# Guidance Under Sections 951A and 954 Regarding Income Subject to a High Rate of Foreign Tax

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URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2020-15351

## Record

- **Collection:** Federal Register
- **Document type:** Rule
- **Published:** July 23, 2020
- **Citation:** 85 FR 44620

## Text

DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY
Internal Revenue Service
26 CFR Part 1
[TD 9902]
RIN 1545-BP15
Guidance Under Sections 951A and 954 Regarding Income Subject to a High Rate of Foreign Tax

AGENCY:

Internal Revenue Service (IRS), Treasury.

ACTION:

Final regulations.

SUMMARY:

This document contains final regulations under the global intangible low-taxed income and subpart F income provisions of the Internal Revenue Code regarding the treatment of income that is subject to a high rate of foreign tax. The final regulations affect United States shareholders of foreign corporations. This guidance relates to changes made to the applicable law by the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, which was enacted on December 22, 2017.

DATES:

Effective date:
These regulations are effective on September 21, 2020.

Applicability dates:
For dates of applicability, see §§ 1.951A-7(b) and 1.954-1(h)(1) and (3).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:

Jorge M. Oben or Larry R. Pounders at (202) 317-6934 (not a toll-free number).

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

Background

Section 951A, which contains the global intangible low-taxed income (“GILTI”) rules, was added to the Internal Revenue Code (the “Code”) by the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, Public Law 115-97, 131 Stat. 2054, 2208 (December 22, 2017) (the “Act”). On October 10, 2018, the Department of the Treasury (“Treasury Department”) and the IRS published proposed regulations (REG-104390-18) under sections 951, 951A, 1502, and 6038 in the
Federal Register
(83 FR 51072). On June 21, 2019, the Treasury Department and the IRS published final regulations (T.D. 9866) in the
Federal Register
(84 FR 29288, as corrected at 84 FR 44693) under sections 951, 951A, 1502, and 6038, and proposed regulations (REG-101828-19) under sections 951, 951A, 954, 956, 958, and 1502 in the
Federal Register
(84 FR 29114, as corrected at 84 FR 37807) (“2019 proposed regulations”). Terms used but not defined in this preamble have the meaning provided in these final regulations.

The Treasury Department and the IRS received written comments with respect to the 2019 proposed regulations. A public hearing on the 2019 proposed regulations was not held because there were no requests to speak.

This rulemaking finalizes the portion of the 2019 proposed regulations under sections 951A and 954 regarding the treatment of income subject to a high rate of foreign tax but does not finalize the portions of the 2019 proposed regulations under sections 951, 956, 958, and 1502 regarding the treatment of domestic partnerships. The Treasury Department and the IRS plan to finalize those regulations separately.

Comments outside the scope of this rulemaking are generally not addressed but may be considered in connection with future guidance projects. All written comments received in response to the 2019 proposed regulations are available at
www.regulations.gov
or upon request.

Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions

I. Overview

The 2019 proposed regulations apply the high-tax exclusion set forth in section 951A(c)(2)(A)(i)(III) (the “GILTI high-tax exclusion”), on an elective basis, to certain high-taxed income of a controlled foreign corporation (as defined in section 957) (“CFC”) regardless of whether the income would otherwise be foreign base company income (as defined in section 954) (“FBCI”) or insurance income (as defined in section 953).
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6). The final regulations retain the basic approach and structure of the 2019 proposed regulations, with certain revisions. This Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions discusses those revisions as well as comments received.

As discussed in part IV of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, numerous comments recommended that the application of the GILTI high-tax exclusion be conformed with the high-tax exception of section 954(b)(4) and § 1.954-1(d)(5) (the “subpart F high-tax exception”). The Treasury Department and the IRS agree that the GILTI high-tax exclusion and the subpart F high-tax exception should be conformed but have determined that the rules implementing the GILTI high-tax exclusion better reflect the policies underlying section 954(b)(4) in light of the changes made by the Act. As a result, a separate notice of proposed rulemaking published in the Proposed Rules section of this issue of the
Federal Register
(REG-127732-19) (the “2020 proposed regulations”) proposes to generally conform the rules implementing the subpart F high-tax exception to the rules implementing the GILTI high-tax exclusion set forth in these final regulations, and provides for a single election under section 954(b)(4) for purposes of both subpart F income and tested income.

II. Calculation of Effective Foreign Tax Rate

A. QBU-by-QBU Determination

The 2019 proposed regulations apply based on the effective foreign tax rate imposed on the aggregate of all items of tentative net tested income of a CFC attributable to a single qualified business unit (as defined in section 989(a)) (“QBU”) of the CFC that would be in a single tested income group.
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(i)(B) and (c)(6)(ii)(A). The 2019 proposed regulations apply on a QBU-by-QBU basis to minimize the “blending” of income subject to different foreign tax rates and, as a result, more accurately identify income subject to a high rate of foreign tax such that low-taxed income continues to be subject to the GILTI regime in a manner consistent with its underlying policies.

The Treasury Department and the IRS received several comments regarding the determination of the effective foreign tax rate on a QBU-by-QBU basis. One comment supported the QBU-by-QBU determination. Other comments requested that the effective foreign tax rate test apply on a CFC-by-CFC basis and asserted that this approach would better align the GILTI high-tax exclusion with the subpart F high-tax exception. The comments also stated that a CFC-by-CFC approach would be consistent with the principles used to determine foreign income taxes deemed paid under proposed regulations under section 960 and would reduce complexity and compliance burdens. One comment noted that taxpayers are not required to conduct this type of QBU-level analysis for any other U.S. tax purpose and, thus, they may lack the systems, data, or personnel to do so. Other comments stated that nonconformity with the subpart F high-tax exception would encourage taxpayers to structure into the subpart F high-tax exception and questioned the authority to adopt a QBU-by-QBU approach given the general mechanics of the GILTI regime, which compute certain items at the CFC level before aggregating such items at the United States shareholder (as defined in section 951(b)) (“U.S. shareholder”) level.

Some comments suggested that there is not a significant risk of blending foreign income subject to different tax

rates and asserted that such blending should not give rise to policy concerns. Other comments stated that applying the effective foreign tax rate test on a CFC-by-CFC basis would ameliorate issues caused by differences between U.S. and foreign tax accounting methods.

Consistent with the rules set forth in the 2019 proposed regulations, the Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that calculating the effective foreign tax rate on a CFC-by-CFC basis would inappropriately allow the blending of high-taxed and low-taxed income in a manner that is inconsistent with the purpose of section 951A, which is to limit potential base erosion incentives created by a participation exemption regime. Such blending would allow low-taxed income, which poses a significant base-erosion risk, to be excluded from the GILTI regime. While the legislative history indicates that high-taxed income does not present base erosion concerns, the policy rationale underlying that view does not extend to excluding low-taxed income from GILTI merely because it may be earned by an entity that also earns high-taxed income.
See
S. Comm. on the Budget, Reconciliation Recommendations Pursuant to H. Con. Res. 71, S. Print. No. 115-20, at 371 (2017) (“The Committee believes that certain items of income earned by CFCs should be excluded from the GILTI [regime], either because they should be exempt from U.S. tax—as they are generally not the type of income that is the source of the base erosion concerns—or are already taxed currently by the United States. Items of income excluded from GILTI because they are exempt from U.S. tax under the bill include foreign oil and gas extraction income (which is generally immobile) and income subject to high levels of foreign tax.”).

The QBU-by-QBU approach is also consistent with the legislative history to section 954(b)(4), which directs the Treasury Department and the IRS to allow reasonable groupings of items of income that are substantially taxed at the same rate in a single country.
See
H.R. Rep. No. 99-426, at 400-01 (1985) (“Although this rule applies separately with respect to each `item of income' received by a [CFC], the committee expects that the Secretary will provide rules permitting reasonable groupings of items of income that bear substantially equal effective rates of tax in a given country. For example, all interest income received by a [CFC] from sources within its country of incorporation may reasonably be treated as a single item of income for purposes of this rule, if such interest is subject to uniform taxing rules in that country.”). Therefore, consistent with this legislative history, generally only high-taxed income, and not low- or zero-taxed income, should be excluded from gross tested income. The GILTI high-tax exclusion carries out this purpose by determining the effective rate of tax on an item of income at a granular enough level to preclude inappropriate blending without imposing undue compliance burdens on taxpayers.

Although greater blending of income subject to different rates of foreign tax may be permitted within a separate category under section 904, a section 904 separate category is not an appropriate standard for determining an item of income under section 954(b)(4) because section 904 applies, by its terms, to separate categories of income while section 954(b)(4) applies to items of income. Moreover, the purposes of sections 951A and 954(b)(4), which are primarily intended to address base erosion concerns, differ from the purposes of sections 901 and 904, which are tailored to the avoidance of double taxation of foreign source income. The ability to credit foreign taxes against a broader class of income at the U.S. shareholder level does not compel a CFC-by-CFC effective foreign tax rate computation for purposes of the GILTI high-tax exclusion. In addition, determining whether an item of income is high-taxed by grouping similar items at a QBU level has historically been required for certain passive income under §§ 1.904-4(c) and 1.954-1(c)(1)(iii)(B). Consistent with the 2019 proposed regulations, § 1.904-4(c) groups passive income items for purposes of determining whether they are subject to a high rate of tax on a QBU-by-QBU basis.

Finally, because the GILTI high-tax exclusion applies on an elective basis, taxpayers may choose not to make the election if the compliance burdens of the computation outweigh the benefits.

For these reasons, the final regulations do not adopt a CFC-by-CFC approach. However, the final regulations replace the QBU-by-QBU approach with a more targeted approach based on “tested units” (as discussed in part III.A of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions), permit some additional blending of income under the tested unit combination rule (as discussed in part III.B of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions), and allow taxpayers additional flexibility by permitting the GILTI high-tax exclusion election to be made on an annual basis (as discussed in part IV.C of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions). Further, as noted in part I of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, the separate notice of proposed rulemaking published concurrently with these final regulations conforms the rules implementing the subpart F high-tax exception with the GILTI high-tax exclusion, thereby eliminating the disparity between the two elections and the incentive for taxpayers to structure into the subpart F high-tax exception.

B. CFC-Level Determination of Foreign Taxes

For purposes of the subpart F high-tax exception, the final regulations under § 1.954-1(d)(3) (before modification by this Treasury decision) determined, for each U.S. shareholder, the foreign income taxes paid or accrued with respect to an item of income based on the amount of foreign income taxes that would be deemed paid under section 960 if the item of income were included in the gross income of the U.S. shareholder under section 951(a)(1)(A). The 2019 proposed regulations modify this determination, for purposes of both the subpart F high-tax exception and the GILTI high-tax exclusion, by referencing the amounts of income and taxes at the CFC level, rather than the amount of taxes that would be deemed paid at the U.S. shareholder level.
See
proposed § 1.954-1(d)(3)(i) and proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(iv). Specifically, foreign income taxes of the CFC for the current year are allocated and apportioned to the CFC's gross income based on the rules under § 1.960-1(d), which determine foreign income taxes “properly attributable” to income. The 2019 proposed regulations modify this calculation because the determination of income and taxes at the CFC level is more consistent with the text of section 954(b)(4), which refers to items of income (and tax imposed on such items) of the CFC. In addition, deemed paid credits for taxes properly attributable to tested income under section 960(d) are determined on an aggregate basis, which does not provide an accurate basis to determine the effective foreign tax rate on particular items of income of a CFC under the GILTI high-tax exclusion provided under section 954(b)(4).

A comment requested that the effective foreign tax rate test be based on the shareholder's deemed paid credit for taxes properly attributable to tested income, as defined in section 960(d), over the shareholder's net CFC tested income, as defined in section 951A(c). The comment asserted that such an aggregate determination, which would mirror the calculation of the GILTI

inclusion, would be consistent with the GILTI legislative history, would produce more equitable results than those provided under the 2019 proposed regulations, and would significantly reduce compliance and administrative burdens for taxpayers and the government.

The Treasury Department and the IRS have concluded that this approach for calculating the effective foreign tax rate would be inconsistent with section 954(b)(4). Unlike a GILTI inclusion, which is based on the aggregate amounts of a U.S. shareholder's pro rata shares of certain items from all the CFCs in which the shareholder is a U.S. shareholder, section 954(b)(4) applies by its terms to items of income of a single CFC. That is, section 954(b)(4) applies with respect to “any item of income received by a CFC” that is subject to a sufficiently high rate of foreign tax. Moreover, section 951A(c)(2)(A)(i), which provides exclusions from tested income including the high-tax exclusion, refers to “the gross income of such corporation.” Nothing in section 954(b)(4), or section 951A(c)(2)(A)(i)(III), suggests that the aggregate approach of the GILTI regime should or could apply for purposes of determining whether an item of income received by a CFC is subject to a sufficiently high level of foreign tax under section 954(b)(4). Thus, the final regulations do not adopt this comment.

C. Effective Foreign Tax Rate

1. Threshold Rate of Tax

Consistent with section 954(b)(4), the 2019 proposed regulations apply the GILTI high-tax exclusion by comparing the effective foreign tax rate with 90 percent of the rate that would apply if the income were subject to the maximum rate of tax specified in section 11 (currently 18.9 percent, based on a maximum rate of 21 percent).
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(i)(B).

Several comments requested that the GILTI high-tax exclusion instead be applied if the effective foreign tax rate is at least 13.125 percent. One comment requested that it be based on a tax rate of 13.125 percent for taxable years beginning on or before December 31, 2025, and 16.406 percent for taxable years beginning after such date. The comments asserted that using a 13.125 percent rate would be consistent with the legislative history indicating that no residual tax should be due on GILTI subject to an effective foreign tax rate in excess of 13.125 percent, which takes into account the 80 percent foreign tax credit allowance in section 960(d) and the 50 percent deduction under section 250, and that the rate should be adjusted for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2025, to correspond to the reduction in the amount of deduction allowed with respect to GILTI as provided in section 250(a)(3)(B).

The Treasury Department and the IRS disagree with these comments. The GILTI high-tax exclusion is based on section 954(b)(4), which refers to a tax rate that is greater than 90 percent of the rate that would apply if the income were subject to the maximum rate of tax specified in section 11. The rate set forth in section 954(b)(4) does not vary depending on whether it applies for purposes of determining FBCI, insurance income, or tested income. Furthermore, the legislative history describing a 13.125 percent foreign tax rate addresses situations in which income is included in tested income and, consequently, subject to GILTI and the associated foreign tax credit rules under section 960(d).
1

Those rules do not apply to income excluded from tested income by reason of the GILTI high-tax exclusion. Accordingly, the final regulations do not adopt these comments.

1
In addition, the assertion made by certain commenters that the law categorically provides that no residual U.S. tax is owed under GILTI at foreign effective tax rates of 13.125% is incorrect.
See
Joint Comm. on Tax'n, General Explanation of Public Law 115-97, at 381 & n.1753.

2. Safe Harbors

One comment asserted that the “mechanical snapshot” rule for determining the effective foreign tax rate under the 2019 proposed regulations can produce results that are unreasonable given timing differences between the U.S. and foreign tax bases. The comment stated that if an item is accounted for in one period for U.S. tax purposes, but in another period for foreign tax purposes, the CFC may appear to have a high effective foreign tax rate in one period, and a low effective foreign tax rate in the other period, when in fact it is simply subject to a rate of tax comparable to the U.S. rate on its foreign tax base over both periods. To address these timing differences, the comment suggested that the final regulations include two new methods, in addition to the method set forth in the 2019 proposed regulations, for calculating the effective foreign tax rate, each of which could be safe harbors applied at the discretion of the taxpayer.

Under the first suggested method, the GILTI high-tax exclusion would apply if the foreign statutory income tax rate to which a QBU's income is subject is sufficiently high and there is no special tax regime to which a material percentage of the QBU's income is subject. In such a case, the safe harbor would apply and all the income of the QBU would be eligible for the GILTI high-tax exclusion. The comment indicated that the foreign statutory rate could be determined by reference to publications maintained by the OECD and a special tax regime could be determined in a manner consistent with the 2016 U.S. Model Income Tax Treaty.

The second suggested method would allow taxpayers to determine a QBU's effective foreign tax rate by reference to the average effective foreign tax rate in the current and preceding four taxable years. The comment asserted that this approach would smooth out timing differences and more accurately determine whether the QBU's income was in fact subject to relatively high rates of tax. The comment also noted that although the GILTI regime generally operates on an annual basis, the determination of whether the income of a QBU is subject to a rate of foreign tax comparable to the U.S. rate may be better determined over a longer period based on the facts and circumstances.

The Treasury Department and the IRS have concluded that identifying special tax regimes, or determining the extent to which income would be subject to special tax regimes, would give rise to considerable complexity and administrative and compliance burdens for both taxpayers and the government. Similarly, the Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that using an average effective foreign tax rate over multiple taxable years would give rise to additional complexity and increase the burden on taxpayers and the government due, for example, to foreign tax redeterminations with respect to a QBU's income, such as an adjustment for a loss carryback. Such adjustments would not only affect the year of the redetermination, but also every other year that took the redetermination year into account in calculating the average effective foreign tax rate, potentially resulting in multiple amended returns attributable to a foreign tax redetermination for a single taxable year. A prior year averaging approach would also lead to distortive results, such as when the CFC had losses or volatile earnings. Accordingly, the final regulations do not adopt these safe harbors. As described in Part III.B. of this Summary of Comments, the tested unit combination rule should ameliorate some of the concerns raised by the comment.

D. Base and Timing Differences

1. In General

The 2019 proposed regulations generally provide that the effective rate at which taxes are imposed for a taxable year is the U.S. dollar amount of foreign income taxes paid or accrued with respect to a tentative net tested income item,
2

over the sum of the U.S. dollar amount of the tentative net tested income item and the amount of foreign income taxes paid or accrued with respect to the tentative net tested income item.
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(iii). A tentative net tested income item is generally determined by taking into account certain items of gross income (determined under federal income tax principles) attributable to a QBU, less deductions (also determined under federal income tax principles) allocated and apportioned to such gross income.
See
1.951A-2(c)(6)(ii)(A) and (B). Thus, the effective foreign tax rate is based on the amount of foreign income taxes paid or accrued on income attributable to the QBU as determined for federal income tax purposes, without regard to how the income is determined for foreign income tax purposes.

2
The final regulations adopt the term “tentative tested income item,” instead of the term “tentative net tested income item.”
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iii).

The preamble to the 2019 proposed regulations requested comments on whether additional rules are needed to properly account for cases (other than disregarded payments) in which the income base upon which foreign tax is imposed does not match the items of income reflected on the books and records of the QBU determined for federal income tax purposes. The preamble cites examples of possible adjustments to address circumstances in which QBUs are permitted to share losses or determine tax liability based on combined income for foreign tax purposes.

2. Disregarded Payments

The proposed regulations generally provide that gross income is attributable to a QBU if it is properly reflected on the books and records of the QBU, determined under federal income tax principles, except that such income is adjusted to account for certain disregarded payments.
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(ii)(A)(
2
). The adjustments for disregarded payments are made under the principles of § 1.904-4(f)(2)(vi) (rules attributing gross income to a foreign branch), without regard to the exclusion for interest described in § 1.904-4(f)(2)(vi)(C)(
1
).
See id.

One comment suggested that a disregarded payment should not result in the reallocation of income between QBUs for purposes of computing the GILTI high-tax exclusion. The Treasury Department and IRS understand the comment's concern to be the potential inability to claim the GILTI high-tax exclusion in scenarios where a disregarded payment was made from a high-taxed CFC to a disregarded entity that paid no tax.

The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that, if a tested unit
3

makes a disregarded payment to another tested unit, gross income should be reallocated among the tested units to appropriately associate the income with the tested unit in which it is subject to tax. This reallocation promotes conformity between the income attributed to a tested unit and the income of that tested unit that is subject to tax in the foreign country, and, therefore, this rule results in a more accurate grouping of items of income that are generally subject to the same or similar rates of foreign tax. In addition, treating disregarded payments in this manner is consistent with the treatment of regarded payments. For example, if a tested unit of a CFC were to make a regarded deductible payment that is taken into account by another tested unit of the CFC (such as a tested unit that is an interest in a partnership), the payment would be an item of gross income of the payee tested unit that may qualify for the GILTI high-tax exclusion based on the foreign taxes attributable to that tested unit. Moreover, the regarded deduction would be reflected in a reduced tentative net tested income item (relative to the result in the absence of adjustment for disregarded payments)—and, consequently, the denominator of the effective foreign tax rate fraction—with respect to the payor tested unit for purposes of assessing whether its gross income is subject to a high rate of foreign tax. For these reasons, the comment is not adopted.

3
As discussed in part III of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, the final regulations adopt a “tested unit” standard that replaces the QBU standard used in the 2019 proposed regulations.

The final regulations provide additional rules addressing disregarded payments, including providing additional detail on how the principles of § 1.904-4(f)(2)(vi) should be applied.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(ii)(B)(
2
). For example, the final regulations provide that a disregarded payment of interest is allocated and apportioned ratably to all of the gross income attributable to the tested unit that is making the disregarded payment.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(ii)(B)(
2
)(
iv
). The final regulations also provide special ordering rules for reallocations with respect to multiple disregarded payments.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(ii)(B)(
2
)(
iv
).

3. Foreign Net Operating Losses and Other Timing Differences

Some comments requested that the final regulations allow taxpayers to elect to adjust either the numerator or denominator of the effective foreign tax rate fraction to take into account foreign net operating loss (“NOL”) carryforwards and other similar items. One comment asserted that, while the effective foreign tax rate calculation generally serves as an appropriate test, CFCs with a foreign NOL carryover may fail the test even though the rate of tax in the foreign country exceeds 18.9 percent. Another comment indicated that a CFC could fail the mechanical test in a single year although the same income is subject to a foreign tax that is substantially higher than the U.S. corporate tax rate because of timing differences (that is, differences in when income or deductions are taken into account for U.S. and foreign tax purposes).

The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that adjusting the numerator or denominator of the effective foreign tax rate fraction for foreign NOL carryforwards or other timing differences would result in considerable complexity and would impose a significant burden on both taxpayers and the government. It would require the application of foreign tax accounting rules, and complex coordination rules to reconcile their application with U.S. tax accounting rules, both in the current taxable year and other taxable years, to prevent an item of income, gain, deduction, loss, or credit from being duplicated or omitted. Accordingly, this comment is not adopted.

III. Adoption of Tested Unit Standard

A. In General

As discussed in part II.A of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, the 2019 proposed regulations propose a QBU-by-QBU approach to identify the relevant items of income that may be eligible for the GILTI high-tax exclusion. For this purpose, the proposed regulations reference the definition of a QBU in section 989(a), which provides that a QBU is any separate and clearly identifiable unit of a trade or business of a taxpayer that maintains separate books and records.
See
proposed 1.951A-2(c)(6)(ii)(A). Regulations under

section 989(a) provide guidance as to activities that constitute a trade or business (based on a facts-and-circumstances analysis) and the determination of separate books and records.
See
§ 1.989(a)-1(c) and (d). The preamble to the 2019 proposed regulations requested comments on whether the definition of a QBU should be modified for purposes of the GILTI high-tax exclusion, including the requirements to carry on activities that constitute a trade or business and to maintain books and records.

One comment asserted that it is unclear whether certain activities constitute a trade or business under the facts-and-circumstances test set forth in the regulations under section 989(a) and that making such determinations would frequently be administratively burdensome. The comment indicated that in other cases it is also difficult to determine whether certain interrelated activities constitute a single QBU or multiple QBUs (for example, different functions performed by separate divisions operating within a single CFC). In addition, the comment suggested that taxpayers may engage in affirmative tax planning to avoid the QBU rule by, for example, breaking up the operations of a single large QBU of a CFC into smaller components that would not constitute trades or businesses, or by choosing to no longer maintain books and records for such sub-lines of business. Another comment criticized the QBU approach because some taxpayers may track business activities differently than other taxpayers, which may result in the inconsistent application of the QBU rules. Finally, a comment noted that not all companies have sufficient systems in place to accurately track items at the QBU level.

The 2019 proposed regulations propose the QBU standard as a proxy for determining the type of entity, or level of activities, that would likely be subject to tax in a particular foreign country either on an entity basis or as a taxable presence, and, as a result, would likely result in items of income attributable to the QBU being subject to a different rate of foreign tax than that imposed on other income of the CFC. In response to these comments, the Treasury Department and the IRS have concluded that a more targeted approach should be applied for identifying income that is likely to be subject to foreign tax rates different from those imposed on other income earned by the CFC. This approach will generally limit the scope of the factual analysis necessary to apply these rules—for example, it does not depend on whether activities constitute a trade or business, or whether books and records are maintained—and thereby addresses many of the concerns raised in these comments. Accordingly, in lieu of the QBU standard in the 2019 proposed regulations, the final regulations generally apply the GILTI high-tax exclusion based on the gross tested income of a CFC that is attributable to a “tested unit.”
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(ii). Unlike the QBU standard that serves as a proxy for being subject to foreign tax, the tested unit approach generally applies to the extent an entity, or the activities of an entity, are actually subject to tax, as either a tax resident or a permanent establishment (or similar taxable presence), under the tax law of a foreign country.

The final regulations provide three categories of a tested unit. First, and consistent with the 2019 proposed regulations, a tested unit includes a CFC.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(A)(
1
). Thus, if a CFC, which itself is a tested unit, has no other tested units, the GILTI high-tax exclusion is applied with respect to all the tentative gross tested income items (determined under § 1.951A-2(c)(7)(ii)) of the CFC.

Second, and also consistent with the 2019 proposed regulations, a tested unit generally includes an interest in a pass-through entity held, directly or indirectly, by a CFC.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(A)(
2
). For this purpose, a pass-through entity is defined to include, for example, a partnership or a disregarded entity.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(ix)(B).

More specifically, a CFC's interest in a pass-through entity is a tested unit if the pass-through entity meets one of two requirements. First, the CFC's interest in the pass-through entity is a tested unit if the pass-through entity is a tax resident of a foreign country because, in these cases, income earned by the CFC indirectly through the pass-through entity may be subject to tax at a rate different than the rate at which income earned by the CFC directly is subject to tax.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(A)(
2
)(
i
). Second, the CFC's interest in the pass-through entity is a tested unit if the pass-through entity is not subject to tax as a resident, but is treated as a corporation (or as another entity that is not fiscally transparent) for purposes of the CFC's tax law, because in these cases income earned by the CFC indirectly through the pass-through entity may not be subject to tax in the foreign country of which the CFC is a tax resident; thus, for example, an interest in a domestic limited liability company that is a partnership for federal income tax purposes would typically be a tested unit.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(A)(
2
)(
ii
). A CFC's interest in a pass-through entity (or the activities of a branch) that is not a tested unit is a “transparent interest.”
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(ix)(C); see also the discussion on transparent interests in part III.C.3 of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions.

This treatment of interests in pass-through entities in the final regulations is consistent with a comment suggesting that a pass-through entity should be treated as a tested unit if the entity is treated as a separate entity for purposes of a foreign tax law, but not if the entity is fiscally transparent (and thus not a tax resident) for purposes of the tax law of a foreign country.

An interest in an entity, rather than the entity itself, is treated as a tested unit (or a transparent interest) because the entity may have multiple owners and the characterization of the interest as a tested unit may depend on each holder's tax treatment with respect to the interest. As a result, less than the entire entity may be characterized as a tested unit or a transparent interest. In addition, different interests in an entity held directly or indirectly by the same CFC may be characterized differently. The final regulations include an example that illustrates the application of this rule.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(8)(iii)(D) (Example 4).

Finally, a tested unit includes a branch, or a portion of a branch, the activities of which are carried on directly or indirectly by a CFC, provided that either (i) the branch gives rise to a taxable presence in the country in which the branch is located, or (ii) the branch gives rise to a taxable presence under the owner's tax law, and the owner's tax law provides an exclusion, exemption, or other similar relief (such as a preferential rate) for income attributable to the branch.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(A)(
3
). In these cases, the income indirectly earned by the owner through the branch is likely subject to tax at a rate different than the rate at which income directly earned by the owner is subject to tax. The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that this branch tested unit rule addresses blending concerns related to an owner's taxable presence in another country in a more targeted manner than the “activities” QBU standard from the 2019 proposed regulations. In addition, the Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that the branch tested unit rule will likely reduce compliance burdens, as compared to the QBU standard from the 2019 proposed regulations, because the tested unit rule

depends on how activities are treated under foreign tax law, an analysis of which in most cases would be conducted independently of the final regulations (for example, to determine whether a tax return must be filed because activities in that country give rise to a taxable presence).

For purposes of the tested unit rules, references to the tax law of a foreign country include statutes, regulations, administrative or judicial rulings, and treaties of the country.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(A)(
2
) and (
3
) (cross-referencing definitions in regulations under section 267A that incorporate the definition of the tax law of a country in § 1.267A-5(a)(21)).

The final regulations make clear that tested units are determined independently of one another. For example, even though a CFC is itself a tested unit, the CFC may have other tested units, such as a permanent establishment or an interest in a disregarded entity that, subject to the application of the combination rule discussed in part III.B of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, must be treated separately for purposes of the GILTI high-tax exclusion.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(8)(iii)(D) (Example 4).

The final regulations also provide a rule that addresses cases where the same item is attributable to more than one tested unit in a tier of tested units. This may occur, for example, if an item is properly reflected both on the separate set of books and records of one tested unit, and on the separate set of books and records of a lower-tier tested that is owned (directly or indirectly) by the first tested unit, because the books and records of the two tested units were prepared under different accounting standards. In such a case, the final regulations provide that the item is considered to be attributable only to the lowest-tier tested unit.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(B).

B. Combined Tested Units

The 2019 proposed regulations apply separately to each QBU of a CFC.
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(ii)(A)(
1
). However, the preamble to the 2019 proposed regulations requested comments as to whether all of a CFC's QBUs located within a single foreign country should be combined.

Several comments recommended combining “same-country” QBUs, on an elective basis, noting it would reduce complexity and compliance burdens. Some comments asserted that a combined same-country QBU approach would be more consistent with congressional intent for the GILTI regime to target income in low- and zero-tax countries, would reduce certain variances (for example, due to business cycle fluctuations or differences between the U.S. and foreign tax bases), and would reduce incentives for tax-motivated restructuring. Another comment recommended that the final regulations include rules that would allow taxpayers to take into account a fiscal unity or similar grouping in determining the effective foreign tax rate.

The Treasury Department and the IRS generally agree that a combination rule would reduce compliance burdens and would be consistent with the policies underlying the GILTI high-tax exclusion. Moreover, a combination rule may minimize the effect of timing and other differences between the U.S. and foreign tax bases. Accordingly, the final regulations generally provide that tested units of a CFC (including the CFC tested unit), other than certain nontaxed branch tested units, are treated as a single tested unit if the tested units are tax residents of, or located in, the same foreign country.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(C)(
1
). In general, a nontaxed branch tested unit is a branch tested unit that does not give rise to a taxable presence under the tax law of the foreign country where the branch is located, but gives rise to a taxable presence under the tax law of the foreign country where the home office of the branch is a tax resident and such tax law provides an exclusion, exemption, or similar relief for purposes of taxing income attributable to the branch.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(A)(
3
). The tested unit combination rule does not apply to a nontaxed branch tested unit because such a tested unit typically would not be subject to tax (or to any meaningful level of tax) in any foreign country and thus combining it with other tested units (the income of which may be subject to a meaningful level of tax) could give rise to inappropriate blending.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(C)(
2
).

The combination rule applies without regard to whether the tested units are subject to the same foreign tax rate because it would be inconsistent with the purpose of the combination rule to require taxpayers to determine the effective foreign tax rate imposed on the tested units separately, and simply comparing the statutory foreign tax rates may not be meaningful. In addition, the combination rule is not conditioned on the tested units having the same functional currency because the effective foreign tax rate is calculated in U.S. dollars and any differences in functional currency are unlikely to have a material effect on whether income qualifies for the GILTI high-tax exclusion. Finally, the combination rule is mandatory, and not elective, because providing an election would give rise to additional complexity, and related administrative and compliance burdens.

C. Books and Records

1. In General

Under the 2019 proposed regulations, gross income is attributable to a QBU if it is properly reflected on the books and records of the QBU.
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(ii)(A)(
2
). For this purpose, gross income is determined under federal income tax principles with certain adjustments to reflect disregarded payments.
Id.

As discussed in part III.A of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, the final regulations adopt a tested unit standard, rather than a QBU standard, for purposes of determining a tentative gross tested income item. Nevertheless, the final regulations retain the general approach set forth under the 2019 proposed regulations of relying on a separate set of books and records (as modified to apply to tested units, rather than QBUs) as the starting point for determining gross income attributable to a tested unit. The Treasury Department and the IRS have concluded that applying the books-and-records approach for tested units is appropriate because it serves as a reasonable proxy for determining the amount of gross income that the foreign country of the tested unit is likely to subject to tax. In addition, relying on a separate set of books and records is consistent with the approach taken under other provisions and, therefore, should promote administrability for both taxpayers and the government.
See,
for example, §§ 1.904-4(f) (foreign branch category rules), 1.987-2(b) (rules for determining items attributable to a QBU branch), and 1.1503(d)-5(c) (dual consolidated loss rules).

The final regulations generally provide that items of gross income of a CFC are attributable to a tested unit of the CFC to the extent they are properly reflected on the separate set of books and records of the tested unit, or of the entity an interest in which is a tested unit (for example, in the case of certain partnerships).
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(ii)(B). This rule starts with the items of gross income of the CFC for federal income tax purposes and then attributes those items to the CFC's tested units to the extent the items are properly reflected on the separate set of books and records of the tested units (with certain adjustments, such as to account for disregarded payments). For

example, if a CFC owns a partnership interest that is a tested unit, the items of gross income that the CFC derives through the partnership interest are attributed to the CFC's interest in the partnership to the extent that the items are properly reflected on the separate set of books and records of the partnership. Thus, this approach first gives effect to the rules that determine the items of gross income of the CFC, such as the rules under section 704 for purposes of determining a CFC partner's distributive share of items of a partnership, and then attributes those items to the tested units of the CFC depending on whether the items are properly reflected on the separate set of books and records. The final regulations include examples that illustrates the application of this rule.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(8)(D) (Example 4).

2. Separate Set of Books and Records

The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that a tested unit, or an entity an interest in which is a tested unit, generally will maintain a separate set of books and records that would be readily available for purposes of the final regulations. This is expected to be the case for a branch tested unit under § 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iv)(A)(
3
) (involving a taxable presence), for example, because a separate set of books and records would ordinarily be required to compute the foreign tax liability arising in the taxing country (or for not taking into account items attributable to the taxable presence if determined only under the owner's tax law). Accordingly, the final regulations retain the general approach taken in the 2019 proposed regulations by defining a “separate set of books and records” by reference to § 1.989(a)-1(d).
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(v)(A).
4

4
The 2020 proposed regulations, however, replace the reference to “books and records” with a more specific standard based on items properly reflected on an “applicable financial statement,” and request comments.

3. Booking Rule for Transparent Interests

The final regulations provide a special booking rule that applies to a transparent interest, which, as noted in part III.A of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, is an interest in a pass-through entity (or the activities of a branch) that is not a tested unit. This rule, which is consistent with the rule in § 1.1503(d)-5(c)(3)(ii) (addressing similar interests for purposes of the dual consolidated loss rules), generally treats items properly reflected on the separate set of books and records of an entity an interest in which is a transparent interest as being properly reflected on the books and records of a tested unit that holds interests (directly or indirectly through other transparent interests) in the entity.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(v)(C). This treatment is appropriate because income earned by the tested unit directly, as well as income earned by the tested unit indirectly through the transparent interest, is expected to be subject to residence-based tax in only the tested unit's country of residence (or location) and, as a result, it is unlikely that blending of income subject to different foreign tax rates would occur by reason of the tested unit's ownership of the transparent interest.

4. Tested Units That Fail To Maintain a Set of Books and Records

The final regulations include a rule that applies if a separate set of books and records is not prepared for a tested unit or transparent interest. In such a case, items required to apply the GILTI high-tax exclusion that would be reflected on a separate set of books and records of the tested unit or transparent interest must be determined and treated as properly reflected on the separate set of books and records.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(v)(B). This rule is intended to address cases where a separate set of books and records is not maintained, and to prevent the avoidance of the rules by choosing to not maintain a separate set of books and records.

5. Items of Gross Income Not Taken Into Account for Financial Accounting Purposes

In some cases, items of gross income (determined under federal income tax principles) may not be properly reflected on a separate set of books and records because they are not taken into account for financial accounting purposes. This may occur when items are taken into account for federal income tax purposes and financial accounting purposes in different taxable years, or when items are taken into account for federal income tax purposes but are not taken into account for financial accounting purposes (for example, due to the mark-to-market method of accounting). To ensure that these items of gross income are attributable to a tested unit in a CFC inclusion year, the final regulations clarify that the items are treated as properly reflected on a separate set of books and records if they would be so reflected if they were taken into account for financial accounting purposes in the CFC inclusion year in which they are taken into account for federal income tax purposes.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(v)(D). No inference should be drawn from this clarification with respect to other similar rules that attribute items based on books and records, including under § 1.904-4(f), § 1.987-2(b), or § 1.1503(d)-5(c).

D. De Minimis Rules

A comment recommended that the final regulations adopt two de minimis rules to simplify the application of the QBU-by-QBU approach. First, the comment suggested that taxpayers should be permitted to elect to treat all CFCs with income below a specified threshold as a single QBU. The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that aggregating CFCs for this purpose would be inconsistent with section 954(b)(4), which applies with respect to items of income of a single CFC. Accordingly, this recommendation is not adopted.

Second, the comment suggested that taxpayers should be permitted to elect to aggregate QBUs within the same CFC that have a small amount of tested income (measured either in absolute terms or based on a percentage of the CFC's income). However, it is uncertain whether aggregating QBUs with small amounts of tested income will result in a significant amount of simplification because, for example, gross income would still have to be attributed to each QBU (taking into account disregarded payments) to determine whether the de minimis rule applies. The final regulations do not adopt the recommendation, but a de minimis rule is included in the 2020 proposed regulations to allow an opportunity for additional notice and comment.

IV. Rules Regarding the Election

A. Consistency Requirement

The 2019 proposed regulations generally provide that if a CFC is a member of a controlling domestic shareholder group (“CFC group”),
5

a GILTI high-tax exclusion election (or revocation) is either made with respect to each member of the CFC group or is not made for any member of the CFC group.
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(v)(E)(
1
) and part IV.B of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions. The preamble to the 2019 proposed regulations requested comments on whether the consistency rule should be modified or removed, for example, by allowing the election to be made on an item-by-item or a CFC-by-CFC basis.

5
The final regulations adopt the shorter and more descriptive term “CFC group,” instead of the term “controlling domestic shareholder group.”
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(E)(
2
).

Several comments requested that the final regulations eliminate the consistency requirement such that the GILTI high-tax exclusion election can be made on a CFC-by-CFC basis, which would conform the exclusion to the subpart F high-tax exception. Some comments asserted that the consistency requirement is too restrictive because the GILTI regime generally applies to both low- and high-taxed income and the consistency requirement has the effect of applying the GILTI regime only to low-taxed income since all high-taxed income is excluded. Comments further asserted that determining whether making the election for all CFCs is beneficial, especially when involving multiple foreign countries, is a complex and difficult task and would increase taxpayers' compliance burden. Some comments stated that the elimination of the consistency requirement would enable taxpayers to minimize the unfavorable interaction between the GILTI regime and the rules for allocating and apportioning deductions. Other comments asserted that the consistency requirement would encourage taxpayers to implement structures that would convert tested income into subpart F income, which is contrary to one of the purposes of the GILTI high-tax exclusion. Finally, comments suggested that if the consistency requirement is included in the final regulations, it is likely that many taxpayers will not make the GILTI high-tax exclusion election.

The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that the consistency requirement is necessary due to the collateral effect that the GILTI high-tax exclusion has on the allocation and apportionment of deductions. Specifically, allowing CFC-by-CFC or tested unit-by-tested unit elections would encourage the selective use of the GILTI high-tax exclusion to inappropriately manipulate the section 904 foreign tax credit limitation. In this regard, deductions allocated and apportioned to income excluded under section 954(b)(4) will be subject to section 904(b)(4), as described in Part V.A of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, and thereby disregarded for purposes of determining a taxpayer's foreign tax credit limitation under section 904. Without a consistency requirement, taxpayers may be able to include high-taxed income in GILTI to claim foreign tax credits up to the amount of their section 904 limitation, while electing to exclude the remainder of such income under the GILTI high-tax exclusion. Consequently, the taxpayer's section 904 limitation would not take into account all the deductions attributable to investments generating high-taxed income, resulting in a distortive application of the foreign tax credit limitation under section 904. A consistency requirement prevents this result by ensuring that a taxpayer that seeks to cross-credit the foreign tax imposed on high-taxed tentative tested income against low-taxed tentative tested income must take all of its high-taxed tentative tested income into account along with all of the deductions allocated and apportioned to that category of income. This concern does not arise with respect to other types of income that are excluded from tested income (for example, foreign oil and gas extraction income) because such items are always excluded (that is, there is no electivity as to whether they are included in tested income), and the foreign taxes attributable to that income can never be claimed as a credit against the U.S. tax imposed on section 951A inclusions.

The Treasury Department and the IRS agree that the GILTI high-tax exclusion election and the subpart F high-tax exception election should apply consistently and, as noted in part I of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions, have determined that the subpart F high-tax exception should be conformed to the GILTI high-tax exclusion, as discussed in the preamble to the 2020 proposed regulations. This is appropriate, in part, due to changes made by the Act. Before the Act, a consistency requirement would have had minimal effect because post-1986 earnings and profits (including income excluded from subpart F income under section 954(b)(4)) could be distributed and would be included in income of the U.S. shareholder, and foreign taxes would be deemed paid under section 902, subject to the limitations imposed by section 904, which is a result consistent with a subpart F inclusion. Further, before the Act, an amount excluded under section 954(b)(4) largely resulted only in the deferral of income and deemed paid foreign taxes, rather than an exclusion of those items from the U.S. tax base, and deductions allocated and apportioned to such income would limit a taxpayer's ability to claim foreign tax credits in the future. After the Act, an election under section 954(b)(4) will result in a permanent change in the treatment of high-taxed income and the associated foreign taxes and deductions, increasing the significance, from a policy perspective, of inconsistent treatment.

Thus, the Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that the policy underlying section 954(b)(4) is best furthered through a single election to exclude all high-taxed income from GILTI (and, subject to finalization of the 2020 proposed regulations, subpart F income) because that income does not pose a base erosion concern and is therefore not the type of income that Congress intended to include in tested income. However, because the application of section 954(b)(4), and the additional administrative burden associated with identifying high-taxed items of income, has always been elective, the Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that the exclusion of such income (and to the extent possible any additional burden associated with identifying such income) should continue to be limited to cases where a taxpayer elects the application of section 954(b)(4).

The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that it would be inappropriate to allow a taxpayer to selectively exclude and include income, once it makes an election under section 954(b)(4). Section 951A generally does not permit electivity in the determination of tested income. For example, a taxpayer cannot choose to include in tested income amounts that would be subpart F income but for the application of section 954(b)(4) (regardless of whether the election is made), nor may a taxpayer choose to include foreign oil and gas extraction income in tested income. Further, contrary to some comments, the Treasury Department and the IRS anticipate that the additional electivity is more likely to increase, rather than reduce, compliance burden as a result of the need for more numerous calculations. As a result, the Treasury Department and the IRS have concluded that the consistency rule should be retained; accordingly, this recommendation is not adopted.

B. Definition of CFC Group

The 2019 proposed regulations define a CFC group based on two tests. Under the first test, a CFC group means two or more CFCs if more than 50 percent of the total combined voting power of the stock of each CFC is owned (within the meaning of section 958(a)) by the same controlling domestic shareholder (as defined in § 1.964-1(c)(5)).
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(v)(E)(
2
). The second test applies only if no single controlling domestic shareholder satisfies the first test. Under the second test, the 2019 proposed regulations provide that a CFC group means two or more CFCs if more than 50 percent of the total combined voting power of the stock of each CFC is owned (within the

meaning of section 958(a)) by the same controlling domestic shareholders and each such shareholder owns (within the meaning of section 958(a)) the same percentage of stock in each CFC.
See id.
For purposes of both tests, a controlling domestic corporate shareholder includes a related person (within the meaning of section 267(b) or 707(b)(1)) (the “related party rule”).
See id.

One comment raised several issues with the definition of a CFC group. For example, the comment stated that the application of the related party rule is circular because it requires the already-determined existence of a controlling domestic shareholder to apply the rule that a controlling domestic shareholder includes persons related to the controlling domestic shareholder. In addition, the comment requested clarification as to whether, for purposes of determining the CFC group, section 958(a) ownership is limited to ownership by U.S. persons. The comment also raised several issues related to changes in ownership of CFCs, including issues arising in connection with simultaneous acquisitions of CFCs and acquisitions of controlling domestic shareholders.

In response to these comments, the final regulations revise the definition of a CFC group. Under the final regulations, a CFC group is an affiliated group, as defined in section 1504(a), with certain modifications that broaden the definition.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(E)(
2
)(
i
). First, the affiliated group rules in section 1504(a) apply without regard to section 1504(b)(1) through (6) (which exclude certain corporations, such as foreign corporations, from the definition of an “includible corporation”).
See id.
Second, for purposes of determining whether a CFC is a member of a CFC group, the final regulations incorporate a “more than 50 percent” threshold instead of the “at least 80 percent” threshold in section 1504(a).
See id.
Stock ownership for this purpose is determined by applying the constructive ownership rules of section 318(a), with certain modifications.
See id.
These constructive ownership rules would, for example, cause two corporations owned directly by the same U.S. individual to be part of a CFC group.

The final regulations provide that the determination of whether a CFC is included in a CFC group is made as of the close of the CFC inclusion year of the CFC that ends with or within the taxable years of the controlling domestic shareholders.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(E)(
2
)(
ii
). This rule is intended to address certain changes in ownership of CFCs, such as acquisitions and dispositions. The final regulations also provide that a CFC may be a member of only one CFC group and include a special tie-breaker rule for situations in which a CFC would be a member of more than one CFC group.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(E)(
2
)(
iii
).

The final regulations also clarify that if a CFC is not a member of a CFC group, a high-tax election is made (or revoked) only with respect to the CFC and the rules regarding the election apply by reference to the CFC.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(A). If, however, a CFC is a member of a CFC group, a high-tax election is made (or revoked) with respect to all members of the CFC group and the rules regarding the election apply by reference to the CFC group.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(E)(
1
).

C. Duration of Election

The 2019 proposed regulations generally provide that the GILTI high-tax exclusion election is effective for the CFC inclusion year for which it is made and all subsequent CFC inclusion years, unless the election is revoked.
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(v)(C). The 2019 proposed regulations further provide that, subject to a “change of control” exception, if an election is revoked, then the CFC cannot make a new election for any CFC inclusion year that begins within 60 months following the close of the CFC inclusion year for which the previous election was revoked (“60-month restriction”).
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(v)(D)(
2
). The preamble to the 2019 proposed regulations requested comments on whether the 60-month restriction should be modified or removed.

Several comments requested that the 60-month restriction be eliminated such that taxpayers would be permitted to make the GILTI high-tax exclusion election on an annual basis. Some comments reasoned that this change would be consistent with the subpart F high-tax exception, which is an annual election. Another comment asserted that taxpayers should be permitted to make the election annually to take into account significant fluctuations in foreign income that taxpayers generate from year to year, or the likely possibility that taxpayers may be subject to differing foreign tax rates from year to year as a result of economic factors and conditions beyond their control. Finally, a comment stated that taxpayers with a mix of high-taxed and low-taxed income attributable to their QBUs must evaluate various factors to determine whether an election should be made and, as those factors change from year to year, the 60-month restriction may force taxpayers to pay additional tax under the GILTI regime if future projections are incorrect.

The Treasury Department and the IRS agree with these comments and have determined that, given that the final regulations adopt a tested unit-by-tested unit approach (in lieu of the QBU-by-QBU approach) and retain the consistency requirement set forth in the 2019 proposed regulations, the 60-month restriction is not necessary to prevent abuse. Accordingly, the final regulations do not include the 60-month restriction and, subject to the consistency requirement, taxpayers may elect the GILTI high-tax exclusion on an annual basis.

Because the final regulations eliminate the 60-month restriction, comments requesting that the restriction be clarified in certain respects are moot and therefore not discussed.

D. Effect on Non-Controlling U.S. Shareholders

One comment requested that the final regulations include a notice of election and revocation requirement, which would require any U.S. shareholder that makes or revokes an election to notify the CFC of such action and require any CFC that receives an election or revocation notice from a U.S. shareholder for a taxable year to notify its other U.S. shareholders of the action taken by the U.S. shareholder and its ownership percentage.

The Treasury Department and the IRS agree that U.S. shareholders that are not controlling domestic shareholders of a CFC should be informed by the controlling domestic shareholders of the CFC if they make (or revoke) a GILTI high-tax exclusion election with respect to the CFC. Therefore, the final regulations clarify that the controlling domestic shareholders must provide notice of elections (or revocations), as required by § 1.964-1(c)(3)(iii), to each U.S. shareholder that is not a controlling domestic shareholder.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(A)(
1
)(
ii
), (C) and (D).

E. Treatment of Domestic Partnerships as Controlling Domestic Shareholders

The proposed regulations under section 958 in the 2019 proposed regulations provide, as a general rule, that for purposes of sections 951 and 951A (and certain related provisions) a domestic partnership is not treated as owning stock of a foreign corporation within the meaning of section 958(a).
See
proposed § 1.958-1(d)(1). Under an exception to this general rule, a domestic partnership is treated as owning stock of a foreign corporation within the meaning of section 958(a) for purposes of determining whether any

U.S. shareholder is a controlling domestic shareholder.
See
proposed § 1.958-1(d)(2). The preamble to the 2019 proposed regulations requested comments on this exception. The Treasury Department and the IRS intend to address comments received in response to this request in connection with finalizing the proposed regulations under sections 951, 956, 958, and 1502.
6

6
Under currently applicable § 1.951A-1(e)(2), a domestic partnership can be a controlling domestic shareholder—for example, for purposes of determining which party elects the GILTI high-tax exclusion under § 1.951A-7(c)(7)(viii)(A), including potentially for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017, under § 1.951A-7(b), as discussed in part VIII of this Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions.

F. Elections Made or Revoked on Amended Tax Returns

The 2019 proposed regulations generally allow a taxpayer to make (or revoke) the GILTI high-tax exclusion election with an amended income tax return.
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(v)(A)(
1
) and (c)(6)(v)(D)(
1
). One comment indicated that it was unclear how the binding effect of the election on all U.S. shareholders of a CFC operates when the controlling domestic shareholder makes (or revokes) the election on an amended return. In particular, the comment stated that it was unclear whether a U.S. shareholder, other than a controlling domestic shareholder, would be required to file an amended return reflecting the election (or revocation). The comment further raised concerns about the possibility that the assessment statute of limitations may limit the government's ability to assess any additional tax due as a result of such election (or revocation). The comment recommended that the final regulations clarify whether U.S. shareholders are required to file amended income tax returns when an election is made (or revoked) on an amended return.

In general, the Treasury Department and the IRS agree with the comment that allowing the controlling domestic shareholders to make (or revoke) the GILTI high-tax exclusion election on an amended income tax return may change the amount of U.S. tax due with respect to U.S. shareholders other than the controlling domestic shareholders. Further, the election or revocation may change the amount of U.S. tax due with respect to all U.S. shareholders in intervening tax years. If the election were made (or revoked) on an amended return after some or all of these taxable years are no longer open for assessment under section 6501, it may result in the issuance of refunds for certain taxable years of shareholders when corresponding deficiencies could not be assessed or collected. As a result, the final regulations provide that the election may be made (or revoked) on an amended federal income tax return only if all U.S. shareholders of the CFC file amended federal income tax returns (unless an original return has not yet been filed, in which case the original federal income tax return may be filed consistently with the election (or revocation)) for the taxable year (and for any other taxable year in which their U.S. tax liabilities would be increased by reason of that election (or revocation)) (or in the case of a partnership if any item reported by the partnership or any partnership-related item would change as a result of the election (or revocation)), within 24 months of the unextended due date of the original federal income tax return of the controlling domestic shareholder's inclusion year with or within which the CFC inclusion year, for which the election is made (or revoked), ends.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(A)(
2
) and (c)(7)(viii)(C). For administrative purposes, the final regulations also provide that amended federal income tax returns for all U.S. shareholders of the CFC for the CFC inclusion year must be filed within a single 6-month period (within the 24-month period).
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(A)(
2
)(
ii
). The requirement that all amended federal income tax returns be filed within a 6-month period is to allow the IRS to timely evaluate refund claims or make additional assessments.

The final regulations also clarify how these rules operate in the case of a U.S. shareholder that is a domestic partnership.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(A)(
3
) and (
4
). For example, the final regulations provide that in the case of a U.S. shareholder that is a partnership, the election may be made (or revoked) with an amended Form 1065 or an administrative adjustment request (as described in § 301.6227-1), as applicable. See § 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(A)(
3
). The final regulations further provide that if a partnership files an administrative adjustment request, a partner that is a U.S. shareholder in the CFC is treated as having complied with these requirements (with respect to the portion of the interest held through the partnership) if the partner and the partnership timely comply with their obligations under section 6227 with respect to that administrative adjustment request. See § 1.951A-2(c)(7)(viii)(A)(
4
).

V. Foreign Tax Credit Rules

A. Allocation and Apportionment of Deductions With Respect to CFC Stock

One comment requested that the final regulations confirm that U.S. shareholder deductions properly allocated and apportioned to income excluded under the GILTI high-tax exclusion should not be taken into account for purposes of section 904 per the application of section 904(b)(4)(B). Section 904(b)(4) applies with respect to deductions properly allocated and apportioned to income (other than amounts includible under section 951(a)(1) or 951A(a)) with respect to stock of a specified 10-percent owned foreign corporation (as defined in section 245A(b)) or to such stock to the extent income with respect to such stock is other than amounts includible under section 951(a)(1) or 951A(a). Accordingly, section 904(b)(4) applies to any deduction allocated and apportioned to dividend income for which a deduction is allowed under section 245A.
See
§ 1.904(b)-3(a)(1)(ii). Similarly, section 904(b)(4) applies to any deduction allocated and apportioned to stock of specified 10-percent owned foreign corporations in the section 245A subgroup.
See
§ 1.904(b)-3(a)(1)(iii). For purposes of characterizing stock of a CFC under § 1.861-13, income excluded under the GILTI high-tax exclusion should be treated as any other foreign or U.S. source gross income described in § 1.861-13(a)(1)(i)(A)(
9
) and (
10
). The portion of the value of the stock of the CFC relating to such income will be assigned to the section 245A subgroup under § 1.861-13(a)(5)(ii) through (iv). As a result, the Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that the regulations are clear regarding the interaction of U.S. shareholder deductions allocated and apportioned to income excluded under the GILTI high-tax exclusion and section 904(b)(4), and no further rules are necessary.

Another comment suggested that the final regulations turn off the application of section 904(b)(4) for deductions allocated and apportioned to income or stock that relates to earnings and profits arising from CFC income that is excluded by reason of the GILTI high-tax exclusion. This comment indicated that allowing the application of section 904(b)(4) could incentivize taxpayers to inappropriately locate deductions related to high-taxed income in the United States. The Treasury Department and the IRS do not agree that taxpayers will have a material incentive to relocate deductions relating to high-taxed income to the United States as a

result of the application of section 904(b)(4) because the foreign tax rates required to qualify for the GILTI high-tax exclusion must generally be comparable to or higher than the U.S. corporate tax rate, and, thus, taxpayers will generally benefit from locating such deductions in the foreign country. In effect, the GILTI high-tax exclusion reduces the effect of federal income taxes on taxpayers' locational decisions with respect to investment and deductions, thereby increasing the likelihood that such decisions will be based on non-tax business considerations. Furthermore, section 904(b)(4) by its terms applies to income that is not includible under section 951(a)(1) or section 951A(a), and income excluded under the GILTI high-tax exclusion is not includible under either of those provisions. Accordingly, the comment is not adopted.

B. Determination of Taxes Paid or Accrued

One comment asserted that the 2019 proposed regulations are unclear as to the determination of the foreign taxes paid or accrued and requested that the final regulations clarify that foreign income taxes include taxes imposed by a country (or countries) on the net item, as provided under current § 1.954-1(d)(3)(i). The comment specifically notes, as an example, instances where two foreign countries tax the same income.

The rules provided in § 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iii) and (vii) are comparable to those provided in current § 1.954-1(d)(3)(i); both sets of rules generally apply § 1.904-6 to allocate and apportion foreign taxes to income. Although the GILTI high-tax exclusion requires that foreign taxes be associated with income on a narrower basis—the tested unit rather than the CFC—taxes imposed on the CFC that relate to income of the tested unit will generally be associated with the appropriate income under the rules in § 1.904-6, regardless of whether such tax is imposed by one or more countries. The 2020 proposed regulations propose further conformity of the rules applicable for the computation of the effective foreign tax rate for both subpart F income and tested income.

Further, in response to this comment, as well as similar comments received in response to the 2019 proposed regulations, the final regulations (T.D. 9882) relating to foreign tax credits published in the
Federal Register
(84 FR 69022) (“the 2019 Final FTC Regulations”) and these final regulations clarify the rules for associating foreign taxes with income. In particular, these final regulations clarify that the amount of foreign income taxes paid or accrued by a CFC with respect to a tentative tested income item is the U.S. dollar amount of the controlled foreign corporation's current year taxes that are allocated and apportioned to the related tentative gross tested income.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(vii). The final regulations provide that the deductions for current year taxes are allocated and apportioned to a tentative gross tested income item under the principles of § 1.960-1(d)(3), by treating each tentative gross tested income item as assigned to a separate tested income group.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iii)(A). As a result, the principles of § 1.904-6(a)(1) generally apply to allocate and apportion foreign income taxes to a tentative gross tested income item. However, the principles of § 1.904-6(a)(2) are applied, in lieu of the principles of § 1.904-6(a)(1), to associate foreign taxes with income in the case of disregarded payments between tested units.
See
§ 1.960-1(d)(3) and § 1.951A-2(c)(7)(iii)(B). The final regulations provide additional rules for how the principles of § 1.904-6(a)(2) should be applied for purposes of the high-tax exception.
See id.
In addition, a new example illustrates how foreign income taxes are associated with income in the case of disregarded payments.
See
§ 1.951A-2(c)(8)(iii)(B) (Example 2). The Treasury Department and the IRS also published proposed regulations (REG-105495-19) relating to foreign tax credits in the
Federal Register
(84 FR 69124) that contain more detailed rules for associating foreign taxes with income, including in the case of disregarded payments.

C. Annual Accounting Periods and Foreign Tax Accruals

The proposed regulations generally provide that the amount of foreign income taxes paid or accrued with respect to a tentative net tested income item are the CFC's current year taxes (as defined in § 1.960-1(b)(4)) that would be allocated and apportioned under the principles of § 1.960-1(d)(3)(ii) to the tentative net tested income item by treating the item as in a separate tested income group.
See
proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6)(iv). Taxes accrue, and are taken into account in determining foreign taxes deemed paid under section 960(d), when all the events have occurred that establish the fact of the liability and the amount of the liability can be determined with reasonable accuracy.
See
§ 1.960-1(b)(4). Therefore, withholding taxes accrue when the payment from which the tax is withheld is made, and net basis taxes on income recognized during a taxable period accrue on the last day of the taxable period.
Id.

Comments suggested that the final regulations provide special rules to address distortions that can arise from a mismatch between the U.S. and foreign taxable years. One comment recommended a “closing of the books election” whereby a taxpayer could elect to allocate and apportion its foreign taxes accrued in one U.S. taxable year across multiple U.S. taxable years, in proportion to the income accrued in each U.S. taxable year. Other comments recommended that taxpayers be permitted to adopt various alternative methods of accounting, including the use of the foreign taxable year to determine whether income is subject to a high rate of tax, or methods of accounting required under foreign law, such as mark-to-market.

The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that foreign taxes should be associated with U.S. income consistently for all federal income tax purposes, and that deviating from established principles for determining when income and foreign taxes are taken into account for purposes of the GILTI high-tax exclusion would be inappropriate. Allowing foreign taxes to be taken into account in applying the GILTI high-tax exclusion in a different year than the year in which the foreign taxes accrue could lead to double counting, or double-non-counting, of the foreign taxes. This could occur, for example, if a foreign tax that accrued in one year both caused a prior year tentative tested income item to be excluded as high-taxed and was creditable in the later year under section 960(d). While some comments also recommended changes to how foreign taxes are taken into account more generally, changes to the foreign tax credit regime are beyond the scope of this rulemaking. In addition, the Treasury Department and the IRS responded to similar comments in Part V of the Summary of Comments and Explanation of Revisions in the preamble to the 2019 Final FTC Regulations.

Similar considerations would apply with respect to the adoption of alternative methods of accounting for tentative tested income items, such as the adoption of a foreign fiscal year as the testing period or mark-to-market accounting. The use of these methods would lead to potential double counting of items of income, gain, deduction, or loss in different U.S. taxable years for different purposes, or would require complex coordination rules with material changes to established rules

relating to when such items accrue for federal income tax purposes. Such changes are beyond the scope of this rulemaking and, accordingly, are not adopted.

VI. Removal of Examples in § 1.954-1(d)(7)

Current § 1.954-1(d)(7) provides examples that illustrate the application of the rules set forth in § 1.954-1(c) and (d). The Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that these examples need to be updated to properly reflect changes to current § 1.954-1 made in the final regulations, and to other provisions referenced in the examples. Therefore, the final regulations remove the examples in current § 1.954-1(d)(7). No inference is intended as to the removal of these examples. Additional examples will be considered in connection with the Treasury decision adopting the 2020 proposed regulations as final regulations in the
Federal Register
.

VII. Authority

The Treasury Department and the IRS are aware that questions have been raised regarding the statutory authority for the GILTI high-tax exclusion. As described in detail in the preamble to the 2019 proposed regulations (
see
84 FR 29114), the Treasury Department and the IRS have determined that the GILTI high-tax exclusion is a valid interpretation of ambiguous statutory text in section 951A(c)(2)(A)(i)(III) and, after considering assertions to the contrary, concluded that this rationale provides authority to finalize the GILTI high-tax exclusion.
See Michigan
v.
Environmental Protection Agency,
135 S.Ct. 2699, 2707 (2015) (observing that a court must “accept an agency's reasonable resolution of an ambiguity in a statute that the agency administers,” provided that such interpretation “operate[s] within the bounds of reasonable interpretation.”). Specifically, the regulation interprets the words “by reason of” in that provision as denoting independently sufficient causation. The assertion by some commenters to the contrary that the words “by reason of” unambiguously require “but for” causation is not supported by the case law. Terms such as “by reason of” have been equated with other causal terms, such as “because of” or “as a result of,” and have been interpreted flexibly based on the underlying context and purposes of the applicable provision. Several recent decisions have interpreted such terms as encompassing independently sufficient causation based on dicta in the Supreme Court's recent opinion in
Burrage
v.
United States,
134 S.Ct. 881, 890 (2014).
See, e.g., United States
v.
Ewing,
749 Fed.Appx. 317, 327-28 (6th Cir. 2018);
United States
v.
Seals,
915 F.3d 1203, 1206-07 (8th Cir. 2019);
United States
v.
Feldman,
936 F.3d 1288, 1317-18 (11th Cir. 2019).

In addition, commenters have suggested that, based on the statutory structure of sections 954(b)(4) and 951A(c)(2)(A)(i)(III), the provisions can only apply to income that would otherwise qualify as FBCI or insurance income. The Treasury Department and the IRS disagree with this assertion because it would require that income both qualify as FBCI or insurance income and be excluded from such categories of income for purposes of the same provision. Moreover, neither section 954(b)(4) nor 951A(c)(2)(A)(i)(III) contains any limitation on the category of income to which the provisions can apply, instead referring broadly to “any item of income” and “any gross income,” respectively.

Accordingly, the GILTI high-tax exclusion is a valid interpretation of section 951A(c)(2)(A)(i)(III) based on the statutory text and the legislative purposes and history underlying section 951A, each of which is described in detail in the preamble to the 2019 proposed regulations.

VIII. Applicability Dates

Consistent with the applicability date in the 2019 proposed regulations, the final regulations provide that the GILTI high-tax exclusion applies to taxable years of foreign corporations beginning on or after July 23, 2020, and to taxable years of U.S. shareholders in which or with which such taxable years of foreign corporations end.
See
§ 1.951A-7(b).
7

7
Although this applicability date applies to § 1.954-1(c)(1)(iv) (clarifying the treatment of deductions and loss attributable to disqualified basis in determining a net item of foreign base company income or insurance income), the rules in § 1.951A-2(c)(5) (requiring deductions or loss attributable to disqualified basis to be allocated and apportioned solely to residual gross income) apply to taxable years of foreign corporations beginning after December 31, 2017, and to taxable years of U.S. shareholders in which or with which such taxable years of foreign corporations end.
See
§ 1.951A-7(a). See also proposed § 1.951A-2(c)(6) (requiring deductions related to disqualified payments to be allocated and apportioned solely to residual CFC gross income), as proposed to be amended at 85 FR 19858 (April 8, 2020), which would apply to taxable years of foreign corporations ending on or after April 7, 2020, and to taxable years of U.S. shareholders in which or with which such taxable years end.
See
proposed § 1.951A-7(d).

Several comments requested that taxpayers be permitted to apply the GILTI high-tax exclusion earlier than the proposed regulations would have allowed (for example, to taxable years beginning after December 31, 2017). In response to the comments, the final regulations permit taxpayers to choose to apply the GILTI high-tax exclusion to taxable years of foreign corporations that begin after December 31, 2017, and before July 23, 2020, and to taxable years of U.S. shareholders in which or with which such taxable years of the foreign corporations end.
See
§ 1.951A-7(b). Any taxpayer that applies the GILTI high-tax exclusion retroactively must consistently apply the rules in this Treasury decision to each taxable year in which the taxpayer applies the GILTI high-tax exclusion.
See id.

Special Analyses

I. Regulatory Planning and Review—Economic Analysis

Executive Orders 13771, 13563, and 12866 direct agencies to assess costs and benefits of available regulatory alternatives and, if regulation is necessary, to select regulatory approaches that maximize net benefits (including potential economic, environmental, public health and safety effects, distributive impacts, and equity). Executive Order 13563 emphasizes the importance of quantifying both costs and benefits, of reducing costs, of harmonizing rules, and of promoting flexibility. For purposes of Executive Order 13771, this final rule is regulatory.

The Office of Management and Budget's Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) has designated these regulations as subject to review under Executive Order 12866 pursuant to the Memorandum of Agreement (April 11, 2018) between the Treasury Department and the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) regarding review of tax regulations. The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) has designated the final rulemaking as significant under section 1(c) of the Memorandum of Agreement. Accordingly, OMB has reviewed the final regulations.

A. Background

The Tax Cuts and Jobs Act (the “Act”) established a system under which certain earnings of a foreign corporation can be repatriated to a corporate U.S. shareholder without federal income tax. However, Congress recognized that, without any anti-base erosion measures, this system could incentivize taxpayers to allocate income—in particular, mobile income from intangible property that would otherwise be subject to U.S. tax—to controlled foreign corporations (“CFCs”) operating in low- or zero-tax

jurisdictions. See Senate Committee on the Budget, 115th Cong., Reconciliation Recommendations Pursuant to H. Con. Res. 71, at 365 (the “Senate Explanation”). Therefore, Congress enacted section 951A in order to subject intangible income earned by a CFC to U.S. tax on a current basis, similar to the treatment of a CFC's subpart F income under section 951(a)(1)(A). However, in order to protect the competitive position of U.S. corporations relative to their foreign peers, the global intangible low tax income (“GILTI”) of a corporate U.S. shareholder is effectively taxed at a reduced rate by reason of the deduction under section 250 (with the resulting federal income tax further reduced by a portion of foreign tax credits under section 960(d)).
Id.

The Treasury Department and the IRS previously issued final and proposed regulations under section 951A on June 21, 2019 (“2019 proposed regulations”).

B. Need for Regulations

The final regulations are needed to provide a framework for taxpayers to elect to apply the statutory high-tax exception of section 954(b)(4) and exclude certain high-taxed income from taxation under section 951A.

C. Overview of Regulations

The final regulations provide that the GILTI high-tax exclusion in section 951A(c)(2)(A)(i)(III) applies to high-taxed income of a CFC that is excluded from foreign base company income (“FBCI”) or insurance income under section 954(b)(4) regardless if the income would otherwise be FBCI or insurance income.

The final regulations provide rules to determine the effective rate of tax on foreign items of income for the purposes of applying the GILTI high-tax exclusion. The final regulations provide that the effective foreign tax rate is determined on a tested unit basis. They also provide rules to determine the net amount of income (in other words, the tentative tested income item) and the foreign taxes paid or accrued with respect to such net amount of income that are used to compute the effective rate of tax. In addition, the final regulations indicate how to make a GILTI high-tax exclusion election. The final regulations provide that the election, if made, must be made consistently for certain related CFCs. The final regulations also provide that taxpayers can make the election annually.

D. Economic Analysis

1. Baseline

The Treasury Department and the IRS have assessed the benefits and costs of the final regulations relative to a no-action baseline reflecting anticipated federal income tax-related behavior in the absence of these regulations.

2. Summary of Economic Effects

The final regulations provide certainty and clarity to taxpayers in applying section 954(b)(4) to certain high-tax income. In the absence of this clarity, there is a higher likelihood that taxpayers will interpret the rules regarding the high-tax exclusion differently. For example, when taxpayers hold varying interpretations of statutory language, one taxpayer may undertake an investment in a particular country while another taxpayer may decline to make this investment with this difference based solely on different interpretations of how income from that investment will be treated under section 951A and related provisions. If the investment would have been more productive if undertaken by the second taxpayer, this difference in beliefs about tax treatment is economically costly. The final regulations help to minimize this outcome. Clarity and certainty over tax treatment also reduce compliance costs and the costs of tax administration.

The final regulations also work to apply the GILTI high-tax exclusion in a way that treats income similarly across all international business activity and without favoring one type of income over another. In general, such equitable treatment of income-generating activities can be expected to improve U.S. economic performance.

The Treasury Department and the IRS project that the final regulations will have annual economic effects greater than $100 million ($2020). This determination is based on the fact that many of the taxpayers potentially affected by these regulations are large multinational enterprises. Because of their substantial size, even modest changes in the treatment of their foreign-source income, relative to the no-action baseline, can lead to changes in patterns of economic activity that amount to at least $100 million per year.

The Treasury Department and the IRS project that the final regulations may increase U.S. taxpayers' foreign investment in high-tax jurisdictions, since the final regulations may decrease the effective tax rate on high-tax foreign-source income for some U.S. taxpayers relative to the no-action baseline. The Treasury Department and the IRS have not undertaken more precise estimates of the economic effects of the regulations. We do not have readily available data or models to predict with reasonable precision the business decisions that taxpayers would make under the final regulations, such as the amount and location of their foreign business activities, versus alternative regulatory approaches, including the no-action baseline.

In the absence of quantitative estimates, the Treasury Department and the IRS have undertaken a qualitative analysis of the economic effects of the final regulations relative to the no-action baseline and relative to alternative regulatory approaches.

3. Economic Analysis of Specific Provisions

a. Scope of the GILTI High-Tax Exclusion

The GILTI high-tax exclusion in section 951A permits U.S. shareholders of CFCs to elect to exclude certain high-taxed income from gross tested income. The final regulations provide guidance on which types of high-taxed income are eligible for the high-tax exclusion.

The Treasury Department and the IRS considered a number of options for defining income that is eligible for the GILTI high-tax exclusion. The options were (i) to exclude from gross tested income only income that would be subpart F income solely but for the high-tax exception of section 954(b)(4) applying to such income; (ii) in addition to excluding the aforementioned income, to exclude from gross tested income on an elective basis an item of gross income that is excluded by reason of another exception to FBCI or insurance income, if such income is subject to an effective foreign tax rate above the statutory threshold;
8

or (iii) to exclude from gross tested income on an elective basis any item of gross income subject to an effective foreign tax rate above the statutory threshold.

8
The statutory threshold is 90 percent of the maximum U.S. corporate tax rate (18.9 percent based on the current U.S. corporate tax rate of 21 percent).

The first option excludes from gross tested income only income that would be FBCI or insurance income but for the high-tax exception of section 954(b)(4), which is the interpretation of the scope of the GILTI high-tax exclusion in the final 951A regulations. This approach is consistent with current regulations under section 954, which permit an election under section 954(b)(4) only with respect to income that is not excluded from subpart F income by reason of another exception (for

example, section 954(c)(6) or 954(h)). However, under this approach, taxpayers with high-taxed gross tested income would have an incentive to structure their foreign operations in order to ensure that income that would otherwise qualify as gross tested income would instead qualify as subpart F income, to a greater degree than other regulatory approaches that provide a broader GILTI high-tax exclusion, such as the third option considered. For instance, under this option, a taxpayer could structure its operations to have a CFC purchase personal property from, or sell personal property to, a related person in order to generate foreign base company sales income described under section 954(d) (assuming certain other exceptions are not satisfied). The result would be that the CFC's income from the disposition of the property meets the definition of FBCI and hence is eligible for the high-tax exception. Because businesses are largely not currently structured in this way, such an organization would entail restructuring, which would potentially be costly and only available to certain taxpayers yet would not provide any general economic benefit. In other words, such reorganization to realize a specific tax treatment would suggest that tax instead of business considerations are determining business structures and operations. This outcome may lead to higher compliance costs and less efficient patterns of business activity relative to a regulatory approach that provides a broader GILTI high-tax exclusion.

The second option broadens the application of the GILTI high-tax exclusion, relative to the first option, to allow taxpayers to elect to exclude items of gross income that are subject to an effective foreign tax rate above the statutory threshold, if such income was also excluded from FBCI or insurance income by reason of another exception to subpart F. Under this interpretation, income such as active financing income that is excluded from subpart F income under section 954(h), active rents or royalties that are excluded from subpart F income under 954(c)(2)(A), and related party payments that are excluded from subpart F income under section 954(c)(6) could also be excluded from gross tested income under the GILTI high-tax exclusion if such items of income are high taxed within the meaning of section 954(b)(4).

Under this approach, however, taxpayers would have the ability to exclude their CFCs' high-taxed income that would be subpart F income but for an exception (for example, active financing income), while they would not be able to exclude their CFCs' high-taxed income that is not subpart F income in the first instance (for example, active business income). This may result in differential treatment of economically similar income, which generally leads to economically inefficient decision-making. Furthermore, taxpayers with items of high-taxed income that are not subpart F income would still be incentivized to restructure their foreign operations in order to convert their high-taxed gross tested income into subpart F income, which poses the same compliance costs and inefficiencies as the first option.

The third option, which was adopted in the proposed regulations and which these regulations finalize, provides an election to broaden the scope of the high-tax exception relative to the other two options considered. Under this option, the high-tax exception under section 954(b)(4) for purposes of the GILTI high-tax exclusion applies to any item of income that is subject to an effective foreign tax rate greater than 90 percent of the maximum corporate tax rate (currently, 18.9 percent based on a 21 percent corporate rate). The final regulations permit controlling domestic shareholders of CFCs to elect to apply the high-tax exception under section 954(b)(4) to items of gross income that would not otherwise be FBCI or insurance income. If this high-tax exception is elected, the GILTI high-tax exclusion will exclude the item of gross income from gross tested income. Under the election, an item of gross income is subject to a high rate of foreign tax if, after taking into account properly allocable expenses, the net item of income is subject to an effective foreign tax rate above the statutory threshold.

Contrary to the first two options, this approach permits similarly situated taxpayers with CFCs subject to a high rate of foreign tax to make the election to exclude such income from gross tested income and reduces the incentive for taxpayers to restructure their operations or structures to convert their high-taxed gross tested income into FBCI or insurance income for federal income tax purposes.

For taxpayers that make the election, this approach will lower U.S. tax on certain foreign income by reducing U.S. tax on a broader scope of the income of high-taxed tested units compared to the no-action baseline. If a taxpayer elects the high-tax exclusion, U.S. tax on other foreign income may increase due to complex interactions with other provisions in the corporate tax system, such as the expense allocation and foreign tax credit rules, although taxpayers will generally only make the election if this increase in tax on other foreign income is less than the decrease in tax on high-taxed income. Thus, this approach may reduce the taxpayers' cost of capital on high-taxed foreign investment, and at the margin, the lower cost of capital may increase foreign investment in high-tax jurisdictions by U.S.-parented firms relative to the baseline.

The Treasury Department and the IRS have not undertaken estimation of these effects, relative to the no-action baseline, because we do not have readily available data or models to estimate with any reasonable precision: (i) The number and attributes of the taxpayers that will find it advantageous to make the election; (ii) the relationship between the marginal effective foreign tax rate at the tested unit level and foreign investment by U.S. taxpayers; and (iii) the range of marginal effective foreign tax rates at the tested unit level that taxpayers are likely to have under the final regulations versus the baseline or other regulatory approaches.

b. Aggregation of Income for Determination of the Effective Foreign Tax Rate

The statute provides an exclusion from tested income for high-taxed income but does not provide sufficient detail for determining how income should be aggregated for determining the effective foreign tax rate that applies to that income, such that that income would be excluded. The Treasury Department and the IRS considered four options to address this issue: (i) Apply the determination of whether income is high-taxed on an item-by-item basis; (ii) apply the determination on a CFC-by-CFC basis; (iii) apply the determination on a qualified business unit (“QBU”)-by-QBU basis; and (iv) apply the determination on a tested unit-by-tested unit basis.

The first option is to determine whether income is high-taxed income on an item-by-item basis, based on the item-by-item determination that is generally applicable under the current regulations that implement the high-tax exception of section 954(b)(4) for purposes of subpart F income. However, this would entail high compliance costs for taxpayers and be difficult to administer because it would require taxpayers to analyze each item of income to determine whether, under federal tax principles, the item is subject to a sufficiently high effective foreign tax rate. The Treasury Department and the IRS have not estimated the higher compliance costs that might have been

incurred under this regulatory option, relative to the final regulations.

The second option, to apply the determination based on all the items of income of the CFC, would minimize complexity and would be relatively easy to administer. On the other hand, this approach could permit inappropriate tax planning, such as combining operations subject to different rates of tax into a single CFC. This would have the effect of “blending” the rates of foreign tax imposed on the income, which could result in low- or non-taxed income being excluded as high-taxed income by being blended with much higher-taxed income. The low-taxed income in this scenario is precisely the sort of base erosion-type income that the legislative history describes section 951A as intending to tax, and such tax motivated planning behavior is economically inefficient.

The third option, which was proposed in the proposed regulations, is to apply the high-tax exception based on the items of gross income of a QBU of the CFC. Under this approach, the net income that is taxed by the foreign jurisdiction in each QBU must be determined and the blending of different tax rates within a CFC would be minimized. While this approach would more accurately separate high-taxed and low-taxed income, compared to applying the high-tax exception on the basis of a CFC, there were several comments to the proposed regulations that noted the difficulties in compliance and administration that would arise if the QBU standard were used, such as the difficulty in determining whether a set of activities constituted a trade or business and hence a QBU.

The fourth option, which is adopted in the final regulations, is to apply the high-tax exception on the basis of the items of gross income of a tested unit of a CFC. The tested unit standard is a more targeted measure than the QBU standard and will be more easily applied to the GILTI high-tax exclusion than the QBU standard. Moreover, the tested unit standard, similarly to the QBU standard, will minimize the blending of different tax rates within a CFC. For example, if a CFC earned $100x of tested income through a tested unit in Country A and was taxed at a 30 percent rate and earned $100x of tested income through another tested unit in Country B and was taxed at 0 percent, the blended rate of tax on all of the CFC's tested income is 15 percent. However, if the high-tax exception applies to each of a CFC's tested units based on the income earned by that tested unit, then the two tax rates would not be blended together. Although applying the high-tax exception on the basis of a tested unit, rather than the CFC as a whole, may be more complex and administratively burdensome under certain circumstances and may entail somewhat higher compliance costs (although most of the data the taxpayer would use for this purpose will likely be readily available to the taxpayer and will often overlap with data necessary to meet other compliance requirements), it more accurately pinpoints income subject to a high rate of foreign tax and therefore continues to subject to tax the low-taxed base erosion-type income that the legislative history describes section 951A as intending to tax. Accordingly, the final regulations apply the high-tax exception of section 954(b)(4) based on the items of net income of each tested unit of the CFC.

The Treasury Department and the IRS have not estimated these effects, relative to the no-action baseline, because we do not have readily available data or models to estimate with any reasonable precision the compliance costs or restructuring costs affected by these provisions relative to the no-action baseline or other regulatory alternatives.

c. Grouping of Tested Units in Same Country

The statute does not specify how items of income in the same country should be treated for the purpose of applying the GILTI high-tax exclusion. To address this issue, the final regulations provide guidance on how a CFC's tested units in the same country should be treated in order to determine if income is high-taxed.

Under the proposed regulations, effective foreign tax rates are determined separately for each QBU, even if other QBUs of the same CFC are located in the same county. Testing each QBU separately would limit the blending of income taxed at different rates and thus limit the likelihood that that no-taxed or low-taxed income would qualify for the high-tax exclusion through aggregation with higher-taxed income. This approach is consistent with the intent to subject low-taxed base erosion-type income to tax under section 951A, as described in the legislative history. However, comments noted that separate testing for each QBU would result in high compliance burdens for taxpayers and could result in tax rate calculations that do not reflect the rate of foreign tax on QBU income, especially in circumstances in which separate QBUs are able to share tax attributes through a fiscal unity, consolidation or similar means. If tax rate calculations do not properly reflect the rate of foreign tax on QBU, taxpayers may undertake inefficient business decisions when evaluated against the intent and purpose of the statute.

In the final regulations, all tested units of a CFC in the same country are generally grouped together to determine the effective foreign tax rate for the purpose of applying the high-tax exclusion. Under this approach, low-taxed and high-taxed income are unlikely to be blended, since tested units in the same country are likely to be subject to the same statutory tax rate. Relative to the approach in the proposed regulations, this approach will lower compliance burdens for taxpayers because taxpayers will less frequently have to allocate and apportion taxes paid by one tested unit to another tested unit. In addition, this approach may also reduce the effect of fluctuations in effective foreign tax rates observed in individual tested units relative to the regulatory alternative in the proposed regulations. Since multiple tested units are grouped together, outlying effective foreign tax rates due to timing and base differences between the U.S. and foreign tax rules will counterbalance each other. Finally, this averaging of tax rates will decrease the incentives taxpayers face to undertake inefficient planning activities to achieve certain tax rates in individual tested units relative to a regulatory approach in which effective foreign tax rates were determined separately for tested units in the same country.

The Treasury Department and the IRS have not undertaken estimation of these effects, relative to the no-action baseline, because data or models are not readily available to estimate with any reasonable precision the compliance costs or patterns of business activity affected by these provisions relative to the no-action baseline or other regulatory alternatives.

d. Foreign Net Operating Losses

The statute provides an exclusion from tested income for income that is high-taxed but does not specify whether or how foreign net operating loss (“NOL”) carryovers should be accounted for in the computation of the effective foreign tax rate. To address this issue, the final regulations provide rules governing how foreign net operating loss carryforwards should be accounted for in the computation of the effective foreign tax rate.

The proposed regulations generally provided that the effective foreign tax rate that determines whether a tested unit's income is considered high-taxed is computed using the amount of income as determined for federal income tax purposes, without regard for how the income is determined for

foreign tax purposes. Thus, under this approach, foreign NOL carryforwards do not factor into the effective foreign tax rate calculation, since foreign NOL carryforwards are not accounted for in the federal tax base under federal tax accounting principles. Some comments suggested that taxpayers should be able to make adjustments to the effective foreign tax rate calculation to account for foreign NOL carryforwards. These comments noted that NOLs carried forward to subsequent profitable tax years of a tested unit could lead to income subject to a high statutory foreign tax rate not being classified as high-taxed for the purposes of the GILTI high-tax exclusion. The effective foreign tax rate—calculated using the federal tax base—could be lower than the statutory threshold, even if the smaller foreign base is taxed at a higher rate.

The Treasury Department and the IRS decided to maintain the approach of the proposed regulations and to not provide rules that account for the use of foreign NOL carryforwards. The Treasury and IRS determined that carried forward NOLs are an example of timing differences between foreign and federal tax bases. Since there may be differences between when certain items are recognized for federal and foreign tax purposes, the effective foreign tax rate of a given tested unit calculated for the purpose of applying the high-tax exclusion may change from year to year even if the tax rate on its foreign base remains constant. Accounting for these differences would require complex rules akin to the deferred tax asset and tax liability rules used in financial accounting. Taxpayers would need to apply rules that reconcile foreign and federal tax accounting rules over multiple years. The Treasury Department and the IRS determined that these rules would add undue complexity and impose a substantial compliance burden on taxpayers and administrative burden on the government relative to the regulatory approach of the final regulations. The Treasury Department and the IRS have not attempted to estimate the compliance burden under this alternative regulatory approach relative to the final regulations.

e. Election Period

The statute provides for an election to exclude high-taxed income from gross tested income but does not specify the length of the election period. To address this issue, proposed regulations provided that the election into the high-tax exclusion would be generally made or revoked for a five-year period. The five-year election period was intended to prevent taxpayers from manipulating the timing of income, expenses, and foreign income taxes in order to achieve inappropriate results. As a simple example, under a shorter election period, a taxpayer could accelerate certain expenses that are allocable to the income of a high-taxed tested unit into a year when the taxpayer elects into the high-tax exclusion. The following year, the taxpayer could revoke its election. Thereby, in the second year, the taxpayer would be able to use the foreign income taxes paid by the high-taxed tested unit as creditable taxes against income included under section 951A without the accelerated expenses reducing the amount of the foreign tax credit that could be claimed. In order to achieve tax savings through this manipulation, taxpayers would need to manipulate a large number of items annually, and the manipulation of these items would be costly without any corresponding increase in productive economic activity.

Comments noted that the extended election period would require taxpayers to make five-year projections of a large number of variables on a tested unit-by-tested unit basis in order to determine whether to elect into the high-tax exclusion. The complexity of these projections would result in a large burden on taxpayers. Moreover, even with a shorter election period, taxpayers would likely face difficulty in engaging in tax planning by changing their election status. Existing rules limit taxpayers' discretion over the timing of recognition of income and expenses. The complexity of manipulating the timing of different items across all of a taxpayer's tested units, which is necessary under the final regulations because the election into the high-tax exclusion must be made for all related CFCs, would also create obstacles to using frequent changes in election status as part of tax reduction strategies. Therefore, the Treasury Department and IRS determined that the reduction in taxpayer compliance burdens significantly outweighed concerns about potential tax planning, and the Treasury Department and IRS adopted a one-year election period in the final regulations.

The Treasury Department and the IRS have not undertaken estimation of these effects, relative to the no-action baseline, because data or models are not readily available to estimate with any reasonable precision the compliance costs or patterns of business activity affected by these provisions relative to the no-action baseline or other regulatory alternatives.

4. Profile of Affected Taxpayers

The proposed regulations potentially affect those taxpayers that have at least one CFC with at least one tested unit (including, potentially, the CFC itself) that has high-taxed income. Taxpayers with CFCs that have only low-taxed income are not eligible to apply the high-tax exception and hence are unaffected by the proposed regulations.

The Treasury Department and the IRS estimate that there are approximately 4,000 business entities (corporations, S corporations, and partnerships) with at least one CFC that pays an effective foreign tax rate above 18.9 percent, the current high-tax statutory threshold. The Treasury Department and the IRS further estimate that, for the partnerships with at least one CFC that pays an effective foreign tax rate greater than 18.9 percent, there are approximately 1,500 partners that have a large enough share to potentially qualify as a 10 percent U.S. shareholder of the CFC.
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The 4,000 business entities and the 1,500 partners provide an estimate of the number of taxpayers that could potentially be affected by guidance governing the election into the high-tax exception. The figure is approximate because the tax rate at the CFC-level will not necessarily correspond to the tax rate at the tested unit-level if there are multiple tested units within a CFC.

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Data are from IRS's Research, Applied Analytics, and Statistics division based on E-file data available in the Compliance Data Warehouse for tax years 2015 and 2016. The counts include Category 4 and Category 5 IRS Form 5471 filers. Category 4 filers are U.S. persons who had control of a foreign corporation during the annual accounting period of the foreign corporation. Category 5 filers are U.S. shareholders who own stock in a foreign corporation that is a CFC and who owned that stock on the last day in the tax year of the foreign corporation in that year in which it was a CFC. For full definitions, see
https://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-pdf/i5471.pdf.

The Treasury Department and the IRS do not have readily available data to determine how many of these taxpayers would elect the high-tax exception as provided in these proposed regulations. Under the proposed regulations, a taxpayer that has both high-taxed and low-taxed tested units will need to evaluate the benefit of eliminating any tax under section 951 and section 951A with respect to high-taxed income against the costs of forgoing the use of foreign tax credits and, with respect to section 951A, the use of tangible assets in the computation of qualified business asset investment (QBAI).

Tabulations from the IRS Statistics of Income 2014 Form 5471 file
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further

indicate that approximately 85 percent of earnings and profits are reported by CFCs incorporated in jurisdictions where the average effective foreign tax rate is less than or equal to 18.9 percent. The data indicate several examples of jurisdictions where CFCs have average effective foreig

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2020-15351. Public record. Not legal advice.