proposed Sale Order would effectuate a free and clear sale through a double-barreled approach:

First, the Proposed Sale Order contains a finding — and a decretal provision to similar effect — .that the Debtors may sell the Purchased Assets free and clear of all liens, claims, encumbrances, and other interests, including rights or claims based on any successor or transferee liability.

Second, the Proposed Sale Order would enjoin all persons (including “litigation claimants”) holding liens, claims, encumbrances, and other interests, including rights or claims based on any successor or transferee liability, from asserting them against New GM or the Purchased Assets. 20

*531 Along with its submission of the Proposed Sale Order, GM moved for court approval of the sale procedures, and for an order fixing and approving the form and manner of notice. After hearing argument on the motion, the Court approved the sale procedures, and the next day entered an order laying out the procedures for the upcoming 363 Sale (the “Sale Procedures Order”).

Jp. Notice of the Sale

As relevant here, the Sale Procedures Order provided for actual notice to 25 categories of persons and entities, including, among many others, all parties who were known to have asserted any lien, claim, encumbrance, or interest in or on the Purchased Assets; all vehicle owners involved in actual litigation with Old GM (or, who though not yet involved in actual litigation, had asserted claims or otherwise threatened to sue); and all other known creditors. 21

And the Sale Procedures Order additionally provided for constructive notice, by publication, in the Wall Street Journal (global edition); New York Times (national edition); Financial Times (global edition); USA Today (national edition); Detroit Free Press; Detroit News; in the Canadian Le Journal de Montreal, Montreal Gazette, The Globe and -Mail, and The National Post; and on the website of Old GM’s noticing agent, The Garden City Group. 22

The notice of hearing on the proposed 863 Sale (“Sale Notice”) provided the general terms of the sale, including the date and location at which the sale was to occur, and instructions for those wishing to object or otherwise respond. The Sale Notice did not, however, attempt to describe the claims any recipient might have against Old GM, or any bases for objections to the sale or Proposed Sale Order that any notice recipient might wish to assert.

5. Objections to Free and Clear Provisions

Many of the 850 parties objecting to the Sale Motion made limited objections — not opposing the 363 Sale or its timing as such, but objecting instead to provisions in the Proposed Sale Order. They argued that New GM should assume certain kinds of claims; that the Free and Clear Provisions limiting successor liability were improper; or both. More specifically:

(a) Many of the states’ Attorneys General (“AGs”), assisted in significant part by an attorney with the National Association of Attorneys’ General well known for her expertise in the interplay between bankruptcy law and states’ regulatory needs and concerns, argued that New GM should assume consumer claims for implied, express, and statutory warranties. 23

(b) Old GM’s Official Committee of Unsecured Creditors (the “Creditors’ Committee”), representing unsecured creditors of all types (including tort plaintiffs and other vehicle owners), objected to the Proposed Sale Order because (as the Creditors’ Committee well understood) it would cut off state law successor liability and limit any current or future claimants to recovery from the *532 assets “left behind in the old company.” 24

(c) The Ad Hoc Committee of Consumer Victims (the “Consumer Victims Committee”); attorneys for individual accident litigants (the “Individual Accident Litigants”); attorneys for asbestos victim litigants (the “Asbestos Litigants”); and the Center for Auto Safety, Consumer Action, Consumers for Auto Reliability and Safety, National Association of Consumer Advocates, and Public Citizen (collectively, the “Consumer Organizations,” and, together with the others, the “Successor Liability Objectors”) likewise argued that Old GM could not sell its assets free and clear of any rights or claims based on successor or transferee liability. 25

The Successor Liability Objectors argued that shedding potential successor liability was not permitted under Bankruptcy Code section 363(f). They further argued that section 363(f) “authorize[d] the sale of property'free and clear only of ‘interests in’ property to be sold, not in personam claims against the Purchaser under theories of successor liability.” 26 They further argued that the Court “laek[ed] jurisdiction to enjoin actions between non-debtor product liability claimants and the Purchaser post-closing since resolution of these claims [would] not affect the Debtors’ estates.” 27 And they argued that the Free and Clear Provisions would violate due process — asserting that individuals who might have future claims for injuries “cannot have received meaningful notice that the bankruptcy proceeding was resolving their rights or a meaningful opportunity to protect those rights, which otherwise might allow a state law cause of action for their injuries.” 28

In the Sale Opinion, the Court considered, but ultimately rejected, those contentions and similar ones. Relying on, among other things, the then recent opinions by the Bankruptcy Court in Chrysler 29 (which had recently issued its own sale order with free and clear provisions); of the Second Circuit (which, three weeks before the Old GM 363 Sale hearing, affirmed the Chrysler decision for “substantially the same reasons articulated by the bankruptcy court” 30 ); and earlier authority, 31 this *533 Court overruled the objections to the Free and Clear Provisions — determining, after lengthy analysis, that New GM should be protected against successor liability claims. 32

6. Sale Agreement — Relevant Provisions

The agreement under which the 368 Sale would take place, which had the formal name of “Amended and Restated Master Sale and Purchase Agreement,” dated June 26, 2009 (often, referred to by the parties as the “ARMSPA” but by this Court as the “Sale Agreement”), was originally filed with the Sale Motion on June 1, 2009. It was thereafter amended — in respects relevant here (1) to incorporate an agreement with the AGs under which New GM would assume liabilities under state Lemon Laws, and (2) to provide that New GM would assume responsibility for any and all accidents or incidents giving rise to death, personal injury, or property damage after the date of closing of the 363 Sale, irrespective of whether the vehicle was manufactured by Old GM or New GM.

The Sale Agreement, in its Section 2.3, listed liabilities that New GM would assume (“Assumed Liabilities”), on the one hand, and that Old GM would retain (“Retained Liabilities”), on the other. Those that would be assumed by agreement were listed in subsection (a); those that would be retained (which would cover everything else) were listed in subsection (b). As provided in subsection (a), Assumed Liabilities included:

(a) Claims for “Product Liabilities” (a term defined in the Sale Agreement), with respect to which New GM would assume (but assume only) those that arose out of “accidents or incidents” 33 occurring on or after the Closing Date; 34

*534 (b) Repairs or the replacement of parts provided for under the Glove Box Warranty; 35 and

(c) Lemon Law claims. 36

And as noted in the Sale Decision, “an important change [ ] was made in the [Sale Agreement] after the filing of the motion” which broadened the Assumed Liabilities to include “all product liability claims arising from accidents or other discrete incidents arising from operation of GM vehicles occurring subsequent to the closing of the 363 Transaction, regardless of when the product was purchased.” 37

But by contrast, the liabilities retained by Old GM — and not assumed by New GM — -expressly included: (a) Product Liabilities arising in whole or in part from any Accidents, that happened prior to the Closing Date; 38 and (b) Liabilities to third parties for prepetition claims based on contract, tort, or any other basis. 39

The Sale Agreement also required New GM to comply with recall obligations imposed by federal and state law, even for cars or parts manufactured by Old GM. 40

7. The Sale Order

As previously discussed, the Court overruled objections to Free and Clear Provisions, and the Sale Order thus had five (somewhat duplicative) provisions, including injunctive provisions, protecting New GM from successor liability.

One provided, for example, that except for Assumed Liabilities, Old GM’s assets were acquired “free and clear of all hens, claims, encumbrances, and other interests of any kind or nature whatsoever [other than permitted liens], including rights or claims based on any successor or transferee liability,” with “all such liens, claims, encumbrances, and other interests, including rights or claims based on any succes *535 sor or transferee liability, [to] attach to the net proceeds” of the Sale. 41

Three others provided that “no claims, other than Assumed Liabilities, will be assertable against the Purchaser [New GM];” 42 that New GM would have no liability “for any claim that arose prior to the Closing Date, relates to the production of vehicles prior to the Closing Date, or otherwise is assertable against the Debtors or is related to the Purchased Assets prior to the Closing Date ”; 43 and that “the Purchaser shall have no successor, transferee, or vicarious liabilities of any kind or character.” 44 And another included in-junctive provisions barring assertion of successor liability claims. 45

But tracking the language of the Sale Agreement, almost verbatim, the Sale Order imposed certain recall and other obligations on New GM in accordance with federal and state law, even with respect to parts and vehicles manufactured by Old GM:

From and after the Closing, the Purchaser shall comply with the certification, reporting, and recall requirements of the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act, as amended and recodi-fied, including by the Transportation Recall Enhancement, Accountability and Documentation Act, the Clean Air Act, the California Health and Safety Code, and similar Laws, in each case, to the extent applicable in respect of motor vehicles, vehicles, motor vehicle equipment, and vehicle parts manufactured or distributed by the Sellers prior to the Closing. 46

And the Sale Order also addressed sev-erability: “The provisions of this Order are nonseverable and mutually dependent on each other.” 47

8. Matters After the Sale

Upon the closing of the 363 Sale, New GM provided Old GM, as provided in the Sale Agreement, shares of New GM common stock and warrants (the “New GM Securities”), to be later distributed to Old GM creditors pursuant to a future plan.

In September 2009, about two months after the Sale was completed, the Court entered an order (the “Bar Date Order”) establishing November 30, 2009, as the deadline (the “Bar Date”) for proofs of claim to be filed against Old GM, and approved the form and manner of notice of the Bar Date. The Bar Date Order allowed for publication notice to holders of unknown claims. The Plaintiffs here are among those who received publication notice only as to any claims they might have against Old GM.

In March 2011, Old GM filed the Plan, and without opposition anything like the opposition that the 363 Sale had engendered (though the opposition was sufficient to warrant a written opinion), 48 the Plan was confirmed. On March 29, 2011, the Court entered an order (the “Confirmation Order”) confirming the Plan.

*536 The Plan became effective on March 31, 2011 (the “Effective Date”), and the Plan provided that it would be deemed substantially consummated as of the Effective Date. The parties have stipulated that the Plan has been substantially consummated. 49

9. The GUC Trust and its Operation

Among many other things, the Confirmation Order authorized the creation of the GUC Trust. Under the agreement by which the GUC Trust was formed (the “GUC Trust Agreement”), only certain categories of persons or entities were made beneficiaries. The GUC Trust Agreements limited GUC Trust Beneficiaries to:

(i) the holders of allowed general unsecured claims against Old GM that existed as of the Effective Date;

(ii) the holders of claims asserted against Old GM that were disputed as of the Effective Date (“Disputed Claims”) and subsequently allowed (collectively with claims that were allowed as of the Effective Date, “Allowed Claims”),

(iii) the holders of potential general unsecured claims (“JPMorgan Claims”) that might arise in connection with the GUC Trust’s lien avoidance action relating to a mistakenly released financing statement; 50 and

(iv) the holders of units of beneficial interest (each, a “GUC Trust Unit”) 51 in the GUC Trust.

*537 The GUC Trust Agreement also set forth provisions governing the GUC Trust’s ability to distribute the New GM Securities and their proceeds (collectively, the “GUC Trust Assets”), which were intended to ensure that the Unitholders would receive, as promptly as practicable, any GUC Trust Assets that were not necessary to fund the Allowed Claims (or potential Allowed Claims); any additional JPMorgan Claims; or projected liquidation and administrative costs of the GUC Trust (collectively, the “GUC Trust Liabilities”), and that the GUC Trust would retain sufficient assets to fund those liabilities.

By January 2012, more than two years after the original Bar Date, many claims continued to be filed against Old GM. On January 1, 2012 (nearly a year after the Effective Date), the GUC Trust filed a motion (the “Late Filed Claims Motion”) seeking an order disallowing late filed claims. 52 Under the requested order, any future late filed claims would be disallowed unless, among other things, the claimant filed a motion with the Court seeking permission to file a late proof of claim.

The Court granted the GUC Trust’s Late Filed Claims Motion, and in February 2012, entered its order (the “Late Filed Claims Order”) implementing that ruling.

The Late Filed Claims Order explicitly stated that “nothing in [the Late Filed Claims Order] shall prevent any claimant submitting a Late Claim from filing a motion with the Court seeking to have its Late Claim deemed timely filed.” 53 Likewise, none of the Plan, Confirmation Order, and GUC Trust Agreement prohibited late filed claims. In two known instances, late filed claims have been allowed in the Old GM bankruptcy case both before and after the Effective Date. Under the Plan, a late filed proof of claim may be subsequently adjudicated as an Allowed General Unsecured Claim.

In April and May 2011, initial distributions — consisting of 75% of the New GM Securities, along with nearly 30 million GUC Trust Units — were made to those who had Allowed Claims as of the Effective Date. The only New GM Securities that were not distributed were those that could be necessary to fund GUC Trust Liabilities 54 — principally claims that as of . that time had been neither allowed or disallowed, and administrative costs.

Between May 2011 and the end of September 2014, the GUC Trust made distributions on formerly Disputed Claims that had thereafter been resolved. Similarly, in July and October 2011, and December 2013, the GUC Trust made additional distributions of New GM Securities — to the end that by September 30, 2014, the GUC Trust had distributed more than 89% of the New GM Securities and nearly 32 million GUC Trust Units.

On October 24, 2014, the GUC Trust .Administrator disclosed that it was planning on making still another distribution, scheduled for November 12, 2014. Shortly . thereafter, certain Plaintiffs’ counsel wrote the GUC Trust’s counsel advising that Plaintiffs were “known potential contingent beneficiaries of the GUC Trust and the GUC Trust should not make any further distributions unless and until it dem *538 onstrates that adequate reserves ha[dj been established with respect to Plaintiffs’ potential claims against Old GM and/or the GUC Trust that could be in the multiple billions of dollars.” 55 The next day, counsel for the GUC Trust Administrator replied that it would not establish reserves for the Plaintiffs’ claims, and that it was going forward with the planned November 2014 GUC Trust Distribution. Plaintiffs chose, for admitted strategic reasons, 56 not to seek a stay of the GUC Trust’s distributions.

The GUC Trust Administrator then made that distribution, without establishing any reserves for the Plaintiffs’ claims.

As of December 16, 2014, the GUC Trust had total assets of approximately $773.7 million, comprised principally of New GM Securities, though with approximately $64 million in commercial paper, demand notes, and cash equivalents. 57

The GUC Trust Assets stand to be augmented upon allowance of any Plaintiffs’ claims against Old GM and/or the GUC Trust through an “accordion feature” 58 in the Sale Agreement and any order by the Court requiring New GM to contribute more money or New GM Common Stock to the GUC Trust. 59

10. Knowledge of the Ignition Switch Defect

In February and March of 2014, New GM informed the Safety Administration of the Ignition Switch Defect, and that a recall would be conducted to address it. New GM does not contend, and there is no evidence in the record from which the Court now could find, that any Plaintiff knew of the Ignition Switch Defect before New GM’s announcement in the Spring of 2014. But more than a few at Old GM knew of it as of the time of Old GM’s 'chapter 11 filing. The parties stipulated that at least 24 Old GM personnel (all of whom were transferred to New GM), including engineers, senior managers, and attorneys, were informed or otherwise aware of the Ignition Switch Defect prior to the Sale Motion, as early as 2003. 60

New GM does not dispute that Old GM personnel knew enough as of the time of Old GM’s June 2009 bankruptcy filing for Old GM then to have been obligated, under the Safety Act, to conduct a recall of the affected vehicles. 61

11. The Motion to Enforce

Very nearly immediately after New GM’s Spring 2014 announcement, a large number of class actions — the earliest Ignition Switch Actions — were commenced against New GM, asserting, among other things, successor liability. In April 2014, New GM filed the Motion to Enforce, contending that most of the claims in the *539 Ignition Switch Actions related to vehicles or parts manufactured and sold by Old GM, and that the Sale Order’s Free and Clear Provisions, and injunctions against successor liability, proscribed such claims. In August 2014, New GM filed similar motions to enforce the Sale Order against the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs and the Non-Ignition Switch Plaintiffs, though the latter is on hold pending the rulings here.

In June 2014, the Judicial Panel on Mul-tidistrict Litigation established MDL 2543 and designated the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York as the MDL court, assigning Judge Furman to oversee coordinated proceedings for the actions assigned to the MDL. New GM has stated in its Reply that “[t]here are over 140 class action lawsuits currently pending against [it], with more being filed.” 62 The Court understands the great bulk of these to involve economic loss claims.

At an August 11, 2014 case management conference in MDL 2543, it was determined that certain plaintiffs’ counsel who had been designated to take the lead in MDL 2543 (“Lead Counsel”) would file a consolidated master complaint for all economic loss actions. This Court then adjusted the briefing and argument of the issues here to take into consideration any claims added or dropped in MDL 2543. In October 2014, Lead Counsel filed two Consolidated Complaints, each seeking class action treatment. The first — referred to by many as the “Pre-Sale Consolidated Complaint” — seeks damages from New GM on behalf of class members who purchased vehicles with an Ignition Switch Defect (which necessarily would have been manufactured by Old GM) before the closing of the 363 Sale. 63

The second — referred to by some as the “Post-Sale Consolidated Complaint”— seeks relief on behalf of class members who had purchased vehicles after the closing of the 363 Sale. 64

12. The Threshold Issues

After this Court held conferences with the parties to establish means to most efficiently litigate the issues here, the parties identified, at the Court’s request, four threshold issues for judicial determination. They were:

Whether Plaintiffs’ procedural due process rights were violated in connection with the Sale Motion and the Sale Order and Injunction, or alternatively, whether Plaintiffs’ procedural due process rights would be violated if the Sale Order and Injunction is enforced against them (the “Due Process Threshold Issue”);

If procedural due process was violated as described in (a) above, whether a remedy can or should be fashioned as a result of such violation and, if so, against whom (the “Remedies Threshold Issue”);

Whether any or all of the claims asserted in the Ignition Switch Actions are claims against the Old GM bankruptcy estate (and/or the GUC Trust) (the “Old GM Claim Threshold Issue”); 65 and *540 If any or all of the claims asserted in the Ignition Switch Actions are or could be claims against the Old GM bankruptcy estate (and/or the GUC Trust), should such claims or the actions asserting such claims nevertheless be disallowed/dismissed on grounds of equitable mootness (the “Equitable Mootness Threshold Issue”). 66

The Court also asked for briefing on the legal standards that would apply to any claims asserting Fraud on the Court, and announced that it would rule on those as well. 67

The, Court addresses those issues, in some instances breaking them down further and restating them slightly to conform to a more appropriate framework, in the discussion to follow.

Discussion

I.

Due Process

The Due Process Threshold Issue requires the Court to decide, with respect to the Sale Order, whether

(1) as New GM contends and the Plaintiffs dispute, insufficient notice of the 363 Sale hearing could not result in a deprivation of due process (principally because any successor liability claims would belong to the Old GM estate, and not to the Plaintiffs, and because the Plaintiffs’ rights would attach to the sale proceeds), as there would not be the requisite potential deprivation of property;

(2) as the Plaintiffs contend and New GM disputes, the Plaintiffs failed to get the notice due process requires (and related to that, whether the Plaintiffs had “known claims” as that expression is used in the due process jurisprudence); and

(3)as New GM contends and the Plaintiffs dispute, prejudice is an essential element of any claim for a denial of due process, and the Plaintiffs failed to show the requisite prejudice here, with respect to all or some of their claims.

After the Court does so, it then must decide the extent to which the Sale Order remains subject to attack, and any areas as to which the Plaintiffs, or some of them, may potentially qualify for a remedy. The Court also believes that it should address these same issues with respect to the allowance of Plaintiff claims against Old GM, from which their successor liability contentions emanate, and which cannot appropriately be divorced from any due process analysis. Discussion of these matters follows.

A

Underlying Principles

1. Mullane

All parties, appropriately, begin with the Supreme Court’s decision in Mullane — which Plaintiffs describe as “the seminal Supreme Court case establishing due process requirements for creditors in a bankruptcy proceeding.” 68 They are right to start with Mullane; it is the seminal Supreme Court opinion clarifying what due process requires in litigation. But it was *541 not a bankruptcy case. 69 In Mullane, the Supreme Court held that a statute authorizing notice by publication of a proposed judicial settlement of a “common trust,” holding the assets of 113 smaller trusts, failed to satisfy due process requirements for the trust’s known beneficiaries. 70 The common trust had “many” beneficiaries. 71 But despite that (and even though the statute authorized service by publication), the Court found that because the trustee, Central Hanover Bank & Trust Company (the “Trust Company”), seeking the judicial settlement of the trust for which it was responsible, could with due diligence ascertain their names and addresses, they were entitled to mailed notice of the settlement.

In reaching that result, the Mul-lane court started with the recognition that while “[a] construction of the Due Process Clause which would place impossible or impractical obstacles in the way could not be justified,” the Court would have to “balance” against that interest an *542 individual’s right to be heard. 72 It continued by observing that while it “ha[d] not committed itself to any formula” in achieving that balance, “a few general principles stand out in the books.” 73 One was that:

An elementary and fundamental requirement of due process in any proceeding which is to be accorded finality is notice reasonably calculated, under all the circumstances, to apprise interested parties of the pendency of the action and afford them an opportunity to present their objections. 74

Others were that “[t]he notice must be of such nature as reasonably to convey the required information ... and it must afford a reasonable time for those interested to make their appearance.” 75

The Mullane court qualified its statement of those general requirements, however, by including an element of practicality:

But if with due regard for the practicalities and peculiarities of the case these conditions are reasonably met the constitutional requirements are satisfied. The criterion is not the possibility of conceivable injury, but the just and reasonable character of the requirements, having reference to the subject with which the statute deals. 76

And once again recognizing the need for practicality, it stated that

[t]he reasonableness and hence the constitutional validity of any chosen method may be defended on the ground that it is in itself reasonably certain to inform those affected, or, where conditions do not reasonably 'permit such notice, that the form chosen is not substantially less likely to bring home notice than other of the feasible and customary substitutes. 77

The Mullane court expressly endorsed the use of publication when it would not be practical to provide better notice:

This Court has not hesitated to approve of resort to publication as a customary substitute in another class of cases where it is not reasonably possible or practicable to give more adequate warning. Thus it has been recognized that, in the ease of persons missing or unknown, employment of an indirect and even a probably futile means of notification is all that the situation permits and creates no constitutional bar to a final decree foreclosing their rights.

Those beneficiaries represented by appellant whose interests or whereabouts could not with due diligence be ascertained come clearly within this category. As to them the statutory notice [i.e., notice by publication] is sufficient. However great the odds that publication will never reach the eyes of such unknown parties, it is not in the typical case much more likely to fail than any of the choices open to legislators endeavoring to prescribe the best notice practicable. 78

In a later post-Mullane decision, 79 the Supreme Court reiterated this.

In the years since Mullane the Court has adhered to these principles, balanc *543 ing the “interest of the State” and “the individual interest sought to be protected by the Fourteenth Amendment.” The focus is on the reasonableness of the balance, and, as Múlleme itself made clear, whether a particular method of notice is reasonable depends on the particular circumstances. 80

Thus it is hardly surprising that the Supreme Court has also stated, albeit in a different context (there, deciding the extent of the hearing required before a revocation of a former inmate’s parole), that “[i]t has been said so often by this Court and others as not to require citation of authority that due process is flexible and calls for such procedural protections as the particular situation demands.” 81

Finally, the Múlleme court made one other point- — -one which is frequently overlooked — of considerable relevance

here. It recognized that notice to others with an interest in objecting could ameliorate prejudice (and impliedly, if not expressly, even the existence of constitutionally deficient notice in the first place) to those who did not get notice. It observed:

This type of trust presupposes a large number of small interests. The individual interest does not stand alone but is identical with that of a class. The rights of each in the integrity of the fund and the fidelity of the trustee are shared by many other beneficiaries. Therefore notice reasonably certain to reach most of those interested in objecting is likely to safeguard the interests of all, since any objections sustained would inure to the benefit of all. We think that under such circumstances reasonable risks that notice might not actually reach every beneficiary are justifiable. ‘Now and then an extraordinary case may turn up, but constitutional law, like other mortal contrivances, has to take some chances, and in the great majority of instances, no doubt, justice will be done.’ 82

2. Second Circuit Guidance

The Second Circuit has given the lower courts in this Circuit more specific guidance, in several key cases. In its 1989 decision in Weigner v. City of New York, 83 the Circuit held that “[t]he proper inquiry [on a due process contention] is whether the [noticing party] acted reasonably in selecting means likely to inform persons affected, not whether each property owner actually received notice.” 84

Then, in its 1993 decision in Drexel Burnham, first mentioned above, 85 the Circuit put forward its understanding of Mullane’s principles by stating that “no person may be deprived of life, liberty or property by an adjudicatory process without first being afforded notice and a full opportunity to appear and be heard, appropriate to the nature of a given case.” 86

There, the “given case,” a proceeding in the Drexel Burnham chapter 11 case, involved the approval of a settlement under which, among other' things, Drexel Burn-ham and a sub-class of its securities claimants pooled their recoveries from lawsuits *544 Drexel Burnham had brought against its former officers and directors, and the settling parties granted a release to former officer Michael Milken. As here, the Drexel Burnham objectors were apparently troubled that the settlement would impair their recoveries against parties other than the debtor itself. The objectors raised both due process and substantive objections to the settlement — contending, in the due process prong of their objection, that the notice of the proposed settlement that had been mailed to 7,700 Drexel bankruptcy claimants was insufficiently descriptive of the proposed settlement.

In that context, as part of its due process analysis, the Circuit observed in Drexel Burnham that “[n]o rigid constitutionally mandated standard governs the contents of notice in a case like the one before us. Rather, the Due Process Clause requires the best notice practical under the circumstances.” 87 And once again citing Mullane, the Circuit continued that “the Supreme Court has warned against interpreting this notice requirement so inflexibly as to make it an ‘impractical or impossible obstacle[ ].’ ” 88

Similarly, in its 2014 decision in DPWN, 89 the Second Circuit reiterated that “whether notice comports with due process requirements turns on the reasonableness of the notice, a flexible standard that often turns on what the debtor or the claimant knew about the claim or, with reasonable diligence, should have known.” 90

Like Weigner before it (where the notice had also been mailed), Drexel Bum-ham was a quality of notice case, rather than a means of notice case. 91 Nevertheless, its direction that notice must be “appropriate to the nature of a given case ” 92 was not limited to cases of the first type. And Mullane, the opinion on which the Drexel Burnham court relied, was a case of the second type. For each of those reasons, along with common sense, the Court reads the Circuit’s Drexel Burnham directions that “the Due Process Clause requires the best notice practical under the circumstances,” 93 and that the notice requirement should not be interpreted “so inflexibly as to make it an ‘impractical or impossible obstacle’ ” 94 — each of which was derived by citing Mullane — as applicable to cases involving either the means or the quality of any notice whose adequacy is questioned.

*545 Then, though it involves a materially different factual situation, the Circuit’s decision in DPWN is nevertheless significant in several respects. DPWN was an antitrust case, but with a bankruptcy discharge defense. The plaintiff there, the well-known courier DHL, which used United Airlines for cargo delivery services, sued United under the Sherman Act, alleging price-fixing. United had been reorganized in a chapter 11 case in Chicago, at the conclusion of which it received a discharge of its debts, and moved to dismiss the antitrust action under Rule 12(b)(6), relying on its earlier discharge. 95

DHL (which had earlier received mailed notice in the bankruptcy of the opportunity to file claims, but without particularized mention of United’s susceptibility to antitrust claims) had anticipated the discharge defense, and proactively pleaded a potential basis for avoiding it — that it lacked sufficient notice of the availability of its-antitrust claim to satisfy due process requirements for rendering that claim discharged. The District Court, taking that allegation as true, declined to dismiss at that state of the proceedings. But the Circuit remanded, considering the allegation to be too conclusory to pass Iqbal 96 scrutiny, and directed the District Court to conduct further inquiry as to whether it was supportable. More specifically, the Circuit remanded for District Court inquiry as to DHL’s knowledge of its potential antitrust claim during United’s chapter 11 case, and United’s knowledge with respect to a DHL claim. 97

DPWN also suggests two other concerns that turn out not to be determinative in this case, but that may well be important in others. First, it suggests (if it does not also require) a two-step methodology that should be used, to the extent applicable, in examining contentions that the notice that due process requires was denied. The first step calls for inquiry as to whether the claimant knew of the claim it might assert. 98 The second step calls for the lower court to determine whether the claim was, from the perspective of the notice-giver (often a debtor in a bankruptcy case), a “known” claim, obligating the notice-giver to provide actual, and possibly more detailed, notice. 99

The second is a hint that in some cases, it may be the quality — as contrasted to the means — of notice that matters. That might suggest that even if the means of notice were entirely satisfactory (as it obviously was when DHL received mailed notice of the bankruptcy and of the deadline to file claims), notice lacking the requisite quality might nevertheless warrant relief. And this suggests that notice of the bankruptcy is not enough, or even the deadline for the filing of claims —and that assuming that the debtor has knowledge of the existence of the claim (which debtors will typically have in the case of contractual obligations but typically won’t have with respect to non-contractual ones), something more detailed in the way of notice might have to be provided. 100

*546

S. Guidance from Lower Courts

Courts below the Circuit level likewise have been sensitive to the need for practicality and flexibility in due process analysis. In Affirmance Opinion # 2, referred to by several parties in their briefs as “Parker,” on one of the appeals from the Sale Decision, Judge Sweet considered a number of objections by appellant Oliver Parker, a bondholder, claiming that the 363 Sale violated his due process rights. Before rejecting Parker’s contentions, Judge Sweet synthesized the underlying law, making reference to Mullane and Morrissey in the Supreme Court, and Drexel Burnham in the Circuit:

The U.S. Supreme Court has repeatedly emphasized the flexibility of the due process requirement, which simply “calls for such procedural protections as the particular situation demands.” An “elementary and fundamental requirement of due process ... is notice reasonably calculated, under all the circumstances, to apprise interested parties of the pen-dency of the action and afford them an opportunity to present their objections.” In short, the constitutional requirements of due process are satisfied if notice is given with “due regard for the practicalities and peculiarities of the case.” 101

Thus New GM is right when, quoting Mullane and Affirmance Opinion # 2, it argues that “[d]ue process is a flexible standard.” In fact, New GM’s point that due process is “flexible” comes verbatim from the Supreme Court’s opinion in Mor-rissey, 102 and also appears in so many words in DPWN. 103 But as Morrissey also at' least implies, the caselaw does not support a wholly standardless flexibility. 104 Other authority — especially authority addressing the “known”-“unknown” claim distinction discussed in the subsection that follows — rather suggests a standard requiring a fairly thoughtful, and sometimes nuanced, consideration of the circum *547 stances, to ascertain whether any failure to provide better notice (either more direct or more detailed) can appropriately be excused.

Jp. The “Known”-“Unknown” Creditor Distinction

Apart from focusing on the practicality of requiring notice by one means or another, and of one argued level of detail or another, a court also has to focus on whether providing notice to one particular person or entity, or group of such, is required in the first place. As an abstract matter, that latter issue turns on whether those to be noticed (which in bankruptcy most commonly are creditors and those with ownership or security interests in estate property) are “known,” on the one hand, or “unknown,” on the other. 105 Stat: ing the distinction is easy; applying it is much more difficult.

In many cases, whether the notice recipient would want the right to file a claim or to be heard- — -and hence is “known” — is obvious. In others, as here, it is much less so. Caselaw, at the Supreme Court and, especially, in the lower courts, has provided some guidance in this area. But it has been less than totally helpful.

Mullane, which was decided 65 years ago, did not yet make a “known”-“unknown” distinction, nor did it yet use the expression “reasonably ascertainable,” which later became the standard, as discussed below. But Mullane did say- — • apart from saying that actual notice wasn’t required for those whose interests were “conjectural” 106 — that actual notice was not required for those who, “although they could be discovered upon investigation, do not in due course of business come to knowledge of the common trustee.” 107 That is plainly a rejection of a duty of investigation. But it is less helpful when the notice-giver has considerable knowledge, but lacks knowledge of every detail.

The standard was clarified somewhat thereafter. In its 1983 decision in Mennonite Board, a post -Mullane opinion (though once again in a non-bankruptcy context), the Supreme Court held that notice by mail or by other means “as certain to ensure actual notice” was required if the name and address of the entity to be notified was “reasonably ascertainable.” 108 *548 But the Mennonite Board court did not flesh out the standards in determining what the “reasonably ascertainable” standard required — concluding only that when the name of the mortgagee and its county in Ohio were shown on the underlying mortgage, but the mortgagee’s full mailing address was not, 109 the “reasonably ascertainable” requirement was satisfied, and actual notice was required. 110

Likewise, in Tulsa Collection Services, 111 another nonbankruptcy post-Mullane decision about five years after Mennonite Board, the Supreme Court repeated that if a claimant’s identity was “known or reasonably ascertainable,” actual notice was required. 112 But once again, the Court did not flesh out the standards for “reasonably ascertainable,” and on the record there presented, simply remanded for a factual determination as to that issue. 113

However lower courts have addressed the applicable standards more extensively than the Supreme Court did. In its 1995 decision in Chemetron, the Third Circuit provided more guidance, focusing in particular on the opposite extreme. After reading the language in the Mennonite Board footnote quoted above to say that a creditor’s identity is “reasonably ascertainable” if that creditor can be identified through “reasonably diligent efforts,” the Cheme-tron court went on to say that “[reasonable diligence does not require ‘impracticable and extended searches ... in the name of due process.’ ” 114 And it stated further that:

The requisite search instead focuses on the debtor’s own books and records. Efforts beyond a careful examination of these documents are generally not required. Only those claimants who are identifiable through a diligent search are “reasonably ascertainable” and hence “known” creditors. 115

*549 Importantly, the Chemetron court declined to apply a “reasonably foreseeable” standard that had appeared in dictum in an earlier case in this District 116 — finding insufficient a contention that “Chemetron knew or should have known that it was reasonably foreseeable” that it could suffer claims from individuals living near the debtor’s waste dump. 117 The Chemetron court explained:

In the instant case, the bankruptcy court failed to apply the “reasonably ascertainable” standard. It instead crafted a “reasonably foreseeable” test from dictum in In re Brooks Fashion Stores, Inc., 124 B.R. 436 (Bankr.S.D.N.Y.1991). In applying this test, the bankruptcy court found that “Chem-etron knew or should have known that it was reasonably foreseeable that it could suffer claims from individuals living near the Bert Avenue Dump.... ” It therefore found that claimants were known creditors.

We hold that in substituting a broad “reasonably foreseeable” test for the “reasonably ascertainable” standard, the bankruptcy court applied an incorrect rule of law. This constitutes clear error. The 'bankruptcy court’s expansive test departed from established rules of law and produced a result in conflict with other decisions. Even if we were writing on a blank slate, we would reject the bankruptcy court’s expansive standard. Put simply, such a test would place an impossible burden on debtors. 118

To the contrary, the Chemetron court held that “[a] debtor does not have a ‘duty to search out each conceivable or possible creditor and urge that person or entity to make a claim against it,” and that what is required “is not a vast, open-ended investigation.” 119 Applying these standards, the Third Circuit rejected the contention that though the debtor could reasonably foresee that parties present in the immediate vicinity of its toxic waste dump would have toxic tort claims against it, their claims would thereby become “known.” As a result, it ruled, publication notice was sufficient.

Since then, Chemetron, rather than Brooks Fashion Stores, has been followed in this District 120 and elsewhere. 121 In *550 his 2003 decision in XO Communications, Chief Judge Gonzalez cited Brooks Fashion Stores for a different proposition, but relied on Chemetron for the latter’s rejection of the “reasonably foreseeable” standard. And fleshing out the standards further, Judge Gonzalez quoted another decision in the Drexel Burnham chapter 11 case:

Reasonable diligence in ferreting out known creditors will, of course, vary in different contexts and may depend on the nature of the property interest held by the debtor. Applying Mullane’s “reasonable under the circumstances” standard, due process requires a reasonable search for contingent or unmatured claims so that ascertainable creditors can receive adequate notice of the bar date. What is reasonable depends on the particular facts of each case. A debtor need not be omnipotent or clairvoyant. A debtor is obligated, however, to undertake more than a cursory review of its records and files to ascertain its known creditors. 122

The takeaway from the cases discussing the general principles helping courts decide what are “known” and “unknown” claims is that the debtor must make effective use of the information already available, but the fact that additional claims may be “foreseeable” does not make them “known.” Then, in each case, the Court must determine on which side of the line the facts before it fall.

B.

The Particular Issues Here

1. Do Due Process Requirements Apply?

New GM argues preliminarily that due process requirements did not apply to the 363 Sale at all, because this Court’s earlier bar to successor liability did not result in a deprivation of property. The Court cannot agree.

New GM premises that argument on five separate contentions:

(1) that in most 363 sales (including this one), claims or interests would attach to the sale proceeds, and thus that there is no extinguishment of a property right;

(2) that there was no extinguishment of a property right, because any successor liability claims really belonged to the Old GM estate;

(3) that section 363(f) of the Bankruptcy Code preempts&emdash;i.e., trumps&emdash; state laws imposing successor liability;

(4) that the Court already ruled that there was no continuity of ownership between purchaser and seller, and thus no basis for successor liability; and

(5) that there could be no successor liability anyway for Economic Loss Plaintiffs, because, unlike accident victims, they would not get the benefit of the “product line exception.”

The Court finds these preliminary contentions unpersuasive.

*551 New GM is right when it says that in bankruptcy sales — either from the start or by agreement to resolve objections — creditors with security interests or other liens regularly get substitute liens on sale proceeds when estate property subject to their liens is sold to a third party, and that the bankruptcy community regularly regards that as a fair substitute. But comparable protection often cannot be provided for claims or interests other than liens. And here that comparable protection could not effectively be obtained. 123 Neither back in 2009, nor in 2011 when Old GM’s plan was confirmed, did anyone suggest that Old GM’s product liability creditors became secured creditors — the natural corollary of New GM’s position. They were ordinary members of the unsecured creditor class, sharing in the proceeds of the 363 Sale in accordance with the usual bankruptcy priorities waterfall. 124 That would not, of course, make a sale free and clear of successor liability claims improper. But it likewise does not make it true that the Economic Loss Plaintiffs asserting successor liability claims would have “no property interest that was extinguished,” as argued by New GM, 125 and thus no interests at stake and no interest in being heard. Rather, the Economic Loss Plaintiffs would have the same interest in being heard as the accident victims who likewise wanted to (and did) oppose successor liability. The Court ultimately overruled the latter’s objections on the merits, but there never was any doubt that they had a right to be heard.

The Court also cannot agree with New GM’s second contention in this regard— that successor liability claims did not real *552 ly belong to the Economic Loss Plaintiffs and Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs who might wish to assert them, but were actually claims owned by Old GM. Though New GM offers caselaw support that at first blush supports its position, New GM’s contention sidesteps the basic fact that a prepetition right that the Plaintiffs had to at least try to sue a successor was taken away from them, without giving them a chance to be heard as to whether or not that was proper.

New GM relies on three cases in support of its contention: In re Keene Corp., 126 In re Emoral, Inc., 127 (which heavily relied on Keene), and In re Alper Holdings USA 128 . Each of Keene and Alper Holdings, in this Court’s view, was properly decided; Emo-ral, a 2-1 decision with a cogently articulated dissent by Judge Cowen, probably was not. But whether or not all were properly decided, none supports the conclusion, which New GM asks the Court to reach, that tort litigants’ interest in pursuing successor liability was so minimal that they didn’t even have a right to be heard.

Keene, the first of the three, involved approximately 1,600 lawsuits by asbestos plaintiffs who at least arguably had claims against the debtor Keene. But their rights to recover against the debtor were impaired when Keene transferred over $200 million of its assets to its then affiliates during the 1980s and then spun off the affiliates. 129 Not surprisingly, the transfer and spin-off triggered fraudulent conveyance claims, initially brought pre-petition. In those same prepetition actions, asbestos plaintiffs also brought claims against the transferees, asserting successor liability and tort liability based on piercing the corporate veil. 130

Thereafter, Keene filed a chapter 11 case. Judge Bernstein granted the Keene estate’s motion for an injunction blocking the continued prosecution of those actions, concluding that they were violative of section 362(a)(1) of the Code, which bars, among other things, the continuation of suits to recover on claims against the debt- or that arose before the filing of the bankruptcy case. 131 He noted that the fraudulent conveyance claims became the estate’s claims to prosecute under section 544 of the Code, and reasoned, properly, that “the Wrongful Transfer Claims should be asserted, in the first instance, by Keene or any other estate representative designated for that purpose.” 132 He likewise blocked the asbestos plaintiffs’ efforts to go after the defendants on corporate veil piercing and successor tort liability theories, noting that the thrust of those actions would be to “subject all of the assets of these non-debtor defendants to the claims of Keene’s creditors.” 133 Even with respect to the successor liability claims, he read them as a species of fraudulent transfer claim, 134 with the purpose of increasing the assets of the estate as a whole to satisfy the claims of the creditor community as a whole. 135

*553 Given the asbestos plaintiffs’ effort in Keene to recover assets that should have been recovered for the benefit of all (and, notably, the transfer of their litigation rights to the estate under section 544), Judge Bernstein’s ruling in Keene was plainly correct.. But in Emoral, which followed and heavily relied on Keene, the distinction between a benefit to all and a benefit to individual creditors seeking to impose successor liability was blurred— and it was this blurring that triggered Judge Cowen’s dissent, and, in this Court’s view, the greater persuasiveness of Judge Cowen’s view.

Emoral involved a prepetition sale of assets from a company (known most commonly as Palorome International, but later renamed Emoral) that manufactured dia-cetyl, a chemical used in the food flavoring industry that was the subject of many toxic tort suits. Emoral later filed for bankruptcy protection, and disputes arose between the Emoral estate’s trustee and the buyer of the assets, a company called Aaroma — including, most significantly, claims by the trustee that the prepetition asset sale had been a fraudulent 'transfer. The trustee and Aaroma settled those disputes; as part of the settlement, the trustee agreed to release Aaroma from any causes of action that were property of the Emoral estate. But at. the bankruptcy court hearing considering the propriety of the settlement, the trustee’s representative stated that any successor liability claims against Aaroma didn’t belong to the Emo-ral estate, and that the trustee therefore couldn’t release them. 136 Aaroma’s counsel argued that whether or not the diacetyl plaintiffs’ causes of action were property of the estate (and therefore covered by the release) was not an issue before the bankruptcy court at that time, and the approval order was modified to provide, in substance, that nothing in the approval order or the underlying sale agreement would operate as a bar to prosecution of any claims that weren’t property of the Emoral estate. 137

Thereafter, plaintiffs asserting diacetyl injury claims sued Aaroma, arguing for successor liability and citing the trustee’s remarks that their claims didn’t belong to the estate, and that the estate couldn’t release them. In a 2-1 decision (and disagreeing with the Bankruptcy Court, which had held to the contrary), the Emo-ral majority held, relying heavily on Keene, that the claims did in fact belong to the estate, and that Aaroma was thus protected. The two judges in the majority did so based on their view that as a legal matter, the claim for successor liability was for the benefit of all of the estate’s creditors. But they did not, so far as this Court can discern, parse the plaintiffs’ complaint to focus on what the plaintiffs were actually asking for, to see if that was actually true. Judge Cowen, dissenting (who agreed with the conclusion of the Bankruptcy Court), found the majority’s mechanical approach troublesome for several reasons, most significantly because the majority failed to consider, as a factual *554 matter, what he considered to be critical— whether plaintiffs bringing the diacetyl claims would be suing for themselves or for the benefit of all. 138

The third case, Alper Holdings, offered by New GM with a “See also,” involved an objection to claims. Somewhat like Emo-ral (though Emoral involved successor liability claims, rather than alter ego claims) Alper Holdings, decided by Chief Judge Lifland, involved an issue as to whether alter ego claims had been previously released by the estate. 139 As in all of these cases, the focus was on whether the injury was to creditors as whole or only to particular ones. And as Judge Bernstein had done in Keene, and as Judge Cowen dissenting in Emoral did (and as his colleagues should have done), Judge Lifland looked, as a factual matter, to the nature of the successor liability claims, to see if they were asserted for the benefit .of all of the estate’s creditors or only to particular ones. 140

Importantly, none of Keene, Emoral, or Alper Holdings involved a 363 sale, nor considered the rights of plaintiffs to be heard before a free and clear order was entered. And for that reason, they are not as important as they might otherwise appear at first blush. But on the principle for which they áre cited- — -that taking away the right to sue on a successor liability theory isn’t a deprivation of property from the person who might wish to sue — they are at best irrelevant to New GM’s position and at worst harmful to it. Each of Keene, Alper Holdings and Judge Cowen in Emoral focused on whether the particular successor liability action sought to recover for the benefit of all, on the one hand, or to secure a private benefit, on the other. 141 If it is the latter, a party at risk of losing that private benefit deserves the opportunity to be heard.

As the Court noted in oral argument, 142 theories of successor liability, when permissible, permit a claimant to assert claims not just against the transfer- or of the assets, but also against the transferee; they provide a second target for recovery. Here the Plaintiffs have not purported to sue for the benefit of Old GM creditors generally; they have instead sued to advance their own, personal, interests. They have not asked New GM to *555 make a payment to Old GM; they want New GM’s money for themselves. Taking away the right to recover from that additional defendant (where such a right otherwise exists under the law of those states that permit such) may easily be understood as a matter of bankruptcy policy, and the supremacy clause, but it nevertheless represents a taking of rights from the perspective of the tort plaintiff who loses the right to sue the successor.

New GM’s last three reasons for why Plaintiffs would not have any dhe process rights at all require considerably less discussion. As the third of its five reasons, New GM argues that section 363(f) of the Bankruptcy Code prevails over state laws imposing successor liability. That is true, but that is why New GM should.win on the merits. It does not justify denying those who might wish to argue otherwise the opportunity to be heard.

As the fourth of its five reasons, New GM argues that the Court already ruled that there was no continuity of ownership between purchaser and seller, and thus no basis for successor liability. Once again that is true, but it was done before the Plaintiffs had appeared in the case. The Court cannot rely on conclusions it reached in a hearing to which the Plaintiffs were not invited as a basis for retroactively blessing the failure to invite them.

As the fifth of its five reasons, New GM argues that there could be no successor liability anyway for Economic Loss Plaintiffs, because, unlike accident victims, they would not get the benefit of the “product line exception.” That too might be true (though it could vary depending on the particular state whose law would apply), but it once again goes to the merits-not the Plaintiffs’ rights to be heard before successor liability claims were barred.

For these reasons, the Court concludes that the Plaintiffs were entitled to due process in the context of each of the sale and claims processes-requiring the Court then to consider whether they received it.

Z. Notice by Publication

Having determined that the Plaintiffs did have due process rights, the Court must determine whether those rights were violated. The first (though not last) issue in that inquiry is whether notice by publication to owners of Old GM vehicles not known by Old GM to have been in accidents was, as a general matter, constitutionally sufficient. It plainly was.

As noted above, the Second Circuit has held that the proper inquiry on a due process contention is whether the noticing party (here Old GM) 143 “acted reasonably in selecting means likely to inform persons affected....” 144 The notice required is that “appropriate to the nature of a given case,” 145 and “the best notice practical under the circumstances.” 146 The very reason why property 'is sold under section 363, and not under a reorganization plan, is because time and liquidity con *556 straints do not permit a more leisurely process. 147

Actual notice to those in the 27 categories above resulted in mailed notice of the 363 Sale to over 4 million people and entities 148 — including any known by Old GM to have been in accidents. But given the urgency of GM’s circumstances, it would be wholly unreasonable to expect individual mailed notice of the 363 Sale hearing to go to the owners of the approximately 70 million GM cars then on the road, or even the approximately 27 million whose cars were then (or later became) the subject of pending recalls.

This is exactly the kind of situation for which notice by publication would be the norm. Old GM’s counsel could hardly be faulted for availing itself of that approach. Under normal circumstances, notice by publication to Old GM vehicle owners— describing the upcoming sale and the fact that New GM would be assuming only very limited types of Old GM liabilities— would be the only kind of notice that would be practical under circumstances like these, and would easily meet the Supreme Court’s and the Second Circuit’s requirements.

3. Known Claim Analysis

But Old GM’s ability to provide notice by publication, rather than actual notice, rests on the premise that those-who received publication notice only did not have “known” claims. For that reason, both sides debate at length whether owners of cars with Ignition Switch Defects— but who had neither been in accidents of which Old GM was aware, nor sued Old GM or manifested any intent to sue — were “reasonably ascertainable (and thus “known”) creditors, on the one hand, or no more than “foreseeable” (and thus “unknown”) creditors on the other.

That question is close. It is true, as New GM argues, that Old GM sent out actual notice of the 363 sale (and later, of the Bar Date) to anyone who had sued it or manifested a possible intention to sue, and that all or nearly all of those with Ignition Switch Defects were not yet in that category. It also is true that sending out notice of a recall is not the same as expecting to be sued; that not all recalls are the same in terms of the risk of resulting death or injury; and indeed that many (and perhaps most) recalls might not result from the risk of death or injury at all.

*557 But it is also true that at least 24 Old GM engineers, senior managers and attorneys knew of the Ignition Switch Defect and the need to send out recall notices— and of the reasons why recall notices had to go out, here. And it is uncontroverted that Old GM had enough knowledge of the Ignition Switch Defect to be required, under the Safety Act, to send out mailed recall notices to owners of affected Old GM vehicles, and knew the names and addresses to whom it had to send them. On balance the Court concludes that by reason of the knowledge of those 24 individuals, the owners of cars with Ignition Switch Defects had “known” claims, from Old GM’s perspective, as that expression is used in the due process jurisprudence.

The caselaw does not require actual notice to those whose claims are merely “foreseeable.” But the caselaw requires actual notice to claimants whose identity is “reasonably ascertainable.” 149 So the Court must consider how this case fits-in that spectrum when 24 Old GM personnel knew of the need to conduct a recall (and with that, of the need to fix the cars); and, in addition, a critical safety situation; and, in addition, the exact names and addresses of the owners of the cars that were at risk.

Preliminarily, there can be no doubt that the names and addresses of the car owners whose cars Old GM’s personnel knew to be subject to the recall obligation — and here, to have safety defects as well — were “reasonably ascertainable” and, in fact, actually known. Old GM (like New GM later) was subject to the Safety Act, which requires vehicle manufacturers to keep records of vehicle ownership, including vehicle owners’ names and addresses. Once Old GM knew which cars had the Ignition Switch Defect, Old GM knew exactly to whom, and where, it had to send the statutorily required recall notice.

But not all of those with Ignition Switch Defects would be killed, injured, or want to sue Old GM on economic claims. Those 24 Old GM personnel did not have knowledge of which particular car owners with Ignition Switch Defects would later be killed or injured in accidents, but they knew that some would — which is why Old GM needed to conduct the recall. Those Old GM personnel also knew that all of those vehicle owners had a statutory right to get their cars fixed at Old GM’s (and later New GM’s) expense.

Taking the easier element first, the duty to fix the cars with Ignition Switch Defects was owed to every one of those whose cars were subject to the known recall obligation. That aspect of Old GM’s obligations was not subject to the uncertainty of whether or not there would be a subsequent accident or lawsuit.

The other element is plainly harder, but the- Court comes out the same way. Old GM faced the recall obligation and known claims here not by reason of any kind of actuarial foreseeability (or the reality that in any line of endeavor, people can make mistakes and others can be hurt as a result), but by reason of the known safety risk that required the recall — ie., that here there was known death or injury in the making to someone (or many) in the body of people whose names and addresses were known, with the only uncertainty being who, exactly, those killed or injured might be. It is not a satisfactory answer, in this Court’s view, to say that because the particular individuals in a known group who would turn out to be accident victims were unknown, all of them were unknown. Rather than concluding that because of that uncertainty, none were entitled to *558 notice, the Court concludes that all of them were.

New GM understandably points to a considerable body of caselaw holding, in substance, that creditors are not “known” unless their status as such'is reflected in the debtor’s “books and records.” That is true, but what “books and records” means in this context is all important. At oral argument on its motion, New GM understandably did not press its earlier position 150 that its financial accounting (and in particular, liabilities on its balance sheet) would be determinative of whether claims were known. 151 And for good reason: such a view would fail to comport with the caselaw or common sense. The “books and records” standard does not rest on whether the notice-giver has booked a liability or created a reserve on its balance sheet; on the treatment of the loss contingency under FASB 5 standards; or on whether the debtor has acknowledged its responsibility for the claim; 152 it merely requires having the requisite knowledge in one way or another that can be relatively easily ascertained and thereafter used incident to the noticing process. In the Court’s view, the standard requires much more than the fact that somewhere, buried in a company’s books, is information from which the liability could be ascertained, 153 and the Court doubts (though under the facts here it does not need to decide) that the knowledge of one or very few people in a large enterprise would be enough to meet the standard. 154 But “books and records” must be construed in a fashion consistent with the Supreme Court’s requirements that “known” liabilities include those that are not just actually known, but also “reasonably ascertainable.”

New GM points out that it maintained a “litigation calendar,” showing people who had sued it, threatened to do so, or even made claims against it, and that Old GM was careful to provide all of them with *559 actual notice. 155 That of course was the right thing to do, and under other circumstances, it would do the job. 156 But here we have the unique fact that Old GM knew enough to send out recall notices (to meet a statutory obligation to car owners, and, more importantly, to forestall the injury or death which, without corrective action, would result), whose mailing, coupled with the publication notice it could appropriately send, would have been more than sufficient. But Old GM did not do so.

New GM calls the Court’s attention to its earlier decision in Morgenstein, in which this Court held that the plaintiffs there were “unknown” creditors, who could not use lack of actual notice to vacate the confirmation order in this case— though admittedly they received notice only by publication. There the plaintiffs (on their own behalf and a class they wished to represent) sought to bring an untimely class proof of claim after the bar date and after Old GM’s liquidation plan went effective. But they failed to plausibly allege any evidentiary facts supporting their contention that Old GM knew that the alleged design defect affected the vehicles they owned. Nor were their vehicles subject to a recall. Old GM’s knowledge of the Ignition Switch Defect here, and of its need to effect a recall of the Plaintiffs’ ears here, makes Morgenstein a different case.

New GM also calls this Court’s attention to Judge Bernstein’s decision in Old Car-eo 157 — the Chrysler chapter 11 case— which in many respects is closely on point, and with which this Court fully agrees. There, after Old Carco’s 158 own 363 sale, owners of Jeep Wranglers and Dodge Du-rangos manufactured by Old Careo brought a class action for economic loss against New Chrysler in the District Court in Delaware, alleging that their cars suffered from a design flaw known as “fuel spit back.” As here, the affected ear owners in Old Careo had received notice only by publication. With the same issue as to whether the Old Careo sale order’s free and clear provisions barred the economic loss claims there, the Delaware District Court referred that question to the Old Careo bankruptcy court. Judge Bernstein concluded that Old Carco’s Sale Order did indeed bar those economic loss claims, and found no due process impediment to enforcing the Old Careo sale order against those asserting the economic loss claims there — even against those who bought their cars in the used car market 159 — finding that their claims had arisen when their cars had been manufactured, which was before Old Carco’s 363 sale.

But while Old Careo plainly was correctly decided, it is distinguishable from this case, in a highly significant respect. Old Careo had already issued at least three recall notices for the “fuel spit back” prob *560 lem for' certain Durango and other Old Careo vehicles before the original purchasers bought their vehicles from Old Car-eo, 160 avoiding the exact problem this Court has identified here.

The publication notice here given, which otherwise would have been perfectly satisfactory (especially given the time exigencies), was insufficient, because from Old GM’s perspective, owners of cars with Ignition Switch Defects had “known” claims. Because Old GM failed to provide the notice required under the Safety Act (which, if given before Old GM’s chapter 11 filing, could have been followed by the otherwise satisfactory post-filing notice by publication), the Plaintiffs were denied the notice due process requires.

A The Requirement for Prejudice

But the Court’s determination that Plaintiffs were denied the notice due process requires does not necessarily mean that they were “denied due process.” The latter turns on the extent to which a denial of due process also requires a showing of resulting prejudice.

Plaintiffs argue that once they have shown the denial of the notice that due process requires, any resulting prejudice is simply irrelevant. In their view, the denial of the notice that due process requires means that they need not show anything more, and that the Court need not, and should not, think about how things might have been different if they had received the notice that was denied.

The Court disagrees. The contention runs contrary to massive caselaw, and common sense.

Though the Second Circuit, so far as the parties’ briefing has revealed and this Court is aware, has not ruled on this issue, 161 no less than six other Circuits have. They have repeatedly, and very explicitly, identified prejudice as an essential element of a denial of due process claim — saying, in exactly these words or words that are very close, that “a party who claims to be aggrieved by a violation of procedural due process must show prejudice.” 162 So have *561 lower courts in this District (at both the District Court 163 and Bankruptcy Court 164 levels), and elsewhere. 165 Several of the above were bankruptcy cases, in which litigants sought to be relieved of bankruptcy court orders based on contentions of denial of due process. 166

*562 Neither the Plaintiffs, nor the GUC Trust (which is allied with the Plaintiffs on this issue), cite any ease that contradicts that authority. 167 Rather, they variously argue that “the Due Process Clause' protects ... the right to be heard, not the right to win; 168 that all of the above cases are distinguishable on their facts; 169 and that imposition of a prejudice requirement would require the Court to speculate as to the outcome if appropriate notice had been provided. 170 The first contention is overly *563 simplistic, the second misses the point; and the third fails based on a mistaken assumption.

As to the first, the issue is not, as Plaintiffs, argue, whether the Due Process clause guarantees “a right to win.” Of course it is true that there is no constitutional right to win — though ironically, under the Plaintiffs’ argument (that inadequate notice automatically gives them the win), they effectively seek exactly that. The real issue is rather whether, assuming that there has been a denial of the right to be heard, more is necessary to establish a judicially cognizable due process viola tion — ie., a right to the desired curative relief. The caselaw answers that; it requires the arguably injured party to show prejudice from the denial.

The Plaintiffs’ and GUC Trust’s second argument is that “the cases [New GM] cites do not support its contention.” 171 But of course they do. Because due process cases are heavily fact-driven, it is hardly surprising that the Plaintiffs can point out factual distinctions between the ten cases discussed above 172 and this one. But the Court does not rely upon those cases for their factual similarity to this one; it relies on them for the legal principles that each enunciates, in very clear terms — as stated by the First Circuit in Perry, for example, “a party who claims to be aggrieved by a violation of procedural due process must show prejudice.” 173

The third contention does not go to the existence of the requirement for showing prejudice. It goes to how the Court should examine possible prejudice — and in particular, whether courts should speculate as to resulting harm once they have been presented with a showing of insufficient notice.

In that third contention, the Plaintiffs cite Fuentes v. Shevin, 174 in which the Supreme Court reversed the judgments of three-judge District Courts that had upheld the constitutionality of Florida and Pennsylvania replevin statutes that denied a prior opportunity to be heard before chattels were taken from consumers’ possession, in several instances without a lawsuit. 175 The Plaintiffs do not argue that Fuentes, or any principles it articulated, trumped any of the holdings to which this Court has just referred — that a showing of prejudice must be made before court orders entered with insufficient notice are undone. Nor could they, as Fuentes involved facts nothing like this case, and instead involved a facial attack on the constitutionality of statutes that authorized the seizure of property without any notice, and, in many cases, any earlier judicial action at all. The different, later, possible judicial outcomes to which Fuentes referred (and upon which the Plaintiffs rely) 176 related to judicial proceedings that never took place, and (for good reasons) needed to take place.

The Plaintiffs then argue a different proposition, on which they are on *564 stronger ground; they say that courts should reject “speculation” that the litigant would have lost anyway. And in this respect, the Court agrees with them. In determining prejudice, courts should not speculate as to outcome if an aggrieved party was denied the notice to which it was entitled. If there is a non-speculative reason to doubt the reliability of the outcome, the Court agrees that it should take action — though the opposite is also true. For that reason, the Court believes that it here should neither deny, nor grant, relief to the Plaintiffs here based on a request by either side that the Court engage in speculation. 177 The Court will refrain from doing so.

Finally, and apart from the caselaw previously noted, the Plaintiffs’ contention that prejudice need not be shown in cases like this one runs contrary not just to existing law, but also fairness and sound policy. Bankruptcy sale due process cases, much more than in plenary litigation, involve competing interests — including those of parties who have acquired property rights as buyers of estate assets, and have a justifiable expectation that when they acquire assets pursuant to a bankruptcy court order, they can rely on what the order says. That was an important element of the Seventh Circuit’s opinion in Edwards, 178 in which that court held that a bona fide purchaser of property in a free and clear sale acquired good title to it, even though a second mortgagee had not received notice of the sale until more than a year later.

The Edwards court noted that “[i]f purchasers at judicially approved sales of property of a bankrupt estate, and their lenders, cannot rely on the deed that they receive at the sale, it will be difficult to liquidate bankrupt estates at positive prices,” 179 and that “the liquidation of bankrupt estates will be impeded if the bona fide purchaser cannot obtain a good title, and creditors will suffer.” 180 That does not mean, at least in this Court’s view, that the purchasers of assets automatically should win, but it does mean that their needs and concerns — and the protection of their own property rights — cannot be disregarded either.

The Edwards court twice addressed the competing interests on matters of this character;

We are left with the practical question, in what circumstances can a civil judgment be set aside without limit of time and without regard to the harm to innocent third parties? The answer requires a consideration of competing interests rather than a formula. 181

And again:

*565 To take away a person’s property — and a lien is property — without compensation or even notice is pretty shocking, but we have property rights on both sides of the equation here, since [the second mortgagee] wants to take away property that [the purchaser] bought and [the purchaser’s lender] financed, without compensating them for their loss. 182

The Court is mindful of concerns articulated by Chief Judge Jacobs dissenting in Petrie Retail 183 (even though they were not embraced by the Petrie Retail majority) that the requirements of law in bankruptcy cases should not be trumped by concerns as to whether they might have a chilling effect on sales in bankruptcy cases, on the one hand, or “promote[ ] the sale of the assets marketed by bankrupt estates,” on the other. And for reasons discussed below, the Court believes that in the Second Circuit, the requirements of due process would trump the interests of finality and maximizing creditor recovery. But in bankruptcy, the interests inherent in the enforceability of 363 orders (on which the buyers of assets should justifiably be able to rely, and the interests of creditors depending on the maximization of estate value likewise rest) are hugely important. And to the extent that courts can respect and enforce sale orders as written unless there is genuine prejudice, they should do so. Since parties’ competing needs and concerns “are on both sides of the equation here,” 184 that means that in instances in which prejudice has not been shown, there is no good reason for depriving asset purchasers of their own property rights — and of the benefits for which they provided value to a chapter 11 estate.

And the facts here (which may present a relatively uncommon situation) — where while insufficient notice was given, others duly given notice made the same, and indeed better, arguments against successor liability, and lost — raise an additional common sense and fairness concern. It defies common sense — and also is manifestly unfair — to give those who have not been prejudiced the bonanza of exemption from a ruling as to which other creditors, with no lesser equities in their favor, were heard on the merits, lost, and now have to live with the result.

For all of these reasons, the Court holds — consistent with the ten other cases that have held likewise — that even where inadequate notice has been given, prejudice is an essential element for vacating or modifying an order implementing a 363 sale.

5. Application of Those Principles to Economic Loss Plaintiffs

Having concluded that the Economic Loss Plaintiffs were denied the notice due process requires, but that establishing a claim for a denial of due process requires a showing of prejudice, the Court must then consider the extent to which they were prejudiced as a result. The Court finds that they were not at all prejudiced with respect to successor liability, but that they were prejudiced with respect to over-breadth of the Sale Order.

*566

(a) Successor Liability

After arguing that prejudice need not be shown, and that they should win without any prejudice at all (contentions that the Court has rejected), the Plaintiffs go on to argue that even if prejudice must be established, it was shown. 185 They argue that if they had the opportunity to be heard, the result would have been different. Insofar as successor liability is concerned, the Court easily rejects that contention.

It is undisputed that although the Plaintiffs did not-get adequate notice of the 368 Sale hearing, over 4 million others did, including a very large number who vigorously argued against the Free and Clear Provisions, but ultimately failed. While the Plaintiffs quote from Mullane repeatedly, and rely on Mullane principles even more often, they overlook the language in Mullane that expressly addressed situations where many would be similarly affected — and where all, because of incomplete notice, might not be able to be heard, but many could.

Mullane recognizes that where notice is imperfect, the ability of others to argue the point would preclude the prejudice that might result if none could. It even suggests that in such instances, there is no persuasive claim that even notice was defective. In language that the Plaintiffs fail to address, the Mullane court stated:

This type of trust presupposes a large number of small interests. The individual interest does not stand alone but is identical with that of a class. The rights of each in the integrity of the fund and the fidelity of the trustee are shared by many other beneficiaries. Therefore notice reasonably certain to reach most of those interested in objecting is likely to safeguard the interests of all, since any objections sustained would inure to the benefit of all. We think that under such circumstances reasonable risks that notice might not actually reach every beneficiary are justifiable. ‘Now and then an extraordinary case may turn up, but constitutional law, like other mortal contrivances, has to take some chances, and in the great majority of instances, no doubt, justice will be done.’ 186

Here, as in the situation addressed in Mul-lane, the notice that was sufficient to trigger many objections to the Free and Clear Provisions was “likely to safeguard the interests of all.” 187 If those who got notice and made those objections had been successful, the “objections sustained would inure to the benefit of all. 188 These observations by the Supreme Court bolster the conclusion that there was no prejudice here. In fact, just as the Mullane court declared that “under such circumstances, reasonable risks that notice might not actually reach every beneficiary [were] justifiable,” that element of the Mullane holding strongly suggests that notice that did not reach the subset of vehicle owners with Ignition Switch Defects was not constitutionally deficient in the first place. 189

*567 But even if Múlleme does not by itself dispose of the question, the Plaintiffs’ failure to show any reason why the Free and Clear Provisions were improperly imposed does. That failure underscores the lack of prejudice here. 190 . Notably, the Plaintiffs do not argue that when the Court barred successor liability back in 2009, it got it wrong. 191 They do not bring to the Court’s attention any cases that other objectors missed, or any statutory or other authority suggesting a different outcome on the successor liability merits. In fact, they offer no legally based arguments as to why they would have, or even could have, succeeded on the successor liability legal argument when all of the other objectors failed. 192

Rather, while the Plaintiffs recognize that the Court would not have let GM go into the liquidation that would have resulted if the Court denied approval of the 363 Sale, they argue that they could have defeated the successor liability injunction for reasons unrelated to its propriety as a matter of bankruptcy law. While criticizing New GM for improper speculation, 193 *568 they ask the Court to rely on the speculation they prefer; 194 they ask the Court to accept the likelihood that by reason of public outrage or public pressure, they could have required Old GM or Treasury to rewrite the deal to accede to their desires. 195 And they know, or should, the fundamental principle of bankruptcy law that a buyer of assets cannot be required to take on liabilities it doesn’t want.

So it requires no speculation for the Court to rule that given Old GM’s circumstances at the time, the Court would not have disapproved the 363 Sale or conditioned its approval on modifications to the carefully negotiated restructuring to favor one or more groups seeking special treatment.

As noted above, the Court agrees with the Plaintiffs and the GUC Trust that speculation is inappropriate on an inquiry of this nature. But gauging the outcome on the bar of successor liability if Plaintiffs had been heard does not at all involve speculation, especially since they offered no authority beyond what the other objectors offered in 2009. Rather, it is the Plaintiffs’ alternative argument — that they could have succeeded by reason of public outrage, political pressure, or Treasury’s anger with Old GM, when they could not prevail in the courtroom — that asks the Court to speculate. For the very reason the Plaintiffs themselves advance, the Court should not, and will not, do so.

Insofar as the Free and Clear Provisions’ prohibition of successor liability claims are concerned, while the Plaintiffs failed to receive the notice due process requires, they were not prejudiced as a result. Thus they have failed to establish a claim for a denial of due process. The Free and Clear Provisions must stand.

(b) New GM’s Own Wrongful Acts

What the Court would have done in the face of a Sale Order overbreadth objection is likewise not subject to speculation. The Court follows its own precedent. If the Plaintiffs had been heard to make the argument back in 2009 that they are making now — that they should have the right to allege claims based on wrongful conduct by New GM alone, without any reliance on anything that Old GM might *569 have done — the Court would have entered a narrower order, as it did in similar situations. In this respect, the Economic Loss Plaintiffs were prejudiced.

The Court has twice dealt with what is effectively the same issue before. In another chapter 11 case on the Court’s watch, quite a number of years before the 363 Sale in this case, Magnesium Corporation of America (“MagCorp”), one of the two debtors in that case, 196 had massive bond debt, environmental, and other liabilities, leading to a chapter 11 filing in August 2001. In May 2002, lacking an ability to reorganize, MagCorp sought approval of a 363 sale to U.S. Magnesium, an affiliate, of substantially all of its assets, with free and clear provisions that would protect the purchaser from successor liability on the debtors’ legacy claims — including, most significantly, MagCorp’s environmental liabilities to the EPA and other U.S. Government entities. Understandably upset that it would have to recover its very substantial claims from a shell that at the time seemed largely worthless, the Government objected to the free and clear provisions.

Consistent with the law at the time (which was even clearer by 2009), the Court nevertheless granted the requested free and clear provisions. But it further ruled that while successor liability would be proscribed, U.S. Magnesium would not be protected with respect to any future matters that were its own liability. As part of its dictated rulings, the Court stated:

When you are talking about free and clear of liens, it means you don’t take it subject to claims which, in essence, carry with the property. It doesn’t absolve you from compliance with the law going forward. 197

And though it later rejected an effort by the Government to reargue the free and clear provisions there, the Court then said:

I’ve made it clear that the new owners will have to comply with the law and will be subject to any and all obligations that the EPA or other regulatory authorities can impose with respect to the new owners of the land, including requiring that they do whatever they have to do with cleaning up their land if it’s -messed up. 198

The Court’s sale order in MagCorp therefore included, after its free and clear provisions, a key proviso:

provided, however, that nothing contained herein shall (a) release U.S. Magnesium LLC or any affiliate or insider thereof from any claim of the United States against U.S. Magnesium or such affiliate or- insider which existed immediately prior to the Closing (but not as a successor in interest to the Seller) and (b) excuse U.S. Magnesium LLC from any obligations under applicable law (including, without limitation, RCRA or other environmental laws) as the owner and operator of the Assets (but not as successor in interest to Seller). 199

Similarly, at the 2009 sale hearing in this case, certain objectors voiced concerns that any approval order would too broadly release either Old GM or New GM from their respective duties to comply with environmental laws and cleanup obligations. After they did so, the Court noted that it *570 had originally shared their concerns, but that their concerns were addressed by amendments to the proposed order that were made after objections were filed. 200 The Sale Order in this ease was amended to say:

Nothing in this Order or the [Sale Agreement] releases, nullifies, or enjoins the enforcement of any Liability to a governmental unit under Environmental Laws or regulations (or any associated Liabilities for penalties, damages, cost recovery, or injunctive relief) that any entity would be subject to as the owner, lessor, or operator of property after the date of entry of this Order. Notwithstanding the foregoing sentence, nothing in this Order shall be interpreted to deem the Purchaser as the successor to the Debtors under any state law successor liability doctrine with respect to any Liabilities under Environmental Laws or regulations for penalties for days of violation prior to entry of this Order. Nothing in this paragraph should be construed to create for any governmental unit any substantive right that does not already exist under law. 201

Here the Sale Order, in addition to barring successor liability (which for reasons discussed above, remains fully appropriate), also proscribed any claims involving vehicles and parts manufactured by Old GM, even if the claims might rely solely on wrongful conduct by New GM alone. By not having the opportunity to argue that such was inappropriate here (and to seek a proviso similar to the ones granted in MagCorp and for the environmental objectors here), the Economic Loss Plaintiffs were prejudiced. They thus established an actionable denial of due process with respect to Sale Order overbreadth.

(c) The Used Car Purchasers

A subset of the Economic Loss Plaintiffs, the Used Car Purchasers (whom the Plaintiffs refer to as the “Post-Sale Class”), assert that they have special rights — to assert claims for successor liability when nobody else can — because they had not yet purchased their cars at the time of the >363 Sale. The Court cannot agree. Aside from the illogic and unfairness of the contention, it is erroneous as a matter of law, for at least two reasons.

First, when the Court issued the Sale Order, approving the disposition of Old GM assets — a matter over which the Court had unquestionable subject matter jurisdiction, derived from its statutory subject matter jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1334 and, more importantly for these purposes, the in rem jurisdiction the Court had over estate assets then being sold — those assets were sold free and clear of successor liability claims. The substance of the Sale Order was to proscribe claims based on the transferor Old GM’s conduct that could be argued to travel with the assets transferred. 202 The bar against successor liability claims premised on continued ownership of the property traveled with the property. The Used Car Plaintiffs would *571 thus be bound by the in rem nature of that order except to the extent that its enforcement, by reason of due process concerns, would be improper as to them.

Because they were unknown at the time, and were not even creditors (not having yet acquired the cars they now assert have decreased value), mailed notice was impossible, and publication notice (or for that matter, actual notice) would not have been meaningful to them, even if Old GM had previously sent out recall notices. Thus the Used Car Purchasers were denied the notice due process requires to bind them to the Free and Clear Provisions, 203 just as the remainder of the Plaintiffs were.

But like the other Plaintiffs, the Used Car Purchasers were not prejudiced, because others made the same arguments that Used Car Plaintiffs might have made, and the Court rejected those contentions. Especially since purchasers of estate property under sale orders have property rights too, the methodology for correcting a denial of an opportunity to be heard under such circumstances (if not others as well) should be (1) at least temporarily relieving an adversely affected litigant of the effect of the order, and then (2) giving the adversely affected litigant the opportunity. to be heard that was previously denied — referred to colloquially by this Court, in oral argument, as a “do-over” 204 —fixing any damage that might have resulted from an incorrect or incomplete ruling the first time. Granting any more than that would favor the Plaintiffs with an outcome that the Court has already determined is contrary to existing law, and would grant them a wholly inappropriate windfall.

Like the other Economic Loss Plaintiffs (and for that matter, the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs), if the Used Car Purchasers made arguments at this time that were not previously raised, the Court believes that it would be obligated to consider those arguments now, and effectively give Used Car Plaintiffs a do-over. But once again like the other Plaintiffs, the- Used Car Plaintiffs have identified no arguments they might have made that others did not. As with the other Plaintiffs, the denial of notice gave them the chance to be heard on the merits at a later time, but not to an automatic win.

Second (assuming arguendo that they were injured), the Used Car Owners were injured as the successors in ownership to individuals or entities who had been the prior owners of their Old GM cars. And for each of them, an earlier owner was in the body of owners of Old GM vehicles who were bound by the Free and Clear Provisions. With exceptions not applicable here (such as holders in due course of negotiable instruments), the successor in interest to a person or entity cannot acquire greater rights than his, her, or its transferor. 205 That is the principle *572 underlying the Wagoner Rule, 206 which, while an amalgam of state and federal law, is firmly embedded in the law in the Second Circuit. 207 And that principle has likewise been applied to creditors seeking better treatment than the assignors of their claims. 208 Thus it is not at all surprising to this Court that in Old Careo, 209 Judge Bernstein blocked the suits by those who bought used 2005 and 2006 Dodge Duran-gos or Jeep Wranglers, 210 distinguishing Grumman Olson-Bankruptcy on the ground that those plaintiffs “or their predecessors (the previous owners of the vehicles) had a pre-petition relationship with Old Careo, and the design flaws that they now point to existed pre-petition.” 211

Thus the caselaw requires that New GM receive the same protection from Used Car Owners’ successor liability claims that it had from their assignors’.

The Used Car Purchasers’ contention that they deserve better treatment than other GM vehicle owners is also illogical and unfair. As New GM. argues, with considerable force, “an owner of an Old GM vehicle should not be able to ‘end-run’ the applicability of the Sale Order and Injunction by merely selling that vehicle after the closing of the 363 Sale ... if the Sale Order and Injunction would have applied to the original owner who purchased the vehicle prior to the 363 Sale, it equally applies to the current owner who purchased the vehicle after the 363 Sale.” 212 There is no basis in logic or fairness for a different result.

For all of these reasons, the Court concludes, after what is effectively de novo review (focused on the non-showing by Used Car Purchasers of anything they might have argued to defeat the Free and Clear Provisions beyond anything previously argued), that Used Car Purchasers have likewise failed to make a showing of prejudice, and the Free and Clear Provisions stand for them as well.

6. Application of Those Principles to Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs

Like the Economic Loss Plaintiffs whose claims the Court just addressed, the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs seek to im *573 pose successor liability on New GM. But though the Court has found that they did not get the notice due process requires, they were not prejudiced by the failure.

Preliminarily, the Court’s determination that the Economic Loss Plaintiffs were not prejudiced by the Free and Clear Provisions applies equally to the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs. The Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs likewise have offered no arguments here as to why the Court’s earlier order proscribing successor liability was wrong. And it requires no speculation here for the Court again to find no basis for a different legal result. In fact, many of the objectors whose contentions the Court rejected back in 2009 were asserting the exact same types of claims the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs have — claims for injury or death from pre-closing accidents, involving vehicles or parts manufactured by Old GM. While the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs’ claims (premised upon actual injury or death, and, at least allegedly, from the safety risk of which Old GM was aware), might be regarded by many as more sympathetic than those of Economic Loss Plaintiffs, they nevertheless are efforts to impose successor liability. And contentions that the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs would successfully impose successor liability by reason of political concerns are once again speculative, just as the similar arguments of the Economic Loss Plaintiffs were.

The arguments as to Sale Order breadth that the Economic Loss Plaintiffs might have asserted would not be relevant to the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs. To the extent the Sale Order was overbroad, it was so as to any claims that might arise solely by reason of New GM’s conduct. The Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs suffered the injury or death underlying their claims in Old GM cars, and with Old GM parts. Any actionable conduct causing that injury or death took place before the 363 Sale — and necessarily was by Old GM, not New GM, and indeed before New GM could have done anything wrong.

If the overbreadth objection were sustained and the Sale Order could be, and were, fixed (a matter addressed in Section II belpw, dealing with Remedies), the Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs still could not assert claims against New GM.

The Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs did not suffer the prejudice that is an element to a denial of due process claim.

7. Application to Filing of Claims

Much of the analysis above applies equally to the allowance of claims. But due process analysis in the claims allowance context must take into account two differences. First, here there was not the same degree of urgency with respect to the deadline for filing claims. And second, while prejudice is required in the claims context as well, the denial of the opportunity to file a timely proof of claim — and with it, the likely or certain expungement of one’s claim — is at least generally, if not always, classic prejudice.

As noted above, due process analysis requires the consideration of the surrounding circumstances. While the need for urgency in a judicial process is the paradigmatic example of. a relevant circumstance, the converse is also true. When the urgency is lacking, the hugely important factor of impracticality by reason of time constraints drops out of the picture. In contrast to the 363 sale process, claims could be (and ultimately were) considered in a less hurried fashion.

Nevertheless, were it not for the fact that Ignition Switch Defects were known claims (for reasons discussed in Section 1(A)(5) above), service of notice of the Bar Date by the publication that here was uti *574 lized 213 would still be adequate. Old GM was careful to send out notice of the Bar Date to any who had brought suit against Old GM or expressed to Old GM their belief that they might have claims, and the Court approved Old GM’s proposals for notice by publication to those not known by Old GM to have potential claims against the Old GM estate.

But with respect to the allowance of claims, the failure to send out Ignition Switch Defect recall notices, much more clearly than with respect to notice of the 363 Sale, resulted in the denial of the notice that due process requires. And though a showing of prejudice here too is required, the Court finds that the denial of timely notice of the Old GM Bar Date prejudiced the Plaintiffs with respect to any claims they might have filed against Old GM.

By reason of its failure to provide the Plaintiffs with either the notice required under the Safety Act or any other form of written notice, Old GM failed to provide the Plaintiffs with the-notice that due process requires. 214 And because that failure prejudiced them in filing timely claims, the Plaintiffs were prejudiced as a result. The failure to give the Plaintiffs the notice that due process requires, coupled with the prejudice to them that resulted, denied the Plaintiffs the requisite due process.

II.

Remedies

The second threshold issue requires the Court to determine the appropriate remedies for any denials of due process that the Court may have found. Once again, the Court focuses on the Sale Order and claims allowance process separately.

A.

The Sale Order

The Plaintiffs argue that the Court should simply deny New GM enforcement of the Sale Order “as to the objecting claimant[s] who did not receive due process,” 215 (ie., as to them), even with respect to the same successor liability as to *575 which the Court’ ruled against others who got notice and argued against it. They argue, in substance, that they should be permanently absolved from the Sale Order’s Free and Clear Provisions irrespective of whether those provisions were right or wrong. Not surprisingly, the Court rejects this contention.

By the same token, New GM argues that the Plaintiffs’ remedy, if any, is to enforce their claims against the proceeds of the 363 Sale, and that the unitary nature of the Sale Order requires that the Court either enforce it as a whole or vacate it as a whole — while also reminding the Court (though the Court need hardly be reminded) that unwinding the sale at this point is unthinkable. Though these contentions are not as offensive as the Plaintiffs’, these too are flawed.

Like the Due Process issue, the Court analyzes the Remedies issue in ways materially different than the parties here do— in accordance with the discussion that follows.

1. Prejudice As Affecting Remedy

For reasons discussed above, 216 the Court has already rejected the Plaintiffs’ contention that prejudice is irrelevant to the existence of a due process violation resulting from a denial of the requisite notice. That limits, though it does not eliminate, the matters for which a remedy must be crafted.

Here the Plaintiffs failed to receive notice they might have used to join others likewise arguing against the Free and Clear Provisions. But the others made those points, and made them well. And while the prejudice analysis might be different if the Plaintiffs now identified successor liability points others failed to make, here no such points have been identified. On the Free and Clear Provisions barring successor liability, there is no prejudice; thus no due process claim; and thus nothing to remedy. 217

But on the Plaintiffs’ second principal matter of concern — the overbreadth of the Sale Order — the situation is different. There is a flaw in the order, protecting New GM from liability on claims that, while they involve Old GM vehicles or Old GM parts, do not rest on successor liability, and instead rely on New GM’s alleged wrongful conduct alone. The Plaintiffs could have made overbreadth arguments if given appropriate notice before the 363 Sale hearing, and to that extent they were prejudiced. And for that the Plaintiffs should be entitled to remedial relief to the extent the law otherwise permits.

2. Attaching Claims to Sale Proceeds

So it is necessary then to turn to New GM’s points. In several respects, New GM is right, but in material respects New GM extends existing law too far, or fails to recognize the holdings or implications of existing precedent.

*576 Over-extension of existing law is the problem with respect to New GM’s first point: its contention that the Plaintiffs’ claims should attach to the 363 Sale Proceeds. That often works fine; courts routinely provide that upon sales of estate property subject to a lien, the rights of parties with liens on the collateral that was sold attach to the proceeds instead. 218 And since the secured component of a claim protected by a lien cannot exceed the value of the collateral, that will typically eliminate any prejudice to the lien creditor. That was the situation in Edwards, which (because it involved a lien) reached the right bottom line. But as this Court noted above, 219 the claims and interests proscribed by a sale order can go beyond mere liens, and New GM’s analysis can work only for liens — or, perhaps, any similar interests whose value is capped by the value of collateral being sold. If another kind of interest was impacted — as it has been here — a different remedy must be considered.

New GM’s second point (that the Sale Order cannot be vacated or modified at this late point in time) breaks down into several distinct, but related, points' — raising issues of bankruptcy policy and the finality of judicial sales; of due process law; and of respect for the nonseverability provisions in orders upon which many rely. Each raises matters of legitimate concern from New GM’s perspective. But they can be taken only so far.

3. Protection of Purchasers of Estate Assets

New GM points out that the buyers of assets from chapter 11 estates acquire property interests too — as recognized by the Seventh Circuit in Edwards 220 — and that taking away those purchasers’ contractually bargained-for rights strikes at the heart of understandings critically important to the bankruptcy system. In this respect, New GM is right. The Second Circuit has repeatedly recognized the importance to the bankruptcy system of concerns before the Court here. In one instance, the Circuit observed that “[w]e have long recognized the value of finality in judicial sales.” 221 In another, the Circuit affirmed a District Court judgment dismissing successor liability claims after a bankruptcy sale, observing that:

Allowing the plaintiff to proceed with his tort claim directly against [the asset purchaser] would be inconsistent with the Bankruptcy Code’s priority scheme because plaintiffs claim is otherwise a low-priority, unsecured claim. Moreover, to the extent that the “free and clear” nature of the sale (as provided for in the' Asset Purchase Agreement (“APA”) and § 363(f)) was a crucial inducement in the sale’s successful trans *577 action ... it is evident that the potential chilling effect of allowing a tort claim subsequent to the sale would run counter to a core aim of the Bankruptcy Code, which is to maximize the value of the assets and thereby maximize potential recovery to the creditors. 222

For all of these reasons, if it were not for the fact that the Plaintiffs’ claim is a constitutional one, the Court would decline to deny enforcement of the Sale Order, in whole or in part. There is no good reason to give creditors asserting successor liability claims recovery rights greater than those of other creditors. And as importantly or more so, the interests inherent in the enforceability of 363 orders (on which the buyers of assets should justifiably be able to rely, 223 and on which the interests of creditors, keenly interested in the maximization of estate value, likewise rest) are hugely important. 224

4. Effect of Constitutional Violations

But we here have a constitutional violation — a denial of due process. In such an instance, the Court must then determine whether doctrine that would bar modification of the Sale Order under less extreme circumstances has to give way to constitutional concerns. The Court concludes that it must.

New GM has called the Court’s attention to two decisions in which courts declined to grant relief from sale orders where those seeking the relief received inadequate notice. 225 But in each case the party seeking the relief was found not to have been materially prejudiced or prejudiced at all. New GM has not called the Court’s atten *578 tion to any ease in which an order was found to have been entered with a prejudicial denial of due process and the court nevertheless denied relief. 226 By contrast, the Plaintiffs have called the Court’s attention, and/or the Court has found, six decisions — including two by the Second Circuit — modifying, or declining to enforce as against adversely affected parties, earlier orders in instances where those parties were denied due process and also prejudiced thereby. 227

The latter decisions reached those results by varied means (and some with reference to Fed. R. Civ. P. 60(b) and some without it), but they all came to the same bottom line. They relieved the adversely affected party of the effects of the order insofar as it prejudiced that party. New GM insufficiently recognizes the significance of those decisions.

The decision most closely on point is Metzger. There the debtor in a chapter 11 case owned land to be later developed for the construction of townhouses that was subject to a deed restriction entered into with the county under which four of the units later to be constructed had to be sold at below market rates. The debtor sold the property under a free and clear order in 1992, but without notice to the county. In 2006,14 years after the court issued the *579 sale order, the purchaser’s successor found itself in a dispute with the county over the continuing validity of the restriction, and sought to enforce the free and clear provisions. As here, the county contended that it could not be bound by the free and clear provisions, because it was not given notice of the hearing at which the sale was approved. 228

On those facts, the Metzger court ruled, under Fed. R. Civ.P. 60(b), 229 that the order was “void as to the County’s interest.” 230 It continued:

The Court has some flexibility in creating a remedy here and need not and will not And the entire sale void on these facts. The Court need only find, and does find, that the County’s interest in the Property survived the sale to [the purchaser]. The 1992 Sale Order is to that limited extent void because the County’s due process rights were violated. 231

Addressing remedy in the same fashion are the Bankruptcy Court and District Court decisions in Polycel. There the debtor sold its property (or what it said was its property) free and clear, in a 363 sale. The property assertedly conveyed to the buyer included commercial molds used in the manufacture of prefabricated panels used to form the interior surface of in-ground swimming- pools. But a third party, Pool Builders Supply of the Carolinas (“Pool Builders Supply”), which without dispute was not given notice of the sale, and which contended that it was the true owner of the molds, sought relief from the sale order asserting that its property was taken without due process.

The Bankruptcy Court granted relief under Rule 60(b), voiding the sale order as to Pool Builders Supply alone (keeping the remainder of the sale order intact), and the Bankruptcy Court’s determination was affirmed on appeal. The Polycelr-Bank-ruptcy court balanced the competing concerns of bankruptcy court finality and due process requirements, and concluded that the latter should prevail. Disagreeing with so much of Edwards that considered that the interests of finality to outweigh the due process concerns, the Polycel-Bankruptcy court stated:

This court is inclined to disagree with the reasoning of the Seventh Circuit, and instead follows the more persuasive line of cases that recognize the importance of affording parties their due process rights over the interest of finality in bankruptcy sales.

Although this court agrees that the interest of finality is an important part of ensuring participation in bankruptcy sales, this cannot trump constitutionally mandated due process requirements for notice and an opportunity to be heard. 232

Addressing the Remedies issue in the same fashion is Compak. There, a suit over patent infringement and the entitlement to patent royalties turned on whether a patent license could be extinguished in a 363 sale of all of the debtor’s assets. A sublicensee of the patent rights was not given notice of a 363 sale that would extinguish the sublicensee’s claims. 233 After discussion of the prejudice the sublicensee *580 suffered, and distinguishing Edwards because of the much greater “interests at stake,” the Compak court concluded that “the Sale Order is ‘void’ insofar as it purports to extinguish the defendants’ license.” 234

In the Grumman Olson Opinions, Judges Bernstein and Oetkin dealt with a factual variant of the 363 sale order cases discussed above. Those decisions, unlike those previously discussed, did not involve individuals who were supposed to get notice but didn’t get it, but rather people who the debtor could not have given notice to, because they did not have claims or interests yet.

There certain of the assets of the debtor Grumman Olson, a manufacturer of truck bodies that were installed in complete vehicles, had been sold in a 363 sale with protection against successor liability claims. Prior to its bankruptcy, Grumman Olson sold a truck body that was incorporated into a vehicle sold to Federal Express; years later (long after the sale), a FedEx employee was injured when the FedEx truck she was driving hit a telephone pole, and she and her husband (who joined in the lawsuit) sued the asset purchaser under successor liability doctrine. For obvious reasons (as they had no contact with the debtor prior to the sale), the woman and her husband were not known to the debtor at the time of the sale and received no notice of the sale hearing. Judge Bernstein ruled that they did not have claims (as they had not yet suffered injuries before the sale, and had no earlier contact with the debtor), but his more important conclusion for our purposes was that they could not be bound by the sale order. He concluded that “the Sale Order does not affect their rights to sue [the purchaser].” 235 He did so without resort to Rule 60(b), and without invalidating the sale order as to anyone else or in any other respect.

The Second Circuit has twice addressed these issues in ways relevant here, though in situations not quite as similar to those addressed above. In Manville-2010, the Circuit considered the effect of a denial of due process in connection with a bankruptcy court order — though not in connection with a sale order, or, of course, one with free and clear provisions. Though most of the details of that fairly complex controversy need not be discussed here, Man-ville-2010 is important for the Circuit’s conclusion as to the appropriate remedy after it found' a due process violation.

There the debtor Manville, .which had been subject to massive liabilities resulting from its manufacture of asbestos (and whose insurance policies, notwithstanding coverage disputes, were its most valuable asset), entered into a series of settlements and settlement clarifications in the 1980s with a group of its insurers, including Travelers, its primary insurer, which were approved by Bankruptcy Court orders. 236 Under the settlement documents, in exchange for sizable contributions to a settlement fund, the insurers were relieved of all obligations related to the disputed policies, and the insurers would be protected from claims based on such obligations by bankruptcy court injunctive orders. By bankruptcy court orders entered in 1986, claims related to the policies were channeled to a trust created for addressing Manville’s liabilities, and injunctive orders implemented broad releases protecting the settling insurers on “Policy Claims” — defined as “any and all claims ... by any Person ... based upon, arising out of or *581 related to any or all of the Policies” at issue in the settlement. 237

But another insurer, Chubb, was not a party to the settlements approved in the 1980s, 238 and had not received notice then that its own claims would be (or at least could be) enjoined too. Chubb thus argued that it could not, as a matter of due process, be bound by the 1986 Orders’ terms. 239

For reasons unnecessary to discuss here, the Circuit agreed that Chubb had been denied due process. But it did not vacate the 1986 Orders in their entirety. It held simply that “[u]nder the unique circumstances of this case, there can be little doubt that the publication notice employed by the bankruptcy court in 1984 was insufficient to bind Chubb to the 2004 interpretation of the 1986 Orders.” 240

The Manville-2010 court did not invoke Rule 60(b) in support of its decision, or even mention it. Nor did it expressly discuss whether orders could be invalidated only in part by reason of a denial of due process. But Manville-2010 necessarily must be read as having concluded that after a denial of due process prejudicing only a single party (even if the order affects other parties, and affecting those other parties is unthinkable), the partial denial of enforcement of that order, insofar as it binds that party alone, is permissible.

To the same effect is the Circuit’s decision in Koepp, 241 which, while a Summary Order not binding on the lower courts in the Second Circuit, further evidences the Circuit’s thinking on whether orders can be less than fully enforced without wholly vacating them. Koepp, unlike Manville-2010, involved a free and clear order. As relevant here, the Circuit considered a party’s claim to easements on land conveyed to a reorganized company (in a § 77 railroad reorganization under the now superseded Bankruptcy Act) under a reorganization plan with free and clear provisions not materially different than those in the Free and Clear order here. Notice had not been given to the easement owner’s predecessor when the reorganization plan had been approved, and for that reason, the Circuit concluded that the District Court correctly ruled that the railroad reorganization consummation order (analogous to a confirmation order under present law) did not extinguish the easements. Once again, the Circuit did not invoke Rule 60(b), nor did it invalidate the consummation order. It simply declined to find the free and clear provisions enforceable against the adversely affected party.

New GM points out, in this connection, ’ that Rule 60(b) provides that a court “may relieve a party ... from a final judgment, order or proceeding” for the reason, among others, that “the judgment is void,” 242 and does not speak of relieving parties from provisions within judgments or orders — ie., a partial invalidation. And New GM further points out that the Sale Order expressly provided that it was not severable, and that this was a material element of the understanding under which it acquired Old GM’s assets, and took on many, but not all, of Old GM’s liabilities. For that reason, New GM argues that the *582 Court can only void the Sale Order in its entirety (which obviously is not an option here) or enforce the sale order as written. In an ordinary situation — one not involving a denial of due process — the Court would agree with New GM; the Court well understands how 363 sale agreements and sale orders are carefully drafted, and how the buyers of assets contemplate taking on certain identified liabilities, but no more. But here failures of notice gave rise, in part, 243 to denials of due process, and that distorts the balancing under which concerns of predictability and finality otherwise prevail.

In each of Manville-2010, Koepp, Metzger, Polycel-District, Polycell-Bank-ruptcy, Compak, and the two Grumman Olson Opinions, after they found what they determined to be denials of due process, the courts granted what in substance was a partial denial of enforcement of the order in question — either by invocation of Rule 60(b) in some fashion (finding the order void only to a certain extent, or as to an identified party) 244 or without mentioning Rule 60(b) at all. 245 In Polycel-Bank-ruptcy, for instance, the Bankruptcy Court concluded, after its 60(b) analysis, “[t]o that extent, the Sale Order is void....” 246 In Manville-2010, the Circuit found the earlier order unenforceable against Chubb without mention of Rule 60(b) at all. Though they reached their bottom lines by different paths, the takeaway from those cases — especially in the aggregate — is effectively as stated by the Bankruptcy Court in Metzger — that “[t]he Court has some flexibility in creating a remedy here and need not ... find the entire sale void on these facts,” and that the sale order was “to that limited extent void.” 247

For that reason, New GM’s point that the Sale Order provided that it was a unitary document, and that the Free and Clear Provisions could not be carved out of it, cannot be found to be controlling once a court finds that there has been a due process violation. If a court applies Rule 60(b) analysis, and determines, as in Metz-ger and Polycel-Bankruptcy, that a sale order can be declared void to a “limited extent,” the provisions providing for the sale order’s unitary nature fall along with any other objectionable provisions. And if a court considers it unnecessary even to rely on Rule 60(b) at all (as in Manville-2010 and Koepp), it can selectively decline enforceability as the Circuit did in those cases.

5. Remedies Conclusion

For these reasons, the Court concludes that — as in Manville-2010, Koepp, and the lower court cases — it can excuse *583 the Economic Loss Plaintiffs 248 from compliance with elements of the Sale Order without voiding the Sale Order in its entirety. And the Court further concludes that on the narrow facts here — where the reason for relief is of constitutional dimension — the nonseverability provisions of the Sale Order do not bar such relief.

B.

Claims

The remedy with respect to the denial of notice sufficient to enable the filing of claims before the Bar Date is obvious. That is leave to file late claims. And the Court may grant leave from the deadline imposed by the Court’s Bar Date Order, just as the Circuit relieved Chubb and the easements owner from enforcement of the earlier orders in Manville-2010 and Koepp.

There is of course a separate issue as to whether the Plaintiffs should have the ability to tap GUC Trust assets that are being held for other creditors and claimants, even if later claims were allowed. But that separate issue is discussed in Section IV below.

Ill

Assumed Liabilities

Although once regarded as important enough to be a threshold issue, determination of what liabilities New GM agreed to assume (and conversely declined to assume) is now of very little importance. The Plaintiffs have not disputed what the Sale Agreement and Sale Order say. 249 Earlier potential disputes over what they say have now been overtaken by the issues as to whether any Sale Order protections are unenforceable.

New GM is right that it expressly declined to assume any liabilities based on Old GM’s wrongful conduct. But the Court’s ruling that it will continue to enforce prohibitions against successor liability makes New GM’s concerns as to that academic. And to the extent, if any, that New GM might be liable on claims based solely on any wrongful conduct on its own part (and in no way relying on wrongful by Old GM), New GM would be liable not because it had assumed any Old GM liabilities (or was responsible for anything that Old GM might have done wrong), but only because New GM had engaged in independently wrongful, and otherwise actionable, conduct on its own.

Under the circumstances, the Court need not say any more about what liabilities New GM assumed.

TV.

Equitable Mootness

Understandably concerned that the successor liability claims that the Economic *584 Loss and Pre-Closing Accident Plaintiffs seek to saddle New GM with are still prepetition claims — and that the Court could reason that to the extent those claims have merit and New GM is not liable for them, somebody is likely to be— the GUC Trust and its Participating Unit-holders argue that tapping the recoveries of GUC Trust Unitholders would be barred by the doctrine of Equitable Mootness. Though the Court’s original instinct was to the contrary (and it once thought that at least partial relief might be available), the Court has been persuaded that they are right.

A.

Underlying Principles

The parties do not dispute the underlying principles, nor that three holdings of the Second Circuit largely determine the mootness issues here — the Circuit’s two 1993 Chateaugay decisions, involving appeals by the Creditors’ Committee of LTV Aerospace 250 and creditor Frito-Lay 251 in the LTV chapter 11 cases, and the Circuit’s 2014 BGI decision, involving an appeal by creditors seeking to file untimely class proofs of claim against debtor Borders Books in the BGI chapter 11 cases. 252

The mootness cases start with the proposition that while the Constitution requires the dismissal of cases as moot whenever effective relief cannot be fashioned, the related, prudential, doctrine of equitable mootness requires dismissal where relief can be fashioned, but implementation of such relief would be inequitable. 253 The doctrine of equitable mootness reflects the “pragmatic principle” that “with the passa

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