# Created by the Muckleshoot Traditional Foods Program

> Briefs, arguments, decisions, and more.

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/tribal%3Apuyallup%3A05e0cbc6b7e5aba0

## Record

- **Collection:** Tribal code
- **Document type:** Tribal code

## Text

Cedar Box
Teaching Toolkit

Created by the Muckleshoot Traditional Foods Program
with funding from the First Nations Development Institute
& the Northwest Portland Area Indian Health Board

NPAIHB

Indian Leadership for Indian Health

CREATIVE COMMONS NOTICE - 2017 materials
This teaching tool was created by Elise Krohn and Valerie Segrest, and is licensed under
the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
License.
You are free to share — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format —
under the following terms: Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a
link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable
manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.
NoDerivatives — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you may not
distribute the modified material.
To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ or
send a letter to Creative Commons, PO Box 1866, Mountain View, CA 94042, USA.
This resource is available through Northwest Portland Area Indian Health Board.
Posters and the Feeding 7 Generations Recipe Book are also available through
www.chatwinbooks.com

Table of Contents
About the Cedar Box Teaching Toolkit
How to Use this Curriculum
Introduction
From White Cap to White Cap – Cultural Ecosystems by Abe Lloyd and Elise Krohn
Feeding 7 Generations by Valerie Segrest and Elise Krohn
The Impacts of Colonization on Native Foods Access by Valerie Segrest and Elise Krohn
Traditional Food Harvesting, Cooking and Preservation by Abe Lloyd
Cedar by Elise Krohn
Water by Elise Krohn
Camas by Elise Krohn
Cattail by Elizabeth Campbell
Clams by Valerie Segrest
Deer and Elk by Valerie Segrest
Duck by Abe Lloyd
Hazelnut by Elise Krohn
Huckleberry by Elise Krohn and Joyce LeCompte
Nettle by Elise Krohn
Salal by Elise Krohn
Salmon by Valerie Segrest and Elise Krohn
Seaweed by Elise Krohn
Strawberry by Elise Krohn

About the Cedar Box Teaching Toolkit
This Toolkit is an educational resource featuring important native foods in Salish Country
and the rich cultural traditions that surround them. The foods were selected because of
their high nutritional value, cultural significance, and reasonable availability. The toolkit
includes:
• A cedar bentwood box, cooking tongs, cooking rocks, display containers, teaching
cards and preserved samples of 13 native foods.
• Videos about foods and food traditions that feature native storytellers.
• A curriculum including Salish food descriptions, recipes, stories and activities.
• A Feeding 7 Generations poster.
• A Feeding 7 Generations recipe book.
Educators can use the cedar box toolkit in a variety of settings including classrooms,
community workshops and other educational events. Possible presentation formats
include a “show and tell” overview of Salish foods, an exhibit, or a complete curriculum
for teaching in depth classes on individual foods.
The information in this curriculum only scratches the surface of the vast cultural
knowledge for each food. We hope that you can add your own community knowledge,
stories, artwork, preserved foods and language to your toolkit over time.

How to Use This Curriculum
Chapters on specific foods can be used as handouts. Recipes, activities and stories
provide a culturally based learning style. Short videos about several of the foods in this
book can be accessed at https://vimeo.com/cedarboxstories. They include traditional
Salish stories and people sharing their knowledge about the foods. Educators may want to
show them as part of a classroom activity.
It is our hope that educating people about the significance of these foods will
encourage them to preserve and promote them. This toolkit may inspire hands-on
stewardship, restoration, or political action related to native foods that are becoming
scarce.
For example, we can plant native berries and wild greens in home gardens and public
landscapes; and we can work to restore the health of our waters and wild spaces.
Harvest ethics are an integral part of this curriculum. Wise gatherers, hunters and
fishers teach us to take only what the land can handle and leave enough so that plant or
animal communities continue to thrive. Likewise, it is essential to give back to the land
so it will not become depleted. For example, we can return shells to beaches and compost
to the soil. Teaching people about appropriate harvest and land management techniques
will preserve these precious foods for future generations. Tribal elders, knowledge
keepers and tribal natural resource managers can be additional sources for understanding
harvest ethics.
Have fun! We hope this curriculum builds your knowledge and inspires you to
engage with native foods. Getting out there to harvest berries, dig camas, or fish for
salmon not only feeds our bodies, it also nurtures our relationship to place, builds
community and connects us to cultural traditions.

Text copyright Elise Krohn and Valerie Segrest, Creative Commons

Introduction
The Salish Sea region was one of the most densely populated and richest food places on
the planet before Euro-American colonization. Stories passed down through generations
tell us that many types of berries, roots, bulbs, nuts, and seeds were eaten as part of a
well-balanced diet. These nutritious foods contributed to the excellent health and rich
cultural traditions of Northwest Coastal Native Peoples. These foods include:
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Fish: salmon, smelt, trout, minnows, halibut, codfish, pollock, hake, rockfish,
sculpin, perch, eel, flounder, sole, skates, anchovy, sturgeon
Shellfish: clams, oysters, muscles, barnacles, scallops, limpets, snails, chitons,
crabs, shrimp, sea urchins, octopus, squid
Mammals from the water: whale, porpoise, seal,
Mammals from the land: deer, elk, bear, mountain goat, cougar, Bobcat, rabbit,
mountain beaver
Birds: swans, geese, ducks, grouse, quail, pelicans, hawks, gulls, doves, pigeons
Greens: nettle, spring beauty, miner’s lettuce, cattail, fiddlehead ferns, horsetail
fertile shoots, salmonberry and thimbleberry sprouts, purslane, evergreen tree tips
from Douglas fir, true fir, hemlock and spruce, violet leaves and flowers
Roots: camas, wapato, wild onion, yampah, bracken fern, chocolate lily, rice root,
glacier lily, spring beauty, silverweed, spring bank clover, biscuit root
Fruits: huckleberries, salmonberry, thimbleberry, blackcap raspberry, cranberry,
salal, serviceberries, soapberry, wild strawberries, blackberry, elderberries,
crabapple, wild cherry, currants, gooseberries, Indian plum, wild roses
Nuts: Hazelnut, acorn

Many Tribal elders agree that their happiest times were those spent gathering and
preparing native foods with their friends and family. These were unifying moments when
people worked together over a common purpose. Stories and laughter were shared while
hands processed fish, berries, and nuts. As author Dr. Rudolph Ryser, Chair of the Center
for World Indigenous Studies says, “For me, the kitchen table was a place where cultural
knowledge was passed from one generation to the next.”
Despite ruptures to native food systems and the introduction of Euro-American
industrialized foods, many Native People continue to harvest, hunt, gather and grow the
native foods that have nourished their ancestors for countless generations. These foods
and the traditions that surround them provide people with top-quality nutrition, physical
activity, a connection to the land and the seasons, as well as strong ties to family and
community.
The story of our relationship to the earth is written more truthfully
on the land than on the page. It lasts there. The land remembers
what we said and did. Stories are among the most potent tools for
restoring the land as well as our relationship to the land. We need to
unearth the old stories that live in a place and begin to create new
ones, for we are storymakers, not just storytellers. All stories are
connected, new ones woven from the threads of the old.
-Robin Wall Kimmerer, Braiding Sweetgrass
Text copyright Elise Krohn and Valerie Segrest, Creative Commons

From White Cap to White Cap
From the deep waters of the Pacific Ocean to the snow capped peaks of the Cascade
Mountains, the land and waters of the Coastal Pacific Northwest are teaming with wild
foods. Within this land thrives a great diversity of ecosystems, from open grasslands to
wetlands to dense forests. This abundance of food and diversity of landscapes is directly
linked to active management by Native People. As we look into the past to see how
native foods were harvested, processed and maintained, it becomes clear that our
ancestors had an advanced understanding of their food systems. Special techniques
including burning, weeding, aerating the soil, pruning and modifying waterways and
beaches have all been utilized to increase the bounty of foods, which is mutually
beneficial for many non-human species. Without these techniques, many important foods
may well have disappeared from the this region long ago. Examples include:
Camas Prairies – Prairies naturally formed in the Puget Sound region about 14,000 years
ago, after glaciers retreated. Many foods including edible bulbs, roots, nuts and berries
thrive in this open landscape. Burning the prairies releases nutrients into the soil and
prevents trees from taking over. Open meadows are attractive to deer, elk, and other
animals that graze on prairie plants. Through selective harvest and pruning, you can
increase the bounty of edible plants.

Mountain Huckleberry Meadows – Shrouded in snow most of the year, these highlands
are only accessible in summer and early autumn. The growing season is short, but very
productive. Mountain huckleberry, alpine lilies and many other foods, as well as basketry
plants and medicines thrive in these meadows, which have been traditionally maintained
through burning, specialized harvesting techniques and weeding out unwanted species.
Many Native People still maintain that it is well worth making the journey to harvest
huckleberries and other mountain foods and medicines in late summer.

Lowland Forests – Like a broad green belt
between the rocky summits and watery seas,
ancient forests carpet the majority of the land.
Beneath the shady canopy of giant cedar,
hemlock, spruce, and fir trees are many types
of foods and medicines including salal,
lowland huckleberries and nettles. The forest
is home to a variety of wild game. Forest
edges and sunny openings are especially
productive food areas that can be maintained
for diversity and abundance.
Wetlands – Wetlands include the margins of lakes and ponds, shallow freshwater
marshes and peat bogs. Food plants specially adapted to these wet conditions include
cattail, wapato and bog cranberry. Many basketry plants including cattail, tule, sedges
and willows are harvested from wetlands. Birds including ducks and geese rely on these
areas for feeding and nesting grounds.

Saltwater Beaches – Tribal elders say that when the tide is out, the table is set. Beaches
provided a rich abundance and wide variety of foods. Clams thrive in sandy and gravelly
beaches, while seaweed and other shellfish flourish on rocky shores. Tidepools are hiding
places for octopus and crabs. Because of the mild climate, food can be harvested from
saltwater beaches all year round. Through modifying beaches and creating “clam
gardens” you can increase the number of clams and other ocean species.

Text copyright Abe Lloyd and Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Feeding 7 Generations
Food is a gift. Salish Elders remind us that true wealth is having access to native foods
along with the knowledge of how to gather, prepare and serve them. Our values and food
traditions are a living legacy that links us to past, present and future generations. Several
times a day, we encounter opportunities to reflect on what we eat and how our choices
change our world. When we harvest native foods and incorporate them in to our modern
lifestyle, we strengthen our cultural identity, our relationship to the land and tribal
sovereignty. It will take all of us to feed the next seven generations.
Live with the Seasons. From spring camas prairies to summer huckleberry meadows to
autumn fish runs, seasonal foods connect us with the rhythm of the land. For thousands of
years we have organized our lives to gather what is in season. In return, we receive peak
nutrients that keep us healthy all year long.
Diversify Your Diet. Our ancestors ate a wide variety of foods just a few generations
ago. Today, most Americans eat only 12-20 foods on a regular basis, limiting their
consumption of minerals, vitamins and other nutrients. When we eat many types of
foods, we receive the nourishment we need to stay strong. We also promote the diversity
and health of the land.
Eat More Plants. All health advocates agree that we need to eat more plants. Plant foods
help us maintain a healthy weight and prevent chronic diseases including heart disease,
diabetes and cancer. Eating more plants also reduces climate change and environmental
destruction.
Traditional Foods are Whole Foods. Imagine walking through the grocery store with
your great grandparents. What would they recognize as food? Our ancestors thrived on
whole foods that weren’t industrialized, genetically modified, refined, packed with sugar
or blended with additives, dyes or chemicals. Whole foods feed the wholeness within us.
Gather Wild Foods. There is a store outside your door. Wild foods are the most
nutritious and flavorful foods we can find. Free and accessible, they thrive all around us
from forests to fields to back yards. Tasting wild foods connects us to the gifts of the land
and attunes us to the seasons.
Cook and Eat with Good Intention. Cooking is a time to offer respect to the plants and
animals that gave their lives to nourish us. It is also an opportunity to honor our culture
and the people with whom we share food. If we eat while on the go, we miss the pleasure
of eating, and do not have sufficient time to savor and digest. Harvesting, preparing,
serving and consuming food with good intention feeds our bodies and spirits.
Give Back to the Land. When we harvest and grow food in a way that
supports plant and animal communities, we express native values of
generosity. Generosity includes both giving and receiving. Organic and
sustainable practices return basic life materials to the soil. Through
caring for the land, we continue the ancient practices of our ancestors
and pass down a world that supports generations to come.
Text copyright Elise Krohn and Valerie Segrest, Creative Commons

The Impacts of Colonization on Native Foods Access
Native food has always been an integral part of Coast Salish culture, yet peoples’ ability
to access food traditions has rapidly declined in the last few generations. Starting in the
mid to late 19th century, most Native communities were moved from their homeland onto
small reservations by Territorial and Federal governments trying to make room for
American farmers and industrialists. These governments then outlawed many traditional
management practices and forced Native People to farm in the European style where land
is cleared, plowed, and planted with cereal grains. Children were sent to boarding schools
in an attempt to assimilate them into the American society and strip them of their culture.
They were given English names and were prohibited from speaking their language.
Practicing many cultural traditions, including food traditions, became illegal.
The health of Coast Salish people has also
suffered from the loss of ancestral food traditions, which
were replaced with commodity foods that are high in
carbohydrates, sugar, dairy and poor quality fats. This is
vastly different from a traditional diet with food rich in
vitamins, minerals, good quality fats and antioxidants. As
people became more sedentary and adopted new
European-style foods, diabetes began to appear. Diabetes was virtually non-existent
among Northwest Coastal Indian people about 125 years ago, and now it is at epidemic
levels. Studies also link trauma from colonization directly to diabetes and other diseases.
Despite treaties that guaranteed harvesting rights, access to native foods has
steadily declined in the last 150 years as private property, corporate interests, and
preservationist priorities have grown to dominate the public discourse regarding land
management at the local, state and federal levels. The ancestral economy of Coast Salish
people has been exploited and the health of the land reflects the health of the people.
Environmental toxins in wild foods deter people from hunting, fishing and gathering in
some areas. Elders from many communities grieve that they can no longer harvest and
prepare the foods they grew up eating. New generations have had little exposure to
traditional foods and their teachings, making it hard for them to incorporate these foods
into their modern lifestyles. The implications of this are vast. As the availability of these
foods decreases, the stories, songs and language connected to them also fall silent.
In the face of these great obstacles, it is incredible that Northwest Coastal People
have continued to hold on to their food traditions... and yet they have. The current
resurgence of cultural traditions is nothing short of a renaissance: Elders are gathering to
remember and to teach; families and communities are picking up the digging stick and
basket and restoring harvest areas; gardens are
being planted; land partnerships and food policy
initiatives are shaping programs; and partnerships
with local, state and federal governmental bodies
are emerging to address these issues. Native foods
are being embraced as a powerful organizing tool
to fight modern chronic diseases. They are
reconnecting people to the seasons, the land, and
their community.
Text copyright Elise Krohn and Valerie Segrest, Creative Commons

Traditional Food Harvesting, Cooking & Preservation
Native American Harvesters
In most cases the right for Native Americans to harvest food and ceremonial items is
protected by either Federal treaty or the Constitution which both exceed regulations
imposed by the multitude of land managers below. For more information, Native
American harvesters can check with the Natural Resources office of the Tribe that they
are registered. In Western Washington the treaties guaranteed Native Americans an
"exclusive right" to all resources within the boundaries of the reservations and an "in
common" right to off-reservation fishing, hunting and gathering of roots and berries, at
all “usual and accustomed grounds and stations.” The Boldt decision further clarified the
Native American right to harvest shellfish and finfish stating that Native Americans have
rights to 50 percent of the harvestable surplus (http://nwifc.org/about-us/shellfish/treatyrights-faq/). Non-native harvesters would do well to recognize that Native Americans
were the original stewards of many of the natural resources enjoyed by everyone today.

Harvest Ethics
Those harvesting wild plants and animals have an ethical responsibility to ensure that
they do not exceed the capacity of a particular ecosystem to both replenish itself, and
provide for other organisms. Please respect the organisms that you harvest and the land
that supports them by not overharvesting and leaving as little trace as possible.
Below are some general guidelines for harvesting different types of plant and
fungal resources. (Plants guidelines from Nature’s Garden by Samuel Thayer)
• Annual weeds: are plants that produce seed and then die within one growing
season. These plants reproduce prolifically and are usually only restricted in
abundance by the available habitat. They can generally be harvested with little
restraint.
• Biennials: are typically tap rooted plants that produce seeds the second year and
then die. Harvesting the roots destroys the plant but they usually produce an
abundance of seed and the soil disturbance that results from harvesting the plants
is an ideal germination environment for future plants. Harvest no more than half
of the plants in a particular colony.
• Perennial greens: are plants that die back to a root that persists year to year (like
stinging nettles). Harvesting the leaves does not significantly damage the plant
unless they are picked repeatedly over the course of a season. Take less than a
third of the available foliage.
• Perennial shoots: are stems that die back to a root that persists year to year (like
cattail). They are more sensitive than greens because the entire above ground
portion of the plant is often removed. Take less than a third of a particular colony
in a given year.
• Fruits, Seeds, Nuts, and Berries: are gifts from the plant to us. While they are
important to the reproduction of a particular plant, taking them does not harm the
plant in any way. Overharvesting of berries is almost impossible, but think of
needs of wildlife and other harvesters, and be a good steward by planting a few
seeds after you are done picking.

Multiple Underground Storage Organs: are things like tubers and some rhizomes
from plants that grow in communities (cattails). They can be harvested in
moderation from healthy patches, but leave at least half to continue growing. The
remaining plants will often benefit from soil that was loosened during your
harvest.
• Single Underground Storage Organs: are things like tubers, bulbs, and taproots.
They are the most prone to overharvesting as the removal of the bulb results in the
loss of the entire organism. Space your harvesting out so that you don’t remove an
entire clump. Only remove a small percentage of the entire population and replant
the smallest and the largest of the roots that you dig up. The largest roots usually
produce the most seeds and will help replenish the population.
For information on rare plants and animals that should not be harvested, see the
Washington Natural Heritage Program website.
•

Safety
The things we put in our mouths have the capacity to damage us and wild foods are no
exception. Poisoning from misidentification, improper harvest season, inadequate
preparation, or contamination, as well as allergies, all threaten wild food harvesters.
Fortunately, these hazards are easily avoided with knowledge, experience, and a few
simple guidelines.
1. Do not rely solely on a wild food book for identifying plants. These books are
best used in combination with expert help and field guides that are specifically
designed for identification.
2. Never eat something the first time you identify it.
3. Never eat something unless you have total confidence
in your identification.
4. Be sure you understand the proper season for
collecting edible parts and process them according to
instructions from a reputable source.
5. Just try a little bit the first time. Never serve new
foods to other people if you don’t have experience
eating them yourself.
6. Let others know when you serve them wild foods in
case they have never tried a particular food before.
Advise them to start by only trying a little bit.
7. Avoid harvesting plants near busy roadways or areas
were contamination is suspected.
Aleta Poste harvesting nettles

Text copyright Abe Lloyd, Creative Commons

Digging gear:
Only a few light tools are needed for harvesting and managing the hidden food treasures
buried beneath the earth. With nothing more than a stout digging stick, a harvesting
basket, and a strong back, a feast of clams or roots can reward the knowledgeable and
persistent. Throughout the Pacific Northwest, two different styles of digging sticks are
traditionally used by those tending root and clam gardens. “T” handled diggers are most
commonly used for unearthing roots in hard ground. Securely fastened to a sharpened
vertical piece is a horizontal handle, which provides a comfortable surface to exert the
necessary force to break through dry or rocky soils. These digging sticks are usually
round and unshaped in cross section and fairly straight to slightly “J” shaped from tip to
handle. Softer soil sites and clam gardens are traditionally cultivated with a digging stick
made out of a single piece of wood that is often more substantially carved with broadly
sharpened head, narrow shaft, and rounded or squared handle.
Digging sticks are made from the hardest and toughest material available.
Historically Indigenous People west of the Cascades preferred yew or oceanspray wood,
while those living east of the Cascades preferred serviceberry, hawthorn, mock orange,
and oak. The tips of all wooden digging sticks are carefully sharpened, fire hardened, and
rubbed with tallow to form resilient, waterproof points. Digging sticks are usually three
to four feet long, or roughly the length of the root gardener’s leg. Top handles are made
either of the same wood, or occasionally of antler. Today, steel digging sticks are often
forged.
Traditional gardeners use digging sticks in
a similar manner to short-handled shovels
or potato forks. The tip of the digging stick
is driven into the ground near the target
root or clam and the handle pushed
downward, prying the food from the
ground. Hard, uncultivated ground must
usually be dug from several different
angles. Digging sticks are the perfect tool
for their designed task and allow
traditional gardeners to remove
undamaged roots and clams from even the
driest and rockiest soils.
After a quick dusting to remove the largest clumps of sediment, the gardener
places the root or clam in an open-work basket. This basket is never far from the digger
and more roots or clams are harvested until the basket is full. The open weave of the
basket allows dirt and sand to fall freely, and in some instances, the basket is submerged
partially in water and shaken, like a colander, to rinse off any remaining dirt. Thus
cleaned, the roots or clams are ready to be cooked or dried.

Berry Picking Gear
The Pacific Northwest bursts with a bounty of berries. From the spring’s first
salmonberry to the winter’s last cranberry, our region boasts a delicious diversity in the
dozens. Nearly every ecosystem from coastal fringe to mountain meadow has berries to

offer, and the ready picker must not only know when and where to find each fruit, but
have the proper gear to pluck, stow and clean their crop.
A handful of our fruit and nut bearing plants are either too tall or too short to
comfortably get our hands on. Shrubs such as chokecherry, crabapple, elderberry,
hazelnut, and serviceberry all have long flexible limbs that suspend the majority of their
fruit just beyond the reach of the unaided arm. To this evolutionary problem, the berry
hook is an ergonomic solution. Functionally no more than a long stick with a branchcatching barb on one end, the berry hook nullifies the need to climb anything (thus
sparing our own limbs from damage) by bending the fruit to the level of the picker. For
those seeking a leg-up on the competition, tying a foot loop on the bottom end of the
berry hook will free both hands for picking.
Berry hooks are often made on the spot from materials at hand. The long straight
shoots of oceanspray, hazelnut, and serviceberry are just a few of the preferred woods.
The hooked end is usually part of an attached low-angle crotch.
Bog cranberries and Cascade blueberries present
the opposite problem. They are so low that a stiff back
from constant stooping is the primary hazard. Once
removed, berries are placed in a small berry picking
basket that is tied around the waist. This basket has a
wide enough weave for unripe berries, insects, and small
debris to fall through, but narrow enough to retain the
desirable fruit. Traditional berry baskets hold about 1-3
gallons. When the front basket is full, it is emptied into a
large burden basket that is placed in a central location, or worn on the back with a
tumpline. Some tribes also employ a third, intermediate sized basket. Today, many
people pick berries into ½-1 gallon ice cream containers, which are nearly as fun to
empty as they are to fill. Whatever container is used, picking speed increases
dramatically when the container is tied to your waste as both hands are then free to pluck
fruit.
Back home, the berries must be cleaned to remove leaves, undesirable berries, and
other debris. The age-old technique of rolling berries down a wet board still works as
well today as it has for countless generations. The flat leaves and squishy over-ripe
berries stick to the board while the ripe berries roll to the bottom. Be sure and use a wide
board with a gentle slope and leave plenty of room at the bottom of the ramp to catch
your berries. A variation of the same technique makes use of a dry towel on the board,
which is nice if you are going to freeze your berries because they stay dry. Berries can
also be cleaned in a more dynamic process by placing them on a damp bed sheet with the
four corners spread tight. The fruit is then tossed in the air and finally rolled off into a
container while the debris sticks to the sheet. Whichever method is used, some degree of
hand sorting is usually needed to remove under-ripe fruit before the berries are ready to
be cooked, dried, or eaten.

Fishing Gear
Any fisher will tell you that having the proper gear is vital to a successful catch. Scores of
species swim through our coastal, intertidal, and river waters, and many require a unique
selection of tackle, making fishing one of the most sophisticated categories of tools and

technologies among Indigenous societies in the Pacific Northwest. Broadly, most fishing
gear can be broken down into three basic methods: trapping (with weirs, nets, or traps),
stabbing (with gaffs, spears, or rakes), and hooking (with lines and hooks), but each of
these techniques (and the associated tools) are specifically tailored to a particular species
at a particular life-history stage. For example, a fisher may troll a hook for salmon in salt
water, but pursue the same species a few months later with a gaff in a stream. Some tools,
however, have more general utility across fish species, such as canoes, fish clubs, and
fish cutting knives.
Fish weirs are traditionally among the most efficient means of capturing food
because they are designed to temporarily obstruct not just one, but entire schools of fish.
Simple designs include crescent shaped stone walls placed along the beach that take
advantage of tidal action to trap fish within the enclosure at low tide, and wooden latticework fences placed across streams and small rivers. Both designs build upon areas where
fish are naturally forced to congregate, and further inhibit the mobility of the fish. The
most desirable fish from those aggregated by the weir were then netted, gaffed, or forced
into traps, while excess and undesirable fish were allowed to escape through an opening
in the weir. The following illustration depicts a river-based salmon weir. Other
specialized weir designs were also employed to catch eulachon and smelt in rivers, and
salmon, ground fish, and herring in estuaries and along coastal beaches. The power of
flowing water imposes a practical limit to the height of a weir, and most are used in water
no more than about six feet deep.

Early colonial settlers quickly adopted Indigenous weir techniques, but failed to allow an
adequate number of fish to escape, leading to the eventual prohibition of weir-based
fisheries.

Aggregations of fish in deep water are traditionally caught using other techniques
such as reef netting. These nets were originally made of willow fiber and positioned
along the salmon migration path in reefs that naturally concentrated the salmon. Two
canoes held the mouth of the net open, and the bottom was anchored to the reef. Since
salmon travel in schools that are destined for the same spawning grounds, an opening in
the center of the trap allowed some of each school to escape to sustain each run.
Shoals of smaller fish, such as herring, could be “raked” with a specialized tool
called a herring rake. This was made from a split cedar plank that was about 6 feet long
with a long round handle and a narrow head that contained a row of sharp bone spikes.
The rake was sliced through the water to impale herring, which were then removed from
the spikes and used for bait or eaten.
Additional hand tools such as spears and gaffs were used to catch salmon and
other river fish in shallow streams. Gaffs were made from a long pole with a detachable
hooked head that was attached to a line. Many types of spears were used to catch fish in
estuaries and rivers including those similar in construction to the seal spear, and others
with two barbed prongs.
Hook and line fishing was as common in the past as it is today. Halibut were
taken with bentwood hooks made from yew or hemlock and baited with octopus, and
small bone hooks were used for catching salmon. Fishing line was usually made from the
stipes of bull kelp or fiber from willow or stinging nettle.
Fish cutting knives were originally made from sharpened mussel shells or thin
sheets of slate that were hafted on one side and ground sharp on the side opposite the
handle.

Hunting Gear
Modifications on many of the same technologies used to catch fish were adapted to
hunting other animals from the sea, land and sky. Traditional hunting gear including bow
and arrows, nets, traps, harpoons, and spears were all used to capture quarry ranging from
deep diving seals to high climbing mountain goats and fast flying ducks.
Bows and Arrows
Prior to guns, bows and arrows were the quintessential hunting tools of humans nearly
everywhere. On the coast, bows were usually made from yew or vine maple, although
ocean spray and yellow cedar were sometimes used as well. Yew and bighorn sheep horn
were commonly used in the interior. Most bows were short with recurved tips and sinew
backing. Bowstrings were made of sea lion gut, sinew, or plant fiber. The material
selection and construction of a bow was a meticulous process requiring several weeks of
dedicated work. Yew wood, though revered by bowyers around the world for its unique
combination of dense hardwood and elastic sapwood, is often twisted and knotty. Much
care was thus taken to select a stave from a straight trunk or branch. This piece was split
in half to make a stave, which ranged in length from the distance between the archer’s
elbows when his fists were put together, to the span between his hands when his arms
were stretched outwards. The heartwood was carved away until the stave was roughly 3
inches wide and a half-inch thick. Each limb was wrapped in seaweed and buried in sand
near a hot fire until it was softened by the steam and could be bent into shape. The
sapwood faced away from the archer and was usually covered with many layers of deer

sinew that was dried, pounded, and fastened with glue made from fish skins or sturgeon
spinal cord. The best bowstrings came from sea lion gut, but it was not uncommon to use
the gut, sinew, or leather from other animals as well as nettle, willow, and dogbane
cordage.
Arrows were specially designed for each type of animal. On the coast the shafts
were usually made from the long shoots of oceanspray or split from western red cedar
wood. Fletching was made from eagle or cormorant feathers. Detachable foreshafts were
commonly used and arrowheads were made from bone, wood, or stone. In the interior,
arrow shafts were usually serviceberry with hawk or grouse fletching and arrowheads of
stone, wood, or bone.
Nets and Traps
Fish weren’t the only creatures captured by net. The Salish also used nets to snare ducks
and even deer. Duck nets had a mesh coarse enough for small species such as teal to pass
through, but fine enough to retain larger ducks, geese, and swans. Willow or nettle fiber
nets were suspended between poles or trees at the mouth of narrow flyways in the
evening when it was difficult for the birds to see. After several birds got stuck in the net,
it was dropped to the ground so that the birds could be killed.
Nets were also used to force seals close to shore and keep them from diving, so
they could be harpooned or clubbed. Deer were similarly corralled into narrow canyons
and driven into stout willow fiber nets where they were easily speared or shot with a bow
and arrow. More commonly, deer were killed with pit fall traps or deadfall traps. Dead
fall traps were positioned across a deer trail in such a manner that when the deer stopped
to go under a large log, the deer pushed a trigger that caused the log to fall and break the
deer’s neck.
Harpoons and Spears
Seals and other sea mammals were hunted with a large harpoon about 15 feet long. The
main shaft was made of Douglas fir, and the foreshaft made of a hardwood, such as yew
or oceanspray. The head was a composite of three pieces, the center point usually made
of bone or hardwood and two barbs of elk horn. The pieces were lashed together with
cherry bark and sealed with pitch. A line was tied to the head and once speared, the
foreshaft would separate from the main shaft and twist the head sideways into the wound.
Ducks and geese were hunted with a pronged spear that was designed to catch in
the feathers and not damage the meat. It was difficult to get close enough to the
waterfowl to spear them, without a stealth and cunning technique. On a moonless night, a
pair of hunters would canoe through a marsh—the person in the bow with a spear and the
person in the stern with a pitch wood torch. Perceiving the flame to be farther off than it
actually was, and blinded of the presence of the hunters by the torchlight, the waterfowl
allowed the hunters to get within spearing distance.
Once available, guns quickly replaced the bow and arrow, harpoon, and spear.
They also changed animal behavior. For example, ducks were said to be much more
skittish after the introduction of firearms. During the early period of transition, some
Native American hunters loaded pieces of stone arrowheads with each bullet, believing
that the stone more effectively killed the animal than the bullet.

Text copyright Abe Lloyd, Creative Commons

Cooking
Northwest Coastal Ancestors used a variety of cooking techniques such as roasting or
steaming in earthen pit ovens, spit roasting next to a fire, baking in or on hot coals, and
boiling in tightly woven baskets or bentwood boxes with hot rocks. Deer, seal, and
numerous root vegetables were sometimes cooked whole in underground roasting pits.
For this, a large pit was dug and filled with volcanic rocks. Then a hot fire was kindled
inside the pit and burned until the rocks were glowing hot. The coals were scraped out
and the pit was lined with vegetation such as salal, sword fern, and skunk cabbage before
the food was placed in the pit. The oven was then sealed with mats and soil and left to
cook for several hours to as long as 3 days. A fire was usually lit on top of the pit for
foods that required more than 1 day to cook. This technique varied considerably by food
type. For example, clams could be placed directly on the hot rocks and only required
seaweed—not earth—to be placed over the top; many root vegetables were steamed
inside of earth ovens by adding water to the hot rocks. Typically, only large quantities of
food were pit roasted, such as a year’s supply of camas or clams, or enough meat for a
feast.
Smaller portions of food such as fish, de-shelled
clams, venison, and waterfowl were traditionally roasted
on spits. Large fish were “butterflied” or split down the
back and folded open along the belly. The fish was held
open with small pieces of split cedar and mounted on an
upright spit near the fire, where they were periodically
turned. Upright spits of various sizes were used to roast
many whole animals ranging in size from clams to
marmots, as well as pieces of larger animals. Spit roasting
or barbecuing is still a popular means of preparing these
foods. Some foods were roasted directly on the hot coals,
such as clams that were still in the shell, and the rhizomes
of cattails and bracken fern. Small portions of other foods
could be wrapped in skunk cabbage leaves and buried in
the coals of a fire.
Family sized portions of food were also regularly
boiled in watertight baskets. Special cooking stones,
usually about the size of ping pong balls, were heated in a
fire and dropped into the baskets using fire tongs. Crabs,
fish, meat, and berries were all cooked in this manner, or
water was simply heated for medicinal tea or used to
soften dried foods such as hard smoked salmon and dried
camas.

Text copyright Abe Lloyd, Creative Commons

Preserving
Having food throughout the winter and a balanced diet throughout the year has always
been a necessary part of life that is made possible in our region by preserving food. Not
surprisingly, many of the same techniques used today were also used traditionally,
including storing fresh food live, cold, wet, or frozen, and processing food by drying,
smoking, or fermenting. Live storage was perhaps the simplest and most intuitive means
of ensuring future meals. Some roots, such as springbank clover, were harvested in the
fall, while dormant, and kept alive in damp soil near the house where they could easily be
dug up during the winter. Those that wouldn’t actually stay alive could be kept fresh in
cool places. For example, blue elderberries were bundled with pine needles and cached in
the snow where they could be retrieved later in the winter. Similarly, crabapples were
stored in baskets in cool dry places or, more rarely, submerged in water. Water storage
was more common for cooked red elderberries and acorns, which were packaged and
buried near streams or swamps for a month or more. Bitter constituents could be leached
out of these foods when stored in this manner, so this was also a form of passive
processing.
Many foods required more complex
processing such as dehydrating, smoking, and
fermenting. Wind drying salmon and sun drying roots
and berries were common in the upper river valleys
and dry interior where wind and sun are more
predictable. On the coast, where air humidity is
higher, heat and smoke were often necessary elements
to hasten the process and ward off bugs. For example,
salal berries were dried on skunk cabbage leaves near
a hot fire, and salmon and elk meat were usually
smoked in a special smoke house or hung in a smoky
part of the main house.
Most interesting were traditional methods of fermenting foods such as salmon: the
fresh roe of Spring Salmon was buried in a deep hole that was lined with several layers of
perforated bigleaf maple leaves, which allowed the oil to drain away as the eggs cured.
The eggs were then covered with more leaves and soil, and then left to ferment. Whole
salmon were sometimes buried for up to 10 days before they were boiled and eaten, and
in some areas, sockeye were fermented and rendered for oil in the same manner as
eulachon grease.

Text copyright Abe Lloyd, Creative Commons

References:
Burgeson, T., Ash, M., Hurtado, D. (1988). Indians of Washington State. Washington:
The Office of Superintendent of Public Instruction
Castile, G. (1985). The Indians of Puget Sound, the Notebooks of Myron Eels. University
of
Washington Press.
Elmendorf W. and Kroeber, A. (1992). The Structure of Twana Culture. WSU Press.
Gill, S. (1983). Ethnobotany of the Makah and Ozette People, Olympic Peninsula,
Washington. Ph.D dissertation, Washington Statue University
Gunther, E. (1973). Ethnobotany of Western Washington. University of Washington
Press.
Gunther, E. (1927). Klallam Ethnography. University of Washington Publications in
Anthropology Volme 1, Number 5.
Keohane, S. (2005). The Reservation Boarding School System in the United States:
1870-1928. Retrieved December 30,2006 from http://www.twofrog.com/rezsch.html.
Kimmerer, R. W. (201). Braiding Sweetgrass. Mildweed Editions.
Krohn, E. (2007). Wild Rose and Western Red Cedar.
Krohn, E. and Segrest, V. (2010). Feeding the People, Feeding the Spirit. Northwest
Indian College.
The Quinault Indians. University of Washington Publications in Anthropology Volume
VI,
Number 1.
Ryser, R. (2004). Salish Country Cookbook. Day Keeper Press - Center for World
Indigenous
Studies.
Schmid, R. (1987). Native Nutrition. Healing Arts Press.
Stewart, H. (2008). Indian Fishing. D and M Publishers.
Thayer, S. (2010). Natures Garden. Forager’s Harvest.
Turner, N. (2005). The Earth’s Blanket. University of Washington Press.
Turner, N. (1995). Food Plants of Coastal Northwest Peoples. UBC Press
Photo Credits:
All photos from Elise Krohn except Huckleberry/mountain by Abe Lloyd, carbohydrates
photo from istock, historic photo of camas harvester:
http://curtis.library.northwestern.edu/curtis/viewPage.cgi?showp=1&size=2&id=nai.07.b
ook.00000024.p&volume=7
Page 6, Grace Anne Byrd harvesting nettles at Nisqually
Art Credit:
Cover page art, table of contents salal and Introduction huckleberry hands, Joe Seymour.
Feeding 7 Generations leaf circle, Roger Fernandes

Western Red Cedar
Cedar has made possible the rich culture and historic wealth
of Salish People by providing for them from birth to death. It
has been called Grandmother, Long Life Maker and Rich
Woman Maker. Majestic longhouses, swift and rot-resistant
canoes, durable clothing, watertight baskets, cordage, tools,
art, medicine and many other things have been, and continue
to be, fashioned from cedar.
Other names: Thuja plicata. Whulshootseed: Xepayac
Identifying Cedar: Cedar is a distinctive tall evergreen tree with a wide buttressing base,
and a fibrous, fluted trunk with gray to cinnamon-red bark. Greenish-yellow leaves are
flat with opposite scales. Branches are often J-shaped with upward pointed tips. Simple
round flowers bloom in late summer and give the tree a yellowish appearance. They can
rain a cloud of pollen in the spring that makes the air appear hazy, covering everything in
fine golden dust. Cedar seed cones have 8-12 scales, are about ½ inch long, and are
shaped like rosebuds. They are ingeniously engineered to funnel pollen grains into the
small spaces between the scales, like wind turbines. The largest cedar trees are up to 19
feet in diameter and 200 feet tall, which is three fifths as long as a football field! Some of
the oldest trees are thought to be as much as 1,000 years old.
Where it Grows: Cedar thrives in moist soils in lowlands, flats and mountain slopes. It
prefers wet, misty forest, and is very common on the west side of the Cascade Mountains
from Northern California up into S.E. Alaska, as well as the foothills on the west side of
the Rockies in Montana and Idaho.
Season: Cedar bark is stripped in the late spring and early summer when the sap is
running. Wood can be harvested any time of year. Leaves are harvested any time as well,
but they are most aromatic in summer.
Harvesting and Processing Cedar: All parts of cedar are highly valued, including the
wood, bark, roots, branches and leaves. Harvesting cedar bark takes a lot of expertise.
You must understand when, where, and which trees to harvest from, along with how to
cut and pull the bark, separate the inner bark from the outer bark, and dry it. It helps to
have an elder or culture keeper take you out and show you several times! Bark is peeled
from trees with straight trunks by making a single cut and pulling upward on the trunk.
Strips can be as long as 30 feet, and are carefully separated into layers.
To harvest cedar leaves, carefully prune small fan-like branches here and there on
the tree so you do not leave a visible impact. Leaves can be used fresh, or they can be
dried by bundling several small branches with a rubber band and then hanging them, or
placing them on baskets in a dry place with good ventilation. Keep them whole to retain
the volatile oils, and then crush them just before you use them. Store in a paper bag or
glass jar.

Traditional Technologies: Cedar bark is prized for its
durability, flexibility and water resistance. Soft fibers have
been used for clothing, mats, napkins and towels. Weavers
create beautiful, ornate cedar baskets and hats from narrow
strands of cedar bark. Long straight cedar roots are split and
used in basket making. Branches have also been made into
rope, fish traps, binding material and baskets.
Harvesting Cedar bark is a tradition that remains
vibrant today. State and Federal Partnerships have made it
possible for Native People to continue harvesting cedar bark
even when trees are not found on their reservations. Along with
traditional harvest methods, protocols for gathering during the
correct season, and conventions of honoring the tree, are still practiced. When walking in
the woods, you might notice missing strips of bark that can be new or very old. If done
correctly, the tree continues to thrive. Older cedar trees are rare and should be protected
resources for Native People since they are so significant to the culture.
Cedar wood is highly rot resistant and beautiful. Native carvers use it to make
beautiful masts and welcome figures. Cedar is universally acclaimed for exterior
applications such as, siding, fencing, and decks. The beautiful and aromatic wood is also
prized for interior paneling and trim. If you travel through the Olympic rainforest from
Aberdeen north to the Makah Reservation, you will see many old cedar shake (shingle)
mills. Very few are still running, since most of the old forests have been logged.
Cedar Leaf Medicine: Cedar is a powerful antimicrobial.
Reflect on where it lives: cool wet forests where fungi and
molds thrive. When you scratch cedar leaves or cut the
wood, strong essential oils are released. These oils are
cedar’s medicine to repel insects, molds, fungi, bacteria and
viruses. Our ancestors discovered this long ago and used
cedar’s medicine in and on themselves to ward off external
forces.
Cedar leaves have long been a popular internal and
external medicine for painful joints among Coastal Native
Peoples. They have also been infused for cough medicine,
tuberculosis and fevers. The leaves make wonderful
incense and are used in smudging for purification.
Cedar leaf is a useful anti-fungal for skin and nail fungus. The tincture, infused oil
or salve can be used topically and should be applied 2-3 times a day until a week after the
fungus disappears. Fungal infections are pernicious and need to be treated aggressively.
You can also soak your feet in cedar tea by steeping a cup of dried cedar leaves in about
10 cups of hot water. Let the tea steep until it is warm, and then place it in a bowl or
basin large enough for your feet. Soak your feet for 10-15 minutes – a nice activity when
you are reading or watching television.
Cedar promotes immune function through helping white blood cells to work
better. By stimulating our immune cells to fight infection, clean up debris and denature
cancer cells, we are keeping our tissues healthy. Doing several cedar steams a day can

help to clear respiratory infections. You can also drink cedar tea by steeping a tablespoon
of fresh or dried chopped cedar leaf per cup of water. Many herbalists prefer to steep
cedar in cold water and let it sit for several hours or overnight. You only need to drink ¼
to ½ cup twice a day to get a medicinal effect.
Caution: Cedar contains strong volatile oils including thujone, a ketone that is
known to be toxic in large quantities. Cedar should be used internally with care – the
dosage is usually low and it is not used for long periods of time. It should not be used
during pregnancy, breastfeeding or with kidney weakness.

Additional Resources:
The Teachings of the Tree People: The Work of Bruce Miller.
Teachings of the Tree People Curriculum: Curriculum for Engaged Learning through
Film
https://www.newday.com/sites/default/files/resources/TeachingsCurriculum.pdf
Cedar by Hillary Stewart
People of Cascadia by Heidi Bohan
Northwest Native American Basket Weavers Association: http://www.nnaba.net
References:
Arno, S, and Hammerly, R. (2007) Northwest Trees. Mountaineers Books.
Krohn, E. (2006). Wild Rose and Western Red Cedar. Chatwin Books.
Miller, B. (1998) Sayuyay a ti tuwaduc, Herbal Medicine of the Twana.
Moore, M. (1993). Medicinal Plants of the Pacific West. Museum of New Mexico Press.
Pojar, J. and Mackinnon, A. (1994). Plants of the Pacific NW Coast. Lone Pine.
Preston, Richard J. (1980) North American Trees. Iowa State University Press.
Stewart, H. (1995) Cedar: Tree of Life to the Northwest Coastal Indians. University of
Washington Press

Text copyright Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Grandmother Cedar Tree
A Samish Story as told by Roger Fernandes, Lower Elwha S’Klallam Storyteller.
A long time ago there was a Grandma Cedar Tree. She was very big and very old.
One day a little tree began to grow next to her. It was her grandson. He was growing
right next to her and she was very happy.
The little tree grew and grew.
One day a big windstorm came and the wind blew very hard. The wind was blowing on
the little tree and he could not stand up to it. It was going to snap him and he would die.
But Grandma Cedar Tree placed her arms, her branches, between him and the wind. She
blocked the wind and protected her little grandson.
And he grew some more.
One summer day, the sun was very hot. It beat down upon the little tree and it was so hot
it hurt him. He was drying out. But Grandma Cedar Tree put her branches over him and
made shade. She protected him from the hot sun.
He grew some more.
One night deer came to the little tree. The deer liked to eat the fresh green branches of a
growing little tree. But Grandma waved her arms at them and chased them away! She
protected him from the deer.
He grew even more.
Sometimes the little tree was sad because there were no other little trees around to visit
with. He was sometimes very lonely. Grandma used her spirit power to call the birds to
the little tree. The birds flew around him and sat in his branches and sang and talked
with him. So he did not feel so lonely.
So he grew and he grew. And now he was bigger that his grandma. He was a big cedar
tree and he was taller than her.
Grandma was getting very old. She was very old now.
One day a windstorm came and began to push old Grandma Cedar Tree with its great
wind power. She was too old to fight back and the wind was so strong it was going to
break her and she would die. But Grandson Cedar Tree put his arm branches between
her and the wind. He protected her from the strong wind.
One day during the summer, the hot sun beat down upon old Grandma. She was
miserable in the heat and was too old to stand it any more. Her grandson put his arms
over her and made shade, protecting her from the hot sun.
One night the deer came. They wanted to nibble the green branches of the old tree. But
her grandson waved his arms at them and chased them away. He protected her from the
deer.

Grandma was very old and all her old friends were gone. They had died many years
before and she felt alone. Grandson used his power to call the birds to Grandma. They
flew to her and landed in her branches and sang and talked to her. She did not feel so
lonely.
She said, “Grandson, don’t worry about me. I am old now. Take care of yourself. Do not
worry about me any more.”
But he said, “Grandma, when I was little you protected me. When the strong wind blew
upon me, you blocked the wind with your arms. When it was so hot in the summertime,
you made shade with your arms and protected me. When the deer came at night to eat my
branches, you chased them away with your arms. And when I was lonely, you called the
birds to me so I would not be alone. Grandma, you did all these things for me, and now I
will do them for you.”
And so Grandson Cedar Tree took care of his beloved Grandmother Cedar Tree.
And that is all.

Text copyright Roger Fernandes, Creative Commons

The Girl Who Was I-I-Esh
A Yakima Story as told by Roger Fernandes
A long time ago...
On the other side of the mountains there lived a little
girl.
Now this little girl didn’t always listen or pay attention when the grown-ups were talking
to her so she would always mess something up or lose something or break something.
And the grown-ups would say to her, “Ooooh, you are so i-i-esh! You don’t listen!”
And that little girl thought, “Maybe I am i-i-esh. Maybe I can’t learn anything.”
When she would play with the other children in the village, she didn’t always listen or
pay attention to what they were saying so she would make her team lose or mess up the
game. And the other children would say, “You are so i-i-esh! You don’t know anything!”
So after a while that little girl believed she was i-i-esh. She believed she couldn’t learn
anything. And because of this she would sit by herself watching the other children play.
She wished she could play with them, but she knew they would laugh at her and call her
i-i-esh. So she was always alone.
One day she was so sad and lonely, she left the village. She followed the trails and
walked into the woods. She followed the trails a long ways and finally she sat down by a
tree and she started to cry. She cried and cried and she woke up the tree. It was an old
grandma cedar tree. Grandma Cedar Tree said, “Little girl, what are you crying for?
You woke me up.”
“Oh, I’m i-i-esh,” said the little girl. “I can’t learn anything.”
The tree said, “Oh, little girl! I can teach you something if you want to learn.”
The little girl said, “Yes! I want to learn! What can you teach me?”
The tree said, “I want you to very carefully dig up some of my roots and take off some of
my bark. Then I want you to tear them into strips. Can you do that?”
“Yes!” said the little girl. And she dug up some roots, took off some bark and tore them
into strips. She stood there holding the strips of bark and roots in her hand. “What do I
do with them now?” she asked.
“Come sit by me and I will show you,” said Grandma Cedar Tree. So the little girl sat by
the tree and Grandma reached her branches down like hands and guided the little girl
until she made...a little basket.
Now it was a crooked little basket and it had big holes all over it and there were several
strands of bark and root hanging from it, but the little girl asked, “Did I make a good
basket?”
The tree said, “The only way you will know is to take your basket down to the river and
put it in and lift it out. If it holds water, you have made a good basket.”

The little girl cried, “Do I have to? I don’t want to go to the river! Can’t you just look....”
“Little girl, this is how you will know you have made a good basket! Take it to the river
and see if it holds water,” said Grandma Cedar Tree.
The little girl sighed loudly and went down to the river. She dipped the basket into the
water and all the water leaked out of the big holes. She carried the basket back up the hill
to Grandma Cedar Tree. “All the water poured out. What do I do now?” she asked.
Grandma Cedar Tree said, “You must take it apart and weave it again.”
“Do I have to?” cried the little girl in protest.
“Little girl, this is how you learn,” said Grandma Cedar Tree.
The little girl groaned and she took the basket apart and wove it again. This time it didn’t
look so lopsided and this time there were hardly any holes in it at all. Only a few small
ones. “Did I make a good basket this time?” the little girl asked.
Grandma said, “The only way you will know is to take it down to the river. Dip it into the
water, lift it out, and see if it holds water. Then you will know.”
The little girl cried, “Do I have to? Just look at it and tell me!”
“Little girl, this is how you learn. Take your basket to the river and see if it holds water,”
Grandma Cedar Tree explained.
“Oh, all right,” snapped the little girl. She took her basket back down the hill to the river
and dipped it in. She lifted it out and saw that it was holding water, but the water was
leaking slowly out of those little holes. She rushed back to the cedar tree, but by the time
she got there, all the water was gone. “Well, it was holding water,” she said, “but all the
water leaked out. What do I do now?”
“What you must do, is take it apart and weave it again,” Grandma Cedar Tree explained.
The little girl cried, “My fingers are sore from weaving baskets all day! Can’t you just
look at it....”
Grandma Cedar Tree said, “This is how you learn, little girl. Take it apart and weave it
again.”
The little girl shrugged her shoulders, but she took the basket apart and wove it again.
This time it didn’t look crooked at all and when she held it to the light, she didn’t see any
holes. “Did I make a good basket now?” she asked.
Grandma Cedar Tree said, “The only way you will know is if you take it down to the
river and see if it holds water.”
Then the little girl cried, “Do I have to? I am getting tired going up and down the hill all
day.”
Cedar Tree said, “This is how you learn. Take it to the river and see if it holds water.”

The Little Girl groaned, “Awwwww.” Then took the basket down to the river. She dipped
it in the river and this time, it held water. She ran back to the cedar tree, carrying the
basket of water.
“Look. Look!” she said. “It’s holding water!”
Grandma Cedar Tree said, “You did it little girl. It is a wonderful basket. It is a perfect
basket. You did a very good job.”
The little girl was so happy. She poured water around the roots of Grandma Cedar Tree
as a way of saying thank you. She was so proud of her basket, she made it herself and it
held water.
Then she noticed something. Her basket had no designs on it; there were no designs at
all. It was naked. The little girl began to cry again. Grandma Cedar Tree said, “What are
you crying for now little girl?”
The little girl said, “My basket needs designs, but I don’t know any designs. I am i-i-esh.
I do not know anything.”
Grandma Cedar Tree said, “It is very simple little girl. All you have to do is go up into
the mountains with your basket. Walk around and keep your eyes open. If you keep your
eyes open the design will give itself to you.”
The Little Girl cried, “Do I have to? I don’t want to go up in the mountains, that is too
far to go!”
Grandma Cedar Tree said, “This is how you’ll find your design little girl. Take your
basket up into the mountains.”
The little girl took her basket up into the mountains. She carried her basket, keeping her
eyes open, or so she thought. But she couldn’t see any design and she thought, “No
design will give itself to me because I am i-i-esh.” Because of this she began to cry again.
She cried so loud she woke up the Mountain. The Mountain said, “Little girl, what are
you crying so loud for? You woke me up.”
The Little Girl said, “I am looking for designs for my basket, like Cedar Tree said, but I
can’t find any because I am i-i-esh.”
The Mountain said, “Little girl, look at me. Can you see that I am a design?”
The Little Girl said, “Yes, you look like a big triangle.”
The Mountain said, “You can use that as a design for the bottom of your basket.”
So the little girl wove what we call the mountain design, a triangle with steps going up
the side. She thanked the mountain and kept walking around because she needed one
more design for the rim of the basket. She walked around but she couldn’t find another
design. “I am so i-i-esh! I will never find another design!” said the Little Girl and she
began to cry again.
She cried so loud she woke up a rattlesnake. Rattlesnake slithered from under the rocks
and said, “Little Girl, why are you crying so loud? You woke me up.”

The Little Girl said, “I need another design for my basket. Mountain gave me one, but I
can’t find another design because I am i-i-esh. I don’t know anything.”
The Rattlesnake said, “Little Girl, look at me, can you see a design on my back?”
The Little Girl said, “Yes it looks like diamonds hooked together.” The Rattlesnake said,
“Little girl you can use that for your basket.”
And so she wove what we call the Rattlesnake design, diamonds linked together, around
the rim of her basket. The Little Girl thanked the Rattlesnake and went back down the
mountain. She went by the Cedar Tree, crossed the river and walked into her village. The
people saw her coming, carrying something. They went up to her and said, “Little Girl,
what is that?”
She said, “A basket.” When they asked where she got it, she said, “I made it.”
They said, “Where did you learn how to make a basket?”
She said, “Cedar tree showed me how to make it out of bark and roots. It holds water
too.”
The people said, “What are those designs on the basket Little Girl?”
She said, “This is the Mountain and this is the Rattlesnake.”
Skeptically, they asked, “Where did you get those designs?”
She said, “Mountain and Rattlesnake gave them to me.”
They said, “Little Girl, will you teach us how to make a basket like that?”
She said, “Yes I can.”
They said, “Little girl can you teach us how to put designs on the basket like that?”
She said, “Yes I can.”
And so the Little Girl taught her people how to make what is called the cedar coiled
basket, made out of cedar bark and roots and so tightly woven it can hold water. And do
you think the people called her i-i-esh anymore? That is all.

Text copyright Roger Fernandes, CreativeCommons

Making Cedar Oil
This deep-green aromatic oil smells just like the
forest on a warm day. You can use it as a body
oil, lamp oil, furniture polish and a topical
healing remedy in healing salves and chest rubs.
1. Finely chop fresh cedar leaves and place
them in a double boiler. If you do not have a
double boiler you can create your own by
adding a little water to a larger pot and then
placing a smaller pot inside it. This helps to warm the oil gently so it does not overheat.
2. Place the cedar leaf in the smaller pot and just cover with extra virgin olive oil. You
can use other rendered oils including coconut, grape seed, jojoba or even lard if you
prefer.
3. Gently heat the oil so that it gets warm but does not boil. It may be necessary to turn
the pot on and off several times throughout the day. Warm the oil like this for several
days to a week so that the oil becomes dark green and smells strongly of cedar.
4. Strain the cedar oil with muslin cloth. Compost the pressed leaf and place the oil in a
glass jar.
5. Label and store in a cool dark place. Cedar oil will usually last several years.

Cedar Facial Steam
You can use dried herbs or essential oil and will need a medium sized bowl and a towel.
Place one handful of herbs like cedar leaf, fir needle, pine needle, eucalyptus leaf,
rosemary, peppermint or lavender in the bowl. Cedar is a good medicine for coughs and
colds because it helps to fight infection, increases circulation in the lungs and stimulates
your immune system. Add one to two drops of essential oil if desired. Pour boiled water
over the herbs until the bowl is about half full. Put your face over the steaming herbs at a
comfortable distance and cover your head with a towel. Breath deep! Try to steam for at
least 5 minutes. Pour more hot water in if necessary. For severe coughs or sinus
congestion, do several steams a day.

Text copyright Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Cedar Bentwood Box
From Abe Lloyd
With sides folded from a single slab of cedar, bentwood boxes are crafted into watertight
canteens, cooking vessels and storage boxes. These containers are not found anywhere
else in the world and are traditionally constructed from cedar planks that are split from
standing trees or fallen logs with yew wood wedges. The plank is planed smooth, notched
through most of the board’s thickness where the corners will be, and steamed until the
remaining wood is soft and supple. The sides are then bent around a solid base, and the
joints (where the ends of the board come together) are fastened with pegs or sewn with
spruce roots.
Cooking boxes and canteens were so tightly constructed that they hold water. Any
leaks that form over time can be sealed with clay. Together with fire tongs and cooking
rocks, a quick meal can be boiled or steamed inside a piece of wood! Many Salish people
boiled food in baskets in the same manner as bentwood boxes.

Pete Peterson Sr. (Skokomish) and Alex McCarty (Makah) making cedar boxes at the Evergreen State
College. Cooking in a bentwood box with Abe Lloyd and Northwest Indian Treatment Center patients.

Western Red Cedar
I am the heat of your hearth on the cold winter nights, the friendly shade screening you
from summer sun, and the dancing bows that capture your imagination.
I am the beam that holds your house, the board of your table, and the roof that shelters
you from rain.
I am the handle of your shovel, the bark of your basket, and the hull of your canoe.
I am the medicine that heals you, the incense that carries your prayers, and tea that is
used to cleanse your home.
I am the wood of your cradle and the shell of your coffin.
I am the breath of kindness and the flower of beauty.
“Ye who pass by me, listen to my prayer: Harm me not.”
“Prayer of the Woods,” a Portuguese forest preservation prayer that has been used for more than 1,000
years. Author unknown, adapted by Elise Krohn

Text copyright Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Water
Water is one of our most important spiritual medicines. The
morning dew from the sword fern, the rain, and even the water
we drink every day can purify and cleanse us. Water is precious
and you have to ask for it’s healing.
-Kimberly Miller, Skokomish Tribe
Water is life. Cultures around the world equate water with healing and energy. People
travel great distances to drink or bath in water from mountains, wells and springs that are
imbued with special energy. Many people believe that water has the ability to absorb
prayers, cleanse unwanted energy and bestow good medicine.
Water is the most important thing we can drink. It makes up 60-85% of our body
weight and plays many essential roles including carrying nutrients, removing waste,
cooling us when we are overheated, digesting food and cushioning our organs and joints.
When we are fully hydrated we feel more energized and experience less pain and hunger.
In a time when sugary drinks are so prevalent, people drink less pure water. Drinking
sweet beverages on a regular basis negatively impacts our health and reduces our ability
to enjoy the subtle flavor of water.
Clean water is increasingly hard for people around the world to access, and many
are standing up to protect it. If we do not drink water and understand how dependent our
bodies and our planet are on water, we will not connect with it or fight to protect it.
Water is called the universal solvent. The hydrogen and oxygen bonds that make
up water eagerly react with and bind almost everything on earth. Given time, water will
corrode metal, dissolve rock and move mountains. Water is the perfect medium for
extracting nutrients, medicinal properties, and flavors from plants. Healthy examples
include:
•

Flavored waters – Sliced fruit, vegetables and aromatic herbs add nutrients to
your water. Examples include lemon, lime, orange, melon, cucumber, fresh or
frozen berries, fir or spruce tips, mint, rosemary, lavender or lemon balm. Add
fresh ingredients each day and feel free to eat the fruit after you drink the water!

•

Tea – There are many ways to make tea including boiling plant parts in water
(decoctions) and soaking herbs in water of varying temperatures (infusions). Tea
can be drunk hot or cold and will last up to 3 days in the refrigerator.

•

Broths – You can make vegetable and bone broth and add them as a base to soups
or drink them as a nourishing beverage. Minerals from the vegetables or bones
dissolve into the water and become readily available for us to digest.

•

Smoothies – Smoothies make an excellent meal or snack. Use water, milk, nut
milk or juice that is low in sugar as a base with fresh or frozen fruit, veggies and
thicken with protein rich foods such as nut butters or yogurt. Spices like
cinnamon, vanilla, ginger or cocoa powder can boost flavor and medicinal
qualities.
Text copyright Valerie Segrest and Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Camas
Camas is one of the most important traditional
foods in Salish country. The small bulb-like roots
of two species are dug and roasted, eaten fresh or
boiled, and can be dried for use as a winter food.
Open grasslands, or “camas prairies,” were
traditionally maintained by families by aerating
the soil with digging sticks, weeding out unwanted
species including the poisonous death camas, and
by periodically burning the entire prairie.
Other names: Quamash. Common camas: Camassia quamash. Giant camas: Camassia
leichtlinii. Whulshootseed: ReAufel. Twana: Qa’?w3b. Lushootseed: cabidac. Klallam:
Ktoi
Identifying Camas: Camas is a member of the lily family with beautiful six-petaled
purple flowers and grass-like leaves. Camas bulbs grow four to eight inches beneath the
ground surface and resemble small dense onions or lily bulbs.
Where it Grows: Common camas has symmetrical flowers and is found throughout the
Pacific Northwest. Giant camas has asymmetric flowers that bloom a couple weeks later
and twist together as they whither. It is more common west of the Cascades, in the San
Juan Islands and in Southwestern British Columbia in places with deeper soil.
Season: Flowers bloom in April through June, depending on the season and elevation.
This is the time they are harvested for food.
Harvesting and Processing Camas: Camas is dug in April through early June when the
flowers or seed pods are visible. Using traditional harvesting techniques, you can increase
the bounty of prairie foods like camas. Narrow T-shaped digging sticks that are made
from hard wood, bone, antler or metal make it possible to selectively harvest bulbs
without damaging those around them. When you dig bulbs, keep the larger ones and
replant the smaller ones. Be careful not to split camas bulbs in half with your tool. This
takes practice. Only keep bulbs that are attached to the flowering or
seed stalks since the bulbs and leaves of death camas
(Toxicoscordion venenosum) look almost identical.
To insure future harvests, leave some large flowering plants
so they can go to seed. If camas has already gone to seed, you can
sprinkle the seeds back on open soil. Harvesting camas actually
aerates the soil and allows moisture pockets to form, making it
easier for new seeds to sprout. Consider weeding invasive plants
including Scotch broom and St. Johns wort. Many families return to
Elizabeth Campbell
harvesting camas at
Chehalis prairie

the same prairie areas year after year to carefully steward their family plot. Over time,
they notice that traditionally harvested areas contain more camas plants with larger bulbs.
*CAUTION: Be sure to properly identify
camas before eating it. The bulbs of death
camas are deadly poisonous and look very
similar to camas. Death camas (right photo)
has white flowers with tighter flower clusters.
They bloom a couple of weeks later than
camas.
Eating Camas: To clean camas bulbs, pinch off the stem where it enters the bulb and
where the small roots come out of the base of the bulb. The brown outer skin will peel off
easily and you will be left with a white bulb that resembles an onion. Rinse remaining
dirt from the bulbs. If you are pit-roasting camas, you can leave the outer skin and peel
the bulbs once they are cooked.
Camas bulbs can be boiled, baked or slow roasted.
When cooked for a shorter time, camas is fairly
tasteless. When slow roasted for 24-48 hours, it
becomes dark-colored and sweet. Before sugar was
introduced, roasted camas was used to sweeten other
foods. Cooked bulbs were made into cakes and dried
for later use. Fresh bulbs can also be dried or frozen,
and then used later in soups. Camas is considered an
anti-diabetic food because it does not raise blood
sugar. It also supports healthy flora in our gut.
Ecological Relationships: Many camas prairies in our region were originally shaped by
massive glaciers about 14,000 years ago that altered the soil in such a way that made it
difficult for evergreen trees to grow. These prairies were subsequently sustained by a
warming climate and natural fires, and offered Native People an open landscape perfect
for hunting game and harvesting edible plants such as camas and other edible lilies,
bracken fern rhizomes, lomatium (biscuit root), acorns from oak trees, and several types
of berries. Medicinal plants including yarrow, kinnikinnick, violet, wild rose and
balsamroot flourish here too. The prairies are also home to many species of butterflies,
birds and small land mammals.
Stories and cultural practices passed down through the generations teach us how
prairies have been cultivated like gardens. Techniques including burning, weeding,
pruning, selective harvesting, and aerating the soil enhance the growth of many nutritious
prairie foods and medicinal plants. Without these practices, most of the prairies would
have turned into dense forests thousands of years ago.
What we see today are tiny remnants of vast prairies that were common just a few
generations ago. A Wasco elder recalls his grandfather telling stories of riding on
horseback from the Willamette Valley near Portland, Oregon all the way to the land of
Chief Sealth (present day Seattle, Washington) in open prairies that were managed by
fire. European settlers made burning the prairies illegal because they saw fire as a
destructive force rather than a life-giving one. In just a few generations, colonial land

management practices such as farming
and grazing have reduced prairies to less
than 5% of their former size.
Many tribes and other agencies are
actively working to conserve and restore
prairies and prairie foods. Camas is a
main focus because it was a prized staple
to many Salish People. In fact, for many communities, it was the second most traded food
next to salmon. Camas continues to be an important cultural food that is celebrated in
first foods feasts and other ceremonies. Digging the bulbs may be labor intensive
compared to buying edible tubers at our local grocer, but elders remind us that when we
eat the food that sustained our ancestors, it not only feeds our bodies, it also feeds our
spirits.
Growing Tips: Camas can be easily started from seed. It thrives in well-drained sandy or
pebbly soil with full sun. It is best to grow in trays in a greenhouse, as it closely
resembles grass. Keep camas root gardens carefully weeded to avoid confusion with
grass. Other companion plants include chocolate lily, violet, Idaho fescue (a bunch grass)
and Columbia lily.
Additional Resources: Watch this video on cooking camas with Elizabeth Campbell:
https://vimeo.com/163888029
Prairie Appreciation Day: http://www.prairieappreciationday.org
South Sound Prairies: http://www.southsoundprairies.org
Cascadia Prairie Oak Partnership: http://cascadiaprairieoak.org
Vascular Plants of the South Sound Prairies. Edited by Frederica Bowcutt and Sarah
Hamman.
References:
Kruckeberg, Arthur R. The Natural History of Puget Sound Country. Seattle,
Washington: University of Washington Press, 1994.
Leopold, Estella B. and Robert Boyd. “An Ecological History of Old Prairie Areas in
Southwestern Washington.” Indians, Fire and the Landscape in the Pacific
Northwest. Ed. Robert Boyd. Corvallis, Oregon: Oregon State University Press, 1999.
Turner, Nancy. The Earth’s Blanket. Seattle, The University of Washington Press, 2005.
Photo Credits:
All photos from Elise Krohn except:
Prairie Burning photo from http://www.southsoundprairies.org/photos/prescribed-fire/

Text copyright Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Camas: A Plateau Native Story
as told by Roger Fernandes, Lower Elwha S’Klallam
A long time ago in a village on the other side of the
mountains, there was a time of great hunger. There was
no food to be found - no game to hunt, no plants to
gather. The People were very hungry. The elders and the
children were crying from the hunger, but there was
nothing to give them.
There was a grandmother who heard her grandchildren crying because they were
hungry. She was so sad that she had nothing to give them. She was so sad she left the
village and went up a hill nearby. She went to the top of the hill and sat down.
She began to cry. She cried and she cried for her grandchildren. As she cried, she began
to sink into the ground. She kept crying and was sinking deeper into the earth. After a
while she was gone. She was under the earth.
Her grandchildren, a boy and a girl, missed their grandmother. They wondered where
she was. They began to look for her. They climbed the hill.
As they reached he top of the hill, the granddaughter said, “Grandma is under the
ground! I can feel her!”
The children dug into the ground. They dug and dug and they found camas bulbs.
Grandmother had become camas and now the children and the people had food to eat.
Camas is a main food of the Native people of the Plateau region. And that is all.

Text copyright Roger Fernandes, Creative Commons

Baked Camas
Preheat oven to 275 degrees. Clean camas so you are left
with white bulbs. Rinse and drain. Place in a baking pan
and drizzle with a little bit of butter, olive oil or a
traditional oil. Cover and bake until the camas is soft and
tastes slightly sweet, usually about 1 hour. This method
will produce a dish that is starchier tasting and less sweet
than the slow roasting method.

Steamed Camas
Recipe and photo from Abe Lloyd, arcadianabe.blogspot.com
Place an expandable vegetable steamer inside a slow cooker and fill the slow cooker with
water to just below the level of the steamer. Put the camas bulbs in the steamer and cover
the slow cooker. Set the slow cooker at a moderate to high temperature and steam the
bulbs for 36 hours (yes, you read that right). Check the water level every 2-4 hours and
refill as necessary. The bulbs will begin to brown and smell like molasses after 12-24
hours. Cook until they are a very dark brown.

Spring Salish Soup
This delicious soup is packed with spring vitality. Nettles are incredibly dense in
nutrients and salmon provides essential fatty acids and a good source of protein. White
beans could be used as an alternative to the camas, and leafy greens like chard or kale
could be used in place of nettles.
3 tablespoons olive oil
1 large onion, chopped
3 cloves garlic, minced
6 cups of water
3 cups fresh or frozen camas bulb or 2 cups dried camas bulbs
1 grocery bag full of fresh spring nettles
2 cups of baked, canned or smoked salmon
Salt and pepper to taste
In a soup pot on medium heat, cook the onions and garlic in olive
oil until they become translucent, about 5 minutes. Add water
and camas and then bring to a boil. Turn down heat, cover with a
lid and simmer for about 20 minutes. While the soup is
simmering, wash nettles in a colander then cut them into small
pieces with scissors. Once the camas is tender, add the nettles.
Cook an additional 5 minutes. Add the salmon and then season
with salt and pepper. Enjoy!
Cook time: 40 minutes. Serves: 4-6
Text copyright Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Cooking in an Earthen Oven (Steam Pit Cooking)
Northwest Coastal Ancestors used a variety of techniques for cooking such as roasting
over a fire, baking food wrapped in skunk cabbage over hot coals, boiling in bentwood
boxes or tightly woven baskets with hot rocks, and steaming foods with hot rocks in
earthen pit ovens. The following instructions for cooking in a pit oven were taught to our
Northwest Indian College Traditional Plants Staff by Abe Lloyd, a student of
Kwaxsistalla, Chief Adam Dick.
You will need: Clippers for gathering plant foliage, large fire tongs, shovels, gloves,
about 20-25 rocks that are unlikely to burst in a hot fire (volcanic rocks work best),
firewood, matches, food for roasting, 2 quarts of water, 2 burlap sacks or a large piece of
cotton canvas, sturdy salad tongs, and platters for cooked food.
1. Dig a pit that is about 2 feet deep and 3 feet across.
2. Collect 4 grocery bags full of foliage including salal branches, skunk cabbage
leaves, sword fern or other fern fronds, and branches from alder, salmonberry or
thimbleberry. If you are cooking in the sand, many people prefer to use seaweed.
3. Lay a single layer of firewood in a square in the bottom of the pit and then cover
with rocks. Place rocks around the firewood, so that once the wood burns, the pit
will be completely lined with rocks.
4. Light the fire and keep it going until the rocks are red hot – usually about an hour.
You may need to fan the fire to help it burn hot.
5. Remove unburned wood and charcoal with a shovel and fire tongs, then spread a
small amount of sand (if available) over the rocks.
6. Quickly lay down a layer of salal followed by sword fern and other vegetation.
7. Place food on the foliage and quickly place more foliage over the food.
8. Pour water into the center of the cooking pit.
9. Quickly lay down skunk cabbage leaves (if available) and cover the pit with
burlap sacks or canvas.
10. Use a shovel to bury the entire pit with dirt or sand until no steam escapes.
11. Mark the pit so no one steps on it. Leave for 2 hours to 36 hours depending on
what type of food you are cooking.
12. Carefully uncover the pit with a shovel and gloves. Remove food with tongs and
place on platters… enjoy!
* A nice variation to this technique is to place one end of a 2 ft long hollow section of
bull kelp into the center of the pit. Then pack the pit with vegetation, food, and more
vegetation, taking care to route the stalk out the side or top of the pit. Don’t add water
until the pit is completely covered with tarps and buried with soil, at which point you can
pour the water down the kelp stalk onto the hot rocks. Cork the kelp with a round stick to
prevent steam from escaping.
Cooking Times for Pit Roasting
• Clams, shrimp, crab, fish wrapped in skunk cabbage: 2 hours
• Vegetables including carrots, onions, potatoes, yams, garlic: 3-4 hours
• Camas bulbs, black moss pudding: 24-36 hours
Text copyright Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Thanks to Abe Lloyd and Nancy Turner for helping us to learn this cooking technique.

Cattail
Get out your waders or rubber boots! Cattails grow on the
margins of ponds or in marshes and wetland areas. These
incredibly useful plants have been used for many things
including food, medicine, shelter, tools, fiber, clothing,
insulation, diapers and dolls.
Other names: Typha latifolia. Whulshootseed: ?ulal
Identifying Cattail: Cattails grow in colonies that are connected by underwater networks
of rhizomes. Long, flat, spongy green leaves emerge in bundles and look like giant blades
of grass. They are 1-2 inches wide and grow 3-10 feet tall. The base of the leaves feels
spongy because they contain air-filled cellular tubes called aerenchyma, which carry
oxygen down to the base of the plant. This adaptation helps cattail roots to live
underwater. The flowers emerges from the center of the plant on a tall, round stem. The
namesake “cattail” is actually a spike of thousands of tightly packed tiny female flowers
with another spike of more loosely clustered male flowers on top. Once fertilized, the
female flowers swell into the iconic brown sausage-looking spikes. These eventually turn
to fluffy white plumes that are filled with seeds and are readily carried in the wind.
Where it Grows: Cattails grow in swamps, marshes, bogs, wetlands, and in moist ditches
on the side of the road. They are found throughout North and South America, along with
Europe, Africa and Asia. Cattail is native to all US states except Hawaii.
Season: Cattails offer something useful all year long. Leaf shoots are edible in early
spring. Flowers and pollen are gathered in early summer. Leaves are harvested for
basketry when fully formed in late summer. Underwater rhizomes are harvested in fall.
Harvesting Cattail: Harvest in clean, pristine areas. To avoid contamination, do not
harvest near heavy agricultural areas, dairy fields or roadsides. Wash with boiling water
before consuming. Leave the oldest plants and the ones on the edges. These are the
soldiers that help to protect the plant community from invasive species like yellow flag
iris and reed canary grass. As with all plant gathering, only take what you need, look after
the future of the patch, and never remove more than 10% of a stand. Correctly identifying
cattail is of utmost importance when it is not in flower. The toxic yellow flag iris leaf
looks similar, but the stem is flattened with a prominent vein down the center, while
cattail is round stemmed and spongy.
Eating Cattail: Cattails provide nutritious food
throughout the year. In early spring, cut the base of
the new shoots and remove the outer green leaves to
reveal a tender white to light green stem that
resembles a leek. These cattail hearts can be eaten
fresh or lightly cooked and added to stir-fry.

In late spring to summer, immature flower spikes are ready for harvest. Peel the
outer sheath back to reveal the spike, which looks like baby corn. This can be steamed,
boiled or sautéed and has a pleasant flavor like artichoke. Gently nibble off the flower
and leave behind the strong inner core.
In summer the male flower on top of the spike produces pollen to fertilize the
female flower just below it. Pollen is harvested by placing a sack or wide-mouthed milk
jug over the brown flowering spike and shaking it. Cattail pollen can be used similarly to
bee pollen for energy and as a source of protein. It is delicious when added to biscuits,
muffins or pancakes. You may need to use a fine sieve to separate out bugs. Freeze the
pollen for long-term storage.
The rhizome is best harvested in the fall, but can be harvested throughout the
year. Each rhizome has a starchy core surrounded by a spongy layer that must be peeled
away. The fibrous cores can then be dried, pounded, and sifted to remove the starchy
powder. You can also massage the fresh or dried cores in water to make a thick soup
base. Cattail offers more edible starch per acre than potato, rice, taro or yams!

Cattail Medicine: Cattail is rich in beta-carotene, niacin, riboflavin, thiamin, potassium,
phosphorus, protein, amino acids and vitamin C. Like aloe vera, cattail leaf contains gel
that keeps the plant moist when water levels drop. It also has antimicrobial properties that
protect the plant from insects and diseases. People apply cattail gel to their skin as a first
aid remedy to sooth burns and to ward off infection.
Traditional Technologies: The versatile nature of cattail extends into the material
culture as well. The long, straight, and fully mature leaves of cattail are used by people
all over the world as a weaving material for making mats, baskets and cordage.
Northwest Coast Native People have used cattail mats as screens, fans, seats, sleeping
and kneeling mats, insulating wall covers, and covers for cooking pits and boxes.
Because of its ability to both insulate and shed water, rain capes were also made out of
cattail. A beautiful rain cape is on display at the
Burke Museum of Natural History in Seattle, WA.
Cattail has also been used to make quick
containers and gathering baskets, as well as
temporary walls for shelters in the summertime.
The waterproof cattail leaves swell when wet,
providing a tighter protective wall, and shrink a
little when dry, allowing a gentle breeze in on hot
days. Though not very durable, cattail mats are
Matt Warbis with a cattail needle, Lummi

easy to make. A needle made from ironwood was used to push through the leaves to sew
them together, but it takes a lot of force. A creaser is used to hold the leaf in place and
keep the edges of the needle hole from tearing out.
The fluffy winter seed heads are traditionally used for diapers, padding,
insulation, pillows and mixed with wool to make yarn. If using the fluff for pillows, use
thick fabric to seal in the cattail fluff because it can cause hives. The seeds can also be
used as a thickening agent. Cattail stalk can be lit and used as a torch or a fire starter.
Ecological relationships: Wetlands, including the margins of lakes and ponds, shallow
freshwater marshes and peat bogs are critical parts of both watersheds and food sheds.
Edible plants specially adapted to these wet conditions include cattail, wapato and bog
cranberry. Many basketry plants including cattail, tule and other bulrushes, sedges and
willows are harvested from wetlands. Birds including ducks and geese rely on these areas
for feeding and nesting grounds. Red winged blackbirds, herons, turtles, muskrats, frogs
and fish are all at home in cattail ponds.
Many wetlands in the Pacific Northwest have been drained and developed into
farmland or suburban areas. Join your local wetland restoration efforts to preserve native
plants and wildlife habitat of this important cultural ecosystem.
In some native languages the term for plants translates to “those who take care of us.”
Through natural selection the cattails developed sophisticated adaptations that increase
their survival in the marsh. The people were attentive students and borrowed solutions
from the plants, which increased their likelihood of survival. The plants adapt, the people
adopt.
-Robin Wall Kimmerer
Additional Resources:
Braiding Sweetgrass by Robin Wall Kimmerer. Section entitled “Sitting in a Circle.”
Pacific Northwest Foraging by Douglas Deur
The People of Cascadia by Heidi Bohan
The Foragers Harvest by Samuel Thayer
Keeping it Living by Douglas Deur and Nancy Turner
Photos by Elise Krohn except cattail in pond (istock) and cattail pollen (Abe Lloyd)

Text copyright Elizabeth Campbell and Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Cattail on the Cob
A delicious and simple way to enjoy cattail flower heads!
You will need:
• Young cattail flowers
• A pot with a tight fitting lid and a steamer basket
• 1 cup of water
• Butter and salt to taste
1. Harvest the male and female flowering heads in the spring to early summer by clipping
with scissors or a knife. You will find the green flowering heads in the center of the
cattail plant. Peel away the outer sheath. You will see the top male flower and the bottom
female flower. They can both be used, however, the top male flower has more “meat” to
it.
2. Bring water to boil.
3. Wash cattails.
4. Add steam basket full of cattail flower heads to boiling water. Turn heat down to low,
cover and steam for 10-12 minutes.
5. Add butter and salt to your liking. Nibble stalk as if you were eating a tiny corn on the
cob. The center of the stalk is tough, but the outer cattail flower is tender, nutritious and
delicious!

Cattail Quinoa salad
Quinoa is a nutty tasting grain that is high in protein
and low in carbohydrates. This recipe can be adapted
with a variety of seasonal vegetables and is delicious
served hot or cold.
• 1 cup quinoa
• 2 cups water
• 2 tablespoons olive oil
• 2 cloves garlic, minced
• 3 carrots, diced
• 1 cup spring cattail shoots, rinsed in boiling water and chopped
• 2 tablespoons chopped wild onions or ½ cup green onions
• 1 cup smoked salmon, cubed
• 1 tablespoon lemon juice
• Salt and pepper to taste
Rinse quinoa. Boil water in a medium sized pan, add quinoa, then turn down to simmer
and cover until cooked, about 15 minutes. Add olive oil to a medium sized sauté pan and
heat on medium. Add onions, garlic and carrots, and sauté until onions are translucent.
Add cattails and onion tops and sauté until tender. Add cooked quinoa, salmon, lemon
juice, salt and pepper. Blend and serve.
Cook time: 40 minutes. Serves 4.

Text copyright Elizabeth Campbell and Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Making a Cattail Mat
Materials: Dried cattail leaves, furniture legs (barstool),
poles in the ground, or other object to hold leaves in
place, Ironwood needle or large upholstery needle,
sewing fiber (could be sinew, nettle cordage, hemp or
strong twine)
*Optional- mist bottle.
Harvesting cattail leaves for mats: you can weave or sew fresh leaves, but when they dry,
you are left with a shrunken, loose mat. For a tightly woven mat, dry leaves first and then
rehydrate them when you are ready to weave. Leaves can be dried in a well-ventilated
area, in a single layer, on screens or a sheet for about 1-2 weeks. Take care to turn them
over at least once a day to ensure even drying and to prevent mold. Drying leaves in the
sun can damage the leaves and make them too brittle to work with. Once dried, the
delicate leaves can be wrapped in paper or cardboard until you are ready to use them.
A Closer Look: Cut cross sections of a cattail leaf and notice the holes or tubes that run
up the length of the leaf. Cattail is an excellent insulator because it traps air inside the
leaf. Woven mats create a buffer that keeps cold outside of a house or tent during winter.
During the summer months, the mats create a cool wicking layer for heat to escape.
Cattail Mat Making: Depending on how much material you have, your cattail mat can be
as small as a coaster or larger. Smaller children can do an over and under simple weave
instead of sewing the leaves together.
1. Begin with dry cattail leaves. Rehydrate leaves in a bucket or sink to make pliable.
2. If you are sewing the cattail leaves, cut the edges of the leaf length wise so they will be
easier to sew and more uniform in width.
3. Cut the cattail leaves to the length of the mat you desire. Arrange the leaves in similar
size, alternating wide end to narrow end. This will give your mat a nice uniform shape.
4. Tie cord to furniture legs or poles horizontally to desired length of mat. Place leaves
along cord. Fold tops of leaves over cord and twist weave cordage around each leaf to
secure in place.
5. Sew through the middle of each leaf every 3-6 inches down,
depending on the size of your mat. You will need to gently
press/hold the leaf as you sew to make sure the leaf doesn’t
break. Continue to sew through the leaves every 3-6 inches until
you have reached the bottom.
6. Finish the bottom as you did the top by twist weaving the
leaves over. Trim leaves for a nice even finish.
Additional Resources:
Visit YouTube for “how to make a cattail mat” tutorials.

Text copyright Elizabeth Campbell and Elise Krohn, Creative Commons

Clams, Mussels & Oysters
Bivalves are abundant along the Pacific Coast and the
beaches of the Salish Sea. They are a staple to many
Northwest Coastal Natives. Edible species include
butter clams, horse clams, little neck (steamer clams),
cockles, blue mussels, gooseneck barnacles, Pacific
oysters and Olympia oysters. Most harvesting sites do
not require a minus tide to gather these delectable
seafoods. Families traditionally managed and were
responsible for productive shellfish beaches that were
often located near villages. Mussels, oysters and
various clam species were dried and used as winter
food. They are fondly considered the cornerstone of
traditional feasts. Elders from throughout the Salish
Sea share stories of digging clams, harvesting seaweed
and building a hot fire to cook a meal right on the beach.
Other names: Bivalve, Mollusk, Shellfish
Identification: The bivalve family of sea species includes clams, geoduck, mussels, oysters
and scallops. These are soft-bodied sea species with two hard shells of equal size as a layer of
protection. They are related to other mollusks such as gastropods (one-shelled animals, think
snails and limpets), and chitons that used to be eaten more commonly, but bivalves are a bigger
and more consistent part of the traditional diet.
http://www.doh.wa.gov/Portals/1/Documents/4400/332-087-Shellfish-ID.pdf
Where they grow: These tasty beach findings can be found at saltwater beaches during
middle to low tide zones.

Text copyright Valerie Segrest, Andy Dalton & Maurice Major, Creative Commons

Harvesting and processing bivalves:
Traditionally, the only tools used for clams were a basket,
a keen eye and a digging stick made of ironwood (also
known as oceanspray, Holodiscus discolor). Large
amounts of shells from previously eaten bivalves are
found throughout the Salish Sea, remnants of a feasting
site. These are called “middens” and consist of bivalve
shells. Middens are typically found at major harvest
locations, sometimes piled up several feet thick,
representing generations of harvest. When a shellfish bed
was not close to a village, the bivalves were sometimes
dug, removed from the shell, and smoked or dried before
paddling back home with the food. Often, these shell
heaps are also found near streams, where fresh water was
used to clean the meat.
Clams can live a very long time. A clam off
the coast of Iceland was found to be older than
500 years old and was the oldest living animal
known on earth.
Above: Digging Stick, courtesy of
Muckleshoot Preservation Dept

Food and Medicine:
Clams, mussels and oysters are perfect little packages of nutrition. Within their tiny bodies,
they contain important nutrients like iron, magnesium, zinc, and Omega 3 fatty acids that help
our bodies to build blood and maintain immunity. They are also low in calories, low in
cholesterol, and are an outstanding source of protein. In fact, regularly consuming shellfish has
been shown to help reduce cholesterol.
Oysters in particular, have a very long history of nourishing humans. Increasing
archaeological evidence shows that early humans relied heavily on shellfish, and that without
them we may not have survived as a species. Oysters have the highest concentration of zinc
than any food, a nutrient that promotes good health for our body’s immunity and specifically
our reproductive system, proving the lore of its aphrodisiac nature. They are referred to as the
“food of love” in many cultures.

Text copyright Valerie Segrest, Andy Dalton & Maurice Major, Creative Commons

Traditional Technologies – Clam Gardens:

Above: A photo of a clam garden in Canada. The line of rocks at the right is the terrace, and
the people are standing in the clam bed held up by the terrace. Photo contributor: Maurice
Major
It is important to highlight the dedication Coast Salish Ancestors had to the ancient shellfish
beds we thrive on to this day, as well as the health of the waters. Bivalves are the filter system
of the Salish Sea because each individual can clean out 15 to 20 gallons of water per day.
Ensuring healthy production of shellfish meant clean water and food security. Stewardship was
truly upheld through managing production on many levels. Historically, what we now call
shellfish beds or beaches, were treated just like the gardens they truly are. While harvesting
clams is nourishing and delicious, ancient gatherers were efficient multi-taskers. The shores of
the Salish Sea can be shallow and quite narrow, therefore innovative Coast Salish Ancestors
would build terraces using large rocks they would come across while harvesting, rolling them
down the beach in to what would overtime become a stone wall, or a rock terrace, located
beyond the usual high tides. Eventually the stonewall would accumulate with gravel, sediment
and shell hash that clams prefer and would create a broader clam bed where there originally
had been a steep drop-off into the sea. This would expand habitat and is an intentionally built
“clam garden.” These ancient clam gardens were sometimes built quickly and deliberately to
invigorate clam production, especially butter clams. By removing rocks and increasing the
amount of land at the tidal elevations preferred by clams, clam larvae have a safer and more

fertile place to take hold, and more clams can grow to adulthood. Acre for acre, a clam garden
produces four times the protein as nearby beaches without the garden terraces. When the clams
spawn, the next generation can drift to the next beach, making clam gardens nurseries for the
whole area.
Like many traditional ways of managing lands, clam gardens represent a nudge to the
natural system, rather than a replacement. There is no need for hatcheries, no need to add food
or fertilizer, and machinery is not required. Clams can be dug with the traditional digging
sticks that have been used since time immemorial—in fact, the removal of big rocks and the
creation of nice clam beds makes the digging even easier. Harvesting a clam garden helps to
maintain it.
Although many are not actively managed anymore, terrace walls will stand for
centuries. Their nooks and crannies provide shelter and habitat to juvenile fish, octopus,
gastropods, and other food species. Archaeologists have excavated a few, and used barnacle
scars and clams that were accidentally buried by the walls to get radiocarbon dates. These
show that some clam gardens have been in place for 2000 years! Further south in the Salish
Sea, natural conditions are friendlier to clams without the need for constructed clam gardens.
By the time you get to the southern inlets, tidal flats can be extensive and rich in clams without
need for terraces, and therefore clam gardens are not found there.
For more information and informational videos please visit:
https://clamgarden.com
https://clamgarden.com/media-education/
Traditional Technologies – Oyster Reefs
Unlike clams, which burrow into the gravel and mud, oysters like to have a rocky bottom and
also do not require digging. Their shells attach to the rocks as they sit at the bottom of the
water, and become exposed to the air during lower tides. Just as they observed and knew the
habitat requirements of clams, Northwest Coastal Natives recognized the needs of oysters and
helped make additional habitat for these bivalves by creating oyster reefs. And as with clam
gardens, they enhanced and increased habitat through slight adjustments to their own practices
and to natural systems, not through massive alteration.
How did tribes create oyster habitat? The story begins with traditional cooking, in
which rocks were heated up and used to steam, boil, and roast all sorts of foods. The rocks
could be re-used for a while, but eventually they begin to crack and fall apart, becoming too
small to be useful and potentially getting fragments into the food. Nobody wants sharp rocks
underfoot and in the way, and in some places people tossed them onto the tidal flats, away
from canoe landings. At T’Peeksin (Totten Inlet, in the far south Salish Sea), near the muddy
upper end of the inlet, there is an entire peninsula of discarded cooking stone, colonized by
oysters and barnacles in an area where these shellfish otherwise have no place to live.
Consuming Bivalves - Human Health concerns:
Washington has a reputation for safe, wholesome shellfish. Our state is the leading producer of
farmed shellfish in the nation, and commercial product is shipped around the world. Miles of
Puget Sound shoreline and Washington coastal beaches attract hundreds of thousands of
recreational and Tribal harvesters each year.
Text copyright Valerie Segrest, Andy Dalton & Maurice Major, Creative Commons

The Washington State Department of Health (DOH) regularly tests both molluscan shellfish
and the water where they grow to make sure the shellfish are safe to eat. The Tribes have
signed a Consent Decree with DOH and the Federal government and agree to follow their
regulation to insure that shellfish harvested and consumed by Tribal members are safe to eat.
Additionally, DOH licenses and inspects all Tribal commercial shellfish operations to
make sure shellfish intended for markets and restaurants are harvested, handled, and shipped in
a safe and sanitary manner. When environmental or operational conditions pose a threat to
public health, tidelands are closed to all harvesting.
For more information visit: http://www.doh.wa.gov/CommunityandEnvironment/Shellfish
Conservation Efforts and Resources:
The Olympia oyster is the only oyster that is native to the Puget Sound. The Pacific oyster was
actually transplanted from Asia. Olympia oysters are now on the threatened species list, and
tribes in the southern Puget Sound region, including Squaxin and Skokomish, have programs
centered on its preservation and recovery. Many tribes are maintaining bivalve beaches and are
even planting them in areas where they have become scarce. Although erosion is taking its toll,
numerous “middens” (heaps of discarded shells) throughout the Salish Sea region show how
important shellfish have been for thousands of years; these and other features highlight how
Salish Sea tribes managed shellfish sustainably. Numerous agencies and non-profits are
studying and working to restore the near-shore habitats of Puget Sound and the Salish Sea.
There is a wealth of information on the following websites:
Puget Sound Restoration Fund- Olympia Oyster Restoration:
http://www.restorationfund.org/projects/olympiaoyster
Puget Sound Marine Invasive species Identification Guide:
http://vmp.bioe.orst.edu/Documents/mism_ID_Cards5print.pdf
Health of the Salish Sea Ecosystem Report
https://www.epa.gov/salish-sea
The Puget Sound Ecosystem Monitoring Program
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/WQ/psmonitoring/index.html
PSEMP is an integrated, coordinated monitoring and assessment program for Puget Sound is
needed to provide credible and useful information about the Puget Sound ecosystem and guide
the Puget Sound Partnership’s, Ecology’s, and others’ monitoring efforts and improve our
policy and management decisions.
The Puget Sound Nearshore Ecosystem Restoration Project
http://www.pugetsoundnearshore.org/
PSNERP is one of the largest habitat restoration and preservation programs ever undertaken in
the United States. We are building a plan of action by answering the questions:
- How has the shoreline of Puget Sound changed?
- Where are the most problematic changes and why?

-

What can we do to protect and manage the nearshore?
What actions should we take and where?

Encyclopedia of Puget Sound
https://www.eopugetsound.org/terms/379
Puget Soundkeeper Alliance
http://www.pugetsoundkeeper.org/
Soundkeeper’s mission is to protect and preserve the waters of Puget Sound. Founded in 1984
as the Puget Sound Alliance (PSA), PSA was the first grassroots citizens’ organization to focus
exclusively on protecting the marine environment of Puget Sound.

Text copyright Valerie Segrest, Andy Dalton & Maurice Major, Creative Commons

The Gossiping Clams
-A Suquamish Legend as told by Roger Fernandes
A long time ago, clams had feet. They walked everywhere. Wherever you went, there were
clams. If you were getting out of bed in the morning, there would be a little clam standing there
watching you. If you were cooking a meal, there would be a clam watching you. If you were
washing your face, there would be a clam watching you. No matter where you were or what
you were doing, there would be a clam watching you.
When the clams got together at night, they would tell each other what they saw people doing.
They would talk and talk about everyone. And if the story they told was not exciting enough,
they would make things up. They would exaggerate and lie about you. The clams would gossip.
One day Raven, that big black bird, was way out in the woods. He was doing something bad
and he did not want anyone to see him. I don’t know what he was doing, but it must have been
bad because he was hiding. When he was done doing that bad thing, he turned around and
there was a little clam watching him.
“Oh!” said Raven. “I didn’t know anyone was watching me. Please promise me you won’t tell
anyone what I was doing. I don’t want anyone to know.”
“I promise, Raven. I won’t tell anybody,” said the little clam.
“I’m serious!” exclaimed Raven. “You must not tell anyone!”
“I promise Raven. I won’t tell anyone,” said the clam.
But when that little clam got home, what do you think he did? Of course, he told everyone. He
told the story of what he saw Raven doing to all the clams. When Raven heard about this, he
was very angry. He spread his black wings across the earth and gathered up all the clam
people. He took them down to the beach. He would drop one clam onto the sand and with his
foot push it beneath the sand. He did this to one and then another. He did it to all the clams
until all of them were buried under the sand. Then he said to them, “Now if you want to talk
about people, go ahead. But now when you gossip, water and sand will rush into your mouth!”
So now the clam people are under the sand. That is their punishment for gossiping, for talking
about people behind their back. But do you think that has stopped the clam people? Of course
not. Whenever you cross a muddy stretch of beach, you will see little spurts of water coming
from under the sand. That is the clam people. They are still talking, and they are talking about
you.

Text copyright Roger Fernandes, Creative Commons

Elaine’s Clam Fritters
For this delicious recipe, Elaine Grinnell recommends using
clams that are fresh or frozen. Clams should be soaked
overnight in a bucket of salt water, changing the water twice
to ensure sand is out of the clams. Process immediately after
to preserve the flavor.
1 lb. butter clams, fresh or recently frozen, chopped in a food processor
1 lb. geoduck, chopped fine in a food processor
1 medium-sized onion, chopped
4 celery sticks, chopped
2 eggs, plus 1 egg yolk
1 cup flour
1 teaspoon salt
Oil for frying (lard, coconut or palm oil)
Combine all ingredients. A spoon should stand straight up in the mixture. In a heavy frying
pan, heat the oil. Spoon the mixture into the pan to make small cakes. Cook for five minutes on
each side or until the fritter is brown around the edges. Serves 10-12 people.

References:
http://www.pugetsoundnearshore.org/technical_papers/shellfish.pdf
An Environmental and Historical Overview of the Puget Sound Ecosystem
[https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2010/5254/pdf/sir20105254_chap1.pdf]
[http://www.firstpeople.us/FP-Html-Legends/]
http://sciencenordic.com/new-record-world’s-oldest-animal-507-years-old

Deer and Elk
“The definitive expression and full embodiment of the plant
people are the four legged. For some, they are the most
sought after creature of our lands. With certainty, every year
the elk bugles from the mountaintops, singing to one another
and calling out our hunting families- pressing them to pursue
a living legacy.”
-Valerie Segrest, Muckleshoot
Whulshootseed name: sqiGec
General Description: Deer are browsers mostly feeding on
shrubs while elk are grazers feeding on grasses. Their diets
are broad and diverse however, and can include almost any type of vegetation. Migratory
behavior for both deer and elk is variable with some being long-range migrators of 30
miles or more, some moving only up in elevation, or not moving at all. They have
chambered stomachs that ferment foods like grasses and plants, this process allows for
more nutrients to be extracted than other grazers like horses and cows. Deer and elk are
the most important terrestrial animal for many Coast Salish Natives because of their
contribution as food and other valuable uses. Not only is the meat eaten but the hides,
sinew, hooves, bones, and antlers furnish valuable materials for clothing, ornaments, and
tools.
Deer: Columbian black-tailed deer are a sub-species of mule deer and are typically found
west of the Cascade Crest. They inhabit dense forests and forest edges where they browse
on a variety of plants. Black-tailed deer have small home ranges where they typically live
that can be as small as 0.25 square miles. As their name implies, they have a large, wide,
mostly black tail. Acute vision, hearing, and smell along with their inhabiting of densely
vegetated environment can make hunting deer difficult.
Mule deer are found east of the Cascade Crest and are found in more open
sagebrush habitats during winter and open forested stands in summer. Mule deer home
ranges are larger, in part due to less productive habitat as well as more open habitat. Mule
deer tend to be larger than black-tailed deer, have larger ears, and have a smaller mostly
white tail with small black tip. Hunting mule deer in open habitats is easier with a rifle,
but more difficult with traditional methods because they can see the hunter coming and
thus takes more stalking skill. Males are distinctive with antlers that are lost every year.
Black-tail and mule deer normally do not interbreed, but at the crest they may
come together in summer and hybridization has occurred. Hunters sometime notice an
animal the size of a mule deer but having a tail resembling black-tail with ears and antlers
not being typical of the deer found on particular side of the Cascade Crest. These are
often called bench-leg deer.

Text copyright Valerie Segrest and Dave Vales, Creative Commons

Elk: Elk are much larger than deer with distinctive
white rumps and massive antlers. Male elk can breed
30 or more females who they group up and defend as
a harem. Elk can live up to 22 years. Females live
longer than males due to the stresses and injuries
resulting from competition for mates during breeding
season. They can have large home ranges, typically
smaller in winter than in summer if migratory. They
prefer meadows, wetlands, and open forests where
they graze more on grasses and herbs than twigs.
Washington’s ancestral elk, the Roosevelt elk,
were hunted close to extinction in the late 1800’s due
to post-contact mismanagement of resources.
Nowadays, the native Roosevelt elk occur only on the Olympic Peninsula. During the
early 1900’s Rocky Mountain elk from Yellowstone were transplanted to various
locations along the western Cascade slopes and today most elk found east of Interstate-5
are of the Rocky Mountain variety. When they were introduced, they readily adapted and
expanded from the foothills into the mountains as the forests were cut. Both
archaeological evidence and oral tradition document that, prior to urban sprawl and
industrial development, elk were found in areas such as the banks of Duwamish and the
shores of Lake Washington. Elk have recolonized former areas and are now common on
the Enumclaw Plateau and along the White and Green Rivers to Auburn and Sumner.
Hunting Techniques: Orcas and dolphins, wolves and red tailed hawks, eagles and
humans are pack hunters. We have all learned that hunting cooperatively makes efficient
use of time and resources. In order to really understand hunting techniques, one must be
dedicated and willing to put the time in to learning through keen observation and
patience. Skilled hunters shoot big game with bow and
arrow, setting traps or driving animals in to large nets.
Nowadays, many hunters use rifles and aim for a quick
shot to the heart so that the animal does not suffer.
Processing: Once the animal is killed and located, the
hunter will work fast to gut the animal, then in a cool area
hang and skin the animal. At this time the animal is ready
to be butchered and packaged. This entire process is
necessary in order to have quality meat for consumption.
Every part of deer and elk – from the bone marrow, to the
hide, to the brains, to the eyes, tongue and antlers – was
and is traditionally utilized. The head was even boiled
and eaten as a stew.

Text copyright Valerie Segrest and Dave Vales, Creative Commons

Food and Medicine: Both deer and elk are higher in nutrients and lower in fat than beef,
which makes them a better food for our health. Domestically raised animals contain
antibiotics and/or hormones that can have negative effects on people, so game meat is
healthier. Meat processed by butchers into sausages may contain nitrites, nitrates, salt,
and maybe MSG, so consume these sparingly. It is preferable to learn how to process
wild game meat into sausages so that the preparer can control the amount of spices and
sodium, yielding a healthy version that the commercially available variety.

Wildlife Management:
Coast Salish Ancestors knew that high elevation open areas yiel

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/tribal%3Apuyallup%3A05e0cbc6b7e5aba0. Public record. Not legal advice.