# NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENT

> Briefs, arguments, decisions, and more.

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/tribal%3Ahoh%3A9aa1a035180fa0bb

## Record

- **Collection:** Tribal code
- **Document type:** Tribal code

## Text

HOH INDIAN TRIBE
NATURAL RESOURCES DEPARTMENT

CLIMATE
CHANGE
VULNERABILITY
ASSESSMENT
DOCUMENTING THE PAST AND PREPARING FOR THE
FUTURE

2025

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments .........................................................................................................2
Introduction ...................................................................................................................3
Hoh Indian Tribe Background .....................................................................................5
Changing Climate Conditions in the Hoh Usual & Accustomed Area ..................7
Could 2015 provide clues about the future? .....................................................11
Well-being and Climate Change ................................................................................12
Potential actions to strengthen well-being ......................................................14
In-Depth: Energy resiliency on the Hoh Indian Reservation .........................15
Hoh Ecosystems and Climate Change .....................................................................17
Marine: Ocean and Tidal ........................................................................................18
Forests .......................................................................................................................21
Wetlands ...................................................................................................................25
River and Riparian ...................................................................................................27
Concerns .......................................................................................................................31
Desires and Hopes ......................................................................................................32
Works Cited ..................................................................................................................34

Appendices
Appendix 1: Overview of Representative Concentration Pathways ............50
Appendix 2: Changing Climate Conditions in the Hoh U&A, expanded .......51
Appendix 3: Hoh Well-being and Climate Change, expanded........................66
Appendix 4: Hoh Ecosystems and Climate Change, expanded .....................67
Appendix 5: Assessment Methodology ..............................................................68
Appendix 6: CCVI Scores for Highlighted Species ...........................................70
Appendix 7: Interview Questions and Consent Form ......................................89

1

Acknowledgments
An entire community supported this report. Thank you to Chief Howeeshata (David
Hudson), Chief Daki Fisher, Vivian Lee, Brenda Lee, Walter Ward, Boe Horejsi, Wah cK - uBB (Rick Horejsi Sr.), Marie Riebe, Richard Sheriff, Joe Hudson, Jose Gomez,
Ruby Sheriff, and other Hoh Tribal members who shared their time and knowledge
with me. This report exists because of your expertise. Thank you to Kelly Rosales
(Tribal Historic Preservation Officer) for making the interviews possible and for all of
your support. Thank you to Hoh Tribal Staff, including Julie Ann Koehlinger
(previous Natural Resources Director), Kim Bray (Natural Resources Director), Brian
Hoffman (Fisheries Management Biologist), and Wren Varga (Timber, Fish, and
Wildlife Biologist) for your review. Thank you to the Hoh Tribal Business Committee
for your leadership.
Many others were essential in the formation, from offering guidance to resources
throughout the process. Thank you to Bernard Afterbuffalo Jr. and Maria Lopez
(Hoh Tribe), Robert Knapp (Jamestown S’Kallam), Eliza Ghitis (NWIFC), and Sanpisa
Sritrairat, Chandler Countryman, and Melissa Poe (WA Sea Grant) for conversations
that helped this project take shape. Thank you to Jenny Waddell and Katie Wrubel
(Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary), Meade Krosby (UW Climate Impacts
Group), Karen Affeld and Lauren Lesser (North Olympic Development Council), Bill
Baccus and Mike Larrabee (National Park Service), Ian Miller (WA Sea Grant), John
Proefrock (UW School of Aquatic and Fisheries Sciences), Mara Zimmerman (Coast
Salmon Partnership and Foundation), and Bryce Blumenthal (WDFW) for providing
resources and taking the time to discuss the results.
I’d also like to thank the Tribes who have written climate assessments and shared
portions publicly. These were essential examples. The reports I relied on are
highlighted in the Works Cited section. The PNW Tribal Climate Change Network, the
Institute for Tribal Environmental Professionals, Affiliated Tribes of Northwest
Indians, and the Tribal Resilience Action Database were also rich resources. Finally,
I’d like to thank Serina Fast Horse with the NW Environmental Justice Center for the
snapshot graphic design, WA Sea Grant for facilitating the Hershman Fellowship, and
to WA’s Climate Commitment Act for providing funding.

Disclaimer
Much of this assessment is based on interviews. Interviewees shared their
experiences, knowing they would be quoted for this assessment. However, the
quotes should not be removed from this document and used by any entities outside
of the Hoh Tribe unless explicit permission is granted by the interviewees.
Additionally, interviewees may remove their quotes and knowledge at any time as
they see fit.

2

INTRODUCTION
The Hoh people were created along the Hoh River by
K’wati, the shape-shifting Changer. Since that time,
the Hoh Indian Tribe’s home and territory has been
the western side of the Olympic Peninsula in the
temperate rainforest near glacially-fed rivers and the
roaring Pacific Ocean. The Hoh Tribe is spiritually and
culturally connected with this land and has stewarded
their rich resources for generations.
Climate change is a pressing threat to the Hoh way of
life. It is changing environmental conditions and
impacting animals and plants that Tribal members
depend on for food, livelihoods, cultural traditions,
and spiritual practices. Treaty rights, like fishing,
hunting, and gathering, are central to the Tribe’s
sovereignty and revolve around natural resources.
Infrastructure, cultural resources, and human health
are at risk from winter floods, summer low flows,
worsening air quality, and heat waves, among other
concerns. Climate change is an environmental justice
issue; the Hoh Tribe has contributed little to this
global problem and is now disproportionately
affected by the impacts.

“Hoh River mouth” by Sam Beebe is licensed under CC
BY 2.0

“Our vision is to ensure our future
as a strong, sovereign nation by
continuing to preserve and instill
our inherent cultural and spiritual
traditions and values.”
Hoh Indian Tribe, 2022 - 2024
Strategic Plan

While there have been broad assessments that
included portions of the Hoh usual and accustomed
area (U&A) or focused on combined coastal Treaty
Tribe concerns, there has not yet been a report
produced solely by the Hoh Tribe. Seeing this gap, this
is the Tribe’s first climate change assessment,
focused on their specific experiences, concerns, and
needs. The goal of this document is to share the
changes Tribal members are experiencing, the future
changes the Tribe can expect, and the impacts on
ecosystems, species, and well-being. It was created
through interviews with Tribal members and a
synthesis of scientific literature and reports. This
assessment and the future work it can support are a
commitment to facing climate challenges, creating a
positive future for current and future generations of
Hoh Tribal members, and supporting Hoh Tribal
sovereignty.

3

This assessment has five main sections:
1: Background: A brief history of the Hoh Tribe’s connections to natural resources.
2: Changing Climate Conditions: A summary of changing climate conditions and future climate
projections. While we cannot predict exactly what the future will look like, knowing the range of
expected changes is essential to understanding risks, defining priorities, and taking action.
3: Well-being and Climate Change: A sample of quotes from Tribal members that give insight into
how climate change could affect their way of life, as well as actions that could strengthen wellbeing.
4: Ecosystems and Climate Change: This section covers four ecosystems within the U&A: Marine,
Forest, Wetland, and River and Riparian. For each, the main climate impacts are shared and
highlighted species are covered in-depth.
5: Concerns, Desires, and Hopes: A summary of the general concerns, desires, and hopes shared
by Tribal members in interviews. These move beyond specific impacts and can help guide future
planning and adaptation efforts.
This assessment is intended to be accessible, providing a high-level view of these topics. For more
information, please refer to the list of appendices.

“Given close relationships with the natural world stemming from deep spiritual and
cultural connections and subsistence lifeways, Indigenous peoples are on the
frontlines of those experiencing and adapting to climate change. Indigenous
peoples possess incredible resiliency and innovation, borne from Indigenous
knowledges, worldviews, and countless generations of connection to place (Ford et
al., 2020).
At the same time, climate change impacts for many Tribal communities are already
severe (such as shifts in/loss of key cultural species and land loss due to erosion,
flooding, and permafrost thaw), and the challenges they face responding to
impacts are daunting (such as lack of funding and technical resources and legacies
from colonialism and discrimination). The time to act is now, and the way to act is
together: in community, taking care of one another and all our relations.”
The Status of Tribes and Climate Change report, 2021

4

This photo scan was shared by Vivian Lee. It shows old-time Hoh smelt fishers on the beach with their dip nets.

HOH INDIAN TRIBE BACKGROUND
This section provides the briefest of histories to ground the reader in the Hoh Tribe’s connection to
and management of resources since time immemorial.
The Hoh people were created by transformation along the Hoh River at the Time of Beginnings.
K’wati, the shape shifting Changer, arrived at the river and found the upside-down people walking
on their hands and fumbling with their dipnets. He righted them and blessed the community with
abundant smelt (Hoh Tribe, 2024). Since that time, the Hoh people have been interconnected with
the Hoh watershed. They traveled extensively along the rivers, in the surrounding mountains, and
into the ocean, as do Hoh Tribal members today. There were at least seven permanent village sites
with longhouses along the river. Many other areas were used seasonally for hunting and fishing.
Tribal members would launch ocean-going canoes from the beach near the Hoh River mouth and go
fishing, hunting, and traveling along the coast, including trips to Destruction Island and Tatoosh
Island. Natural resources from the ocean to the tidelands, from the river to the wetlands and
mountain foothills, were abundant. They provided everything people needed, including food,
fishing gear, medicine, and clothing. A spiritual connection with the natural world was and continues
to be an important part of Hoh cultural practices and identity (CGC, 2019).
The first recorded contacts with colonizers were interactions between the Hoh people and
Europeans and Russians arriving by ship (CGC, 2019). During treaty time in 1855, the Hoh Tribe and
the Quileute Tribe were identified as one tribe. The Quileute and Quinault, together with the Hoh
Tribe, were parties to the Treaty of Olympia, negotiated on July 1, 1855 at a village at the mouth of
the Quinault River, now known as Taholah (United States v. Washington, 384 F. Supp. 312,359, 1974;
Treaty of Olympia, 12 Stat. 971). The Treaty of Olympia was signed by Governor Stevens on January
25, 1856, ratified by the United States Senate on March 8, 1859, and proclaimed by the President on
April 11, 1859 (Treaty of Olympia, 12 Stat. 971).

5

After signing and ratification of this Treaty, the US government tried to force the Hoh people onto
the Quinault Reservation, but they refused to leave their homelands. The Hoh Indian Reservation
was established, in response, by executive order in 1893 on the south side of the river, despite
requests that it span both sides (Powell, n.d.).
Through the Treaty, the Hoh Tribe reserved their hunting, fishing, and gathering rights in their usual
and accustomed areas (U&A) in perpetuity, along with other rights as a sovereign nation. The
Stevens Treaties have since been litigated many times in court. One of the seminal cases that
reaffirmed the Tribe’s treaty rights is United States v. Washington or the Boldt decision, as it’s
commonly referred to. The first ruling in the Boldt decision was in 1974; there have been over 75
sub-proceedings since. The Boldt decision affirmed that the Tribes who were party to the Stevens
Treaties have rights to half of the fish catch in Washington and are co-managers of the fisheries,
including shellfish. Sub-proceedings have also affirmed the Tribe’s right to hunt and gather in all
“open and unclaimed lands”. Because of their inherent sovereignty and these decisions in Treaty
litigations, the Hoh Tribe is currently an active co-manager of the natural resources in their U&A
(Dorsay, 2024; UW Gallagher Law Library, 2024).
Coastal erosion has removed some of the original reservation land base, but the Tribe has expanded
by getting land back from Olympic National Park and purchasing new lots. The majority of the
reservation and Tribal infrastructure is within both the river floodplain and the Pacific Ocean
tsunami zone. Because of this, the Tribe has experienced a variety of flood disasters throughout the
years. To keep current and future generations safe, the Tribe is relocating to a site outside of the
tsunami zone called the Hoh Highlands. The U&A is much larger than the ceded reservation lands
and extends into the ocean. It contains several rivers, including the 56 miles of the Hoh River which
is home to four species of wild salmon and steelhead (Hoh Tribe, n.d.). The Hoh Tribe has always
managed natural resources in their U&A from historical cultural burning of prairies to today’s
careful cedar harvesting. Currently, the Tribe’s Natural Resources Department (NRD) is responsible
for management. NRD staff run the Chalaat Creek hatchery, co-manage fish populations with the
state of Washington, maintain forest inventories, manage cultural programs, monitor freshwater
quality, and test for harmful algal bloom conditions, in addition to other tasks. All operations are
overseen by the Hoh Tribal Business Committee, the governing body elected by the General
Council.

“I'd love to have things back the way they were in the environment so my
cupboards would be full. It's healthier too.”
Marie Riebe

6

CHANGING CLIMATE
CONDITIONS IN THE
HOH U&A
AN INTRODUCTION
Climate change is the shift in average weather
patterns over long time periods, like decades. We
have evidence these patterns are changing now,
both from people’s experiences, as this report
shows, and from climate records around the world.
Climate change is overwhelmingly caused by the
high levels of greenhouse gases in our atmosphere.
These are produced by burning fossil fuels, like
coal, oil, and gas, for energy. Secondary
contributors include processes like deforestation
and soil degradation due to agriculture (Marvel et
al., 2023). As more greenhouse gases enter the
atmosphere, they trap increasingly more heat. The
magnitude of the changes and the risks they pose
increase with every bit of warming that occurs. This
presents an opportunity; the choices the world
makes today determine our future. Every reduction
that can be made and every emission that can be
cut will reduce the risks that future generations
experience (Jay et al., 2023).

Photos courtesy of Mike Larrabee, Physical Science
Technician with the National Park Service NCCN
Inventory and Monitoring Program

GLACIER LOSS
“The years that I went upriver with my
grandfather [Charles Sailto Sr.], we went all
the way up to the top where the snow and
glacier was. He took pictures of that...I went
up with our biologist and I go ‘Where are the
glaciers?’ They moved up, melted about 10, 15
miles or more. We've been observing them.
They're moving maybe about 2 to 3 feet a
year, melting that much. That has changed
quite a bit.”

Climate changes across the world are not uniform.
The following section covers eight major changes
Tribal members are experiencing and how these
will shift in the future. For more detailed
information, including an in-depth look at flooding
and an overview of different representative
concentration pathways (RCPs), please refer to
Appendices 1 and 2.

Walter Ward
Above are photos of the Blue Glacier, one of
the glaciers that feeds the Hoh River. In both
photos, the red arrows are in the same spot,
showing just how much the glacier retreated
over 109 years. Warming temperatures and
reduced winter snow are causing glaciers to
melt. With less glacial melt, future summer
river flows will be lower.

7

Each of the future predictions shared here are under RCP 8.5, a scenario in which greenhouse gas
emissions aren’t reduced. See Appendix 1 for more information on RCPs.

WARMER AIR
TEMPERATURES

Observed changes: Tribal members have noticed both warmer winters and
summers, but the reservation stays cooler than other areas because of its
proximity to the ocean. People deal with summer heat by using air
conditioners, fans, swimming, taking drives with the windows down, and
carefully managing their home temperatures via shades and open windows.
Predicted changes: Annual average temperatures in the U&A will be 7 – 8.5°F
warmer. Depending where you are in U&A, there could be 1 – 23 more days per
year above 86°F by the end of the century (Krosby et al., 2018).
Impacts: Rising temperatures drive most of the other changes shown here,
disrupting ecosystems, weather patterns, and human health.

CHANGING
RAIN

Observed changes: Some Tribal members believe rain has stayed the same,
while others have noticed drier summers, noting that they’ve had to mow their
lawn less frequently.
Predicted changes: Winter rain will increase, while summer rain will decrease.
Intense atmospheric river events and winter storms will become more likely.
The risk of drought in the summer increases by 32-47% by 2070 (Raymond &
Rogers, 2022).
Impacts: Increased winter rains will cause more flooding, which could change
the river path and harm fish redds and infrastructure, including roads. More
extreme winter storms can harm human health through power outages and
disaster events. Low summer rain will stress animals and plants and could
cause water shortages for Tribal members. Drought could also increase the
risk of wildfire and cause health problems due to smoke, although this risk is
not yet well understood in the rainforest.

DECREASED
SNOWPACK &
DISAPPEARING
GLACIERS

Observed changes: Tribal members say it snows both less frequently and
smaller amounts on the reservation than when they were young. They’ve also
noticed the snow line on the mountains rising throughout the years.
Predicted changes: Snowpack in the Olympic mountains will decrease and the
glaciers could fully melt by 2070 (Fountain et al., 2022).
.
Impacts: Less snowpack and glacial melt, in combination with less summer
rain, could lead to drought, increased wildfires, stressed plants, and lower
river flows that are difficult for fish to live in due to high temperatures and low
dissolved oxygen concentrations. Low flows can also physically limit migration
and reduce suitable spawning habitat.

8

CHANGING
RIVER
FLOWS

Observed changes: The Hoh River is known for its cold water but some Tribal
members say they’ve noticed it warming. Flows are incredibly variable, with
low seasons that prevent fish from moving upstream and high seasons where
flooding is a common occurrence. The river is wider and shallower than it used
to be when some Tribal members were young.
Predicted changes: Because of less glacier melt and rain, summer low flow
season will be longer and lower; by 2040, flows in the Hoh River main stem will
be 20 - 30% lower and by 2080, they could be 41-58% lower. Winter flows will
increase; by 2080, the average winter flow could be 45% higher. The river will
get warmer with August temperatures at the upper end of what salmon can
tolerate (Adams & Zimmerman, 2023).
Impacts: Floods that could change the course of the river and damage
infrastructure will increase, as will as times when the river isn’t safe to
navigate. High flows also scour redds and spawning gravels. Lower summer
flows will be challenging for fish and fisherman, as well as the hatchery.

“Especially getting towards summertime, they're really not a creek. They're
like a trickle...There were times that we did do surveys on that creek but we
couldn't because it was so low. We weren't going to see anything anyway.”
Chief Daki Fisher

SEA LEVEL
RISE &
EROSION

Observed changes: Tribal members have seen coastal erosion dramatically
change their beach. High water and coastal erosion forced members out of the
old village site on the beach in the 1970s.
Predicted changes: Relative sea level will rise around 2.1 ft by the end of the
century (Krosby et al., 2018). Rising sea level and total water levels are
predicted to increase coastal erosion.
Impacts: Coastal erosion will shrink the footprint of the reservation; this
causes harm as the land and cultural resources are affected. Erosion could
also reduce habitat for species living on the beaches, like razor clams. High
total water events can cause coastal flooding in low-lying areas. Outside of the
reservation, ports and other coastal infrastructure that Tribal members use
could be threatened by rising sea levels.

9

A WARMING
OCEAN

Observed changes: One Tribal member has noticed that their hands get less
cold while processing smelt than they used to. Another has pulled up dead
crabs in pots and attributes that to hypoxic areas (parts of the ocean with too
little oxygen to support life).
Predicted changes: Oceans have warmed around the world and this is
predicted to continue. It’s difficult to predict temperatures in the marine U&A
because there are many processes happening at the same time, like upwelling
and wind patterns. However, it’s predicted that the U&A waters could warm by
1°C by 2050 (Miller et al., 2013).
Impacts: A warmer ocean could cause water circulation and regional weather
patterns to change. It could slow the growth of some phytoplankton, algae at
the base of the food chain. It will lead other phytoplankton to grow rapidly,
causing harmful algal blooms and hypoxic areas. These can kill marine life and
make shellfish dangerous to eat if the bloom produce toxins.

A MORE ACIDIC
OCEAN

Observed changes: Surface pH, or the measurement of acidity in the ocean,
shows that there has been a 30% increase in acidity (Miller et al., 2013).
Predicted changes: By 2100, a 150-200% increase in acidity is predicted.
Aragonite and calcite concentrations, the carbonate ions that many animals
use to build shells, are predicted to decrease (Siedlecki et al., 2021).
Impacts: More acidic waters make it difficult for some creatures, like oysters
and mussels, to grow their shells. When creatures lower on the food chain
struggle, these impacts ripple throughout the entire ocean. There will be other
impacts of an acidic ocean that we don’t yet know; for example, scientists
recently learned that salmon don’t smell as well in more acidic waters
(Williams et al., 2018). This affects First Foods and those whose livelihoods
depend on the ocean.

SHIFTING
PLANTS &
ANIMALS

Observed changes: Tribal members have seen some new species, including
the occasional California squid. Many species have disappeared, like flounder
and certain tidal creatures.
Predicted changes: The prevailing idea is that species who are able to will
generally shift northward, up in elevation, and to deeper depths in the ocean
to find habitat similar in temperature to their original range. Cedar is one
species whose shift is predicted and is highly concerning.
Impacts: This could impact all First Foods and natural resources that Tribal
members are connected with and depend on.

10

COULD 2015 PROVIDE CLUES ABOUT THE
FUTURE?
Climate change preparation is all about understanding what the future might look like based on the
level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Sometimes we can look to the past to understand the
future.
2015 was Washington’s warmest year on record, so far, with average temperatures being 4.8°F warmer
than pre-industrial times (UW Climate Impacts Group, n.d.). These temperatures are similar to what we
expect in the future. Depending on the emission scenario, by 2050, average temperatures are
predicted to be 1 - 7.5°F higher than the historical record. By 2100, average temperatures could be 2 13.5°F higher (Frankson et al., 2022). This will have ripple effects on the ecosystem including
decreasing snowpack, increasing wildfires, and warmer ocean temperatures:
In 2015, snowpack across WA state was 70% below the normal
amount (normal is considered the 1970-1999 average) (Snover et al.,
2019). On the Olympic Peninsula, the maximum snow depth at the
NPS weather station near Hurricane Ridge was 25 in. The average
maximum depth is 104 in (Baccus, 2018). Summer river flows in the
Olympic Peninsula were some of the lowest ever recorded (Petersen
et al., 2015).

Across WA, 2015 was the biggest wildfire year on record in terms of
acres burned; in eastern WA, over 1 million acres (about the area of
Rhode Island) burned compared to the 10-year annual average of
470,000 (WA DNR, 2022). A lightning strike ignited the Paradise Fire in
the Queets Valley wilderness which burned from May until November
on the Olympic Peninsula (NPS, 2024).

There was a large bloom of Pseudo-nitzschia, an algae, which caused
the largest recorded outbreak of domoic acid, a neurotoxin, along the
west coast of North America. This caused many fishery closures,
including Tribal razor clam and Dungeness crab harvests. The harmful
algal bloom was caused by sea surface temperatures that were 2.5°C
warmer than the average (McCabe et al., 2016). With climate change,
waters will regularly become this warm by 2100.

Photos above are: “Olympic Mountains from Hurricane Ridge” by Paul Cooper, “Washington Wildland Fires” by WA DNR,
and “285_razor_clam_odfw” by OR DFW. All are licensed under CC BY 2.0.

11

WELL-BEING AND
CLIMATE CHANGE
Everything is interwoven; the plants, animals, and
landscapes that characterize the Hoh U&A cannot be
separated from Tribal members’ health and wellbeing. Because climate change has potential to
damage natural resources and processes, it has
potential to damage the Hoh way of life. However,
opportunities accompany this challenge. Decisions
to protect and enhance natural resources could
improve well-being. The Hoh Tribe has adapted to
change throughout the generations. They will
continue to adapt, guided by their cultural values.
This section shares some perspectives from Tribal
members on the impacts of environmental change.
For more, see Appendix 3.

IMPORTANCE OF CULTURAL PRACTICES

Verla Gomez teaching youth how to create beach
mobiles during the 2024 Hoh Watershed Adventure
Camp. Photo by Kelly Rosales.

IDENTITY
“ [The ocean is] where I belong...It's just me
and a crew doing...what us as people were
meant to do anyway. We live on a coast for
a reason. So we're coastal fishermen.
That's always just been a drive of mine.”
Joe Hudson

“Throughout the different years, we’ve been
having different people in our canoes,
different nationalities. We're leaving from Hoh
River, we're going to La Push or we're going to
Neah Bay. I’m going to ask each one of you
guys ‘What do you see with your own eyes out
here?’ We're sitting in the canoe out in the
ocean, one to two miles offshore. ‘Yeah, lots of
water, we’re in the Pacific Ocean.’ So each one
of you are seeing what our forefathers saw out
here. It's all wildlife, Mother Nature. So you're
seeing what they saw, different day, different
year, seeing the same stuff. Whether you're on
the left side of the canoe or the right side of
the canoe when you're paddling, you're feeling
what they did every day of their lives because
they were fishermen, hunters and gatherers,
all of our families on the coast.”

12

Chief Howeeshata, Dave Hudson

WELL-BEING AND CLIMATE CHANGE
Photo by Kim Bray

EMOTIONAL IMPACT OF COASTAL EROSION
“We used to be able to have a road on the right side when you get to the
beach to go on to the river. When the river and the king tides came, and
the storms, they just wiped everything away. The Army Corps had to come
in and dig big holes and put big rocks. When I saw it, I cried...I’m like 'Wow.
This is our ancient village. This is our home. We can’t drive down there.' It
was really shocking, and I cried. But now we will open the other side...so
we have river access because that's our elders, our fishermen, our kids...
We all go down there. That's a very sacred place for us.”
Hoh Tribal Member

SPECIES SHIFTS AND
KNOWLEDGE SHARING

INFRINGEMENT ON TREATY RIGHTS
“They're even trying to get us off of the
beach from clamming because they think
that we're only supposed to have a limit
when they have no clue what kind of
Native we are, Hoh River or Quileute or
Quinault. They don't know, but they're
ready to take our buckets and we lift our
shovels and say ‘Come and try it, Mister.
We're calling your supervisor when we get
to the car and you're going to get
transferred because of what you just did.
You're trying to prevent me from doing
what I do to survive. This is our culture, not
yours. It's not part of the park. Your park is
right there at the end of that line. This
ocean does not belong to the park. But it
belongs to us.’”

“Like 23 years ago, I brought them out to
the beach, 4 kids, 5 kids. I brought lunch
and drinks for them and chips. I'm bringing
them to the tide pools and there's nothing
in there. I'm showing them that there's
supposed to be stuff in this tide pool, but
there's no starfish, no mussels, no boots.
We don't get to see those little snails. ”
Vivian Lee

ECONOMIC IMPACTS
“There was just so much fish back in the
day there. Nowadays, man, there aren’t
any seasons to make a living off of.”

Vivian Lee

13

Richard Sheriff

Drumming and singing at the old village site during the 2024 Hoh Watershed Adventure Camp.
Starting from the left side of the circle, people pictured are Brenda Lee, Mya Fisher, Sonja Hudson, Ruby Sheriff, Vivian
Lee, Chief Howeeshata Dave Hudson, Gene Sampson, and Jay Powell. Photo by Kelly Rosales

ACTIONS TO STRENGTHEN WELL-BEING
The Hoh Tribe currently has many programs underway to strengthen well-being and build climate
resilience. To support those and offer additional ideas about actions the Tribe could pursue, here
are a few ideas for Tribal staff, government, and members to explore. The stars (*) indicate ideas
offered by Tribal members in the climate change interviews.

Protect, conserve, and restore all natural resources and ecosystems within the U&A,
including the most vulnerable like fish habitat, wetlands, riparian buffers, and tidal zones*
Increase Tribal co-management / management and ensure that the Tribe is appropriately
consulted on all decisions that might affect cultural and treaty resources*
Maintain and create strict ordinances and protections against pollution of all kinds*
Host potlatches, drum circles, and cultural events with the whole community*
Retrofit and build new infrastructure with climate change in mind, including roads,
housing, and utilities
Research and employ water saving techniques to ensure Tribal members have enough
water in times of drought
Fund and support robust emergency management programs
Support and increase ongoing cultural programming, including opportunities for youth*
Continue strong participation in the Tribal Canoe Journey, a tradition started by Chief
Howeeshata, Dave Hudson, with others
Expand economic opportunities for the Tribe
Continue to use and teach sustainable harvesting practices*
Advocate for global reduction of carbon emissions in coalition with other Indigenous
groups
Increase natural resources monitoring and protection efforts*
Pursue energy sovereignty while protecting the Hoh way of life and resources
Increase land back, expanding the area that the Tribe can steward*

14

IN-DEPTH: ENERGY RESILIENCY ON THE HOH
INDIAN RESERVATION

Source: Map originally from Clallam PUD but taken from a NODC presentation

The reservation, roughly represented by the blue star on the map, is in an area
subject to frequent energy outages.

Climate change mitigation requires stopping fossil fuel use. However, energy is essential for human
health so building renewable sources that don’t harm Tribal cultural and natural resources is a
necessity. Because energy is a central topic in climate change conversations, here is a brief look
into energy resiliency on the Hoh Indian Reservation.
Currently, all the energy used on the Hoh Indian Reservation arrives from a single transmission line
owned by the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA, n.d.). This line curves around the Hood Canal
and brings energy north along the east side of the Olympic Peninsula. Just east of Beaver, smaller
transmission lines bend south through Forks and carry energy to the reservation. The energy lines
are alternatively owned by BPA and Clallam Public Utility District (PUD). Because this electricity
comes from a singular source, it has multiple vulnerabilities; outages anywhere along the line can
affect the reservation. Winter storms and trees often take out lines and, when they do, the amount
of time it takes to restore power depends on how fast a crew can get there. Currently, BPA doesn’t
allow other companies to work on their lines and they don’t station employees on the peninsula. If
the storms cause other problems, like landslides or a Hood Canal Bridge closure, the response time
is further delayed, lengthening the power outage. In the case of a major earthquake, the entire
peninsula could be out of power for nearly a year (K. Affeld & L. Lesser, personal communication,
April 26, 2024).

15

In the long term, there are additional risks to energy security. Energy demand is predicted to increase
as populations grow, extreme weather prompts higher usage, and electric vehicle ownership
increases. The existing infrastructure can’t handle a large increase in energy load so updates to the
grid are needed. Finally, 84% of BPA’s energy production is hydroelectric, coming from 31 dams on
the Columbia River and its tributaries (NODC, 2022, US Army Corps of Engineers et al., 2003). Energy
production will be challenged by declining snowpacks and lower summer flows, as well as increasing
summer demands from users who want to stay cool (BPA, 2021).
Having increased local power production and more energy sovereignty could be a compelling
solution for the Hoh Tribe. While it would mean maintaining infrastructure, it would allow the Hoh to
have power sources they support and energy production they have control over. Additionally, local
energy production could be more reliable during times it’s highly needed, like storms, cold snaps,
and heat waves. It could also lead to additional economic opportunities, like selling energy credits.
Electricity is necessary for Tribal operations that are directly connected with health and well-being,
like running the Chalaat creek hatchery and operating both the water supply system and wastewater
treatment plant.
Local energy solutions can include microgrids, solar production with storage, diesel generators,
biomass generators, microhydro, or small scale onshore wind with smaller turbine blades that can be
transported along Highway 101. Microgrids are a self-contained electricity system that can be
connected to the main grid but can also isolate from it when outages occur, producing energy on its
own. A combination of these could be utilized to allow the Hoh Tribe to be more energy independent.

Microgrid success story
In 2017, the Blue Lake Rancheria Tribe in California installed a $6.3 million dollar microgrid consisting of a
0.5MW solar system with a 950kW battery storage system. This system can provide energy for six buildings,
including government offices and an American Red Cross shelter. In 2020, when the utility company Pacific
Gas & Electric had to shut off power to 2 million people in northern California, the Tribe’s microgrid was able
to continue operating. They became an essential emergency responder, serving more than 10,000 people
during the day-long outage. They hosted eight critically ill patients in their functioning hotel rooms, provided
a space for the local newspaper to continue publishing, and had the only open gas station and mini mart in
the region (Wilson, 2020).

16

HOH ECOSYSTEMS &
CLIMATE CHANGE
This section covers how climate change is expected
to impact the Hoh Tribe’s natural resources. For the
purposes of this assessment, the U&A is divided into
four ecosystems (Marine, Forest, Wetlands, and
River and Riparian) but that division only exists on
paper. These ecosystems and their processes are
interconnected and cannot be separated from each
other. The same is true about humans; Tribal
members and their well-being cannot be separated
from these ecosystems.
Each section has a summary of the climate changes
most likely to affect it. This is followed by a closer
look at 1 - 3 highlighted species and their
characteristics that make them resilient or
vulnerable to climate change. For more information
on each ecosystem and the highlighted species, see
Appendix 4. To see how species vulnerability scores
were calculated, see Appendix 6.

[Talking about school cedar bark harvesting
activities]: “[The chaperones] showed us
where, but now you have to get it at the
right time because it gets sticky or hard
and you can't pull it off the tree as much or
it splits when you try to pull it... It's like the
right time, right place. It’s like you have to
go right after a hot weekend, the first hot
weekend, and then grab it, but if you keep
waiting and waiting, it's going to be too
soft, not good. If you go too early, it’s just
going to split it in half.”
Ruby Sheriff
Youth swimming in the Upper Hoh River during a
summer heat wave. Photo by Kelly Rosales

17

Photo by Hannah Tennent

MARINE: OCEAN & TIDAL
Projected climate stressors to the ecosystem:
Ocean acidification: Acidic waters with fewer carbonate ions will make it harder for some creatures
to survive, impacting the entire food chain, including salmon.
Warming sea surface temperatures: Warmer temperatures will stress species and make it harder for
them to survive, having ripple effects on the food chain.
Rising sea levels and increasing total water levels: This can cause greater coastal erosion and
flooding events. Species who depend on sandy beaches or have narrow habitats along the beach
could be negatively affected.
Increased marine heatwaves, hypoxic events, and harmful algal blooms: These kill sea creatures
and can create blooms of toxins that shut down fisheries and gathering due to serious risks to
human health.

“We were having a tsunami warning there. Gee, smelts hit the beach. So we're all down
there getting all the smelts there. We had state patrol, Coast Guard, park rangers all
trying to get us off the beach. ‘There's a tidal wave coming.’ We don't care about the
waves there, we want our fish. There's 15 trucks that went down there. We were loading
those 15 trucks up with fish. Everyone there, getting them, using their coats, whatever
they can find to put the fish in their trucks and they're trying to hurry up and get us off
the beach. We're just… we're all worried about the smelts, getting the smelts. Tidal wave
will come, will come. We’ll be with it, we’ll be with it. But we're getting our fish.”
Brenda Lee

18

(smelt)
Surf Smelt / Hypomesus pretiosus

Uses

Smelt are integral. K’wati
gifted smelt uniquely to the
Hoh Tribe. The smelt are sold,
traded, and eaten in a variety
of forms. Some consider smelt
a medicine. Fishing for smelt is
a treaty right. Smelt are a food
source for marine mammals,
sea birds, and other fish,
including salmon.

Potential climate stressors

Narrowing of beach
spawning habitat due to
coastal squeeze
Lack of prey due to ocean
acidification and shifting
upwelling
Warmer ocean waters

“SmeltPrey01_NWC_TGoo_08262009.jpg” by NOAA is
licensed under CC BY 2.0

Past Conditions

Current Conditions

Coastal beaches from the
Quinault River to the
Quillayute River have long
been spawning grounds for
abundant smelt. People
remember catching 100 lbs of
smelt in one thrust, dipnets
too heavy to lift. When the
smelt would hit, people used
to call north and south, letting
everyone know the smelt had
arrived.

Smelt still spawn in the area
but some Tribal members
report it’s much less than it
used to be, that the fish are
smaller, and that they don’t
arrive in schools. Some Tribal
members say that fish in
recent years have been a
decent size. It’s common now
to only be able to fill a few
coolers, as opposed to being
able to fill a truck with totes of
smelt. Smelt amounts
fluctuate yearly.

Compounding challenges

Natural fluctuations in
population size

Beneficial actions

Conduct research on
coastal smelt
Have communal gatherings
focused on smelt
Assess beach habitat and
protect spawning grounds

(more information and quotes in Appendix 4)

19

Pacific razor clams / Siliqua patula
“Razor Clams-Pacific Beach_1957” by ConwaySuz is licensed
under CC BY 2.0

Uses
Razor clams are an important
traditional food. They also
have commercial value and
can be used in regalia and
cultural items. Clamming is a
treaty right. They are also
important food for Dungeness
crab, marine fish, and sea
otters.

Potential climate stressors

Ocean acidification
Warming waters
Beach erosion due to rising
total water levels

Past Conditions

Current Conditions

Razor clams have always been
harvested by Hoh Tribal
members.

Tribal members share that the
clams at Kalaloch are smaller
and less abundant that they
used to be. The shells are also
soft and break easily.

Compounding challenges

Nuclear Inclusion X (NIX)
Microplastics in clams
presenting a danger to
human health
Harmful algal blooms and
marine toxins
Otter predation

Beneficial actions

Continue HAB monitoring
Monitor and study razor
clams, as well as beach
erosion
Have communal gatherings
focused on razor clams
Research beach erosion
solution options

“The clams got real small at Kalaloch and south of there all the way to the primitive part.
My sister and I go down that way...we can eat them, but it's just like you have to pick out
the big ones that you do find and you put the little ones back so they can grow.”
Vivian Lee

(more information and quotes in Appendix 4)

20

Photo by Hannah Tennent

FORESTS
Projected climate stressors to the ecosystem:
Warmer air temperatures: Both plants and animals are adapted to the current conditions in
the forests. If temperatures increase more rapidly than species can adjust, it could stress
them or even make the ecosystem uninhabitable.
Changing water availability through shifting precipitation patterns and declining snowpack:
Longer summer dry seasons will challenge species adjusted to abundant moisture.
Potential for increased wildfire: Large wildfires are rare on the Olympic Peninsula compared
to eastern WA. However, risk factors for fire, like longer dry seasons, are increasing. Large
wildfires could alter forest composition as new species move in after burns.
Insects and tree diseases may thrive in warmer temperatures with longer growing seasons:
For example, the spruce weevil, which prevents Sitka spruce from growing tall, becomes
active after winter when temperatures become warm enough for them (The Oregon Climate
Change Research Institute, 2016).
Expanding invasive species range: Invasive species may be able to move into new areas or
expand their reach as native species struggle with changing conditions.

21

Roosevelt elk /
Cervus canadensis roosevelti

LESS VULNERABLE
Uses

Elk are a food source. Hunting
is a treaty right. They are
integral to cultural practices,
from different societies to
regalia. Elk are also essential
to the ecosystem; they are
food for mountain lions. When
elk die of natural causes, their
carcasses provide food for
hundreds of organisms.

Potential climate stressors

Spread of less nutritious
invasive plant species
Drought

“Dean_Creek_Elk_3” by BLM OR & WA is licensed under CC BY
2.0

Past Conditions

Current Conditions

Abundant before settlers
arrived. Since settling,
populations have fluctuated
depending on hunting
pressure, logging,
development, and protection.

Many interviewees said elk are
healthy and abundant. Some
said they’ve noticed smaller
herds and elk with smaller
antlers. Elk hoof disease is not
yet prevalent like in other
parts of WA.

Compounding challenges

Elk hoof disease
Chronic wasting disease
Development leading to
habitat loss

Beneficial actions

Preserve and restore
habitat
Monitor and remove
invasive species
Monitor for diseases
Engage youth and others
in hunting

“I went into the hunting scene and, oh man, what a life it is that’s out there.”
Boe Horejsi

(more information and quotes in Appendix 4)

22

Oval-leafed huckleberry /
oval-leafed blueberry /
Vaccinium ovalifolium

MODERATELY VULNERABLE
Uses

An important food source for
people and animals. Berries
and jam are sometimes sold or
traded. Gathering is a treaty
right.

Potential climate stressors

“Oval-Leaf Huckleberry” by Peter Pearsall is licensed under CC
BY 2.0

Past Conditions

Current Conditions

There are many varieties of
berries around the U&A. Tribal
members have harvested
across the Peninsula and as
far as Mt. Adams for
generations. People had
abundant canned berries to
eat throughout the year.

There are mixed experiences
with berry timing. Some
people report that the season
has shifted earlier, with some
berries freezing after budding
out and huckleberries ripening
in late July and early August
now as opposed to August and
September. Others have
noticed that berry seasons are
later than they used to be and
that there are fewer blue
huckleberries.

Compounding
challenges

Beneficial actions

Monitor and study huckleberry. Not
much is known about their range or
response to climate change.
Maintain and restore bog and wetland
habitats
Determine if a program supporting
huckleberry through seeding efforts
or assisted migration would be
appropriate
Host communal gatherings around
huckleberry

Habitat shift due to rain
and temperature
conditions
Wildfire

(more information and quotes in Appendix 4)

23

Salmonberry / Rubus spectabilis

LESS VULNERABLE
Uses

Both the berries and the
salmonberry sprouts are an
important food source.
Berries and jam are sometimes
sold or traded. Gathering is a
treaty right.

Potential climate stressors

“Salmonberry” by Ruth Hartnup is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Past Conditions

Current Conditions

Salmonberries have been
abundant and something
people have always eaten.
Some salmonberry areas were
managed with fire because the
fruit yield would increase two
years after being burned
(Zouhar, 2019).

Compounding
challenges

Many interviewees said they
notice fewer berry bushes and
smaller harvests. An exception
to this is abundant
salmonberries in logged areas.
One interviewee said that the
salmonberry sprouts are
bitter tasting now.

Beneficial actions

Monitor and study salmonberry. Not
much is known about their range or
response to climate change.
Maintain and restore riparian
salmonberry habitat
Consider a return to fire as a
management practice
Maintain and revitalize vigorous
invasive species management

Habitat shift due to rain and
temperature conditions
Competition with non-native
plants

(more information and quotes in Appendix 4)

24

“Swampy bog on Highway 101” by Michael B is licensed under CC BY 2.0

WETLANDS
Projected climate stressors to the ecosystem:
Decreased snow melt, decreased summer rain, and increased temperature: Many of the
bogs along the Pacific Coast depend on rain as their water source, as opposed to
groundwater (Rocchio et al., 2014). Because of decreasing rain predicted in summers, as well
as general warming, wetlands will likely become drier. Models predict that wetlands in
western WA will dry out earlier in the summer than they currently do and wetlands that
already dry out could be lost (Lee et al., 2015). These changes will cause plant species in
wetlands to change, including those that are culturally important like camas and beargrass.
Drying wetlands will also release their stored carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to
climate change.

BACKGROUND
Wetlands are considered essential to Hoh people as excellent areas to hunt and find medicinal plants
(Powell, 2002). Wetlands support an immense amount of life. By area, they are only 2% of
Washington’s landscape but over 66% of vertebrate animals use them. Forty-five percent of
endangered, threatened, or sensitive plants live in wetlands (Rocchio et al., 2014). Certain wetlands
themselves can also be rare, like the Crowberry Bog in the Hoh watershed. It is the only documented
raised bog in the western contiguous United States and has been storing peat, or decomposing plant
material, for over 15,000 years (Rocchio, 2019, Munguía, 2021). This ability to store peat, a type of
carbon, makes preserving wetlands essential to slowing climate change. If wetlands are damaged,
their carbon is released, adding to greenhouse gas concentrations. Unfortunately, wetlands can be
easily destroyed by logging and development. A recent U.S. Supreme Court decision in Sackett v.
Environmental Protection Agency loosened regulations around wetlands, making them more
vulnerable. The Hoh watershed also has many cryptic wetlands, or forested wetlands that are
invisible to satellite imaging, that are excellent carbon storage and valuable habitat (Mesa, 2024).

25

Indian Tea /
Labrador Tea
Rhododendron groenlandicum

MODERATELY VULNERABLE
Uses
This is a traditional food with
high cultural importance and
medicinal properties. It
provides habitat for birds, as
well as food for insects, bees,
and elk. Gathering is a treaty
right.

Potential climate stressors

Drying and warming
wetland habitat

"Labrador Tea" by Joshua Mayer is licensed under CC 2.0

Past Conditions

Current Conditions

Indian tea has been gathered
since time immemorial in bogs
on the Hoh U&A. Quileute and
Hoh people practiced burning
to maintain the prairies.

People have not observed any
increase or decrease in the
amount of tea. The best time
to harvest is the fall, starting
in September. Some members
share that this timing has
shifted later in the year.

Compounding challenges

Damaging harvest
methods
Decreasing habitat due to
forest encroachment or
development

Beneficial actions

Preserve and maintain
wetland and prairie
habitats
Host communal harvesting
events
Monitor Indian tea as little
information is known
about how it might
respond to climate change
Map wetlands in the Hoh
U&A for management and
protection
Consider returning to
controlled burning as a
management method

(more information and quotes in Appendix 4)

26

Photo by Kim Bray

RIVER AND RIPARIAN
Projected climate stressors to the ecosystem:
Lower summer flows: The Hoh River will see lower flows in summer due to less summer rain
and declining glacial and snowpack melt. Low flows can block fish migration.
Warming temperatures: A consequence of lower flows is warmer rivers. This creates
challenging environments with lower dissolved oxygen concentrations for fish and other life.
Higher winter flows: Increased winter rain will cause higher flows which can cause floods,
scour habitats, and change the course of the river.

“You have see it to believe it. I could tell you where the river was compared to
where it's at now and it's unrecognizable. It used to rub right up against a
schoolhouse that was across the river about right there on the other side. Now it's
300 yards away from there, from where that schoolhouse is. Just since the ‘90s. It
was a major channel over there at one time. Now it’s just filled in with sand. And it'll
probably be back over there in 30 more years. Just the way the river flows. Who
knows?”
Joe Hudson

27

(salmon, general)
(salmon, fish, general)

Pacific Salmonids

"Chinook salmon McAllister Springs" by Roger Tabor is licensed
under CC 2.0

EXTREMELY VULNERABLE

To keep the report short, all Pacific salmon are combined. Impacts to different species will depend on their
biological needs and seasonal timing of their life cycles, among other issues.

Uses
Salmonids are a keystone
species ecologically,
economically, and
culturally. Fishing is a
treaty right.
Potential climate stressors

Both river and ocean
temperatures becoming
too warm
River levels becoming
too low in the summer
Winter storms scouring
redds
Lack of prey in the
ocean due to
acidification

Past Conditions

The saying goes that salmon were
so thick, you could walk across the
river on their backs. Interviewees
recalled fishing seven days a week
when they were younger. They
regularly caught 25 – 50lb spring
salmon. Canoes would be so full of
fish that they were difficult to
paddle back to shore without
tipping over.

Compounding challenges
Pollutants, including oil spills
and emerging contaminants of
concern, like 6PPD-Q
Transportation infrastructure
that blocks fish passage, like
under-sized culverts
Degraded streams due to
sediment and invasive species
Habitat degradation due to
legacy logging impacts
Overfishing

Current Conditions

Compared to other rivers in
the US, the Hoh has a healthy
wild salmon run. However,
Tribal members have
witnessed declines over the
generations.
Some people say fish are
smaller and are moving to
new areas to find quality
habitat conditions. Fall
fisheries have occasionally
opened late due to low water
levels. Other seasons have
closed early because of low
catch numbers or below
average numbers of redds.

Beneficial actions
Preserve existing habitat and implement
restoration projects that expand habitat
Increase groundwater connection through
woody debris installation
Continue to buy land along the river to
preserve large buffers and increase Tribal
access

Reduce stressors like urbanization,
pollution, and erosion
Continue monitoring
Remove fish passage barriers
Carefully manage hatcheries to reduce risk
to wild salmon
Connect youth with fishing opportunities

Western redcedar / Thuja plicata

HIGHLY VULNERABLE
“Thuja plicata” by Axel Kristinsson is licensed under CC BY 2.0

Uses

Past Conditions

Redcedar is a cultural
keystone species. It is used to
make many different items,
including canoes, drums,
carvings, regalia, gifts, and
baskets. Different size cedar is
useful; for example, cedars
with large diameters are
needed for dug out canoes.
Cedar items are often traded
or sold as an income source.
Gathering cedar is a treaty
right. Cedars are massive trees
central to the ecosystem,
providing important habitat
and shade for rivers.

Potential climate
stressors

Drought
Wildfire

Current Conditions

Redcedar has been abundant
in the Hoh U&A. Logging of all
species has been extensive in
the U&A and the Olympic
Peninsula (Van Pelt, J., 2007).

Interviewees noted that
forests seem to be healthy,
although there isn’t much old
growth around as there used
to be; even the trees that
wash up on the beach are
smaller than what people
remember when they were
young. Cedar is still accessible
for gathering but some people
are seeing a shift in the best
time to gather it.
There have been fewer
observations of redcedar
dieback along the coast than
in Puget Sound and central
WA (Goodrich et al., 2023).

Compounding
challenges

Beneficial actions

Illegal cedar harvest
and sale, including
boughs, wood, and
bark

Continue communal cedar gathering
Monitor redcedar to understand any
changes in population
Protect existing cedar trees,
particularly in high soil moisture areas,
and allow stands to grow large
Consider planting cedar in areas with
high soil moisture content
(more information and quotes in Appendix 4)

29

IN OUR WORDS: SPECIES LOSS AND
SHIFT
The decline of fish:
“We need something big to change because they are gone [referring to a fall king
salmon replica in the Natural Resources office that likely weighed 35 – 50lbs and is
longer than 3 ft]. I haven't seen one of them since the ‘80s. That's a big old toad
there. They were regularly like that in our nets.”
Joe Hudson

Fluctuating razor clams:
“I wish we’d get the monster ones down there like in Taholah...One year, I was with
my uncle...We're all in a circle talking and one guy was tapping his foot and the clam
hole chirped up... So we all moved away from him there and that clam he dug out, it
came out like that [shows the size of about a 12-inch clam].
He got full off of that one clam and he said that we used to have those down here.
We don't any more. Only have the medium size or the little ones.”
Brenda Lee

Shifting seasons:
“I do know it's a different time with gathering the cedar because we used to go
towards the end of April, beginning of May and now it's towards the end of May,
beginning of June. We have to wait for the sap to quit running or else our bark, when
we peel it, is pitchy. Nobody wants pitchy bark, especially me.”
Marie Riebe
“Well now, because everything's changing, it's so weird. Usually the huckleberries
and stuff came in August, September and now they're early, they're fast. They come
fast now like early August, late July... It’s just so weird because I never saw
blackberries grow with salmonberries.”
Ruby Sheriff

30

CONCERNS
This list summarizes the concerns that surfaced in interviews. Some are directly related to climate
change while others are more general environmental concerns but it’s all listed because everything
is connected. Many overlap, even though they are categorized. These are not ranked in any manner
and some represent multiple people’s concerns while others might only represent one person’s.

Harm to species and ecosystems

Declining species, including smaller clams at Kalaloch, declining fish, and the spread of elk hoof
disease. People expressed concerns from economic, cultural, ecological, and subsistence
viewpoints.
An unhealthy ocean, including warming waters, hypoxia events, ocean acidification, and pollution
Overfishing due to sport fishers, state management of fish, and international management
Overhunting of elk due to an abundance of seasons provided by state managers
New development causing harm. Specific impacts mentioned included:
Decreasing habitat for elk
Warming river waters caused by removing trees and making buffer zones too small
Redds becoming damaged by winter floods, sedimentation, and an accelerated river caused by
riverbank armoring and road construction
New development without sufficient science to show there won’t be damage, like moving too
fast on offshore wind
Pollution negatively affecting species and drinking water, including damage to natural springs
Logging cycles that are too short and trees not getting big enough to provide healthy habitat for
birds and other animals
Incorrect commercial harvesting that damages ecosystems. Examples include:
Salal and beargrass being overharvested and in a way that doesn’t ensure continued
productivity
Legacy impacts of bottom trawling in the ocean
Human produced sound in the ocean harming whales

Risk to human health and Tribal infrastructure

Insufficient water supply for people and the hatchery during the summer
Erosion of the reservation area, including the beach, the road, and historical homes
Tsunamis
Flooding risks, both from the river and the ocean
Poor air quality due to both wildfire smoke and pollution

Infringement on treaty rights and cultural traditions

Locked gates preventing access to the U&A (covered in Appendix 3)
Infringement on exercising treaty rights, like people trying to enforce limits or prevent Hoh Tribal
members from being in certain areas
A lack of gathering spaces, like a longhouse, leading to cultural loss and people spending less time
together

31

DESIRES AND HOPES
This list summarizes the desires that surfaced in interviews. Some are directly related to climate
change while others are more general but it’s all listed because everything is connected. Many
overlap, even though they are categorized. These are not ranked in any manner and some represent
multiple people’s hopes while others might only represent one person’s.

A healthy environment with abundant wildlife populations, including tidal life, fish, and
plants. There were a variety of solutions and actions proposed including:

Habitat restoration along the river to increase shaded areas
Improvements to the Chalaat hatchery, which is generally viewed positively:
More hatcheries on creeks and rivers with year-round flow, like the South Fork
Stocking with additional fish from the Cook Creek hatchery
An expansion of the Chalaat hatchery including increased broodstocking and producing coho
Releasing fish further upriver where the water is colder
More scientific information and monitoring, as well as staff members. There was a request for
more communication that isn’t online between staff and the community. A Tribal member shared
how they felt valued when the Natural Resources Department asked for help in decision making.
Continued focus on removing noxious weeds
More green energy use instead of fossil fuels

Protecting human health and infrastructure

Protection of the current land base and preventing erosion of the beach
An increase in First Foods, including salmon, clams and berries, so that pantries are full
Having abundant educational opportunities for youth, as well as career opportunities, like
internships. Having Native role models and Native representation at schools and in the workplace.

Protecting Treaty rights and ensuring cultural continuance

Increasing access to the U&A
Land back within the U&A
Ensuring protection of treaty rights and maximum harvest allowances for Tribal members. One
Tribal member wanted more fishing days. Another expressed support for closing the river to
fishing for awhile to let the resources rebound.
Having stable cultural programs and providing resources to elders
Widespread teaching and sharing of cultural traditions and knowledge, both within families and
through programs for the wider Tribal community
Continued participation and involvement with the Tribal Canoe Journey
Protection of Hoh Tribal cultural artifacts and restoration of others, like the beach house

Things people are hopeful about

Young people in leadership and stepping up as cultural role models
Ongoing cultural programs and reconnecting with the language
Expansion of economic opportunities in the marine U&A
Careful management of fish

32

Gratitude
This project benefited from following in the footsteps of others. Being able to
follow their methods and receive inspiration from their work was invaluable.
Here are some of the reports and plans that greatly influenced this
assessment. A full list of referenced publications follows.
Aanji-bimaadiziimagak o’ow aki, a 2023 assessment written by the GLIFWC
Climate Change Team. (The species charts and some interview questions are
directly from their work.)
Climate Adaptation Plan for the Territories of the Yakama Nation Version 1, a
2016 assessment written by the Yakama Nation, Cascadia Consulting Group,
SAH Ecologia LLC, and University of Washington Climate Impacts Group.
Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment for the Treaty of Olympia Tribes, a
2016 assessment written for the Quinault Indian Nation, Hoh Indian Tribe,
and Quileute Tribe by The Oregon Climate Change Research Institute.
Climate Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Plan, a 2013 assessment
written by the Jamestown S’kallam Tribe.

Author positionality statement
My name is Hannah Tennent. I am a white American who was raised in New
Mexico and has lived in Seattle, Washington on the land of the Coast Salish
people for the past ten years. I graduated from University of Washington’s
School of Marine and Environmental Affairs in June 2023. This climate change
assessment was the focus of my 2023 - 2024 Hershman Fellowship, a program
run by WA Sea Grant. Because my position as a non-Native fellow working for the
Natural Resources Department could influence this work, I tried to ground ideas
in interview comments and topics addressed in Tribal climate resources.

33

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APPENDIX 1: REPRESENTATIVE CONCENTRATION
PATHWAY SCENARIOS
Climate models use sets of equations to represent the processes that make up the Earth’s climate.
Models are tested through “hindcasting” or putting in variables from the past, like greenhouse gas
levels, and seeing if the outcome matches historical recorded conditions. Scientists are confident
that models accurately represent earth systems, but each model differs and they all contain some
level of uncertainty because Earth’s complexity is inherently difficult to replicate. Because of this,
ranges of predictions are shared in this report whenever possible. When one scenario is used, it’s
often RCP 8.5, the scenario in which no climate mitigation is done (see below). This was chosen so as
not to underestimate the risks.
Different climate scenarios allow us to prepare for varying futures based on the level of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is recognized as an
authority on climate change and they’ve issued several scenario types throughout the years. The
first were published in 1992 and then refined in 2000. One of those scenarios is referenced in this
report: A1B. In this scenario, the world has more efficient fossil fuel technology and, in 2050, both
population and emissions peak (IPCC Working Group III, 2000). This report primarily uses the
scenarios from the 5th IPCC Report called Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs). These
are defined by how many greenhouses gases are in the atmosphere by the year 2100 (IPCC, 2014):

RCP
Scenario

Level of mitigation

Greenhouse gas
concentration in
atmosphere by
2100 (ppm)

RCP 2.6

Very strict. Greenhouse gases peak around 2020 and then decline to 0
by 2100. The world has passed this scenario.

430 - 480

In 2023, the global average greenhouse gas concentration was 419 ppm (Lindsey, 2024).

RCP 4.5

Some mitigation. Greenhouse gases peak around 2040. This
scenario is still possible but would require immense and
immediate mobilization.

RCP 6.0
(similar to
A1B)

Some mitigation. Greenhouse gases peak around 2080.

RCP 8.5

No mitigation. Greenhouse gases continue to rise.

50

580 - 720

720 - 1000

> 1000

APPENDIX 2: CHANGING CLIMATE CONDITIONS IN THE
HOH U&A, EXPANDED
Warmer air temperatures ................................................................................................................. 51
Changing rain .................................................................................................................................. 52
Snow ........................................................................................................................................... 53
Melting and disappearing glaciers .................................................................................................... 54
Rivers and streams with warmer temperatures and shifting flows ....................................................... 56
Flooding risks .............................................................................................................................. 58
Sea level rise ................................................................................................................................... 59
Increased coastal erosion ................................................................................................................ 61
A warming ocean ............................................................................................................................. 61
A more acidic ocean ........................................................................................................................ 63
Wildfires and worsening air quality ................................................................................................... 64
Shifting plant and animal ranges....................................................................................................... 65

Warmer air temperatures
The increasing greenhouse gases that cause climate change are like a warm blanket in the atmosphere; they keep
heat in. As humans keep producing greenhouse gases, this blanket gets thicker, and the Earth gets warmer.
Average air temperatures have risen and are predicted to keep rising. This is the underlying cause of most of
the changing climate conditions covered in this appendix.
•

Observed changes: Tribal members say that winters feel warmer than they used to and that summers
are getting hotter. Some noted that the air temperature difference between the reservation and Forks is
noticeable, with Forks being warmer, and they are grateful to live near the ocean where the air is cooler.
One Tribal member shared that they recently bought their first air conditioner.

•

Predicted changes: Temperatures will continue to change seasonally, but, overall, the trend will be
towards warmer temperatures. From 1971-2000, the average annual temperature in the Hoh watershed
was 46.3°F (7.9°C). It’s predicted to rise to 50.8°F (10.4°C) under the RCP 4.5 scenario or to 54.1°F (12.2°C)
under RCP 8.5 by the end of the 21st century. At the end of the 20th century, there were 0.2 days per year

51

with temperatures over 86°F (30°C). By the end of the 21st century, that could rise to 1 - 23 days depending
on the location in the U&A and on the level of carbon emissions. In the Olympic Mountains that feed the
Hoh River, freeze-free days, or days with a minimum temperature above 32°F (0°C), will increase, reducing
snowfall (Krosby et al., 2018).

Figure 1. Projected Change in Annual Average Daily Temperature 2070-2099 vs. 1971-2000 under a Higher
Emissions Scenario, RCP 8.5. This image shows the Olympic Peninsula with the Hoh watershed, a portion of the
Hoh U&A, outlined in black. Under a high emissions scenario, average annual temperatures along the western side
will rise by 7-8°F while the eastern side will rise >8°F (Krosby et al., 2018).

Changing rain
Abundant rain is a part of what defines the Hoh Tribe’s ecosystems and creates the familiar landscape. The Lower
Hoh River sees an average of 102 to 142 inches of precipitation per year (WA DNR, 1999). In the future, the pattern
of when and how much rain arrives will change. Summer rain levels will decrease, while winter rain will
increase.
•

Observed changes: Some Tribal members aren’t experiencing a shift in rain patterns, noting that the
alternating wet and dry seasons that have always existed are continuing. Others have observed drier
summers. Historically, summer fog levels have been relatively high, and this helps offset some of the
moisture stress (Spies et al., 2018).

52

“For example, we used to always have to mow our lawn every week, otherwise it
would get too long. Every week we had to mow the lawn. And now this last year, I
think we mowed it maybe three times. I'm pretty sure it was just three times instead
of every week. Even Philip [Riebe] goes ‘Man, I can't believe we're not mowing the
lawn.’ I said ‘I know. It doesn't need it.’”
Marie Riebe
•

Predicted changes:
Winter

Summer

More rain is predicted to fall during the
winter. From 1971-2000, the Hoh watershed
received an average of 115 in of rain in the
winter. From 2070-2099 under RCP 8.5, the
watershed could expect anywhere from 125129 in during the winter (Krosby et al., 2018).

Less rain will fall in summer. Right now, the
watershed sees 34 in from April to September.
Models estimate that the watershed will have a
few inches less fall in the summer, around 32
in by 2070 under RCP 8.5 (Krosby et al., 2018).
Late summer precipitation from mid-July to
mid-September could decline by 1 – 12%
(Raymond & Rogers, 2022).

Increased intensity: Heavy rainfall events,
often called atmospheric rivers, are expected
to become more intense across western
Washington after 2050 because warmer air can
hold more water (Mauger, 2019).

Drought: Drought is legally defined in WA as
summer precipitation below 75% of normal
summer precipitation. Under RCP 8.5, the
chance of summer drought happening
increases as time goes on, up to a 32 – 47%
chance by 2070 (Raymond & Rogers, 2022).

Snow
Increasing temperatures have changed winter on the reservation. Many Tribal members have
observed less snow during winters in their lifetime:
“That field down there, when they first opened it, the snow used to get up there, four or five
feet high. We used to all go over, make a maze in that field. We’d play tag and everything on
that field when we were all younger. Now you can't even get two inches of snow...You can
get it up the road but not here. So that’s how much it really changed.”
Walter Ward
----------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Ruby: “We haven't been having a lot of snow, like it will be snowing and then it’ll be here for
a couple of days, like a day, three days and then it's melted and gone. It’s just bogus
because I love the snow.”
Interviewer: “Do you feel like it snowed more when you were younger?”
Ruby: “Oh yeah, because my sister used to bring us to the beach, and we’d go down that big
hill down there... We had to go early in the morning when nobody drove in it because we
only get a couple inches of snow and not a couple feet of snow.”
Ruby Sheriff
---------------------------------------------------------------------------“I don't know if it was just a shorter time period, but it seemed like we had more snow
days... throughout the whole school year. It wasn't just one week straight. It might have
been different times of the year I thought but it was too crazy. We had more snow when I
was younger, but maybe it was just that I couldn't keep track of time or something like that.
Whether it was one a week, but it seemed like it was different times of the year.”
Richard Sheriff

Melting and disappearing glaciers
The thin glaciers on the Olympic Mountains are particularly susceptible to temperature shifts. They exist at a
relatively low elevation where a slight air temperature change can transform snow to rain. At Hurricane Ridge
(5,242 ft) on the northeastern side of the National Park, the average winter temperature is 29°F (Baccus, personal
communication, 2024). Because of warming temperatures, glaciers are a fraction of what they once were,
and they are predicted to disappear by 2070 if carbon emissions are not curbed.
“The years that I went upriver with my grandfather [Charles Sailto Sr], we went all the way
up to the top where the snow and glacier was. He took pictures of that. When I first went up,
it was pretty much this way. I went up with our biologist and I go ‘Where are the glaciers?’
They moved up, melted about 10, 15 miles or more. We've been observing them. They're
moving maybe about 2 to 3 feet a year, melting that much. That has changed quite a bit.”
Walter Ward

•

Observed changes: Historically, snow fell on the Olympic Mountains in winter where it contributed to
glacier growth and formed snowfields. With temperature shifts, much of that snow is now falling as rain.
Then, as warmer summers arrive, melting of the dwindling snowpack and shrinking glaciers starts earlier
and continues steadily through the summer. One Hoh Tribal member shared that they’ve seen the snow
line shift upward throughout their life. This observation matches the monitoring record; there has been a

54

downward trend in snowpack levels in the Olympics since 1949 (Baccus, personal communication, 2023).
In 2015, the area of glacial ice and snowfields in the Olympic Peninsula was only half of what it was in 1900
(Fountain et al., 2022). From 1980 – 2009, temperature rise reduced the Hoh Glacier’s thickness by 15%
(Riedel et al., 2015).

Blue Glacier Loss 1899 - 2008

Figure 2: Blue Glacier Loss. The red arrows are in the same spot on each photo, showing the dramatic loss of Blue
Glacier, one of the glaciers feeding into the Hoh River (Photos provided by Mike Larrabee, Physical Science
Technician with the National Park Service NCCN Inventory and Monitoring Program).

55

Figure 3. Cumulative Balance by Stake – Blue Glacier. This graph shows the cumulative balance of the glacier,
or how much ice it has and whether it is gaining mass, remaining the same, or losing mass. By taking accurate
measurements of the stakes, scientists can calculate how much mass the glacier has gained or lost in any given
year. The stakes are at different elevations along the glacier. In more recent years, the lower elevation stakes in
areas with warmer temperatures have increasingly lost more mass. The change is more pronounced in the lower
elevation stakes, but most of the higher elevation locations are losing mass too, except Stake 1. (Graph provided
by Mike Larrabee, Physical Science Technician with the National Park Service NCCN Inventory and Monitoring
Program)

•

Predicted changes:
o Glacial disappearance: Glaciers are predicted to fully disappear from the Olympic Mountains by
2070 if carbon emissions continue unabated, the future represented by RCP 8.5. If emissions are
quickly mitigated, under the RCP 4.5 future, glaciers will be around a few square km and exist only
on Mt. Olympus (Fountain et al., 2022).

Rivers and streams with warmer temperatures and shifting flows
The streams and rivers in the U&A are predicted to be warmer, with higher winter flows and lower summer
flows. The mainstem of the Hoh River is predicted to have an average August temperature of 16 – 20°C, the
upper end of the temperature range in which salmon can survive (Adams & Zimmerman, 2023).

•

Observed changes:
o

Water temperatures: The Hoh River is known for having cold water, but temperatures in streams
are rising; currently 14 waterbodies have high water temperatures unsuitable for their designated
salmonid habitat (NWIFC, 2020).

56

o

o

Flows: Since 1960, the 7-day minimum recorded flow on the Hoh River has been highly variable but
the overall trend is decreasing. The minimum flows range from 260 cubic feet per second (cfs) –
1000 cfs. In years where it was below 300 cfs, Tribal staff members observed Chinook salmon
unable to move upstream (Golder Associates Inc., 2005).
Changing shape of the river: Tribal members shared how the river is wider and shallower now than
it used to be when they were younger. The river and its tributaries are likely widening, in part, due to
effects of historical logging. Before riparian buffer zones were established as the best practice, the
old growth trees were removed right up the edge of the streams. The alder stands and other trees
that grew up in their absence aren’t large enough to prevent the banks from eroding during high
flows, allowing the channels to widen. Additionally, when the small trees now along the river fall in,
they are washed downstream. Unlike old growth trees, they don’t create hard points in the river and
build islands that add structure. The wider channels, along with a lack of large woody debris to
create deep pools and less canopy cover, contribute to the rising stream temperatures.

Interviewer: “You were saying the creeks change. It sounds like with high water they could
split or change spots. Were there any other ways that the creeks were changing?”
Daki: “Especially getting towards summertime, they're really not a creek. They're like a
trickle...There were times that we did do surveys on that creek, but we couldn't because it
was so low. We weren't going to see anything anyway.”

Chief Daki Fisher
•

Projected changes:
o Lower summer flows: The receding glaciers are one of the primary culprits behind lower summer

o

o

flows. Between 9 - 15.4% of the total summer flow in the Hoh River currently comes from glacial ice
and snow melt. However, the glacial contribution can increase to as much as 18- 30% of the flow
in August, with 1/3 of that coming from melting glacial ice alone (Riedel et al., 2015). Summer flows
are in for severe reductions due to this disappearing glacial contribution and less rain. By 2040, the
Hoh River mainstem could see flows that are reduced by 20 – 30% in the summer, while smaller
tributaries will see reductions of less than 10% (The Oregon Climate Change Research Institute,
2016). By 2080, under a high emissions scenario, the average summer flow in the mainstem could
be 41 - 58% lower and the duration of low streamflow will get longer (Adams & Zimmerman, 2023;
Raymond & Rogers, 2022).
Higher winter flows: Winter flows will grow with increased rain, as will spring flows with earlier
snowmelt. Mean winter increases of 0 – 10% are predicted in streams and tributaries. These small
changes accumulate in the Hoh River which could see the winter average flow increase by 45%
(Adams & Zimmerman, 2023). More 100-year magnitude floods are expected (Miller et al., 2013).
Warmer temperatures: While water temperatures aren’t predicted to rise as much as in other
watersheds along the coast due to glacial melt and snow input, the Hoh U&A will see warming
waters that are harmful to fish. Under RCP 8.5, the headwaters are anticipated to stay below 12°C
(53°F) in the summer but the mainstem of the Hoh is predicted to have August average
temperatures between 16-20°C (60-68°F), at the upper end of the salmonids’ range (Adams &

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Zimmerman, 2023). Because that’s a prediction of the average, there will be days where portions of
the river have temperatures above what salmonids can tolerate.

Figure 4. Glacier contributions to Hoh River, May – September. This graph shows how much water in the Hoh
River has come from glacial melt or runoff from the watershed in various years from 2014. In warmer years, like
2015, glacial melt has increased and is a higher percentage of the overall flow. (Graph provided by Mike Larrabee,
Physical Science Technician with the National Park Service NCCN Inventory and Monitoring Program).

Flooding risks
Floods have long been a part of life on the Hoh Indian Reservation. People moved from their homes at the beach
to homes further inland due, in part, to the ocean flooding. When a braid of the Hoh River was further south than it
currently is, flooding of the baseball field and Tribal offices was common. Some of the housing close to creeks
sees regular floods whose impacts range in severity, from lifting the boats in people’s yards to causing toilets to
back up and turn into mini geysers. Floods have forced the Tribe to replace water wells and sewer systems, and
they’ve had to declare disasters over 20 times (Bridgeview Consulting, 2022). Outside of the reservation, flooding
can affect critical infrastructure, like when high waters washed out the Bogachiel Bridge in 1979 making Highway
101 impassable to the north. WSDOT has ranked the section of highway from the reservation north to milepost
185, south of Forks, as having high vulnerability to climate change due to extreme weather events, sedimentation
from glaciers, and rising rivers and creeks (WSDOT, 2011).

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Flooding in the Hoh U&A, from both the rivers and the ocean, will increase due to increasing winter precipitation,
sea level rise, and higher extreme total water level events. Frequency and severity are likely to increase with
water entering new areas than previous flood patterns. Floods are a wide-reaching and expensive climate
change impact. They can cause unsafe housing conditions, deaths, property and infrastructure damage, harm to
salmon habitat, and road closures that can cut off emergency response routes. The Hoh Highlands development
is the primary mitigation strategy as it will place infrastructure out of both the tsunami zone and the river’s 100year floodplain (Bridgeview Consulting, 2022). However, important cultural resources and locations will remain in
the floodplain even after infrastructure is moved. Because of the risks posed to cultural resources and
surrounding infrastructure, like Highway 101, flood preparation and response should be considered an
essential part of climate change adaptation.

Figure 5. Flood risk along the Hoh River. This map shows areas that are at risk from flooding. The coast is a
FEMA 1% V zone or a coastal area that has a 1% chance of flooding each year. These are also referred to as 100year floods and are large floods. The orange area along the river is a FEMA A Zone, or a river area with a 1% change
of being inundated by a large flood every year. A flood of this size would cover Lower Hoh Road and infrastructure
on the western side of the reservation. It also gets

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/tribal%3Ahoh%3A9aa1a035180fa0bb. Public record. Not legal advice.