# The Umonhon reputation of being formidable may have played a part in this tangle. By surrounding them with unrelated nations, the U. S. Government probably

> Briefs, arguments, decisions, and more.

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/tribal%3Aomaha_of_nebraska%3A7bd4bd1be2b66338

## Record

- **Collection:** Tribal code
- **Document type:** Tribal code

## Text

The Umonhon reputation of being formidable may have played a part in this tangle. By surrounding them with unrelated nations, the U. S. Government probably
felt that it would slow down any rebelliousness on the Umonhon part. Then again,
it could have been simply that white bureaucrats can't tell one Native American
tribe from another. Or, given the Winnebago’s history of warring with the whites
that this rebel band had massed and its refusal to stay put, they may simply
have decided to put them into a place that they wanted and be done with the
problem and that the Umonhon would have to accept it.

“Axe and hand ball catcher” Giffen & Tibbles, Ibid., p. 44

Language of the Robe: Walking, La Flesche/Fletcher, Ibid., Plate 52 b
Reservation land Jeff Mohr, OTHRP Archives
208

Treaty with the Omaha, 1865
President Andrew Johnson, Democrat, Slave owner

A

rticles of treaty made and concluded at Washington,
D. C., on the sixth day of March, A. D. 1865, between
the United States of America, by their commissioners,
Clark W. Thompson, Robert W. Furnas, and the Omaha
tribe of Indians by their chiefs, E-sta-mah-za, or Joseph
La Flesche, Gra-ta-mah-zhe, or Standing Hawk; Ga-he-ga
Andrew Johnson
-zhinga, or Little Chief; Tah-wah-gah-ha, or Village
Wikipedia
Maker; Wah-no-ke-ga, or Noise; Sha-da-na-ge, or Yellow
Smoke; Wastch-com-ma-nu, Hard Walker; Pad-a-ga-he, or Fire Chief; Tasu, or White Cow;
Article 1. The Omaha tribe of Indians do hereby cede, sell, and convey to the
United States a tract of land from the north side of their present reservation, defined and bounded as follows, viz: commencing at a point on the
Missouri River four miles due south from the north boundary line of said
reservation, thence west ten miles, thence south four miles, thence west to
tile western boundary line of the reservation, thence north to the northern
boundary line, thence east to the Missouri River, and thence south along
the river to the place of beginning: and that the said Omahas vacate and
give possession of the lands ceded by this treaty immediately after its ratification:
Provided, That nothing herein contained shall be construed to include any of
the lands upon which the said Omaha tribe of Indians have now improvements, or any land or improvements belonging to, connected with, or used for
the benefit of the Missouri school now in existence upon the Omaha reservation.
Article 2. In consideration of the foregoing cession, the United States agree to
pay to the said Omaha tribe of Indians the sum of fifty thousand dollars, to
be paid upon the ratification of this treaty, and to be expended by their
agent, under the direction of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, for goods,
provisions, cattle, horses, construction of buildings, farming implements,
breaking up lands, arid other improvements on their reservation.
Article 3. In further consideration of the foregoing cession, the United States
agree to extend the provisions of Article 8 of the treaty between the Omaha
tribe of Indians and the United States, made on the 16th day of March, A. D.
1854, for a term of ten years from and after the ratification of this treaty; and
the United States further agree to pay to the said Omaha tribe of Indians, upon
the ratification of this treaty, the sum of seven thousand dollars as damages
209

Treaty with the Omaha, 1865 continued

in consequence of the occupancy of a portion of the Omaha reservation
not hereby ceded, and use and destruction of timber by the Winnebago
tribe of Indians while temporarily residing thereon.
Article 4. The Omaha Indians being desirous of promoting settled habits of
industry and enterprise amongst themselves by abolishing the tenure in
common by which they now hold their lands, and by assigning limited
quantities thereof in severalty to the members of the tribe, including their
half or mixed blood relatives now residing with them, to be cultivated and
improved for their own individual use and benefit, it is hereby agreed and
stipulated that the remaining portion of their present reservation shall be
set apart for said purposes; and that out of the same there shall be assigned to each head of a family not exceeding one hundred and sixty
acres, and to each male person eighteen years of age and upwards, without family, not exceeding forty acres of land — to include in every case, as
far as practicable, a reasonable proportion of timber; six hundred and forty
acres of said lands, embracing and surrounding the present agency improvements, shall also be set apart and appropriated to the occupancy and
use the agency for said Indians. The lands to be so assigned, including
those for the use of the agency, shall be in as regular and compact a body
as possible, and so as to admit of a distinct and well-defined exterior
boundary. The whole of the lands, assigned or unassigned, in severalty,
shall constitute and be known as the Omaha reservation, within and over
which all laws passed or which may be passed by Congress, regulating
trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes shall have full force amid effect and no white person, except such as shall be in the employ of the
United States, shall be allowed to reside or go upon any portion of said
reservation without the written permission of the superintendent of Indian
affairs or the agent for the tribe. Said division and assignment of lands to
the Omahas in severalty shall be made under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, and when approved by him, shall be final and conclusive. Certificates shall be issued by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs for
the tracts so assigned, specifying the names of individuals to whom they
have been assigned respectively, and that they are for the exclusive use
and benefit of themselves, their heirs, and descendants; and said tracts
shall not be alienated in fee, leased, or otherwise disposed of except to the
United States or to other members of the tribe, under such rules and regulations as may be prescribed by the Secretary of the interior, and they
shall be exempt from taxation, levy, sale, or forfeiture, until otherwise provided for by Congress.
Article 5. It being understood that the object of the Government in purchasing the land herein described is for the purpose of locating the Winnebago
tribe thereon, now, therefore, should their location there prove detrimental to
the peace, quiet, and harmony of the white as well as of the two tribes of
210

Treaty with the Omaha, 1865 continued

Indians, then the Omahas shall have privilege of repurchasing the land
herein ceded upon the same term they now sell.
In testimony whereof, the said Clark W. Thompson and Robert W. Furnas,
Commissioners as aforesaid, and the said chiefs and delegates of the Omaha
tribe of Indians, have hereunto set their hands and seals at the place and on
the day amid year hereinbefore written.
E-sta-mah-zha, or Joseph La Flesehe,
his x mark. [SEAL]
Gra-ta-mah-zhe, or Standing Hawk,
his x mark. [SEAL]
Ga-he-ga-zhin-ga, or Little Chief,
his x mark. [SEAL]
Tah-wah-ga-ha, or Village Maker,
his x mark. [SEAL]
Wah-no-ke-ga, or Noise,
his x mark. [SEAL]
Sha-da-na-ge, or Yellow Smoke,
his x mark. [SEAL]
Wastch-com-ma-nu, or Hard Walker,
his x mark. [SEAL]

Pad-a-ga-he, or Fire Chief,
his x mark. [SEAL]
Ta-su, or White Cow,
his x mark. [SEAL]
Ma-ha-nini-ga, or No Knife,
his x mark. [SEAL]
In presence of —
H. Chase, United States interpreter.
Lewis Saunsoci, interpreter.
St. A. D. Balcombe,
United States Indian agent.
Geo. N. Propper.
J. N. H. Patrick.

Yellowstone Steamboat, Nebraska State Historical Society
211

Treaty with the Omaha, Discussion, 1865
President Franklin Pierce, Democrat

T

here are two treaties written in 1865 which have an affect upon the Umonhon.
The first is the formal treaty with the Umonhon on March 6th.
Article 1. states that the Umonhon are selling the top third of their reservation. It also states that the Umonhon must vacate the lands described by
this treaty immediately after its ratification: Provided, That this does not
include any of the lands upon which the Umonhon have improvements, or
any land or improvements belonging to, connected with, or used for the
benefit of the Missouri school now in existence upon the Umo nhon reservation. From the U. S. point of view these were lands that the Umo nhon were
not using. From the Umonhon point of view, these were their lands to do
with what they wanted to do and that did not include selling them.

Article 2. lists the payment that the United States agrees to pay to the Umo nhon tribe for the land. The sum of fifty thousand dollars, to be paid upon
the ratification of this treaty is the price tag for this transaction. Then the
cash is converted immediately so that it will be totally controlled by their
agent and turned into goods, provisions, cattle, horses, construction of
buildings, farming implements, breaking up lands, arid other improvements on their reservation.
Article 3. adds that the United States is to extend the provisions of Article 8 of
the 1854 treaty, for a term of ten years after the ratification of this treaty;
[1854] Article 8. The United States agree to erect for the
Umonhon, at their new home, a grist and saw mill, and keep the
same in repair, and provide a miller for ten years; also to erect
a good blacksmith shop, supply the same with tools, and keep
it in repair for ten years; and provide a good blacksmith for a
like period; and to employ an experienced farmer for the term
of ten years, to instruct the Indians in agriculture.

Which essentially extends the miller, blacksmith and farmer and related services
for another ten years. Also in this article the United States further agrees to pay
to the Umonhon, the sum of seven thousand dollars as damages by the Winnebago tribe for the use and destruction of timber while temporarily residing on Umo nhon lands that are not a part of this sale.
Article 4. reiterates several themes that have been established in prior treaties. The first being the idea of allotment. The new phrase is "abolishing
the tenure in common by which they now hold their lands" and then follows the description of what will become known as allotment.

In essence, all Umonhon including half or mixed-blood relatives residing with
them are eligible for a share of the remaining portion of their present reserva212

tion. There shall be assigned to each head of a family not exceeding one hundred
and sixty acres, and to each male person eighteen years of age and upwards,
without family, not exceeding forty acres of land — to include in every case, as
far as practicable, a reasonable proportion of timber.
In addition six hundred and forty acres surrounding the present agency improvements, shall also be set apart for the occupancy and use of the agency. The
lands to be so assigned, including those for the use of the agency, shall be in as
regular and compact a body as possible, with a distinct and well-defined exterior
boundary.
The whole of the lands, assigned or unassigned, in severalty, shall constitute and
be known as the Umonhon reservation. All laws passed or which may be passed
by Congress, regulating trade and intercourse with the Indian tribes shall have
full force within the reservation. No white person, except such as shall be in the
employ of the United States, shall be allowed to reside or go upon any portion of
said reservation without the written permission of the superintendent of Indian
affairs or the agent for the tribe.
All division and assignment of lands to the Umonhon in severalty shall be made
under the direction of the Secretary of the Interior, and when approved by him,
shall be final. Certificates shall be issued by the Commissioner of Indian Affairs
for the tracts so assigned, specifying the names of individuals to whom they have
been assigned respectively, and that they are for the exclusive use and benefit of
themselves, their heirs, and descendants; and said tracts shall not be alienated in fee, leased, or otherwise disposed of except to the United States or
to other members of the tribe, under such rules and regulations as may be
prescribed by the Secretary of the interior, and they shall be exempt from
taxation, levy, sale, or forfeiture, until otherwise provided for by Congress. [Bold added by OTHRP]
The statements in bold are of particular interest. The land can only be transferred from an individual to the U. S. or another individual of a tribe. Such lands
will be exempt from taxation, levy, sale or forfeiture unless otherwise provided
for by Congress. Ergo, Congress has complete control of all Umonhon lands to do
with what they will. This is becoming a standard ploy in Umonhon treaties. Promise one thing and reserve the right to change it at will. Such a promise is worthless.
Article 5. states that the object of the Government in purchasing the land is
for the purpose of locating the Winnebago tribe with the proviso that
should the Winnebago's location there prove detrimental to the peace,
quiet, and harmony of the white as well as of the two tribes of Indians,
then the Omahas shall have privilege of repurchasing the land upon the
same term they now sell.

213

Treaty with the Winnebago History, 1865
President Andrew Johnson, Slave owner, Democrat

T

his treaty is with the Winnebago renegade Tecumseh band although it is
couched as if it were with the complete Winnebago nation. The U. S. government not only was buying lands from the wrong nations, it was creating tribes
where they did not exist and did so without consultation of the existing nations.
So it is that the Winnebago Tribe of Green Bay Wisconsin — the spiritual center
of the actual nation — found themselves with land in Nebraska that they did not
want and were denied land in Wisconsin where they lived and the split between
the actual Winnebago nation and a band of their mixed-bloods have remained
separated into two autonomous groups.
There is no definition as to what would constitute being detrimental to the peace,
quiet and harmony. There is no definition as to which whites would be included in
determining the status of peace, quiet and harmony nor what would prevail if the
whites should side with the Winnebago while the Umonhon were being bedeviled

“Hin-na-gi” and “Mud Lodge” Giffen & Tibbles, Ibid., p. 59 and p. 68
214

Treaty with the Winnebago History, 1865
President Andrew Johnson, Slave owner, Democrat
his treaty is with the Winnebago renegade Tecumseh band although it is
couched as if it were with the complete Winnebago nation. The U. S. government not only was buying lands from the wrong nations, it was creating tribes
where they did not exist and did so without consultation of the existing nations.
So it is that the Winnebago Tribe of Green Bay Wisconsin — the spiritual center
of the actual nation — found themselves with land in Nebraska that they did not
want and were denied land in Wisconsin where they lived and the split between
the actual Winnebago nation and a band of their mixed-bloods have remained
separated into two autonomous groups.

T

There is no definition as to what would constitute being detrimental to the peace,
quiet and harmony. There is no definition as to which whites would be included in
determining the status of peace, quiet and harmony nor what would prevail if the
whites should side with the Winnebago while the Umonhon were being bedeviled
by them both.

Treaty with the Winnebago, 1865
President Andrew Johnson, Slave owner, Democrat

A
Andrew Johnson

rticles of treaty made and concluded at Washington, D. C., between the United States of America,
by commissioners, Wm. P. Dole, C. W. Thompson, and St.
A. D. Balcombe, and the Winnebago tribe of Indians, by
their chiefs, Little Hill, Little Decoria, Whirling Thunder,
Young Prophet, Good Thunder, and White Breast, on the
8th day of March, 1865.

Wikipedia

Article 1. The Winnebago tribe of Indians hereby cede, sell,
and
convey to the United States all their right, title, and interest in and
to their present reservation in the Territory of Dakota, at Usher's Landing on
the Missouri River, the metes and bounds whereof being on file in the Indian
Department.
Article 2. In consideration of the foregoing cession, and the valuable improvements thereon, the United States agree to set apart for the occupation and
future home of the Winnebago Indians, forever, all that certain tract or parcel of land ceded to the United States by the Omaha tribe of Indians on the
sixth day of March, A. D. 1865, situated in the Territory of Nebraska, and described as follows, viz: Commencing at a point on the Missouri River four
miles due south from the north boundary-line of said reservation; thence
west ten miles; thence south four miles; thence west to the western boundary-line of the reservation; thence north to the northern boundary-line:
thence east to the Missouri River, and thence south along the river to the
place of beginning.
215

Treaty with the Winnebago, 1865 continued

Article 3. In further consideration of the foregoing cession, and in order that the
Winnebagos may be as well situated as they were when they were moved
from Minnesota, the United States agree to erect on their reservation, hereby
set apart, a good steam saw-mill with a grist-mill attached, and to break and
fence one hundred acres of land for each band, and supply them with seed, to
sow and plant the same, and shall furnish them with two thousand dollars
worth of guns, four hundred horses, one hundred cows, twenty yoke of oxen
wagons, two chains each, and five hundred dollars worth of agricultural implements, in addition to those on the reserve hereby ceded.
Article 4. The United States further agree to erect on said reservation an agency
building, school-house, and suitable buildings for the physician, interpreter,
miller, engineer, carpenter, and blacksmith, and a house 18 by 24 feet, one
and a half story high well shingled and substantially finished, for each chief.
Article 5. The United States also stipulate and agree to remove the Winnebago
tribe of Indians and their property to their new home, and to subsist the tribe
one year after their arrival there.
In testimony whereof, the said Wm. P. Dole, Clark W. Thompson, and St. A. D.
Balcombe, Commissioners as aforesaid, and the undersigned chiefs and delegates of the Winnebago Tribe of Indians, have hereunto set their hands and
seals, at the place and on the day herein before written.
W. P. Dole,
Clark W. Thompson,
St. A. D. Balcombe,
Commissioners.
Good Thunder, his x mark. [SEAL]
Young Crane, his x mark
[SEAL]

White Breast, his x mark.
[SEAL]
Little Hill, his x mark.
[SEAL]
Little Decoria, his x mark.
[SEAL]
Whirling Thunder. his x mark.[SEAL]
Young Prophet, his x mark. [SEAL]

Treaty with the Winnebago Discussion, 1865

O

President Andrew Johnson, Democrat
Slave owner
ne can only speculate as to why the U. S. Government kept the fact hidden
that there were two different treaties, one for each tribe. There is no good
answer.

Article 1. returns the reservation for the Winnebago in the Territory of Dakota, at Usher's Landing on the Missouri River to the United States.
Article 2. gives the land as stipulated in the 1865 treaty with the Umo nhon to
the Winnebago in the place of the Dakota lands.

Article 3. determines that the situation in Nebraska will be set up as it was in
Minnesota where the U. S. first tried to place them. The United States
216

agrees to erect on their reservation a good steam saw-mill with a grist-mill
attached, and to break and fence one hundred acres of land for each band,
and supply them with seed, to sow and plant the same, and shall furnish
them with two thousand dollars worth of guns, four hundred horses, one
hundred cows, twenty yoke of oxen wagons, two chains each, and five hundred dollars worth of agricultural implements, in addition to those on the
reserve hereby ceded. It is interesting that they who went to war against
the U.S. are supplied with guns by treaty when the Umonhon, who never
went to war against the U.S., did not receive such a treaty clause.
Article 4. agrees that the U. S. will erect on said reservation an agency building, school-house, and suitable buildings for the physician, interpreter, miller, engineer, carpenter, and blacksmith, and a house 18 by 24 feet, one
and a half story high well shingled and substantially finished, for each
chief. This too is more than the Umonhon received: a physician, interpreter,
engineer and carpenter as well as a house for each chief.
Article 5. agrees to remove the Winnebago tribe of Indians and their property
to their new home, and to subsist the tribe one year after their arrival
there.
There is no stipulation in the Winnebago treaty that the Winnebago have to
avoid being detrimental to the peace, quiet and harmony in order to keep
the land nor is there any demand of allotment. Thus the United States re
wards the rebels at the expense of their
friends and allies. Apparently it pays to fight
the United States, a strange message to
send to the remaining Indian tribes.
If the situation were not bad enough. The U. S.
never gave the Umonhon the money promised
for the lands they were forced to give to the
Winnebago. Then the government moved the
Agency to the Winnebago land and built the
joint hospital there, providing employment to
the Winnebago. To this day, there is only a
frosty line of cooperation between these two
who have been forced to live together.
There is no definition as to what would constitute being detrimental to the peace, quiet and
harmony. There is no definition as to which
whites would be included in determining the
status of peace, quiet and harmony nor what
would prevail if the whites should side with the
Winnebago while the Umonhon were being bedeviled by them both.
217

Language of the Robe: Anger
La Flesche/Fletcher, Ibid.
Fig. 82, p. 361

Language of the Robe: Public Watching La Flesche/Fletcher, Ibid. Plate 53 b
Reservation Hills Autumn Jeff Mohr, OTHRP Archives
218

An Act to Confirm Agreements, History, 1872
President Ulysses Simpson Grant, Republican,
sold off all his slaves before becoming president

R

ailroads were crossing the nation in the east and heading west rapidly. They
would soon end the steamboat days and come into their own as they raced
across the lands from California and New York to meet at Promontory Summit,
Utah on May 10, 1869. The iron horses, as Native Americans named them, would
be the final demise of the buffalo on the High Plains as well as bringing the new
waves of immigrants out to the prairie.
In the U.S. presidential election, Ulysses Simpson Grant, a Republican from Ohio,
defeated Horace Greeley, the man who advised "Go West, Young Man," in his
New York Tribune newspaper. It was a contest between Republican Grant and
the newly organized Liberal Republican Party's candidate Greeley in a coalition
move with the Democrats.
 Nebraska statehood proclamation signed by President Andrew Johnson,
March 1, 1867.
The University of Nebraska was established by the state legislature on
February, 1869, under the provisions of the Morrill Act. The Morrill
[School Lands] Act, was passed by Congress in 1862, it provided that each
state was entitled to 30,000 acres of public land for each representative
in U. S. Congress. This land could be leased or sold, and the proceeds
from such transactions were to be used to endow a state agricultural
college. Nebraska was entitled to 90,000 acres of public land by the act,
to be selected within three years following admission as a state. The Enabling Act of April 19, 1864, had authorizing the people of Nebraska to
form a state government. It provided an additional 23,000 acres of public land to be used to support the University.
The University of Nebraska opened its doors in September of 1871 with
a single building, less than one hundred students, and only five faculty
members. The act which established the University provided for a College of Literature, Mathematics, and Natural Sciences; a College of Agriculture; a College of Law; a College of Medicine; a College of Practical
Science, Engineering and Mechanics; and a College of Fine Arts.
The fee for admission to the University was set at five dollars, providing
entrance requirements were met, and no tuition was required if the student's parents paid at least thirty dollars per year in state school taxes.
First diploma granted by the University of Nebraska, 1873.
 May 22 1872, Amnesty Act restored civil rights to citizens of the South,
except for 500 Confederate leaders.
 Charlotte Ray, the first Black woman lawyer, graduated Harvard University.
219

 Yellowstone became the first national park.
 Illinois became the first state to require sexual equality in employment.
 On April 9 Samuel R. Percy patented dried milk.
 April 10 the first National black convention met in New Orleans.
 Victoria Woodhull became the first woman nominated for U. S. president, although she was a year too young to qualify and did not appear
on the ballot.
 In defiance of the law, American suffragist Susan B. Anthony voted for
the first time [on November 18 she was arrested and in the subsequent trial she
was fined $100 — she never paid the fine].

 The Modoc War begins with the Battle of Lost River.
 Pinckney Benton Stewart Pinchback, first black U. S. Governor, took office in Louisiana.
Thus by decree, the Indian Nations ceased to be Nations in the eyes of the Americans and floated in a legal limbo of being neither fish nor fowl. They were not
nations nor were they citizens, therefore they had no rights or standing under
the laws, they weren't even considered humans. They were not prisoners but
were restricted to reservations where they were not allowed to leave without
government permission. For tens of thousands of years the Umonhon had lived in
the woodlands and upon the prairies of the American continent and suddenly the
The Little Man Who Wasn't There
Last night I saw upon the stair
A little man who wasn't there
He wasn't there again today
Oh, how I wish he'd go away. . . .

An Act to Confirm Agreements
Made in Open Council
with the Omahas on September 23, 1872
and with the Pawnees on July 15, 1872
Ulysses
Simpson
Grant

T

President Ulysses Simpson Grant, Republican
Sold off all his slaves before becoming president

he United States made agreements in open council with the
Omahas following the passage of this act and with the Pawnees
following the act for their consent to the sale of lands in western Nebraska which
had been secured to them by previous treaty commitments. The councils were
recorded and copies of the proceedings may be found in the respective tribal
Wikipedia

220

An Act to Confirm continued

in the Indian office files in the National Archives.
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of
America in Congress assembled, That with the consent and concurrence of the
Omaha tribe of Indians, expressed in open council in the usual manner, the Secretary of the Interior be, and hereby is, authorized to cause to be surveyed, if
necessary, a portion of their reservation in the State of Nebraska, not exceeding
fifty thousand acres, to lie taken from the western part thereof, and to be separated from the remaining portion of said reservation by a line running along the
section lines front north to south. The said lands so separated shall be appraised
by three competent commissioners, one of whom shall be selected by said Omaha tribe of Indians in open council, and the other two shall be appointed by the
Secretary of the Interior. After the survey and appraisement of said lands, as
herein provided, the Secretary of the Interior shall be, and hereby is, out authorized to offer the same for sale for cash in hand; and sealed proposals, duly invited by public advertisements, shall be received for the same for tracts not exceeding one hundred and sixty acres each, and also for the entire body offered:
and he shall be, and hereby is, authorized to accept the proposal for the entire
tract, or the highest bids for separate tracts, whichever shall be deemed best for
the interests of the Indians: Provided, That, no bids for separate tracts shall be
accepted which may be less than the appraised value of such tract, nor less than
one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre; or for the entire tract which shall be
less than the aggregate appraised value of the same, nor less than one dollar
and twenty-five cents per acre. The proceeds of such sale shall be placed to the
credit of said Indians on the books of the Treasury of the United States, and bear
interest at the rate of five per centum per annum, payable semi-annually, except
such portion thereof as the Secretary of the Interior, with the approval of the
President of the United States, may deem necessary to be expended for their immediate use in improving and fencing farms, building houses, purchasing implements of agriculture and live stock, and in establishing and supporting schools:
Provided also, That not more than twenty-five per centum of the principal of the
aggregate amount of sales of said lands shall be expended in any one year: Provided, That no sale shall be approved unless the average sales of each of said
parcels of said land shall he at least two dollars and fifty cents per acre.
Sec. 2. That with the consent and concurrence of the Pawnee tribe of Indians,
expressed in open council in the usual manner, the Secretary of the Interior be,
and hereby is, authorized to cause to be surveyed, if necessary, a portion of
their reservation in the State of Nebraska, not exceeding fifty thousand acres, to
be taken from that part of said reservation lying south of Loup Fork. The said
lands so surveyed shall be appraised by three competent commissioners, one of
whom shall be selected by the said Pawnee tribe of Indians in open council, and
the other two shall be appointed by the Secretary of the Interior. After the survey and appraisement of said lands, as herein provided, the Secretary of the Interior shall be, and hereby is, authorized to offer the same for sale, for cash in
221

An Act to Confirm continued

hand, in the same manner and with the same restrictions as provided in the first
section of this act relating to the Omaha lands; and the proceeds of such sale
shall be placed to the credit of said Indians on the books of the Treasury of the
United States, and bear interest at the rate of five per centum per annum, payable
semi-annually, except such portion thereof as the Secretary of the Interior, with
the approval of the President of the United States, may deem necessary to be expended for their immediate use, as directed in the said first section of this net.
Sec. 3. That, with the consent and concurrence of the Otoe and Missouria tribe of
Indians, expressed in the usual manner, the Secretary of the Interior be, and
hereby is, authorized to cause to be surveyed, if necessary, a portion of their reservation lying in the States of Nebraska and Kansas, not exceeding eighty thousand acres, to be taken from the western part thereof, lying west of the Big Blue
River, part of said tract lying in the State of Nebraska, and part lying in the State
of Kansas. The said lands so surveyed shall be appraised by three competent
commissioners, one of whom shall be selected by said Otoe and Missouria tribe of
Indians in open council, and the other two shall be appointed by the Secretary of
the Interior. After the survey and appraisement of said lands, as herein provided,
the Secretary of the Interior shall be, and hereby is, authorized to offer the same
for sale for cash in hand, in the same manner and with the same restrictions as
provided in the first section of this act relating to the Omaha lands; and the proceeds of such sale shall be placed to the credit of said Indians on the books of
the Treasury of the United States, and bear interest at the rate of five per centum per annum, payable semi-annually, except such portion thereof as the Secretary of the Interior, with the approval of the President of the United States,
may deem necessary to be expended for their immediate use, as directed in the
said first section of this act.
Sec. 4. That, with the consent and concurrence of the Sac and Fox of the Missouri tribe of Indians, expressed in open council in the usual manner, the Secretary of the Interior be, and hereby is, authorized to cause to be surveyed, if necessary, a portion or the whole of their reservation in the State of Nebraska, containing about sixteen thousand acres. The said lands so surveyed shall be appraised by three competent commissioners, one of whom shall be selected by
said Sac and Fox of the Missouri tribe of Indians in open council, and the other
two shall be appointed by the Secretary of the Interior. After the survey and appraisement of said lands, herein provided, the Secretary of the Interior shall be,
and hereby is, authorized to offer the same for sale, for cash in hand, in the
same manner and with the same restrictions as provided in the first section of
this act relating to the Omaha lands; and the proceeds of such sale shall be
placed to the credit of the said Indians on the books of the Treasury of the United
States, and bear interest at the rate of five per centum per annum, payable semi
-annually, except such portion thereof as the Secretary of the Interior, with the
approval of the President of the United States, may deem necessary to be

222

Act to Confirm continued

expended for their immediate use, as directed in the said first section of this act,
or for their removal to the Indian Territory or elsewhere, in case they desire to remove.
Sec. 5. That in all patents of lands sold under authority of this act, there shall be
inserted a clause forever prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors on said lands,
under pain of forfeiture and title there-to; and due notice of this provision shall
be given in the advertisement offering said lands for sale.
Sec. 6. That the commissioners to be appointed by the Secretary of the Interior,
under the provisions of this act, shall receive compensation for their services at
the rate of eight dollars for each day actually engaged in the duties herein designated, in addition to the amount paid by them for actual traveling and other necessary expenses.
Approved, June 10, 1872.

An Act to Confirm Agreement, Discussion, 1872
President Ulysses Simpson Grant, Republican
sold off all his slaves before becoming president

T

he first agreement under the new laws made with the Umonhon was "An Act
to Confirm Agreements Made in Open Council with the Omahas on September
23, 1872 and with the Pawnees on July 15, 1872." The tone in the Preamble to
the agreements has changed considerably. The only mention of band, tribe or
nation is in the bookkeeping notation. The Nations are referred to as simply
“Omaha" or "Pawnee." There is no listing of the persons who are attending this
within the text. It is duly noted that the councils were apparently recorded and
copies may be found in the National Archives. It is a long way from the prairie to
Washington, D. C., even by train; and the casual viewer of the agreement has no
way of knowing who is involved, really.
The first paragraph chops off a large segment of the reservation. The Secretary
of the Interior is authorizing the surveying the lands, in order to sell them by a
sealed auction to the merchants, traders and entrepreneurs flooding into the
west. There will be three "commissioners" authorized by the Secretary of the Interior for the purpose of assessing and surveying the lands. One commissioner
will be chosen by the tribes involved and two chosen by the Secretary of the Interior, which guarantees Indian representation but clearly in the minority.
This is a cash on the barrelhead deal with public advertisements inviting bids.
There are restrictions, the land tracts are to be 160 acres each or bidding can be
for the entire parcel of land. No bids will be accepted for less than the appraised
value of the land, nor less than $1.25 per acre either for single tracts or the en223

tire parcel of land. The proceeds of the sale will be credited to the tribal account in Washington where it will
earn an interest rate of 5% per year every six months.
Then comes the phrase that reverses the previous one:
“except such portion thereof as the Secretary of the Interior, with the approval of the President of the United
States, may deem necessary to be expended for their
immediate use in improving and fencing farms, building
houses, purchasing implements of agriculture and live
stock, and in establishing and supporting schools.”
However, they are limiting the pork barrel; not more
than 25% of the principal is to be spent in any one year.
There follows the provision that the average sales of
each land parcel shall be at least two dollars and fifty
cents per acre.
Sec. 2. is the same deal for Pawnee lands.

Language of the Robe:
About to Run

Sec. 3. is the same deal for Otoe and Missouria La Flesche/Fletcher Ibid.,
Plate 52 c
lands.
Sec. 4. is the same deal for Sac and Fox lands.
Sec. 5. states that in all lands sold under authority of this act, there shall
be inserted a clause forever prohibiting the sale of intoxicating liquors
(alcohol) on said lands. Violators of this clause will lose their title to the
land. Notice of this restrictive clause will be included in public advertisements of the sales.
Sec. 6. That the commissioners to be appointed by the Secretary of the
Interior, under the provisions of this act, shall receive eight dollars for each
day actually engaged in the duties specified, in addition to the amount paid
by them for actual traveling and other necessary expenses.

Neat and tidy.
No pretension.
No flowery language,
Just hold your nose and swallow.

224

[above] Sacred Medicine, Coffey, [below] Skunk Hollow [Old Macy] OTHRP Archives

N

Summary

ine years after the Lewis and Clark Military Expedition, the period of Treaties
started. The first one guaranteed protection for the Umonhon. Five years later
a Treaty was wanted to purchase some land for a small garrison to aid with the
protection of the Fur Trade. After another five years a Treaty was needed to regulate the Fur Trade. Then, after another five years pass, they came for the land
in Iowa. The press of immigrants was causing a growing demand for "free Indian
lands" and the Indian populations were declining rapidly due to disease, warfare,
and starvation. Always the threat of relocation to unknown lands was held above
the tribal heads. The Oregon Trail was set up and maintained by the U. S. Government through treaties with Indian Tribes and Garrisons protecting the trail. It
was the easiest trail out west and could accommodate the pioneers traveling
along it and the dwindling game could feed them. The Mormons snuck past the
rules and tried to settle on the Umonhon lands and when confronted moved on
along the north side of the Platte creating their own trail in order to avoid the
other pioneers. Genoa, Nebraska was settled by Mormons. Eighteen years passed
before the next official grab for the land came.
It is an interesting thing about the determination of the land. Ownership was established by the U. S. Government. It didn't matter that the Umonhon had villages
225

in land north of the Missouri River in what we now call South Dakota. The U. S.
Government did not recognize the claim and the Umonhon rightful claims were ignored. Property was determined by the buyer, the price set by the buyer and the
payment terms were also set by the buyer and all disputes were settled by the
buyer. This is not a shrewd business deal, this is highway robbery.
Cultural genocide went hand in hand with the stealing of the land. An artificial agricultural way of life was forced upon the Umonhon in order to break the nomadic
way of life. It was not based on prairie agriculture the way the Umo nhon had always practiced food production instead it had to be done the Euro-American way.
Gender roles were twisted so that men did women's work and women were forced
into a sub-servient role reinforced by the white refusal to deal with any one but
males whose authority they recognized. The Umonhon trained for jobs they would
not be allowed to have and raised crops that the dominant culture refused to pay
full price for, if at all.
With the land going under barbed wire fences, the bison had to go. It was a twofold problem. One, it was using land the whites wanted to raise European cattle
upon and two, it was sustaining the Native American's way of life. The hordes of
European immigrants going along the Oregon Trail that Nebraska calls the Platte
River valley took a lot of the bison/game along with them stripping the Indians of
their food in the process. The railroads took the greatest toll. Iron horses trotting
through while dozens of sharp shooters shot every thing in sight and left it to rot.
It was a precursor to shooting wildlife from a helicopter.
The Indian must also go but the stripped human being left behind will simply become another immigrant within their own lands. Now that the majority of the land
was under white rule and the remainder of the land was simply a matter of time
and a bit of petty cash if payment was made at all. This country entered into Euro
-American Christian control so that proper usage of the resources could be made
and the ecosystem of the prairies shattered under the violence and ignorance of
these self righteous and very greedy people.
Around it all, disease took its toll. The horrible plagues, smallpox and the childhood
diseases were giving way to tuberculosis as the major killer enhanced by unending
stress, sub-standard housing — the earthen lodges and tipis could not withstand
sedentary lifestyles — and poor diet which was reinforced with poor medical care
as the traditional medicine people could no longer get their herbs and always the
Christians were there, hounding them out of practice as part of their war on culture.
In 1872 the first man-made dust storms hit the Republican River valley, twentyfive years after the prairie sod was cut; and starvation ran rampant in the white
farm communities. The business world, of Lincoln and Omaha, was horrified. It
wasn't that they were so sympathetic and concerned about the lives of the pioneers. No. They were upset that word would get out and they wouldn't be able to
sell the land to unsuspecting immigrants who didn't speak the language very
well, couldn't read or write, and knew little or nothing about farming.
226

The era was ending
and the new locusts were swarming
the human kind.

Coffey, OTHRP Archives

Albert Tyndall and Silas McCauley
Changing Times:

Wagon, Tipi, and Earth lodge
OTHRP Archives

Umonhon men in traditional straight dress, 1907

Sheridan and Rush

Giffen & Tibbles, Ibid., p. 52

Two Umonhon Women and baby.
Smithsonian

Traditional
Umonhon Tale
&
Bilingual Book
Dennis Hastings, Ph. D.
Margery Coffey, Ph.D.

W

inox’jion: [Once]

a Mi’kaçi: [Coyote]
was going

agudi shte:
[somewhere.]

233

Duba: [Four] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bulls]
were waba’hi: [grazing]
as they monthinga: [walked].

The Mi’kaçi: [Coyote]
went over to them,
and wakonda wathahon:
[prayed] to them.

"0 witi’gon: [grandfather], and you
my witi’gon: [grandfathers] also,
tha ethe: [pity me], I wish to live
just as you are living."

234

"Let this be
the very last time
that you speak of it."

"No, witi’gon: [grandfather],
still tha ethe: [pity me].
You live by thate: [eating]
watha’te: [food] that comes up
a’hi gi: [abundantly],
without your wathi ton: [working for it];
I wish to ni’ta gontha: [live] just so."

"How can you be iya’tha winke: [speaking]
truth?” said the insh’a’ge: [aged]
Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull]
who was nonzhin: [standing]
a naça ta: [behind] them.

Still the Mi’kaçi: [Coyote]
would not shon: [stop]
wa na: [begging] and
wahone: [pleading].

"Aho! "Ho!
Mo gthe nonzhin:
n

[Stand up]
with your nonka: [back] to me.“

Çaba ga: [Beware]
lest you onhe: [flee]."

235

"Oh! witi’gon: [grandfather!]
Oh! witi’gon: [grandfather!]
Witi’gon: [Grandfather!] Oh!
n
Eato : [Why] should I onhe: [flee]?"

Pa yazhi he: [Blunt-horn]
Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull]
kept niçtu: [backing],
pawing the tonde: [ground]
and xthazhe: [bellowing].

He also baxon: [thrust]
his he: [horns] into the
tonde: [ground],
sending hebe: [pieces]
n
gio : [flying] off in all directions.
236

Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] stood
peeping at him out of
win: [one] uba’çu: [corner]
of his in’shta: [eye].

"It would be uthi’shi: [impossible] for him not to
wa’t’e the: [kill] me, if he should touch me,"
thought Mi’kaçi: [Coyote], and so he wahon athin:
[moved] altogether out of his way.

Atona diya: [When]
the Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull]
was coming from his the: [place]
to bachizhi: [rush] against him,
Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] having moved aside,
the Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull]
the: [went] by thinge: [without]
utin: [hitting] nuga: [him].
237

"No, witi’gon: [grandfather],
it happened because
I was non’pe: [afraid] of you.

"Really!" said Pa yazhi he:[Blunt-horns],
"I did ethe’gon: [think] that you
were speaking the egonxti: [truth];
but now I do not ethe’gon: [think] so."

Still, witi’gon: [grandfather],
tha ethe: [pity] me.
As you are living, I wish to live."
Each Te: [Buffalo] made an ika skonthe:
n
[attempt], but Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] ao çi: [leaped]
aside every egon: [movement].

At last the insh’a’ge: [aged]
Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull] said,
"Aho! Zhinga: [Young]
Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull], you try."
238

"Ho!" said the zhinga: [young] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull].
"Mongthe nonzhin: [Stand up] with your nonka: [back] to me.“

"Ho! witi’gon:
[grandfather],

I will not
onhe: [flee]."

If you onhe: [flee] this time,
I will wa’t’ the: [kill] you."

239

The Te: [Buffalo] struck him on
the wethiton tathishon: [right-side]
as he the: [went],

and Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] became
a zhinga: [young] Te-nega:
[Buffalo-bull], just like him.

They
agthe: [leave]
çonçonde:
[together].

Atona diya: [When]
he reached him,
Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] did
not onhe: [flee].

240

You will have to cross the Umonhon Reservation to make it
home to your ti'mongthe. Start at the arrow and work your
way across the hills to your home in the lower corner.

Reservation: Jeff Mohr

241

Dr. Francis La Flesche, Esq.'s

Pronunciation
Guide

T

CONSONANTS

here is no sound equivalent in Umonhon for the
English consonants:

"f," "l," "q," "r" and "v."
The following consonants are written and pronounced
the same as English:
"h," "j," "m," "n," "s," "w," y," "z"
There are three pairs of consonants having similar
sounds, however they are distinct. The difference is
not in the position of the mouth, but in the voicing or
unvoicing of the sound.

Dr. Francis La Flesche, Esq.
Smithsonian

In the case of the Umonhon sound for "t", it becomes
a blend halfway between the "t" and "d" sounds. "b"
and "p" "t" and “d”
"k" and "g"
Some consonant blends are similar to those in
English.

"sh" sounds like "sh" in the word "shot."
Example: "shonka: nine" or "shna: to shed hair."
"ch" sounds like "ch" in the word "church."
Example: "inchunga: mouse" or "ach: really, very."
"zh" sounds like "g" in the word "beige."
Example: "pezhi: grass" or "zhide: red."
"th" sounds like "th" in the word "that,"
but when blended, it often sounds like an unvoiced "L."
Example: "gthebon: ten" or "thin'ge: none, gone"
or "thi'thita: yours."

Sound not found in English

A scratchy back of the throat sound not found in English is indicated with the letter
"X": "X" sounds like "CH" in the German word "Bach" or the Scottish word "loch."
Example: "xude: gray" or "xa'ge: to cry" or "xja'the: to admire."

Only letter not written in the familiar English style

The only letter not written in the familiar English style is:
"Ç" sounds like "S" in the word "say."
Pronunciation varies and when said quickly it often sounds like the letter "Z."
Example: "çaton: five" or "monçe çka: money."
242

Three consonants having unusual sounds
Three consonants having unusual sounds,are written: "ç'," "t'," "p'."
The apostrophe mark after each letter means to pronounce the sound fully. When used
in a word there is a hesitation while speaking. With practice, a flowing quality can be
attained.
Example: "we'ç'a: snake" or "t'e: dead" or "wanonp'in: necklace."

VOWELS

"a" sounds like the "a" in the word "father."
Example: "çka: white" or "a'hi: wing."
"e" sounds like the "a" in the word "cake."
Example: "she: apple" or "tage. nut."
"i" sounds like the "e" in the word "tree."
Example: "ni: water" or "ti: house."
"o" sounds like the "o" in the word "boat."
Example: "aho: hello" (M) or "osku: man's middle braid."
"u" sounds like the "u" in the word "boot."
Example: "tu: blue" or "nuga: male."
A vowel blend "Ai" sounds like "i" in “"bike". When this blend is used, say the word
quickly in order to get the desired sound. Example: "wai: to offer or donate" or "tai':
back of head."
There are a set of nasalized vowels that occur in the Umonhon language. They help to
soften the vowel sounds. Air passes through your mouth and nose when saying them.
They are written with a "superior n" which is indicated with an "n" above the line:
"an": Example: “waan or waon: song."
"in" : Example: "thabthin: three" or "inshta: eye."
"on": Example: "udon: good" or "monkon: medicine."
"un": Example: "unkashi: no" or "pa çun: eagle."
Every syllable ends in a vowel or in a nasal [ n ]. When saying compound words, or when
several words follow in a row, the heaviest accent usually falls on the first word.
When forming command sentences,
the male version ends with "o," "ho," or "gaho."
The female version ends with the softer "a," "ha," or "ya."
A basic difference between the male and female phrases,
tends to be with the male version being harsher and longer.
Specific versions are marked (M). for male and (F) for female. For example:
Zhon’gaho: Go to sleep! (M)
Zhon’a: Go to sleep! (F)
gigaho: Come here! (M)
giya: Come here! (F)
donba gaho: Look at it! (M)
donba: Look at it! (F)

REMEMBER THESE ARE NOT UNCHANGEABLE RULES!
243

Help Te: [Buffalo]
find the Mi’kaçi: [Coyote]!

244

A

tona diya: [When] they reached a certain monzhon: [land], they continued
waba’hi: [grazing]. Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] was
watha’te: [eating] monhin’tu: [grass] of
every sort.
Wahon athin: [moving around continually],
Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] i’tha pithin: [slowly]
uthi’xpathe: [dropped] back to the rear.
"Ho! Do be ihe’the: [faster],"
the i sh’a’ge: [aged] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull]
kept saying to him.
n

"No, witi’gon: [grandfather],
I cannot get she non: [enough] of the
monhin’tu: [grass], therefore I ga’xe ukihi:
[hold] myself back so I can watha’te: [eat]
it wongithe: [all],"
Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] kept saying.

The te: [buffaloes] departed,
gi zhuazhi: [disgusted]
at his wanonbthe tonge: [greed.]
Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] continued monthin: [walking] a naça ta: [behind].
They reached the pahe thongahata: [top of a hill].
The duba: [four] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bulls] went down to the pahe hi’de:
[bottom of the hill] and ithape: [waited] for him.
"He has not come at all!
n
It is u’do : [good] to ithape: [wait] for him," said they.
They ithape: [waited] for him a long time, but he did not arrive.

245

"Ho! Zhinga: [Young] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull],
go find him."
From that very place
Zhi ga: [Young] Te-nuga:[Buffalo-bull]
the: [went] non’ge: [running].
n

He got to the monzhon: [land]
where Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] was changed
into a te: [buffalo].
The monhin’tu: [grass] was thinge’: [gone]
and Mi’kaçi: [Coyote]
was no longer there.
The zhinga: [young] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull]
started back to the others.
It happened that after
Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] watha’te: [ate]
all the monhin’tu: [grass],
he had departed
from that monzhon: [land].

"Ho!"
Once again Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] was monthin: [walking]
as if une: [seeking] for idadon shtiwon: [something].
The zhinga: [young] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull] found him
and aki’thkontha: [challenged]
n
wano bthe tonge: [greedy] Mi’kaçi: [Coyote].

246

"Ho you monthin: [walking] ga: [there]!
Ho ithape: [wait]!" said Zhinga: [young]
Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull].

"Do you ethe gon: [wish] to ni’ta
gontha: [live] in this
duda: [way],
just as I am living egon shonshon: [forever]?"

"Yes, ikage: [brother]," said
Mi’kaçi: [Coyote]
n
Ethe’go : [thinking] that his
thi a’zhi: [change] might have
been temporary
and wanting it to be egon shonshon: [permanent].
"I wish to ni’ta gontha: [live]
just so egon shonshon: [forever]."

"Well, nonzhin: [stand] facing the
other duda: [way],"

"Yes, ikage:
[brother]."

247

The zhinga: [young] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull] went ni’çtu: [backward],
pawing the ground,
thrusting his he: [horns] into the toned: [ground],
and ontha thethe: [tossing] shishige: [dust].

"Çaba ga: [Beware]
lest you make even the
zhinga: [smallest]
ika skonthe: [attempt] to
ito onhe: [flee].”

248

He came back as if to attack him but Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] fled each time.
Win: [one], nonba: [two], thabthin: [three], duba: [four]
When the fourth time came, zhinga: [young] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull] said,
"I will wa’t’e the: [kill] you." He came bachizhi: [rushing] onto him.

1 2
3 4

249

The thi a’zhi: [change] happened when the Zhinga: [young] Te-nuga: [Buffalo-bull] struck
him on the wethiton tathishon: [right-side] and gaxe the: [passed] on. When he departed
Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] found that he was a mi’kaçi: [coyote] once more.

Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] departed to seek
the te-nuga: [buffalo-bulls] again.
250

He did not go far.
Mi’kaçi: [Coyote] died
from the shock of the fall.

251

UMOnHOn: OMAHA VOCABULARY
T and G, Giffen & Tibbles, Ibid., , pp. 44 and 42

A
a naça ta: behind
agthe: leave
agudi shte: somewhere
atha: go
a’hi gi: abundantly
aki’thkontha: challenged
aonçi: leaped
atona diya: when
B
bachizhi: rush in spite of
obstacles
baxon: thrust
C
çaba ga: beware
çonçonde: together
D
duba: four
duda: way
E
eaton: why
ebe shte: someone
egon: movement
egon shonshon: forever
egonxti: truth
ethe gon: wish
ethe’gon: think
G
ga: there
gaxe the: pass
ga’xe ukihi: hold
gi zhuazhi: disgusted
gion: flying
H
he: horns
hebe: pieces
I
idadon shtiwon: something
ihe’the: faster
ika skonthe: attempt
ikage: brother
insh’a’ge: aged
in’shta: eye

ithape: wait
i’tha pithin: slowly
itonthin: first
iya’tha winke: speaking truth
M
Mi’kaçi: Coyote
monhin’tu: grass
monshiaha: high
monthin: walking
monthinga: walked
mongthe nonzhin: stand up
monzhon: land
N
niçtu: backing, backwards
nie gaxe: injured
ni’ta gontha: live
non’ge: running
nonba: two
nonka back
non’pe: afraid
nonzhin: stand
nuga: him
O
n
o he: flee
ontha thethe: tossing
ow’un: yes
P
Pa yazhi he: Blunt-horn
pahe hi’de: bottom of the hill
pahe thongahata: hilltop
S
shishige: dust
shon: stop
T
tade’: air
te: buffalo
Te-nuga: Buffalo-bulls
tha ethe: pity
thabthin three
thate: eating
the: place
the: went, past tense of go:
atha

252

thi a’zhi: change
thinge: without
thinge’: gone
tonde: ground, earth
tonga atashon: very much
U
uba’çu: corner
u’don: good
une: seeking
uthi’shi: impossible
uthi’xpathe: drop
uthu he: follow
utin: hitting
W
wa na: begging
waba’hi: grazing
wahon athin: moved
wahone: pleading
wakonda wathahon: prayed
wanonbthe tonge: greed
washi: favor, to ask another to
do something for one
watha’te: food, eating
wa’t’e the: kill
wathi ton: working
wethiton tathishon: right side
win: one
winox’jion: once
witi’gon: grandfather indirect
form
n
wo githe: all
X
xthazhe: bellowing of the bulls
Z
n
zhi ga: young, small

Missouri River Ferry OTHRP Archives, Missouri River Jeff Mohr, OTHRP Archives

---

Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/tribal%3Aomaha_of_nebraska%3A7bd4bd1be2b66338. Public record. Not legal advice.