ADVO, Inc. & Subsidiaries v. Commissioner

ADVO, INC. & SUBSIDIARIES, PETITIONER v. COMMISSIONER

OF INTERNAL REVENUE, RESPONDENT

Docket No. 17247–10. Filed October 24, 2013.

R disallowed a deduction P claimed under I.R.C. sec. 199 of

$1,515,992 for the 2006 tax year and $151,047 for the short

2007 tax year. R determined that P was not considered to

have manufactured, produced, grown, or extracted qualifying

298

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 299

production property under I.R.C. sec. 199 with respect to P’s

direct advertising mailings. Held: P did not have the benefits

and burdens of ownership of the direct advertising materials

and is not entitled to the I.R.C. sec. 199 deduction.

Michael P. Walutes, Craig A. Raabe, John R. Shaugnessy,

Jr., Gary D. Yeats, and Scott E. Sebastian, for petitioner. *

Donald K. Rogers, Charles E. Buxbaum, and William T.

Derick, for respondent.

WHERRY, Judge: This case is before the Court on a petition

for redetermination of deficiencies in income tax respondent

determined for petitioner’s 2006 tax year and short 2007 tax

year.

The only issue for decision in this Opinion in this

bifurcated case is whether petitioner is entitled to a section

199 1 deduction for manufactured, produced, grown, or

extracted qualifying production property with respect to peti-

tioner’s direct advertising mailings. 2

FINDINGS OF FACT

The parties’ stipulation of facts, with accompanying

exhibits, and the stipulations of settled issues are incor-

porated herein by this reference. At the time petitioner filed

the petition, its principal place of business was in Con-

necticut.

Petitioner, ADVO, Inc. (ADVO), was the common parent of

the consolidated group ADVO, Inc., & Subsidiaries for the

tax years ending September 24, 2005, and September 30,

2006, and for the short taxable year ending March 2, 2007.

On March 3, 2007, ADVO was acquired by Valassis Commu-

nications, Inc., and continues to exist as its wholly owned

subsidiary.

* Brief amici curiae was filed by Mario J. Verdolini and Ethan R. Gold-

man, as attorneys for Limited Brands, Inc., and Judith A. Mather, as at-

torney for Meredith Corp.

1 Unless otherwise indicated, all section references are to the Internal

Revenue Code of 1986 (Code), as amended and in effect for the taxable

years at issue, and all Rule references are to the Tax Court Rule of Prac-

tice and Procedure.

2 There remains a second issue for resolution, in a separate trial, wheth-

er ADVO is entitled to a credit pursuant to sec. 41 for increasing research

activities in connection with the development of internal use software.

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300 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

During 2005, 2006, and 2007, ADVO distributed direct

mail advertising in the United States. Direct mail advertisers

such as ADVO distribute advertising material through the

U.S. Postal Service (USPS) to residential recipients, who are

the targeted potential customers for the products and serv-

ices sold by ADVO’s clients, the advertisers. The advertising

material can be either ‘‘solo direct mail’’ or ‘‘cooperative

direct mail’’. For solo direct mail, the printed advertising

material of a single advertiser is delivered in a stand-alone

envelope or as a postcard to a residential recipient. For

cooperative direct mail, also known as a shared mail pack-

age, the printed advertising material for several different

advertisers is consolidated into a single delivery mechanism

(such as an envelope or sleeve) and delivered as a single unit

to residential recipients. This allows ADVO’s clients to share

the advertisements’ costs of mailing and postage to reach the

target consumers’ mailboxes.

ADVO’s clients are typically businesses whose products

and services are used by the general population or specific

subgroups thereof. These businesses include supermarkets,

quick-serve restaurants, drug stores, discount and depart-

ment stores, home furnishing stores, and other retailers.

Print advertising companies, such as newspapers, regional

and local mailers, direct marketing firms, so-called shoppers

and pennysavers, in the same type of business as ADVO,

compete primarily on the ability to effectively target the

delivery of the client’s advertisement to the consumer house-

holds with the highest propensity to purchase the product

being advertised on a cost-effective basis. The companies also

compete on the extent to which they provide coverage, the

reliability of delivery, and most importantly the ability to

provide a satisfactory return on the advertiser’s investment.

Either ADVO’s clients supply the advertising material for

ADVO to distribute (client-supplied material) or ADVO sup-

plies the materials for distribution (ADVO-supplied mate-

rial). When ADVO supplied the advertising material, ADVO

contracted with third-party commercial printers to print it.

The section 199 deductions at issue were attributable to

direct mail advertising involving only the ADVO-supplied

material.

ADVO’s shared mail packages were distributed weekly,

and each included a ‘‘wrap’’ and various ‘‘inserts’’. A detached

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address label (DAL), also known as a missing child card, was

also associated with each shared mail package. The DAL was

a card with the address of the consumer recipient and a

missing child’s information printed on one side and an

advertisement printed on the other side. During the years at

issue the wrap was a branded turnkey product known as

‘‘Shopwise’’. The Shopwise wrap was printed on both sides of

a single sheet of paper and folded in half, and then multiple

inserts were loosely inserted into the wrap to form the

shared mail package, all in accordance with specifications

defined by ADVO. An insert was a printed advertising piece

for a single advertiser.

ADVO marketed the Shopwise wrap to potential customers

by selling ‘‘page positions’’ on the wrap, including Billboard,

Inside Page, and Outside Page, as well as multipage options;

each wrap could accommodate advertising for one or more

customers. ADVO sold the Shopwise wrap across hundreds of

wrap zones nationally, and each wrap zone could have a dif-

ferent Shopwise wrap with different advertisers. There were

approximately 580 wrap zones, and each one was composed

of a cluster of ZIP Codes.

ADVO developed and marketed a portfolio of ADVO-sup-

plied inserts, each of which was differentiated by a set of

defined product specifications, which included paper dimen-

sions, paper weight, and bleed availability. An ADVO client

could choose to advertise on both sides of a single page insert

or on an insert consisting of multiple pages. ADVO sold

ADVO-supplied inserts for distribution via both ZIP Codes

and ‘‘ADVO Targeting Zones’’ (ATZ). An ATZ is a cluster of

consumers, located on specific mail delivery routes, averaging

approximately 3,500 households and is smaller than a wrap

zone to allow for finer targeting of marketing materials to

potential consumers. ATZs were proprietary configurations of

households developed by ADVO which took into account

demographic and psychographic information and could target

the potential buying habits of the target consumers. 3 ADVO

had about 133 million mailing addresses in its system.

ADVO classified its ADVO-supplied material as either

‘‘turnkey’’ or ‘‘custom’’. A turnkey product was a print

3 Psychographics is the study of personality, values, attitudes, interests,

and lifestyles.

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302 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

product that was included in ADVO’s portfolio of products

that met specifications defined by ADVO. A lump sum which

included the advertising services, printing, and distribution

was billed to the client for turnkey products. 4 The pricing for

turnkey products was one rate for the entire process: cre-

ating the advertisement, producing the advertisement, deliv-

ering the advertisement, and targeting the desired end con-

sumers. ADVO handled everything from the design of the

advertisement through distribution of the turnkey product,

and specifications were designed to facilitate cost-efficient

assembly and distribution of the shared mail packages. The

DAL, Shopwise wrap, and ADVO-supplied inserts were turn-

key products.

A custom print product was an insert that was not part of

ADVO’s portfolio of turnkey products because of the client’s

specifications for the insert. ADVO billed two separate

charges for custom inserts: one for the printing and one for

the advertising and distribution.

We discuss infra the general process for ADVO’s products.

Much of the trial was dedicated to the minutest details of the

process, and we by no means list every single step. Our

intention is not to discount those important and necessary

steps not mentioned but to give merely a general idea of how

the cooperative mailings were produced.

The Sales Process

During the years at issue ADVO employed around 600

sales executives. The sales force was responsible for selling

advertising space in the shared mail package. ADVO distrib-

uted 60 to 80 million packages every week of the year.

The Design Process

In varying degrees, ADVO’s graphic print department

assisted ADVO’s clients with the design of the advertisement

graphics. The graphic design requirements with respect to

ADVO-supplied materials generally fell into three categories:

‘‘rough art’’, ‘‘reprint with changes’’, and ‘‘client-supplied art’’.

Rough art made up 45% to 50% of the graphic art work

4 With respect to turnkey products, ADVO’s calculation of ‘‘domestic pro-

duction gross receipts’’ for the purposes of sec. 199 included all receipts de-

rived from ADVO’s lump-sum charge.

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 303

designed by ADVO and it was anything from a sketch on the

back of a napkin to an advertisement created from a client’s

general concept for a product or service the client wanted to

advertise. Reprint with changes made up 30% to 35% of the

graphic art work designed by ADVO and involved cir-

cumstances where a previously developed graphic design was

reused after ADVO made changes, such as to the coupon

expiration dates or as required for a different holiday pro-

motion. In these two situations, ADVO retained ownership of

all intellectual property associated with the artwork and

advertisement. 5 Client-supplied art made up the final 15% to

20% of the graphic work. When ADVO’s clients supplied the

art, the client retained the ownership of intellectual property

related to that art. Client-supplied art still required ADVO’s

artwork department to analyze and normalize the files in

order to make sure that they were printable. ADVO produced

between 106,000 and 107,000 graphic designs per year.

ADVO employed 40 to 45 graphic print coordinators whose

role was to coordinate among ADVO’s sales organization,

ADVO’s graphics personnel working on a design, and the

third-party printers. The graphic print coordinators under-

stood the graphic art applications used to create graphic

designs, the development of four-color photography as sup-

ported by the CMYK 6 printing, and the printing process

itself, to ensure the best printable product according to the

functional capabilities of the specific printing press. ADVO

employed 50 to 60 desktop artists during the years at issue.

The desktop artists were responsible for actually creating the

advertisements using the graphic design applications on

Macintosh computers. The desktop artists would also ‘‘pre-

flight’’ all of the graphic designs before they were sent to the

5A

sample example of one of ADVO’s invoices to one of its clients states:

‘‘We retain the copyright to all artwork and other materials that we create

for you.’’ Further, ADVO states on brief that ‘‘[t]he Petitioner’s third-party

printers do not transfer title to the printing plates’’ and that ‘‘Petitioner’s

interest in the graphic design and related PDF–X1a file does not pass to

the Petitioner’s clients’’.

6 The printer usually uses four printing plates, one for each of the three

subtractive primary colors (cyan, magenta, and yellow) and black. For this

reason the process is sometimes referred to as the four-color printing proc-

ess or CMYK printing. We take judicial notice that black is represented

by ‘‘K’’ for key, because often black is the key printing plate, which is used

to position the other colors.

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304 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

third-party printer. ADVO’s purpose for the preflight process

was to ensure that the image the desktop artist saw on the

computer screen would accurately print. ADVO also

employed 20 to 25 quality control artists who proofread the

ads and reviewed the graphic design files to make sure that

they met the printing specifications for the job.

After the desktop artist created an advertisement art file

and it was reviewed by the quality control artist, a low-reso-

lution PDF would be uploaded to the ADVO online graphics

gallery for the client to view and approve the

advertisements. 7 ADVO maintained a file of all the informa-

tion for a client’s advertising job in a ‘‘job jacket’’, which

included the order and the art work. After the client

approved the advertisement, it was released to the printer in

an Adobe PDF X1A format. The printing process colors were

already separated in the PDF sent to the printer.

The Paper Supply

As discussed infra the printing machines used a contin-

uous stream of paper which was pulled through the press

from large rolls. ADVO’s paper supply arrangement between

its paper broker and its third-party printers was known in

the paper and printing industries as a ‘‘directed buy’’ agree-

ment. Pursuant to this agreement a broker, A.T. Clayton for

the years at issue, sold paper ADVO prespecified to ADVO’s

third-party printers for use in fulfilling the printers’ con-

tracts with ADVO. The third-party printers ordered and pur-

chased the paper directly from the broker, and the paper was

shipped directly to the printers. ADVO’s advertisements

made it one of the top 20 print paper users in the United

States, consuming approximately 90,000 tons of paper, pur-

chased pursuant to ADVO’s directed buy agreements, each

year. The printers understood that, absent special specific

authorization from ADVO, they were not allowed to use that

paper for any of their clients but ADVO.

ADVO never took physical possession of the raw paper

stock and did not pay for any paper until the print contract

was completed and it received an invoice from the printer.

7 PDF is an acronym for portable document format. It is a computer file

upon which graphics and other data or information can be stored and

transferred.

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 305

ADVO did not guarantee payment to the broker in the event

a printer defaulted on the purchase contract.

The Printing Process

ADVO spent approximately $125 million per year on its

turnkey printing needs, $50 million of that for paper and $75

million of it for printing services. ADVO contracted with

third-party printers to print the advertising material. For the

years at issue, ADVO entered into printing agreements with

various printers including: Quebecor World (USA), Inc.;

Trend Offset Printing; Handbill Printers; ESP; Shared Mail

Acquisitions, LLC (KAR); Windward Print Star, Inc., d.b.a.

AdplexRhodes (Adplex); Inserts East; and American Color

Graphics, Inc. The contracts each contained similar ‘‘Risk of

Loss’’ sections, an example of which provides that

Title to and risk of loss, damage to, and delay of the manufactured Prod-

ucts shall pass to ADVO upon delivery to ADVO’s branch facility, F.O.B.

ADVO’s dock. All mechanicals, paper, film, plates, etc., not supplied by

ADVO or its clients but used to perform the services hereunder shall

remain the exclusive property of * * * [printer] unless otherwise agreed

in writing.

The third-party printers were required to maintain insur-

ance with respect to all of ADVO’s work in progress and all

materials. Insurance limits did not limit the printer’s liability

to ADVO, and ADVO was not responsible for the deductible.

All of the policies were to extend coverage to ADVO as loss

payee.

The third-party printers that ADVO contracted with to

print the advertising material it created for its clients used

a process known as Web offset lithography. During this

process a continuous stream of paper is pulled through the

press from rolls of paper which can weigh more than one ton

each. The process is known as offset printing because the

printing plates do not actually touch the paper; instead, the

plates transfer ink to rubber blankets (rollers) that, in turn,

transfer the image to the paper.

Upon receipt of the electronic file, the printer preflighted

the file, typically using computer software. After the preflight

process, the printer determined whether the client’s graphic

design could be ‘‘ganged’’ together or combined with the cli-

ent’s other graphic designs. Ganging involves the arrange-

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306 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

ment of the advertisements of multiple advertisers for place-

ment on the set of printer plates used with respect to a

single press run. When ganging is feasible, the printer then

typically uses the electronic file in the computer for creation

of the press run printing plates. ADVO prohibited its third-

party printers from ganging jobs for the printer’s other cli-

ents on the same press run used for ADVO’s products.

After the printer verifies that the imposition has been done

correctly, the printer makes the printing plates. The plates

are typically made using a computer-to-plate exposure unit

which uses an infrared laser to expose or impart the image

onto the plate. Once the plates are exposed, the printer then

runs the plate through an automatic processor for develop-

ment and a water-attracting finisher and preservative is

applied. The printer generally makes four printing plates,

one for each of the three primary colors, cyan, magenta, and

yellow, and one for black. Additional ink colors, if any, are

commonly referred to as ‘‘spat colors’’ and may necessitate

another printing plate and/or a fifth inkwell. The printer per-

forms these tasks with little or no direct operational control

from ADVO.

The printer inspects the plates for and corrects any defects.

When no defects are found or none remain, the printer uses

a machine to bend each plate to conform to the plate cylinder

on which it will be clamped. The bending machine uses

anvils to bend the plates into the shape required to fit on the

plate cylinder. The press operator then mounts each plate on

a cylinder in a separate printing unit or tower for each of the

colors and loads the paper onto the press.

The press operator starts the press and makes adjustments

to bring the press up to the proper color. During this process,

the press operator compares print samples with a proof and

adjusts the color using ink keys which control the thickness

of the ink applied to each portion of the plate. The color

information contained in ADVO’s PDF files, received by the

printer, provide instructions to the press that automatically

set the ink keys near where they are needed to bring the

press run initially up to color. Again the printer executes

these manufacturing and/or production steps with little

active direct involvement by ADVO. ADVO creates hundreds

of graphic designs every day and millions of mailers every

week. ADVO’s Pittsburgh facility alone processed between 35

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 307

and 50 million wraps, inserts, and DALS every week. Each

wrap comprises numerous pages. Given this taxing weekly

production cycle, the number of items involved and the

geographic scope of its activities, ADVO’s close day-to-day

supervision of the massive printing operation is not achieved

or practically feasible.

ADVO required its third-party printers to achieve a

‘‘pleasing color’’ standard with respect to its turnkey orders,

and it required its clients to accept the standard for their

order. The pleasing color standard required that pictures

look pleasing to the eye, i.e. that food looked appetizing with-

out a green cast and flesh tones look natural, not too red or

yellow, and smooth. If a client was unwilling to accept the

pleasing color standard, it could purchase a custom print

product with a higher ‘‘exacting color’’ standard. The pleasing

color standard facilitated the ganging of ADVO’s products by

minimizing in-line color conflicts.

During the print run, the printer must also check the reg-

istration of the plates. Registration is the alignment of the

printing plates as they apply their respective colors to the

portion of the image being printed; if the plates are not prop-

erly lined up, the image will not be in focus and the color

may be incorrect. Once the press operator was confident that

the color and registration were correct, then the press speed

was increased and the run was completed. Periodically

during the run, the printer would examine samples of the

printed product for quality review. After the press run,

depending on the finishing requirements for the job, the

printer cut and/or folded the individual print product into

shippable packages and then shipped the product to ADVO

designated location(s).

The Package Assembly

ADVO had 17 shared mail processing facilities around the

country where the shared mail packages were assembled.

The facilities ranged in size, depending on the size of the

market served by the facility. A middle-size facility, such as

the one in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, comprised about

138,000 square feet and employed around 150 associates and

80 temporary associates, the number of which would fluc-

tuate according to the season and workload. During the years

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308 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

at issue ADVO’s processing facilities used large pieces of

Muller Martini manufactured equipment known as Muller

227s and Alphaliners. These were used to group the wraps

and inserts into shared mailed packages. These machines,

with a cost for new Alphaliners exceeding $1,150,000, have

a series of hoppers in which wraps or inserts are placed; then

the machine collates the wraps and inserts into a shared

mail package. Each machine requires a number of people

with each person maintaining inserts for three or four hop-

pers. Optimally the Muller 227 could process about 7,000

packages per hour and the Alphaliner could process about

15,000 packages per hour.

ADVO spent $25 million a year transporting materials to

the USPS. ADVO spent approximately $500 million in post-

age per year during the years at issue. Because ADVO

wanted to achieve the largest possible discount from the

USPS, it limited the amount of handling required by the

USPS in delivering ADVO’s packages. To that end, ADVO

prepared the DALs in the delivery route walk sequence of

each postal carrier, which enabled that postal carrier to

deliver ADVO’s shared mail packages in the sequence of the

residences as they appeared on the carrier’s route. The postal

carrier would have a stack of ADVO’s shared mail packages

and an ordered stack of the DAL cards; at each address he

would pull the DAL card and associate it with a shared mail

package for delivery.

Expert Report—C. Clint Bolte

ADVO engaged C. Clint Bolte to describe the customary

working relationship between print buyers and printers, the

six steps that are generally performed for commercial

printing, and his analyses of the ‘‘benefits and burdens’’ of

ADVO’s printing process. 8 Mr. Bolte has a bachelor of indus-

8 At

trial respondent objected to this report as well as the rebuttal report

also written by Mr. Bolte discussed infra. Respondent argues that the re-

ports do not assist the trier of fact and constitute legal arguments. As

such, they constitute arguments that require the Court to address its gate-

keeper function and determine the proper weight to be accorded to the con-

clusions of the Bolte reports. See generally Barabin v. Asten-Johnson, Inc.,

700 F.3d 428, 431 (9th Cir. 2012); Esgar Corp. v. Commissioner, T.C.

Memo. 2012–35, slip op. at 30–32 (citing Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharms.,

Inc., 509 U.S. 579, 591, 597 (1993), Fed. R. Evid. 702 and 703, and Kumho

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 309

trial engineering degree from the Georgia Institute of Tech-

nology and a master of business administration degree from

the Colgate Darden Graduate School of Business Administra-

tion at the University of Virginia. He has been a print

consultant to the printing industry since 1984, working with

commercial printing organizations regarding technology, best

practices of the business, trade customs, and manufacturing

management audits, as well as serving as an expert witness

for commercial printing matters.

Mr. Bolte concluded that

ADVO exercised a comprehensive and unique level of control over the

entire production of their printed direct mail products. As a result of

their comprehensive policies and processes, ADVO exercised an

uncommon level of control even over that portion of the process during

which a third party printer fulfilled its assigned role of printing the

direct mail piece in accordance with ADVO’s detailed specifications.

Expert Report—Raymond J. Prince

Respondent engaged Raymond J. Prince to opine on the

printing practices involved in the production of direct mail

advertising during the years at issue and used by the

printers ADVO contracted with. Mr. Prince has an associate

of applied science degree and a bachelor of science degree in

printing management from the Rochester Institute of Tech-

nology and a master of science degree in printing manage-

ment from South Dakota State University. He has worked in

the printing industry for the past 53 years serving clients in

the public and private sectors.

Mr. Prince’s report gives a statistical overview of the

printing industry, provides a brief summary of the direct

Tire Co. v. Carmichael, 526 U.S. 137, 148, 152 (1949)), appeal filed (10th

Cir. Sept. 6, 2012).

Mr. Bolte’s testimony explained that the report represented his own

‘‘findings, my opinions concerning the elements, facts of this case relative

to the printing industry norm and relative to ADVO’s production process

from graphic design all the way through.’’ We find his testimony credible

and overrule respondent’s objection.

The Court evaluates expert opinions in the light of each expert’s dem-

onstrated qualifications and all other evidence in the record. See Parker v.

Commissioner, 86 T.C. 547, 561 (1986). We are not bound by an expert’s

opinions and may accept or reject an expert opinion in full or in part in

the exercise of sound judgment. See Helvering v. Nat’l Grocery Co., 304

U.S. 282, 295 (1938); Parker v. Commissioner, 86 T.C. at 561–562.

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310 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

mail advertising business, and describes the four phases of

the direct mail advertising business. The report then focuses

on printers, generally including their production, financial,

and operational responsibilities. The report ends with a

listing of ways printers can increase profitability.

Rebuttal Report—C. Clint Bolte

ADVO also engaged Mr. Bolte to write a rebuttal report to

Mr. Prince’s report. Mr. Bolte criticized Mr. Prince’s report

because it failed to recognize ADVO’s niche in the direct

mailer market and ignored the unique traits of ADVO’s busi-

ness model. He emphasized the job-specific and individual-

ized, as compared to the generic, work done by ADVO and

the broader scope of service and production supervision and

control of all aspects of the work. He explained that

[t]he cradle-to-grave nature of ADVO’s highly standardized shared mail

product as compared to the generic ‘‘direct mail circular,’’ as referenced

but not even described by Mr. Prince, was a vitally important point that

is missing in his report. Mr. Prince’s report is of little value to the

Court’s analysis because it ignores the industry reality that a direct

mailer (like ADVO) who supplies the printed product as part of a direct

mail contract MUST successfully deliver the printed product to the mail-

box of the intended recipient or the direct mailer has not supplied the

printed product purchased by its client. * * *

According to Mr. Bolte’s rebuttal report, ADVO’s comprehen-

sive policies and processes allowed it to exercise an

uncommon level of control even over the process during

which a third-party printer fulfilled its assigned role of

printing the direct mail piece in accordance with ADVO’s

detailed specifications.

Rebuttal Report—Raymond J. Prince

Respondent’s expert, Mr. Prince, also prepared a rebuttal

report. He focused on ADVO’s factual claims regarding the

uniqueness of their product and integrated delivery and tar-

geted marketing service. He contrasted ADVO’s product to

that of other print producers and found, in his opinion, few,

if any, truly unique qualities. He concluded that ADVO

interacted with its printers in a manner not dissimilar to

those of many print customers and consumers. In short, Mr.

Prince concluded that the printing was done by the printers

who produced the tangible personal property product, using

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 311

ADVO or ADVO customer supplied pre-press intangibles, and

not by ADVO.

Brief Amici Curiae of Limited Brands, Inc., and Meredith

Corp.

On October 9, 2012, the Court granted Limited Brands,

Inc., and Meredith Corp.’s motion for leave to file a brief as

amici curiae and filed the brief. In the brief, the amici curiae

express support for the examples set forth in section 1.199–

3(f)(4), Income Tax Regs., discuss the application of the sec-

tion 263A benefits and burdens test, argue for the applica-

tion of Suzy’s Zoo v. Commissioner, 114 T.C. 1 (2000), aff ’d,

273 F.3d 875 (9th Cir. 2001), in this case, and dispute

respondent’s application of the factors set forth in Grodt &

McKay Realty, Inc., v. Commissioner, 77 T.C. 1221 (1981).

Respondent submitted a reply brief to the brief of the amici

curiae, and ADVO submitted a reply brief to respondent’s

reply.

OPINION

I. Introduction to Section 199

Section 199, enacted as part of the American Jobs Creation

Act of 2004 (AJCA), Pub. L. No. 108–357, sec. 102(a), 118

Stat. at 1424, is in effect for tax years beginning after

December 31, 2004. Section 199, commonly referred to as the

‘‘Domestic Production Deduction’’, allows a taxpayer to

deduct, subject to a limitation based on ‘‘wages paid’’, a speci-

fied percentage of the lesser of either (1) its ‘‘qualified

production activities income’’ or (2) taxable income. Sec.

199(a) and (b). Section 199 was intended to stimulate job cre-

ation in the United States and strengthen the economy. See

Gibson & Assocs., Inc. v. Commissioner, 136 T.C. 195, 223

(2011) (‘‘The name of the AJCA and the statute’s wage

limitation on the amount of the deduction under section

199(a) indicate that Congress intended that section 199

create jobs in the United States and otherwise strengthen

the U.S. economy.’’). The 2005 Blue Book from the Joint

Committee on Taxation explained that ‘‘The Congress was of

the view that a reduced tax burden on domestic manufactur-

ers will improve the cash flow of domestic manufacturers and

make investments in domestic manufacturing facilities more

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312 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

attractive. Such investment will assist in the creation and

preservation of U.S. manufacturing jobs.’’ Staff of J. Comm.

on Taxation, General Explanation of Tax Legislation Enacted

in the 108th Congress 170 (J. Comm. Print 2005).

For the years at issue, section 199(a) allows a taxpayer to

deduct an amount equal to 3% of the taxpayer’s qualified

production activities income for the year. 9 The amount of the

deduction cannot exceed 3% of the taxpayer’s taxable income

for the year and is also limited to 50% of the ‘‘W–2 wages of

the taxpayer for the taxable year.’’ Sec. 199(a) and (b). For

the purposes of this section, ‘‘qualified production activities

income’’ means the excess, if any, of the taxpayer’s domestic

production gross receipts (DPGR) over the cost of goods sold

and other expenses properly allocable to such gross receipts.

Sec. 199(c)(1). We discuss the concept of DPGR in more detail

infra.

ADVO contends that its gross receipts attributable to its

printed direct mail advertising and distribution products

qualify as ‘‘domestic production gross receipts’’. Respondent

counters that because ADVO contracted its actual printing

out to third-party printers it did not manufacture any quali-

fying production property. In order for the gross receipts

ADVO received from the sale of its advertising mail packages

to qualify as DPGR, the mail package must be determined to

be qualified production property, manufactured in the United

States by ADVO. Therefore the critical issue in this case is

whether ADVO manufactured the advertising mailing pack-

ages or produced only intangible property used by printers to

produce tangible personal property in the form of the adver-

tising mail packages. 10 The broad issue confronted here is

9 Both

of the years at issue began before the phase-in increased the

amount of the deduction. See sec. 199(a)(2).

10 As an initial matter the Court notes that at a minimum the original

ADVO electronic file for each print job constitutes qualifying production

property as defined in sec. 199(c)(5)(A) or (B) as either computer software

or tangible personal property manufactured and/or produced by ADVO.

Courts have frequently reached conflicting results in their classification of

electronic files, software, etc., as tangible or intangible for sales and use

tax and investment credit purposes. Compare Chittenden Trust Co. v.

King, 465 A.2d 1100 (Vt. 1983), with Bank of Vt. v. United States, 61

A.F.T.R.2d (RIA) 87–788, 88–1 USTC (CCH) para. 9169 (D. Vt. 1988),

Ronnen v. Commissioner, 90 T.C. 74 (1988), and Northwest Corp. Subs. v.

Commissioner, 108 T.C. 358 (1997).

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 313

how section 199 applies to U.S. corporations that manufac-

ture products through agreements with contract manufac-

tures. That subject is an issue of first impression in this

Court. 11

Respondent is in a real sense a stakeholder in this dispute.

The printed advertising materials were manufactured and

produced by someone in the United States, and that someone

is entitled to the section 199 deduction to the extent they

otherwise meet the requirements of that section. Here the

question is whether ADVO or the contract printer is the

appropriate recipient, as only one of them may claim the

credit as to each item sold. Sec. 199(d)(9); 12 sec. 1.199–

The problem is that ADVO, unlike some printers or publishers, pursuant

to ADVO’s customer and/or printer contracts never sold, leased, rented, li-

censed, exchanged, or otherwise disposed of the prepress electronic file.

ADVO instead elected to retain ownership thereof and used the file as a

tool for the manufacturing and producing of the mailing packages adver-

tising materials. Therefore, the electronic files themselves do not constitute

or generate ‘‘domestic production gross receipts’’ for purpose of determining

a sec. 199(a) deduction.

We also note that the deduction is limited by sec. 199(b) to 50% of the

‘‘W–2 wages of the taxpayer for the taxable year’’. There is no evidence in

the record that ADVO’s approximately 600 sales executives were employ-

ees whose wages were reported on Forms W–2, Wage and Tax Statement,

or perhaps commission-based sales persons whose compensation was re-

ported on Forms 1099–MISC, Miscellaneous Income. The 40 to 45 graphic

print coordinators, the 50 to 60 desktop artists, the numerous associates

and temporary associates at each of the 17 mail processing facilities, and

the 20 to 25 quality control artists may well have been Form W–2 employ-

ees. Because we do not find infra that they or ADVO actually produced

any QPP, this has no effect on our holding. However, had this case come

out the other way and had it been disputed, ADVO would have borne the

burden of proving that its employees were Form W–2 employees. See sec.

199(b)(2).

11 A somewhat similar problem involving Houdini, Inc., a producer of gift

baskets consisting of food and alcoholic products produced by third parties

and gift baskets and cardboard or Styrofoam void fillers also manufactured

by third parties according to Houdini’s specifications, was recently ad-

dressed in United States v. Dean, 945 F. Supp. 2d 1110 (C.D. Cal. 2013).

We note that opinions of a U.S. District Court do not constitute binding

precedent in this Court. Even so, we see no need to distinguish Dean given

the factually specific nature of the benefits and burdens test discussed

infra.

12 Sec. 199(d) was amended by the Tax Relief and Health Care Act of

2006, Pub. L. No. 109–432, div. A, sec. 401(a), 120 Stat. at 2953, effective

Continued

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314 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

3(f)(1), Income Tax Regs. 13 If ADVO is entitled to the deduc-

tion, a second question arises, namely the amount of

domestic production gross receipts attributable to and

derived from the lease, rental, license, sale, exchange, or

other disposition of qualifying production property as opposed

to income derived for providing services. 14 Of course if

ADVO is entitled to the deduction it may well be a larger

deduction than if the printer is the entitled party.

II. DPGR

Section 199 allows the taxpayer a deduction computed by

multiplying an applicable percentage (3% here) by the lesser

of the taxpayer’s qualified production activities income

(QPAI) resulting from domestic production activities or the

taxpayer’s taxable income. Sec. 199(a). QPAI is computed by

determining the taxpayer’s DPGR and then reducing the

DPGR by the cost of goods sold and other expenses, deduc-

tions, and losses (computed without regard to the section 199

for tax years beginning after December 31, 2005, id. sec 401(b). This

amendment inserted a new sec. 199(d)(8) and redesignated what had pre-

viously been sec. 199(d)(8) as sec. 199(d)(9). Id. sec. 401(a).

13 The sec. 199 regulations apply for taxable years beginning on or after

June 1, 2006. Sec. 1.199–8(i)(1), Income Tax Regs. For taxable years begin-

ning on or before May 17, 2006, taxpayers may apply secs. 1.199–1

through 1.199–8, Income Tax Regs., provided they apply all provisions. Id.

For taxables years beginning in between June 1, 2006, and May 17, 2006,

taxpayers may apply secs. 1.199–1 through 1.199–9, Income Tax Regs. Id.

But a taxpayer whose taxable year began before June 1, 2006, may choose

to rely on Notice 2005–14, 2005–1 C.B. 498, or the proposed regulations.

Id.

14 ADVO claimed a deduction based on the DPGR derived from its direct

mail advertising business. Those receipts included inter alia: payment for

the production of the electronic computer file transmitted to the contract

printer; review and monitoring of the printing, cutting, and folding process;

operation of the shared mail processing facilities including the Muller 227s

and Alphaliners to group the wrap and inserts into shared mail packages;

and the selection of mail recipients using ADVO’s proprietary demographic

wrap zone and ATZ information. Because some elements of this turnkey

product such as sorting, packaging, and mailing may constitute a service

rather than manufacturing or production, an allocation of receipts might

be necessary. However, as we have concluded ADVO did not have DPGR

and is not entitled to a sec. 199 deduction, we need not address this issue

here. See generally H.R. Conf. Rept. No. 108–755, at 259 n.27 (2004), 2004

U.S.C.C.A.N. 1341, 1351.

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 315

deduction) that are properly allocable to DPGR. Sec.

199(c)(1).

Section 199(c)(4)(A) defines ‘‘domestic production gross

receipts’’ which are subject to certain enumerated exceptions

in section 199(c)(4)(B) as

the gross receipts of the taxpayer which are derived from—

(i) any lease, rental, license, sale, exchange, or disposition of—

(I) qualifying production property [QPP] which was manufactured,

produced, grown, or extracted [MPGE] by the taxpayer in whole or

in significant part within the United States,

(II) any qualified film produced by the taxpayer, or

(III) electricity, natural gas, or potable water produced by the tax-

payer in the United States,

(ii) in the case of a taxpayer engaged in the active conduct of a

construction trade or business, construction of real property performed

in the United States by the taxpayer in the ordinary course of such

trade or business, or

(iii) in the case of a taxpayer engaged in the active conduct of an

engineering or architectural services trade or business, engineering or

architectural services performed in the United States by the taxpayer

in the ordinary course of such trade or business with respect to the

construction of real property in the United States.

DPGR includes gross receipts from QPP that was manufac-

tured, produced, grown, or extracted (MPGE) in the United

States. Sec. 199(c)(4)(A)(i); Longino v. Commissioner, T.C.

Memo. 2013–80, at *63-*64.

In order to determine DPGR the taxpayer may use ‘‘any

reasonable method that is satisfactory to the Secretary based

on all of the facts and circumstances, [to determine] whether

gross receipts qualify as DPGR on an item-by-item basis (and

not, for example, on a division-by-division, product line-by-

product line, or transaction-by-transaction basis).’’ Sec.

1.199–3(d)(1), Income Tax Regs. The regulations also state

that ‘‘[t]he term item means the property offered by the tax-

payer in the normal course of the taxpayer’s business for

lease, rental, license, sale, exchange, or other disposition’’.

Sec. 1.199–3(d)(1)(i), Income Tax Regs. ADVO’s broadly

defined industry is direct mail advertising. ADVO specializes

in coordinating the entire process from the initial design of

the artwork to delivering the printed material to the targeted

consumers. The primary product produced in this industry is

the printed advertisements.

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316 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

Section 199(c)(5) defines QPP as tangible personal property,

any computer software, and any property described in section

168(f)(4) (‘‘sound recordings’’). Tangible personal property is

any tangible property other than land, real property, com-

puter software, sound recordings, qualified films, and elec-

tricity, natural gas, or potable water. Sec. 1.199–3(j)(2),

Income Tax Regs.

III. Manufactured

Congress did not define ‘‘manufacture’’ in the Code. How-

ever, it did direct the Secretary to ‘‘prescribe such regulations

as are necessary to carry out the purposes of this section’’.

Sec. 199(d)(9). On December 21, 2005, Congress, as an aspect

of the Gulf Opportunity Zone Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109–

135, sec. 403(a)(13), 119 Stat. at 2619, directed the Secretary

to ‘‘includ[e] regulations which prevent more than 1 taxpayer

from being allowed a deduction under this section with

respect to any activity described in subsection (c)(4)(A)(i)’’.

The Secretary in response promulgated section 1.199–

3(e)(1), Income Tax Regs., which defines ‘‘manufactured, pro-

duced, grown, or extracted’’ (MPGE) to include ‘‘manufac-

turing, producing, growing, extracting, installing, developing,

improving, and creating QPP; making QPP out of scrap, sal-

vage, or junk material as well as from new or raw material

by processing, manipulating, refining, or changing the form

of an article, or by combining or assembling two or more arti-

cles’’. The regulation further states that when the taxpayer

contracts with an unrelated third party for the manufac-

turing of its products the taxpayer must have the ‘‘benefits

and burdens of ownership of the QPP under Federal income

tax principles during the period the MPGE activity occurs’’.

Sec. 1.199–3(e)(1), Income Tax Regs. Neither party chal-

lenges the validity of the regulations nor that the benefits

and burdens standard should be applied in this case, and we

note that ‘‘the Commissioner’s regulatory efforts are gen-

erally entitled to the same Chevron standard as those of any

other agency.’’ Carpenter Family Invests., LLC v. Commis-

sioner, 136 T.C. 373, 377 (2011) (citing Mayo Found. for Med.

Educ. & Research v. United States, 562 U.S. ll, 131 S. Ct.

704 (2011)).

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 317

The initial interim guidance to taxpayers on section 199

released by the Treasury on January 19, 2005, explains that

the benefits and burdens of ownership standard under Fed-

eral income tax principles ‘‘is based on the principles under

§ 936 and § 263A’’. Notice 2005–14, sec. 3.04(4), 2005–1 C.B.

498, 505. The final section 199 regulations do not specifically

adopt the Code sections mentioned in the interim guidance

for the benefits and burdens test, nor do they abandon the

standard discussed in the interim guidance. See sec. 1.199–

3(f)(1), Income Tax Regs. The only mention of the definition

of ‘‘taxpayer’’ in the prologue to the final regulations explains

that

[o]ne commentator suggested a simplifying convention to determine

which party to a contract manufacturing arrangement has the benefits

and burdens of ownership under Federal income tax principles. The com-

mentator requested that the final regulations permit unrelated parties

to a contract manufacturing arrangement to designate, through a writ-

ten and signed agreement between the parties, which of them shall be

treated for purposes of section 199 as engaging in MPGE activities con-

ducted pursuant to the arrangement. The final regulations do not adopt

the commentator’s suggestion. The IRS and Treasury Department con-

tinue to believe that the benefits and burdens of ownership must be

determined based on all of the facts and circumstances and a designa-

tion of benefits and burdens would not be appropriate. [T.D. 9263, 2006–

1 C.B. 1063, 1068.]

But cf. infra note 17. This discussion is enlightening because

it highlights the importance of the fact-specific benefits and

burdens test for each individual situation. 15 Also, this

15 The Court recognizes that sec. 199 is not the only Code section that,

with respect to property, contains the phrase ‘‘manufactured, produced,

grown, or extracted’’. Sec. 954(d), which defines the term ‘‘foreign base

company sales income’’ for the purposes of subpt. F inclusions, also con-

tains the phrase, as do, for example, secs. 904(d)(2)(G), 971(e), and

993(c)(1)(A) and (d)(1)(C). The Treasury Department has previously issued

regulations concerning sec. 954, including guidance on the manufacturing,

producing, growing, or extracting language. Sec. 1.954–3(a)(4), Income Tax

Regs. And we have had cause to interpret these and other relevant regula-

tions and statutes over the years. See, e.g., Garnac Grain Co. v. Commis-

sioner, 95 T.C. 7, 21 (1990) (sec. 993(d) and noting sec. 1.993–3(c)(2)(i), In-

come Tax Regs., which addressed contract manufacturing), supplemented

by T.C. Memo. 1991–363; Webb Export Corp. v. Commissioner, 91 T.C. 131,

138 (1988) (sec. 993(c)); Dave Fischbein Mfg. Co. v. Commissioner, 59 T.C.

338, 354 (1972) (sec. 954(d)); Bausch & Lomb Inc. v. Commissioner, T.C.

Continued

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318 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

discussion explicitly states that the IRS and the Treasury

Department ‘‘continue to believe’’ in the benefits and burdens

standard, implying that the original connection of the test to

section 936 and 263A is still relevant.

The predecessor to section 936 was enacted to ease the

burden of double taxation American companies faced when

operating in U.S. possessions and to encourage American

business to invest in the U.S. possessions. See Medchem

(P.R.), Inc. v. Commissioner, 116 T.C. 308, 333 (2001), aff ’d,

295 F.3d 118 (1st Cir. 2002). Section 936 allows a credit

against Federal income taxes. It requires that the American

company be in an ‘‘active conduct of a trade or business

within a possession’’ in order to avail itself of the tax credit.

Sec. 936(a)(1)(A)(i). While the test for an active conduct of a

trade or business, including situations underlying a manufac-

turing contract, is different from the benefits and burdens

test, it has similar relevant factors: ‘‘[A] taxpayer actively

conducts a trade or business in a U.S. possession only if it

participates regularly, continually, extensively, and actively

in the management and operation of its profit-motivated

Memo. 1996–57 (sec. 954(d)). On the contract manufacturing issue, those

regulations reach a different result from that reached with respect to the

sec. 199 regulations although the statutory language is the same or simi-

lar.

In explanation of this apparent contradiction, when Treasury issued the

sec. 199 regulations, the preamble specifically stated: ‘‘[C]ase law and

other precedent under section 954 are not relevant for purposes of the sub-

stantial-in-nature requirement under section 199. Nor are they relevant

for purposes of determining whether an activity is an MPGE activity under

section 199.’’ T.D. 9263, 2006–1 C.B. 1063, 1069. By adopting these regula-

tions, Treasury clearly intended a different interpretation of these terms.

Further, in sec. 199, Congress specifically tasked the Secretary with pro-

mulgating regulations, which before Mayo Found. for Med. Educ. & Re-

search v. United States, 562 U.S.ll, 131 S. Ct. 704 (2011), would have

been classified by tax specialists as legislative regulations, that ‘‘prevent

more than 1 taxpayer from being allowed a deduction under * * * [sec.

199]’’. Sec. 199(d)(9). This same concern does not seem to be present in sec.

954, nor did Congress give the Secretary a similar instruction. In addition,

Congress specifically intended to exclude from sec. 954 ‘‘cases where any

significant amount of manufacturing, major assembling, or construction ac-

tivity is carried on with respect to the product by the selling corporation.’’

S. Rept. No. 87–1881, at 84 (1962), 1962–3 C.B. 703, 790. Again, no similar

concern appears to have existed with respect to sec. 199.

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 319

activity in that possession.’’ Medchem (P.R.), Inc. v. Commis-

sioner, 116 T.C. at 336–337.

Section 263A requires the capitalization of expenses in

relation to the production of tangible property. In general, a

taxpayer is not considered to be producing the tangible prop-

erty unless it is an owner of the property. Sec. 1.263A–

2(a)(1)(ii), Income Tax Regs. The section 263A regulations

define the owner ‘‘based on all of the facts and cir-

cumstances, including the various benefits and burdens of

ownership vested with the taxpayer’’. A taxpayer may be

considered an owner of property produced, even though the

taxpayer does not have legal title to the property. Sec.

1.263A–2(a)(1)(ii)(A) and (B)(1), Income Tax Regs. As the

Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit noted: ‘‘In addition,

§ 263A(g)(2) provides that ‘[t]he taxpayer shall be treated as

producing any property produced for the taxpayer under a

contract with the taxpayer’ ’’. Suzy’s Zoo v. Commissioner,

273 F.3d at 878. But this is not necessarily so under section

199.

Note the similarity of the section 263A regulation dis-

cussed above to section 1.199–3(f)(1), Income Tax Regs., in

which the section 199 test asks whether the taxpayer ‘‘has

the benefits and burdens of ownership.’’ However, as the

amici curiae point out, the section 263A owner test is

arguably broader that the section 199 benefits and burdens

test because the section 263A test asks whether the taxpayer

is an owner of the property, while the section 199 test

requires a finding that the taxpayer is the owner of the prop-

erty and has ‘‘the benefits and burdens of ownership * * *

during the period of the MPGE activity’’. Secs. 1.263A–

2(a)(1)(ii)(A), 1.199–3(e)(1), (f)(1), Income Tax Regs. Although

this may seem like a distinction without a difference for rea-

sons discussed infra, it stands to reason that there may be

more than one owner of section 263A property (and more

than one taxpayer may have the benefits and burdens of

ownership), while only one taxpayer may have the benefits

and burdens of ownership under section 199. 16

16 As discussed above, the policy motivating the enactment of sec. 199

was to encourage domestic manufacturing and create jobs in the United

States. Sec. 263A was enacted as part of the Tax Reform Act of 1986, Pub.

L. No. 99–514, sec. 803(a), 100 Stat. at 2350, to address what was per-

Continued

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320 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

A. Benefits and Burdens

The intent of section 199 was to encourage domestic manu-

facturing, and it was intended that only one taxpayer may

claim the deduction for the product manufactured. In the

event, as is the case here, where one taxpayer pursuant to

a contract performs a qualifying production activity with

another taxpayer, ‘‘then only the taxpayer that has the bene-

fits and burdens of ownership of the QPP * * * under Fed-

eral income tax principles during the period in which the

qualifying activity occurs is treated as engaging in the quali-

fying activity.’’ 17 Sec. 1.199–3(f)(1), Income Tax Regs.

ceived as two significant problems concerning the expense/capital expendi-

ture boundary:

First, the existing rules may allow costs that are in reality costs of pro-

ducing, acquiring, or carrying property to be deducted currently, rather

than capitalized into the basis of the property and recovered when the

property is sold or as it is used by the taxpayer. This produces a

mismatching of expenses and the related income and an unwarranted

deferral of taxes. Second, different capitalization rules may apply under

present law depending on the nature of the property and its intended

use. These differences may create distortions in the allocation of eco-

nomic resources and the manner in which certain economic activity is or-

ganized. * * * [I]n order to more accurately reflect income and make the

income tax system more neutral, a single, comprehensive set of rules

should govern the capitalization of costs of producing, acquiring, and

holding property * * *. [S. Rept. No. 99–313, at 140 (1986), 1986–3 C.B.

(Vol. 3) 1, 140.]

See also Robinson Knife Mfg. Co. v. Commissioner, 600 F.3d 121, 126–127

(2d Cir. 2010), rev’g T.C. Memo. 2009–9. Therefore, Congress necessarily

intended sec. 263A to have a broad sweep in order to capture the costs of

producing, acquiring, and carrying of property, and courts, including this

one, have interpreted this section broadly. See Suzy’s Zoo v. Commissioner,

273 F.3d 871, 879 (9th Cir. 2001), aff ’g 114 T.C. 1 (2000); Reichel v. Com-

missioner, 112 T.C. 14, 18 (1999) (real estate taxes had to be capitalized

under sec. 263A as indirect costs of ‘‘producing’’ property even though

property was not developed); Von-Lusk v. Commissioner, 104 T.C. 207, 215

(1995) (costs of meeting with government officials, obtaining building per-

mits, and drafting architectural plans were development costs amounting

to ‘‘production’’ under sec. 263A); Carpenter v. Commissioner, T.C. Memo.

1994–289 (construction costs incurred by building contractor for an unsold

home had to be capitalized under sec. 263A because the home was ‘‘pro-

duced’’ by the contractor).

17 The Commissioner now recognizes that in contract manufacturing re-

lationships, each party, as in this case, will often have some of the benefits

and burdens of ownership. Consequently the Commissioner, the taxpayer,

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 321

ADVO directs the Court’s attention to Suzy’s Zoo v.

Commissioner, 114 T.C. 1, a case whose facts seem, at first

glance, to be very close to the case at hand. In that case this

Court held that a corporation, which developed cartoon char-

acters for its line of paper products and then contracted with

independent printing companies, was the ‘‘owner’’ of the

paper products through production and until they were sold

for the purposes of section 263A. Id. at 8. The printers in

Suzy’s Zoo would receive original drawings, photograph the

drawings, create proofs, and then use their own ink and

paper to print the products. Id. at 3.

Respondent argues that Suzy’s Zoo, involving a section

263A dispute, is not determinative of the section 199 issue

here. On November 4, 2005, the Treasury Department issued

proposed rules that included a preamble stating:

While sections 199, 263A, and 936 all have benefits and burdens

standards, the standard under section 199 is not the same as those

under sections 263A and 936. * * * The determination of whether a tax-

payer is considered the owner is based on all of the facts and cir-

cumstances, including the various benefits and burdens of ownership

vested with the taxpayer. Because the standard under the section 263A

regulation is broad, it has been interpreted to allow two taxpayers to be

considered the producer of the same property. Compare, for example

Suzy’s Zoo v. Comm’r, 114 T.C. 1 (2000), aff ’d 273 F.3d 875 (9th Cir.

2001) and Golden Gate Litho v. Comm’r, T.C. Memo (1998–184). [Notice

of Proposed Rulemaking and Notice of Public Hearing, 70 Fed. Reg.

67220, 67228 (Nov. 4, 2005).]

and ultimately the courts may expend significant resources to determine

which party may claim the deduction. I.R.S. LB&I Directive, LB&I–04–

0713–006 (July 24, 2013). In recognition of the cost of such determinations,

the Acting Commissioner of the IRS’ Large Business and International Di-

vision has instructed his examiners not to challenge a taxpayer’s claim to

have the benefits and burdens for a sec. 199 deduction if that taxpayer

provides a certification executed by both parties designating the party who

is to receive the sec. 199 deduction. An acceptable form of certification is

included as an exhibit to the guidance. That form included a counterpart:

written certification that it did not claim the deduction for any taxable

year governed by the contract. Id. While expressly stating that the guid-

ance provided ‘‘is not an official pronouncement of law, and cannot be used,

cited, or relied on as such’’, id., the Commissioner’s policy, as long as it

remains in effect, can resolve in advance cases like this one. It also high-

lights the factually intensive nature of the inquiry of determining to whom

the benefits and burdens of ownership belong when both parties to a con-

tract manufacturing relationship may potentially claim the sec. 199 deduc-

tion.

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322 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

We are aware that the Court has previously been

unpersuaded by a preamble to regulations. See Allen v.

Commissioner, 118 T.C. 1, 17 n.12 (2002) ( ‘‘In addition to the

obvious fact that these documents also are not items of legis-

lative history, these documents are afforded little weight in

this Court.’’ (citing Dobin v. Commissioner, 73 T.C. 1121,

1127 n.9 (1980) (‘‘Suffice it to say that we never have under-

stood the preamble to proposed regulations to be preceden-

tial.’’))). We are not bound by the preamble, but because it is

an agency’s interpretation of its statute, we apply the

standard enunciated by the Supreme Court in Skidmore v.

Swift & Co., 323 U.S. 134, 140 (1944). 18 Therefore,

respondent is entitled to at least the lowest level of deference

in interpreting his own regulations and their statutes. See

United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218, 221 (2001).

We noted supra that section 263A is an inclusive section

and more than one taxpayer can be the owner of the prop-

erty. Section 199 is a section that allows a deduction. Deduc-

tions and credits are a matter of legislative grace, and tax-

payers must prove entitlement to the deductions and credits

claimed. Rule 142(a); INDOPCO, Inc. v. Commissioner, 503

U.S. 79, 84 (1992); LaPoint v. Commissioner, 94 T.C. 733,

18 In United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218, 221 (2001), the Supreme

Court recognized that there are various types of agency pronouncements

that may be entitled to different levels of deference and that the lowest

level of deference, Skidmore deference, has continuing vitality. See id. at

234 (‘‘Chevron did nothing to eliminate Skidmore’s holding that an agen-

cy’s interpretation may merit some deference whatever its form, given the

‘specialized experience and broader investigations and information’ avail-

able to the agency’’ (quoting Skidmore v. Swift & Co., 323 U.S. 134, 139

(1944))); see also Taproot Admin. Servs., Inc. v. Commissioner, 133 T.C.

202, 208 n.15 (2009), aff ’d, 679 F.3d 1109 (9th Cir. 2012). The Supreme

Court has established a two-prong test for determining whether to afford

an agency pronouncement Chevron deference. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. at

226–227 (‘‘We hold that administrative implementation of a particular

statutory provision qualifies for Chevron deference when it appears that

Congress delegated authority to the agency generally to make rules car-

rying the force of law, and that the agency interpretation claiming def-

erence was promulgated in the exercise of that authority.’’); see also

Marmolejo-Campos v. Holder, 558 F.3d 903, 908 (9th Cir. 2009); PSB Hold-

ings, Inc. v. Commissioner, 129 T.C. 131, 142 (2007) (Commissioner’s inter-

pretation of a statute in a revenue ruling is entitled to some deference, i.e.,

‘‘consideration by this Court’’); William J. Wilkins, ‘‘Implications of Home

Concrete’’, 31 ABA Sec. of Tax’n News Q. 25 (Summer 2012).

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 323

736–737 (1990). Under section 199 the alleged manufacturer

must establish that it is the only taxpayer who may be deter-

mined to be the owner of the property with the benefits and

burdens of ownership. Consequently we find that, although

the factors used to determine ownership under section 263A

are helpful in determining ownership under section 199, we

are not bound in applying section 199 by the holding in

Suzy’s Zoo. 19 We agree with respondent that Congress did

not intend for section 199 to be broadly inclusive in deter-

mining the owner of property. 20

19 In Suzy’s Zoo v. Commissioner, 114 T.C. at 9–10, we noted that unlike

the test in sec. 199 the test in sec. 263A does not focus specifically on who

bore the benefits and burdens of ownership when the item was manufac-

tured and/or produced. Instead the Court stated:

Petitioner focuses on the fact that the printers bear the risk of loss

during the printing process. We do not find this fact dispositive as to

who owns (and thus produces) the paper products. The identification of

the owner of property for purposes of the UNICAP rules does not nec-

essarily rest on who bears the risk of loss when the product is fabricated

or assembled, or, for that matter, on who actually turns the screws or

hammers the nails into the product. The owner of property must be iden-

tified from the facts and circumstances of the case, see sec. 1.263A–

2(a)(1)(ii), Income Tax Regs., and who bears the risk of loss is merely

one factor to consider. * * *

For whatever reason Treasury created two distinctly different tests for

sec. 263A purposes and sec. 199 purposes. While this is complicating and

not totally consistent with legislative history and Treasury’s interim guid-

ance, which as previously noted, provides that sec. 199 ‘‘is based on the

principals of §936 and §263A’’, we do not conclude it is invalid. As alluded

to supra, neither party challenges the regulations and in the light of Mayo

Found., 562 U.S. ll, 131 S. Ct. 704, we agree.

20 The amici curiae note at 23 of their brief that the Court found as a

factual matter in Suzy’s Zoo v. Commissioner, 114 T.C. at 8, that the tax-

payer was the ‘‘only ‘owner’ ’’ of the greeting cards under sec. 263A. Al-

though the sec. 263A test and the sec. 199 test are very similar, each test

is very fact specific and the result in one case is not necessarily dispositive

in another similar but factually different case. The amici contend that ‘‘the

party that engages the printer and the printer can [both] be ‘producers’ ’’

but that this does not mean there can be two owners. The Court of Appeals

for the Ninth Circuit, in affirming Suzy’s Zoo, explained: ‘‘Although the

printers use their own supply of paper in producing the greeting cards and

[during the printing, manufacture, and production] bear the risk of loss

until shipment [of the printed product], Suzy’s Zoo is the owner of the

cards from the beginning stage of production due to the degree of control

it exercises over the manufacturing process. Therefore, Suzy’s Zoo is a ‘pro-

Continued

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324 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

B. Benefits and Burdens Test for Section 199

The examples in the section 199 regulations shed some

light on the factors that the IRS and Treasury find relevant

in determining which taxpayer had the benefits and burdens

of ownership during manufacture and/or production. Of par-

ticular interest to this case is Example (1) of section 1.199–

3(f)(4), Income Tax Regs. In this example X designs machines

and contracts with Y, an unrelated person, to manufacture

the machines. X owns the intellectual property attributable

to the design, and Y is allowed to use that property only to

manufacture X’s machines. Y has no right to independently

exploit the intellectual property. Y controls the details of the

manufacturing process, bears the risk of loss or damage

during manufacturing, has legal title to the machines during

manufacturing, and enjoys the economic gain or bears the

loss from the sale of the machines measured by the dif-

ference between Y’s costs and the fixed contract price. On

these facts, Example (1) explains that Y had the benefits and

burdens of ownership during production.

Caselaw has also developed factors for the benefits and

burdens of ownership test with respect to other sections of

the Code. The parties each cite and discuss the factors of

Grodt & McKay Realty, Inc. v. Commissioner, 77 T.C. at

1221, and we find these factors plus the section 936 test are

useful in determining whether ADVO had the benefits and

burdens of the printed advertisements while they were being

printed.

The factors we use to determine the benefits and burdens

of ownership under section 199 for the purposes of this case

are: (1) whether legal title passes; (2) how the parties treat

the transaction; (3) whether an equity interest was acquired;

(4) whether the contract creates a present obligation on the

seller to execute and deliver a deed and a present obligation

on the purchaser to make payments; (5) whether the right of

possession is vested in the purchaser and which party has

control of the property or process; (6) which party pays the

property taxes; (7) which party bears the risk of loss or dam-

ducer’ under § 263A.’’ Suzy’s Zoo v. Commissioner, 273 F.3d at 880 (em-

phasis added). In this case we have concluded as a factual matter that the

degree of manufacturing control was not equivalent to that in Suzy’s Zoo

and that ADVO was not the only owner.

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 325

age to the property; (8) which party receives the profits from

the operation and sale of the property; and (9) whether

ADVO actively and extensively participated in the manage-

ment and operations of the activity. Id.; see also sec. 936;

Hutchinson v. Commissioner, 116 T.C. 172 (2001). 21

As discussed supra, both the prologue to the proposed

regulations and the prologue to the final regulations explain

that the benefits and burdens during manufacture and/or

production standard is based on all of the facts and cir-

cumstances of each particular case. We agree and also note

that no one factor is determinative.

C. Application of the Benefits and Burdens Test

1. Legal Title

According to Commissioner v. Segall, 114 F.2d 706, 709

(6th Cir. 1940), rev’g and remanding 38 B.T.A. 43 (1938),

‘‘Passage of title is perhaps the most conclusive cir-

cumstance’’ in determining the owner of the property for Fed-

21 These are not the only factors that may be considered in the benefits

and burdens test, which is fact intensive. For examples of other factors

that the IRS has indicated may be relevant in determining which party

had the benefits and burdens of ownership, see the ‘‘Guidance for Exam-

iners on I.R.C. § 199 Benefits and Burdens of Ownership Analysis in Con-

tract Manufacturing Arrangements’’ released on February 1, 2012, by the

Large Business and International Division. I.R.S. LB&I Directive, LB&I–

4-0112–001 (Feb. 1, 2012). Many of the factors focused on by the guidance

are addressed in this Opinion. We mention these factors not to suggest

that this guidance is persuasive or controlling, but rather to illustrate how

the factors we use are not exclusive. In this particular case, they are suffi-

cient for us to determine the benefits and burdens of ownership.

The guidance focuses on three areas. It first looks to the terms of the

contract: (1) did the taxpayer have title to the work in process; (2) did the

taxpayer have risk of loss over the work in process; and (3) was the tax-

payer primarily responsible for insuring the work in process? Then it looks

to the production activities: (1) did the taxpayer develop the qualifying ac-

tivity process; (2) did the taxpayer exercise oversight and direction over

the employees engaged in the qualifying activity; (3) did the taxpayer con-

duct more than 50% of the quality control tests while the qualifying activ-

ity was occurring? And finally, the guidance looks to the economic risks:

(1) was the taxpayer primarily liable under the ‘‘make-good’’ provisions of

the contract; (2) did the taxpayer provide more than 50%, based on cost,

of the raw materials and components used to produce the property; (3) did

the taxpayer have the greater opportunity for profit increase or decrease

from production efficiencies and fluctuations in the cost of labor and fac-

tory overhead?

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326 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

eral taxation purposes. See also Harmston v. Commissioner,

61 T.C. 216, 228 (1973) (‘‘passage of title * * * in deciding

when ‘ownership’ has passed * * * is certainly an important

consideration’’), aff ’d, 528 F.2d 55 (9th Cir. 1976). We also

note that Example (1) discusses and concludes that Y, the

party which had the benefits and burdens, had legal title to

the property while it was in production. Sec. 1.199–3(f)(4),

Income Tax Regs. While we recognize that title to the intan-

gible property (i.e. the actual design of the art as transmitted

on the PDF file) never transferred to the printers or to

ADVO’s clients, ADVO’s printing agreements with its con-

tract printers clearly state that ‘‘Title to and risk of loss’’ of

the product (i.e. the printed material) does not transfer to

ADVO until the products have left the printers’ facilities.

This factor weighs in favor of respondent.

2. Intention of the Parties

We are less concerned with the label that the parties give

the transaction; we look to what the parties actually

intended to happen. Oesterreich v. Commissioner, 226 F.2d

798, 801–802 (9th Cir. 1955).

ADVO asserts that the parties’ intention is demonstrated

by the section of the printing agreement entitled ‘‘Governing

Law’’, which in relevant part states: ‘‘The parties hereto

agree that, although this Agreement is for printing services

and not ‘‘goods’’, the Uniform Commercial Code * * * shall

be applicable’’. ADVO believes that this term establishes that

the parties believed that they were contracting with the

third-party printers for services, not for the manufacturing of

a product. Respondent contends that the contracts explicitly

state that ‘‘ADVO will pay * * * [printer] for its manufac-

turing services’’ which shows that the parties intended that

the printers were the manufacturers.

At trial Thomas McCloskey, the chief executive officer and

one of the principal owners of Doodad, one of ADVO’s con-

tract printers, testified that Doodad claimed a deduction

under section 199 for the income attributable to producing

ADVO’s advertising material. Implicitly, this printer obvi-

ously intended that it qualify as the manufacturer of the

advertising material for purposes of claiming the section 199

deduction.

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 327

The parties contemplated and agreed that the third-party

printers would print the specific advertising material that

ADVO required and then send the printed material to

ADVO. It was always their intent that the printers produce

the actual tangible paper materials using the ADVO intan-

gible pre-press materials. Therefore we find this factor

weighs in favor of respondent.

3 & 4. Equity Interest and Present Obligation

While these factors were relevant in Grodt & McKay in

determining whether the transactions were bona fide sales

and they may prove relevant in future section 199 benefits

and burdens tests, they are not significantly relevant to

determining whether ADVO had the benefits and burdens of

ownership while the advertising material were printed by the

third-party printers. Thus, this factor is neutral.

5. Right of Possession and Control

In determining whether ADVO had the benefits and bur-

dens of ownership of the advertising material during the

printing process, ‘‘[t]ransfer of possession is also significant.’’

Commissioner v. Segall, 114 F.2d at 709. The third-party

printers necessarily had the right of possession during the

printing process. It was the printers who produced the hard

copies of the advertising material, and ADVO did not have

the right of possession until the printed material was deliv-

ered to it.

However, because we are tailoring the factors from Grodt

into the context of section 199, the analysis cannot merely

end with the party that has the right of possession. The par-

ties spent an extensive amount of time discussing each step

of the printing process, with each trying to prove whether

ADVO or the third-party printers were in control of the

process. See sec. 1.199–3(f)(4), Example (1), Income Tax Regs.

ADVO contends that it was ultimately in control of the

printing process. ADVO asserts that its PDF documents

essentially set the color keys for the printer; that their paper

contracts determined which paper the printers were allowed

to use; and that the printing agreements specify exactly

which machines the printers where allowed to use, that the

printers could not gang other parties’ work with theirs, and

at which locations they were allowed to print ADVO’s mate-

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328 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

rials. 22 On the other hand, the third-party printers owned or

leased and operated the machinery, sometimes purchasing it

at the behest of ADVO, but it was always the printers’ prop-

erty. The third-party printers and their employees set up the

machines, loaded the paper, fine-tuned the color keys, ran

the printing process, supervised the quality, and then deliv-

ered the advertising materials to ADVO.

Respondent contends in the interim guidance that a tax-

payer who is contracting the printing services out to a third

party must have the benefits and burdens of ownership to

qualify for the section 199 deduction and that this test

‘‘applies even if the customer exercises direct supervision and

control over the activities of the contractor’’. Notice 2005–14,

sec. 3.04(4). We do not find that, in practice, ADVO exercised

day-to-day control over the activities of the printer. This

factor weighs in favor of respondent.

6. Property Taxes

There is no evidence in the record that ADVO or anyone

else paid property taxes on any of the pre-press PDF files or

the printed property during the manufacturing process. We

find that this factor is neutral.

7. Risk of Loss or Damage

Along with the benefits of ownership must go the burdens.

Harmston v. Commissioner, 61 T.C. at 230. In the instant

case, this factor requires us to determine which party bore

the risk of loss or damage to the advertising material during

22 On March 29, 2013, the Office of Chief Counsel released a memo-

randum in which it addressed a fact pattern similar to the one at issue

in this case. See C.C.A. 201313020 (Mar. 29, 2013). In the memo the tax-

payer published books using third-party printers. Although such a memo-

randum reflects only the opinion of one of the parties and is in no way con-

trolling on this Court, we find the agency’s interpretation of its own regu-

lations enlightening. Specifically the memo states:

Our Office believes that print specification activities are non-MPGE

activities. While providing the print specifications to the contract man-

ufacturer gives the contract manufacturer a detailed description of

how the Taxpayer desires the mass-produced books to look (e.g., size,

color, print type, etc.), the print specifications do not produce QPP.

Although the memo did not address the benefits and burdens test, we have

concluded independently for the reasons discussed above that print speci-

fications do not produce QPP.

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 329

its production while it was at or in the possession of the

third-party printers. See sec. 1.199–3(f)(4), Income Tax Regs.

(Example (1) discusses risk of loss or damage during the

manufacturing process as an important factor in the benefits

and burdens test).

As noted supra, the risk of loss or damage did not transfer

to ADVO until the advertising materials had either left the

printers’ facilities or been delivered to ADVO. ADVO also did

not assume any risk with respect to the directed buy paper

supply agreements. Although ADVO required its printers to

purchase the paper from a specific source, ADVO did not

guarantee payments to the broker in the event the printers

defaulted on the payments nor did ADVO reimburse the

printer for the paper costs until the printed product had been

completed and shipped per ADVO’s specifications. The third-

party printers were also required to maintain insurance with

respect to all of ADVO’s work in progress and all materials.

Given the insurance and the fact that the risk of loss did not

transfer to ADVO until after completion of the manufac-

turing process, ADVO did not have the burden of the risk of

loss or damage with respect to the advertising materials.

The regulations also suggest that the type of contract plays

a role in determining risk of loss and is one of the facts and

circumstances in determining who has the benefits and bur-

dens. Id. The examples imply a difference between fixed cost

contracts and reimbursable cost type contracts. Sec. 1.199–

3(f)(4), Examples (1) and (2), Income Tax Regs. Thus, the fact

that the manufacturing taxpayer may bear a greater risk of

loss in a fixed cost contract as opposed to a reimbursable con-

tract is significant. One version of ADVO’s contracts bore ele-

ments of a reimbursable contract, such as agreements to

allow price adjustments for increases in freight rates and ink

prices and increases tied to the Consumer Price Index. The

other contracts kept costs firm but included terms implying

that if sufficiently documented, some price changes, for

example to reflect new printing developments in the graphic

arts, might be allowed or even required.

Furthermore, we realize that in the event damage or loss

of the advertising material resulted in the material’s not get-

ting timely delivered to the end consumers, ADVO bore the

economic risk vis-a-vis its clients. ADVO’s contracts with cli-

ents often required quick turnaround periods. If the printer

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330 141 UNITED STATES TAX COURT REPORTS (298)

does not print an acceptable product in that short amount of

time, ADVO certainly suffers economic harm. This harm is

both quantifiable, in terms of its contract price with its cli-

ents, and more ethereal, in terms of reputation damage. In

the light of these considerations, we find this factor to be

neutral.

8. Profits From Operation and Sale

Similar to the example in section 1.199–3(f)(4), Income Tax

Regs., the third-party printing companies enjoyed the eco-

nomic gain or bore the loss from the sale of the advertising

material according to the difference between the printing

companies’ costs and, as to some of the contracts, the fixed

contract price. Therefore we find that this factor weighs in

favor of respondent.

9. Active and Extensive Participation

The test under section 936 asks whether ADVO actively

and extensively participated in the management and oper-

ations of the activity. Medchem (P.R.), Inc. v. Commissioner,

116 T.C. at 336–337. As discussed under ‘‘Right of Possession

and Control’’, see supra p. 327, ADVO argues that it actively

and extensively participated in the management and oper-

ation of the printing of the advertising material. However,

we find that it did not extensively participate in the oper-

ation of the printing presses or in the cutting or folding proc-

esses, and thus this factor weighs in favor of respondent.

ADVO did extensively participate in the mailing and dissemi-

nation of the advertising materials (i.e., the solo or coopera-

tive mail packages), but that function is a service, not QPP.

Sec. 1.199–3(e)(1) and (2), Income Tax Regs.

10. Conclusion

After careful review of all of the aforementioned factors in

the light of the specific facts and circumstances of this case,

we find that ADVO did not have the benefits and burdens of

ownership while the advertising material was printed. 23

23 On

brief petitioner also argued that its gross receipts with respect to

graphic design, processing, and distribution activities were also DPGR. Be-

cause we did not find that petitioner had the benefits and burdens of own-

ership during the manufacturing activity, we need not address these

issues.

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(298) ADVO, INC. & SUBS. v. COMMISSIONER 331

Therefore, ADVO did not have ‘‘the benefits and burdens of

ownership of the QPP under Federal income tax principles

during the period of MPGE activity’’. Sec. 1.199–3(e)(1),

Income Tax Regs. The gross receipts from the printing

activity, therefore, are not DPGR. See id. As a result, ADVO

is not entitled to the claimed section 199 deduction for its

2006 taxable year and its 2007 short taxable year.

The Court has considered all of petitioner’s contentions,

arguments, requests, and statements. To the extent not dis-

cussed herein, the Court concludes that they are meritless,

moot, or irrelevant.

To reflect the foregoing,

An appropriate order will be issued.

f

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