# National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants: Surface Coating of Large Appliances; Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles; and Surface Coating of Metal Furniture Residual Risk and Technology Reviews > Briefs, arguments, decisions, and more. URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2018-19018 ## Record - **Collection:** Federal Register - **Document type:** Proposed Rule - **Published:** September 12, 2018 - **Citation:** 83 FR 46262 ## Text ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY 40 CFR Part 63 [EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0668, EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0669, EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670; FRL-9982-40-OAR] RIN 2060-AT72 National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants: Surface Coating of Large Appliances; Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles; and Surface Coating of Metal Furniture Residual Risk and Technology Reviews AGENCY: Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). ACTION: Proposed rule. SUMMARY: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is proposing the results of the residual risk and technology reviews (RTR) for three rules—the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP) for the Surface Coating of Large Appliances; the NESHAP for the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles; and the NESHAP for the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture. The EPA is proposing to find the risks due to emissions of air toxics from these source categories under the current standards to be acceptable and that the standards provide an ample margin of safety to protect public health. We are proposing no revisions to the numerical emission limits based on these risk analyses or technology reviews. The EPA is proposing no new requirements based on the technology review of the NESHAP for the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles. The EPA is proposing to require the use of high efficiency spray application equipment under the technology review for the two rules that employ the use of coating spray application, the NESHAP for the Surface Coating of Large Appliances and the NESHAP for the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture, if the source is not using the emission rate with add-on control compliance option. The EPA is also requesting comment on whether the high efficiency spray equipment technology requirement under the technology review is necessary in light of the risk analyses indicating that there are ample margins of safety. The EPA also is proposing to amend provisions addressing emissions during periods of startup, shutdown, and malfunction; to amend provisions regarding electronic reporting of performance test results; and to make miscellaneous clarifying and technical corrections. DATES: Comments. Comments must be received on or before October 29, 2018. Under the Paperwork Reduction Act (PRA), comments on the information collection provisions are best assured of consideration if the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) receives a copy of your comments on or before October 12, 2018. Public Hearing. If a public hearing is requested by September 17, 2018, we will hold a hearing. Additional information about the hearing, if requested, will be published in a subsequent Federal Register document and posted at https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/printing-coating-and-dyeing-fabrics-and-other-textiles-national, https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/surface-coating-large-appliances-national-emission-standards, and https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/surface-coating-metal-furniture-national-emission-standards. See SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION for information on requesting and registering for a public hearing. ADDRESSES: Comments. Submit your comments, identified by Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0668 for 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) part 63, subpart OOOO, Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles; Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0669 for 40 CFR part 63, subpart RRRR, Surface Coating of Metal Furniture; or Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670 for 40 CFR part 63, subpart NNNN, Surface Coating of Large Appliances, as applicable, at https://www.regulations.gov. Follow the online instructions for submitting comments. Once submitted, comments cannot be edited or removed from Regulations.gov . Regulations.gov is our preferred method of receiving comments. However, other submission methods are accepted. To ship or send mail via the United States Postal Service, use the following address: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA Docket Center, Docket ID Nos. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0668, EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0669, or EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670 (specify the applicable docket number), Mail Code 28221T, 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20460. Use the following Docket Center address if you are using express mail, commercial delivery, hand delivery, or courier: EPA Docket Center, EPA WJC West Building, Room 3334, 1301 Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC 20004. Delivery verification signatures will be available only during regular business hours. Do not submit electronically any information you consider to be Confidential Business Information (CBI) or other information whose disclosure is restricted by statute. See section I.C of this preamble for instructions on submitting CBI. The EPA may publish any comment received to its public docket. Multimedia submissions (audio, video, etc.) must be accompanied by a written comment. The written comment is considered the official comment and should include discussion of all points you wish to make. The EPA will generally not consider comments or comment contents located outside of the primary submission ( i.e., on the Web, cloud, or other file sharing system). For additional submission methods, the full EPA public comment policy, information about CBI or multimedia submissions, and general guidance on making effective comments, please visit https://www.epa.gov/dockets/commenting-epa-dockets. Public Hearing. Please contact Ms. Nancy Perry at (919) 541-5628 or by email at perry.nancy@epa.gov to request a public hearing, to register to speak at the public hearing, or to inquire as to whether a public hearing will be held. FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: For questions about this proposed action for the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category, contact Ms. Kim Teal, Minerals and Manufacturing Group, Sector Policies and Programs Division (Mail Code D243-04), Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711; telephone number: (919) 541-5580; fax number: (919) 541-4991; and email address: teal.kim@epa.gov. For questions about this proposed action for the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category, contact Ms. Paula Hirtz, Minerals and Manufacturing Group, Sector Policies and Programs Division (Mail Code D243-04), Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711; telephone number: (919) 541-2618; fax number: (919) 541-4991; and email address: hirtz.paula@epa.gov. For questions about this proposed action for the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source category, contact Ms. J. Kaye Whitfield, Minerals and Manufacturing Group, Sector Policies and Programs Division (Mail Code D243-04), Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T.W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711; telephone number: (919) 541-2509; fax number: (919) 541-4991; and email address: whitfield.kaye@epa.gov. For specific information regarding the risk modeling methodology, contact Mr. Chris Sarsony, Health and Environmental Impacts Division (Mail Code C539-02), Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711; telephone number: (919) 541-4843; fax number: (919) 541-0840; and email address: sarsony.chris@epa.gov. For information about the applicability of any of these NESHAP to a particular entity, contact Mr. John Cox, Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EPA WJC South Building (Mail Code 2227A), 1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW, Washington DC 20460; telephone number: (202) 564-1395; and email address: cox.john@epa.gov. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Docket. The EPA has established three separate dockets for this rulemaking. Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0668 has been established for 40 CFR part 63, subpart OOOO, Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles (hereafter referred to as the Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket). Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0669 has been established for 40 CFR part 63, subpart RRRR, Surface Coating of Metal Furniture (hereafter referred to as the Metal Furniture Docket). Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670 has been established for 40 CFR part 63, subpart NNNN, Surface Coating of Large Appliances (hereafter referred to as the Large Appliances Docket). All documents in the dockets are listed in Regulations.gov . Although listed, some information is not publicly available, e.g., CBI or other information whose disclosure is restricted by statute. Certain other material, such as copyrighted material, is not placed on the internet and will be publicly available only in hard copy. Publicly available docket materials are available either electronically in Regulations.gov or in hard copy at the EPA Docket Center, Room 3334, EPA WJC West Building, 1301 Constitution Avenue NW, Washington, DC. The Public Reading Room is open from 8:30 a.m. to 4:30 p.m., Monday through Friday, excluding legal holidays. The telephone number for the Public Reading Room is (202) 566-1744, and the telephone number for the EPA Docket Center is (202) 566-1742. Instructions. Direct your comments to Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0668 for 40 CFR part 63, subpart OOOO, Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles; Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0669 for 40 CFR part 63, subpart RRRR, Surface Coating of Metal Furniture; or Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670 for 40 CFR part 63, subpart NNNN, Surface Coating of Large Appliances, as applicable to your comments. The EPA's policy is that all comments received will be included in the public docket without change and may be made available online at https://www.regulations.gov, including any personal information provided, unless the comment includes information claimed to be CBI or other information whose disclosure is restricted by statute. Do not submit information that you consider to be CBI or otherwise protected through https://www.regulations.gov or email. This type of information should be submitted by mail as discussed in the ADDRESSES section and section I.C of this preamble. The https://www.regulations.gov website allows you to submit your comments anonymously, which means the EPA will not know your identity or contact information unless you provide it in the body of your comment. If you send an email comment directly to the EPA without going through https://www.regulations.gov, your email address will be automatically captured and included as part of the comment that is placed in the public docket and made available on the internet. If you submit an electronic comment, the EPA recommends that you include your name and other contact information in the body of your comment and with any digital storage media you submit. If the EPA cannot read your comment due to technical difficulties and cannot contact you for clarification, the EPA may not be able to consider your comment. Electronic files should not include special characters or any form of encryption and be free of any defects or viruses. For additional information about the EPA's public docket, visit the EPA Docket Center homepage at https://www.epa.gov/dockets. Preamble Acronyms and Abbreviations. We use multiple acronyms and terms in this preamble. While this list may not be exhaustive, to ease the reading of this preamble and for reference purposes, the EPA defines the following terms and acronyms here: ACA American Coatings Association AEGL acute exposure guideline level AERMOD air dispersion model used by the HEM-3 model BACT best available control technology CAA Clean Air Act CalEPA California EPA CBI Confidential Business Information CFR Code of Federal Regulations ECHO Enforcement and Compliance History Online EPA Environmental Protection Agency ERPG Emergency Response Planning Guideline ERT Electronic Reporting Tool GACT generally available control technology gal gallon HAP hazardous air pollutant(s) HCl hydrochloric acid HEM-3 Human Exposure Model, Version 1.1.0 HF hydrogen fluoride HI hazard index HQ hazard quotient IBR incorporation by reference ICAC Institute of Clean Air Companies IRIS Integrated Risk Information System kg kilogram km kilometer LAER lowest achievable emission rate lb pound MACT maximum achievable control technology mg/kg-day milligrams per kilogram per day mg/m 3 milligrams per cubic meter MIR maximum individual risk NAAQS National Ambient Air Quality Standards NAICS North American Industry Classification System NEI National Emission Inventory NESHAP national emission standards for hazardous air pollutants NSR New Source Review NTTAA National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act OAQPS Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards OMB Office of Management and Budget OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration PB-HAP hazardous air pollutants known to be persistent and bio-accumulative in the environment PDF portable document format ppmv parts per million by volume ppmw parts per million by weight PTE permanent total enclosure RACT reasonably available control technology REL reference exposure level RFA Regulatory Flexibility Act RfC reference concentration RfD reference dose RTO regenerative thermal oxidizer RTR residual risk and technology review SAB Science Advisory Board SSM startup, shutdown, and malfunction TOSHI target organ-specific hazard index tpy tons per year UF uncertainty factor UMRA Unfunded Mandates Reform Act URE unit risk estimate VCS voluntary consensus standards Organization of this Document. The information in this preamble is organized as follows: I. General Information A. Does this action apply to me? B. Where can I get a copy of this document and other related information? C. What should I consider as I prepare my comments for the EPA? II. Background A. What is the statutory authority for this action? B. What are the source categories and how do the current NESHAP regulate their HAP emissions? C. What data collection activities were conducted to support this action? D. What other relevant background information and data are available? III. Analytical Procedures A. How do we consider risk in our decision-making? B. How do we perform the technology review? C. How did we estimate post-MACT risks posed by these source categories? IV. Analytical Results and Proposed Decisions A. What are the analytical results and proposed decisions for the surface coating of large appliances source category? B. What are the analytical results and proposed decisions for the printing, coating, and dyeing of fabrics and other textiles source category? C. What are the analytical results and proposed decisions for the surface coating of metal furniture source category? V. Summary of Cost, Environmental, and Economic Impacts A. What are the affected sources? B. What are the air quality impacts? C. What are the cost impacts? D. What are the economic impacts? E. What are the benefits? VI. Request for Comments VII. Submitting Data Corrections VIII. Statutory and Executive Order Reviews A. Executive Order 12866: Regulatory Planning and Review and Executive Order 13563: Improving Regulation and Regulatory Review B. Executive Order 13771: Reducing Regulations and Controlling Regulatory Costs C. Paperwork Reduction Act (PRA) D. Regulatory Flexibility Act (RFA) E. Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (UMRA) F. Executive Order 13132: Federalism G. Executive Order 13175: Consultation and Coordination With Indian Tribal Governments H. Executive Order 13045: Protection of Children From Environmental Health Risks and Safety Risks I. Executive Order 13211: Actions Concerning Regulations That Significantly Affect Energy Supply, Distribution, or Use J. National Technology Transfer and Advancement Act (NTTAA) and 1 CFR Part 51 K. Executive Order 12898: Federal Actions To Address Environmental Justice in Minority Populations and Low-Income Populations. I. General Information A. Does this action apply to me? Table 1 of this preamble lists the NESHAP and associated regulated industrial source categories that are the subject of this proposal. Table 1 is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather provides a guide for readers regarding the entities that this proposed action is likely to affect. The proposed standards, once promulgated, will be directly applicable to the affected sources. Federal, state, local, and tribal government entities would not be affected by this proposed action. As defined in the Initial List of Categories of Sources Under Section 112(c)(1) of the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (see 57 FR 31576, July 16, 1992) and Documentation for Developing the Initial Source Category List, Final Report (see EPA-450/3-91-030, July 1992), which provides broad descriptions of the categories of major sources included on the initial list, the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category includes any facility engaged in the surface coating of any large appliance part or product. The category includes, but is not limited to, coating of the following large, metal appliance parts or products: ranges, conventional ovens, microwave ovens, refrigerators, freezers, washers, dryers, dishwashers, water heaters or trash compactors manufactured for household, commercial, or recreational use. Facilities in this source category are also major sources of HAP emissions. We estimate that 10 major source facilities engaged in large appliance surface coating would be subject to this proposal. The Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category includes any facility engaged in those operations. In fabric printing, a decorative pattern or design is applied to fabric by methods such as roller, flat screen, or rotary screen. Fabric coating is an operation that imparts to a textile substrate, additional properties such as strength, stability, water or acid repellency, or other specific characteristics of appearance. Fabric dyeing is the process in which color is added to a substrate. This category includes, but is not limited to, coating of industrial and electrical tapes, tire cord, utility meter seals, imitation leathers, tarpaulins, shoe material, and upholstery fabrics. We estimate that 43 major source facilities engaged in the printing, coating, and dyeing of fabrics and other textiles would be subject to this proposal. The Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source category includes any facility engaged in the surface coating and manufacture of metal furniture parts or products. Such products may include chairs, tables, cabinets and bookcases. We estimate that 16 major source facilities engaged in metal furniture surface coating would be subject to this proposal. Table 1—NESHAP and Industrial and Government Source Categories Affected by This Proposed Action NESHAP and source category NAICS code 1 Regulated entities 2 Surface Coating of Large Appliances 335221 335222 Household cooking equipment. Household refrigerators and freezers. 335224 335228 Household laundry equipment. Other major household appliances. 333312 333415 Commercial laundry, dry cleaning, and pressing equipment. Air-conditioners (except motor vehicle), comfort furnaces, and industrial refrigeration units and freezers (except heat transfer coils and large commercial and industrial chillers). 3 333319 Other commercial/service industry machinery, e.g., commercial dishwashers, ovens, and ranges, etc. Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles 31321 31322 Broadwoven fabric mills. Narrow fabric mills and Schiffli machine embroidery. 313241 313311 Weft knit fabric mills. Broadwoven fabric finishing mills. 313312 313320 Textile and fabric finishing (except broadwoven fabric) mills. Fabric coating mills. 314110 326220 Carpet and rug mills. Rubber and plastics hoses and belting and manufacturing. 339991 Gasket, packing, and sealing device manufacturing. Surface Coating of Metal Furniture 337124 337214 Metal Household Furniture Manufacturing. Nonwood Office Furniture Manufacturing. 337127 337215 Institutional Furniture Manufacturing. Showcase, Partition, Shelving, and Locker Manufacturing. 337127 332951 Institutional Furniture Manufacturing. Hardware Manufacturing. 332116 332612 Metal Stamping. Wire Spring Manufacturing. 337215 335121 Showcase, Partition, Shelving, and Locker Manufacturing. Residential Electric Lighting Fixture Manufacturing. 335122 Commercial, Industrial, and Institutional Electric Lighting Fixture Manufacturing. 339111 Laboratory Furniture Manufacturing. 339114 337127 Dental Equipment Manufacturing. Institutional Furniture Manufacturing. 81142 922140 Reupholstery and Furniture Repair State correctional institutions that apply coatings to metal furniture. 1 North American Industry Classification System. 2 Regulated entities means major source facilities that apply surface coatings to these parts or products. 3 Excluding special industry machinery, industrial and commercial machinery and equipment, and electrical machinery equipment and supplies not elsewhere classified. B. Where can I get a copy of this document and other related information? In addition to being available in the dockets for this action, an electronic copy of this proposed action is available on the internet. Following signature by the EPA Administrator, the EPA will post a copy of this proposed action at https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/printing-coating-and-dyeing-fabrics-and-other-textiles-national#rule-summary, https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/surface-coating-large-appliances-national-emission-standards, and https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/surface-coating-metal-furniture-national-emission-standards. Following publication in the Federal Register , the EPA will post the Federal Register version of the proposal and key technical documents at these same websites. Information on the overall RTR program is available at https://www3.epa.gov/ttn/atw/rrisk/rtrpg.html. A redline version of the regulatory language that incorporates the proposed changes in this action is available in the Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, Metal Furniture Docket, and Large Appliances Docket. C. What should I consider as I prepare my comments for the EPA? Submitting CBI. Do not submit information containing CBI to the EPA through https://www.regulations.gov or email. Clearly mark the part or all of the information that you claim to be CBI. For CBI information on any digital storage media that you mail to the EPA, mark the outside of the digital storage media as CBI and then identify electronically within the digital storage media the specific information that is claimed as CBI. In addition to one complete version of the comments that includes information claimed as CBI, you must submit a copy of the comments that does not contain the information claimed as CBI directly to the public docket through the procedures outlined Instructions above. If you submit any digital storage media that does not contain CBI, mark the outside of the digital storage media clearly that it does not contain CBI. Information not marked as CBI will be included in the public docket and the EPA's electronic public docket without prior notice. Information marked as CBI will not be disclosed except in accordance with procedures set forth in 40 CFR part 2. Send or deliver information identified as CBI only to the following address: OAQPS Document Control Officer (Mail Code C404-02), OAQPS, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 109 T. W. Alexander Dr., Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711, Attention Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0668 for Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles; Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0669 for Surface Coating of Metal Furniture; or Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670 for Surface Coating of Large Appliances, as applicable. II. Background A. What is the statutory authority for this action? The statutory authority for this action is provided by sections 112 and 301 of the Clean Air Act (CAA), as amended (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq. ). 1 Section 112 of the CAA establishes a two-stage regulatory process to develop standards for emissions of hazardous air pollutants (HAP) from stationary sources. Generally, the first stage involves establishing technology-based standards and the second stage involves evaluating those standards that are based on maximum achievable control technology (MACT) to determine whether additional standards are needed to further address any remaining risk associated with HAP emissions. This second stage is commonly referred to as the “residual risk review.” In addition to the residual risk review, the CAA also requires the EPA to review standards set under CAA section 112 every eight years to determine if there are “developments in practices, processes, or control technologies” that may be appropriate to incorporate into the standards. This review is commonly referred to as the “technology review.” When the two reviews are combined into a single rulemaking, it is commonly referred to as the “risk and technology review.” The discussion that follows identifies the most relevant statutory sections and briefly explains the contours of the methodology used to implement these statutory requirements. A more comprehensive discussion appears in the document titled CAA Section 112 Risk and Technology Reviews: Statutory Authority and Methodology in the dockets for each subpart in this rulemaking. 1 In addition, section 301 of the CAA provides general authority for the Administrator to “prescribe such regulations as are necessary to carry out his functions” under the Act. In the first stage of the CAA section 112 standard setting process, the EPA promulgates technology-based standards under CAA section112(d) for categories of sources identified as emitting one or more of the HAP listed in CAA section 112(b). Sources of HAP emissions are either major sources or area sources, and CAA section 112 establishes different requirements for major source standards and area source standards. “Major sources” are those that emit or have the potential to emit 10 tons per year (tpy) or more of a single HAP or 25 tpy or more of any combination of HAP. All other sources are “area sources.” For major sources, CAA section 112(d) provides that the technology-based NESHAP must reflect the maximum degree of emission reductions of HAP achievable (after considering cost, energy requirements, and non-air quality health and environmental impacts). These standards are commonly referred to as MACT standards. CAA section 112(d)(3) also establishes a minimum control level for MACT standards, known as the MACT “floor.” The EPA must also consider control options that are more stringent than the floor. Standards more stringent than the floor are commonly referred to as beyond-the-floor standards. In certain instances, as provided in CAA section 112(h), the EPA may set work practice standards where it is not feasible to prescribe or enforce a numerical emission standard. For area sources, CAA section 112(d)(5) gives the EPA discretion to set standards based on generally available control technologies or management practices (GACT standards) in lieu of MACT standards. The second stage in standard-setting focuses on identifying and addressing any remaining ( i.e., “residual”) risk according to CAA section 112(f). Section 112(f)(2) of the CAA requires the EPA to determine for source categories subject to MACT standards whether promulgation of additional standards is needed to provide an ample margin of safety to protect public health or to prevent an adverse environmental effect. Section 112(d)(5) of the CAA provides that this residual risk review is not required for categories of area sources subject to GACT standards. Section 112(f)(2)(B) of the CAA further expressly preserves the EPA's use of the two-step approach for developing standards to address any residual risk and the Agency's interpretation of “ample margin of safety” developed in the National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants: Benzene Emissions from Maleic Anhydride Plants, Ethylbenzene/Styrene Plants, Benzene Storage Vessels, Benzene Equipment Leaks, and Coke By-Product Recovery Plants (Benzene NESHAP) (54 FR 38044, September 14, 1989). The EPA notified Congress in the Risk Report that the Agency intended to use the Benzene NESHAP approach in making CAA section 112(f) residual risk determinations (EPA-453/R-99-001, p. ES-11). The EPA subsequently adopted this approach in its residual risk determinations and the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit (the Court) upheld the EPA's interpretation that CAA section 112(f)(2) incorporates the approach established in the Benzene NESHAP. See NRDC v. EPA, 529 F.3d 1077, 1083 (DC Cir. 2008). The approach incorporated into the CAA and used by the EPA to evaluate residual risk and to develop standards under CAA section 112(f)(2) is a two-step approach. In the first step, the EPA determines whether risks are acceptable. This determination “considers all health information, including risk estimation uncertainty, and includes a presumptive limit on maximum individual lifetime [cancer] risk (MIR) 2 of approximately [1-in-10 thousand] [ i.e., 100-in-1 million].” 54 FR 38045, September 14, 1989. If risks are unacceptable, the EPA must determine the emissions standards necessary to bring risks to an acceptable level without considering costs. In the second step of the approach, the EPA considers whether the emissions standards provide an ample margin of safety “in consideration of all health information, including the number of persons at risk levels higher than approximately [1-in-1 million], as well as other relevant factors, including costs and economic impacts, technological feasibility, and other factors relevant to each particular decision.” Id. The EPA must promulgate emission standards necessary to provide an ample margin of safety to protect public health. After conducting the ample margin of safety analysis, we consider whether a more stringent standard is necessary to prevent, taking into consideration costs, energy, safety, and other relevant factors, an adverse environmental effect. 2 Although defined as “maximum individual risk,” MIR refers only to cancer risk. MIR, one metric for assessing cancer risk, is the estimated risk if an individual were exposed to the maximum level of a pollutant for a lifetime. CAA section 112(d)(6) separately requires the EPA to review standards promulgated under CAA section 112 and revise them “as necessary (taking into account developments in practices, processes, and control technologies)” no less frequently than every eight years. In conducting this review, which we call the “technology review,” the EPA is not required to recalculate the MACT floor. Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) v. EPA, 529 F.3d 1077, 1084 (D.C. Cir. 2008). Association of Battery Recyclers, Inc. v. EPA, 716 F.3d 667 (D.C. Cir. 2013). The EPA may consider cost in deciding whether to revise the standards pursuant to CAA section 112(d)(6). B. What are the source categories and how do the current NESHAP regulate their HAP emissions? 1. What is the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category and how does the current NESHAP regulate its HAP emissions? a. Source Category Description The NESHAP for the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category was promulgated on July 23, 2002 (67 FR 48254), and codified at 40 CFR part 63, subpart NNNN. As promulgated in 2002, the Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP applies to the surface coating and related operations at each new and existing affected source of HAP emissions at facilities that are major sources and are engaged in the surface coating of a large appliance part or product. The Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP (40 CFR 63.4081) defines a “large appliance part or product” as “a component of a large appliance product manufactured for household, recreational, institutional, commercial, or industrial use” including, but not limited to, “cooking equipment; refrigerators, freezers, and refrigerated cabinets and cases; laundry equipment; dishwashers, trash compactors, and water heaters; and heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) units, air-conditioning (except motor vehicle) units, air-conditioning and heating combination units, comfort furnaces, and electric heat pumps. Specifically excluded are heat transfer coils and large commercial and industrial chillers.” Based on our search of the National Emission Inventory (NEI) ( www.epa.gov/air-emissions-inventories/national-emissions-inventory-nei ) and the EPA's Enforcement and Compliance History Online (ECHO) database ( www.echo.epa.gov) and a review of active air emissions permits, we estimate that ten facilities are subject to the Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP. A complete list of facilities subject to the Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP is available in Table 1 of Appendix 10 to the memorandum titled Residual Risk Assessment for the Surface Coating of Large Appliances Source Category in Support of the May 2018 Risk and Technology Review Proposed Rule (hereafter referred to as the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report ) in the Large Appliances Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670). The Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP also defines a coating as a “material that is applied to a substrate for decorative, protective or functional purposes. Such materials include, but are not limited to, paints, sealants, caulks, inks, adhesives, and maskants. Decorative, protective, or functional materials that consist only of protective oils, acids, bases, or any combination of these substances are not considered coatings for the purposes of this subpart.” b. HAP Emission Sources The primary HAP emitted from large appliance surface coating operations are organic HAP and include xylene, glycol ethers, toluene, methanol, ethyl benzene, methylene chloride, and methyl isobutyl ether. Approximately 80 percent of the HAP emissions from the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category occur from the coating operations and from the mixing and storage areas. At the time of the original rule promulgation in 2002, most large appliance coating was applied either by using a spray gun in a spray booth or by dipping the substrate in a tank. Inorganic HAP emissions were considered in the development of the Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP. Inorganic HAP, including chromium, cobalt, lead, and manganese compounds, are components of some specialty coatings used by this source category. However, most of the inorganic HAP components remain as solids in the dry coating film on the parts being coated or are deposited onto the walls, floor, and grates of the spray booths in which they are applied. The remaining inorganic HAP particles are entrained in the spray booth exhaust air. Spray booths in the large appliance industry typically have either water curtains or dry filters to remove overspray particles from the exhaust air. No inorganic HAP were reported in the cleaning materials in the data collected to develop the Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP. No inorganic HAP were reported in the NEI data used for this RTR for surface coating operations at major source large appliance manufacturing facilities. c. NESHAP Requirements for Control of HAP We estimated that the Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP requirements would reduce the emissions of organic HAP from the source category by 45 percent or 1,191 tons per year (67 FR 48259, July 23, 2002). The NESHAP specifies numerical emission limits for organic HAP emissions from surface coating application operations. The organic HAP emission limit for existing sources is 0.13 kilogram (kg) organic HAP/liter (1.1 pound/gallon (lb/gal)) of coating solids and for new or reconstructed sources is 0.022 kg organic HAP/liter (0.18 lb/gal) of coating solids. The Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP provides existing sources three compliance options: (1) Compliant coatings i.e., all coatings have less than or equal to 0.13 kg organic HAP/liter (1.1 pound/gallon (lb/gal)) of coating solids; (2) emission rate without add-on controls; or (3) emission rate with add-on controls. For any coating operation(s) on which the facility uses the compliant material option or the emission rate without add-on controls option, the facility is not required to meet any work practice standards. If the facility uses the emission rate with add-on controls option, the facility must develop and implement a work practice plan to minimize organic HAP emissions from the storage, mixing, and conveying of coatings, thinners, and cleaning materials used in, and waste materials generated by, the coating operation(s) using that option. The plan must specify practices and procedures to ensure that a set of minimum work practices specified in the NESHAP are implemented. The facility must also comply with site-specific operating limits for the emission capture and control system. 2. What is the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category and how does the current NESHAP regulate its HAP emissions? a. Source Category Description The NESHAP for the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category was promulgated on May 29, 2003 (68 FR 32172), and codified at 40 CFR part 63, subpart OOOO. As promulgated in 2003, the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles NESHAP applies to the printing, coating, slashing, dyeing, or finishing of fabrics and other textiles and related operations at each new and existing affected source of HAP emissions at facilities that are major sources and are engaged in the printing, coating, slashing, dyeing, or finishing of fabrics and other textiles. The Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles NESHAP (40 CFR 63.4371) defines a fabric as any woven, knitted, plaited, braided, felted, or non-woven material made of filaments, fibers, or yarns including thread. This term includes material made of fiberglass, natural fibers, synthetic fibers, or composite. The NESHAP defines textile as any one of the following: (1) Staple fibers and filaments suitable for conversion to or use as yarns, or for the preparation of woven, knit, or nonwoven fabrics; (2) Yarns made from natural or manufactured fibers; (3) Fabrics and other manufactured products made from staple fibers and filaments and from yarn; and (4) Garments and other articles fabricated from fibers, yarns, or fabrics. Based on our search of the NEI and EPA's ECHO database and a review of active air emission permits, we estimate that 43 facilities are subject to the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles NESHAP. A complete list of facilities we identified as subject to the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles NESHAP is available in Table 1 of Appendix 10 to the memorandum titled Residual Risk Assessment for the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles Source Category in Support of the May 2018 Risk and Technology Review Proposed Rule ) hereafter referred to as the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report ), in the Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0668). The Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles NESHAP also defines a coating material as an elastomer, polymer, or prepolymer material applied as a thin layer to a textile web. Such materials include, but are not limited to, coatings, sealants, inks, and adhesives. Decorative, protective, or functional materials that consist only of acids, bases, or any combination of these substances are not considered coating materials for the purposes of this subpart. Thinning materials also are not included in this definition of coating materials but are accounted for separately. b. HAP Emission Sources The primary HAP emitted from printing, coating, and dyeing operations are organic HAP and include toluene, phenol, methanol, and N,N-dimethylformamide. The majority of organic HAP emissions (greater than 95 percent) come from the coating and printing subcategories, with the remainder coming from dyeing and finishing. Inorganic HAP emissions were considered in the development of the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles NESHAP. Based on information reported in survey responses during the development of the 2002 proposed NESHAP, inorganic HAP, including chromium, cobalt, hydrogen chloride (HCl), lead, manganese compounds, and nickel were components of some coatings, dyes, and finishes used by this source category. However, we concluded that inorganic HAP are not likely to be emitted from these sources because of the application techniques used (67 FR 46032, July 11, 2002). No inorganic HAP were reported in the NEI data used for this RTR for printing, coating, and dyeing of fabrics and other textiles operations at major source facilities. c. NESHAP Requirements for Control of HAP We estimated that the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles NESHAP requirements would reduce the emissions of organic HAP from the source category by 60 percent or 4,100 tpy (68 FR 32172, May 29, 2003). The NESHAP specifies numerical emission limits for organic HAP emissions from three subcategories of surface coating application operations: Printing and coating; dyeing and finishing; and slashing. The organic HAP emission limit for existing printing or coating affected sources is 0.12 kg organic HAP/kg (lb/lb) of coating solids applied and for new or reconstructed affected sources is 0.08 kg organic HAP/kg (lb/lb) of coating solids applied. Printing or coating affected sources may also demonstrate compliance by achieving at least a 98-percent HAP reduction for new affected sources or a 97-percent HAP reduction for existing sources. New and existing sources using a thermal oxidizer may also comply by achieving a HAP concentration at the oxidizer outlet of no greater than 20 parts per million by volume (ppmv) on a dry basis and having an emission capture system with 100-percent efficiency. For new, reconstructed, or existing dyeing and finishing operations, the emission limit for conducting dyeing operations is 0.016 kg organic HAP/kg (lb/lb) dyeing materials applied; the limit for conducting finishing operations is 0.0003 kg organic HAP/kg (lb/lb) finishing materials applied; and the limit for conducting both dyeing and finishing operations is 0.016 kg organic HAP/kg (lb/lb) dyeing and finishing materials applied. For new, reconstructed, or existing slashing operations, the slashing materials must contain no organic HAP (each organic HAP that is not an Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)-defined carcinogen that is measured to be present at less than one percent by weight is counted as zero). For any coating, printing, or dyeing operation(s) on which the facility uses the compliant material option or the emission rate without add-on controls option, the facility is not required to meet any work practice standards. If the facility uses an add-on control device to demonstrate compliance, the facility must develop and implement a work practice plan to minimize organic HAP emissions from the storage, mixing, and conveying of coatings, thinners, and cleaning materials used in, and waste materials generated by, the coating operation(s) using that option. The plan must specify practices and procedures to ensure that a set of minimum work practices specified in the NESHAP are implemented. The facility must also comply with site-specific operating limits for the emission capture and control system. 3. What is the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source category and how does the current NESHAP regulate its HAP emissions? a. Source Category Description The NESHAP for the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source category was promulgated on May 23, 2003 (68 FR 28606), and codified at 40 CFR part 63, subpart RRRR. As promulgated in 2003, the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture NESHAP applies to the surface coating and related operations at each new and existing affected source of HAP emissions at facilities that are major sources and are engaged, either in part or in whole, in the surface coating of metal furniture. The Surface Coating of Metal Furniture NESHAP (40 CFR 63.4881) defines metal furniture as furniture or components of furniture constructed either entirely or partially from metal. Metal furniture includes, but is not limited to, components of the following types of products as well as the products themselves: Household, office, institutional, laboratory, hospital, public building, restaurant, barber and beauty shop, and dental furniture; office and store fixtures; partitions; shelving; lockers; lamps and lighting fixtures; and wastebaskets. Based on our search of the NEI and the EPA's ECHO database and a review of active air emission permits, we estimate that 16 facilities are subject to the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture NESHAP. A complete list of facilities subject to the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture NESHAP is available in Table 1 of Appendix 10 to the memorandum titled Residual Risk Assessment for the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture Source Category in Support of the May 2018 Risk and Technology Review Proposed Rule (hereafter referred to as the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report ), in the Metal Furniture Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0669). The Surface Coating of Metal Furniture NESHAP defines a coating as a “material that is applied to a substrate for decorative, protective, or functional purposes. Such materials include, but are not limited to, paints, sealants, caulks, inks, adhesives, and maskants.” b. HAP Emission Sources Most of the organic HAP emissions from metal furniture surface coating operations occur from the coating application operations and the drying and curing ovens. In most cases, HAP emissions from surface preparation, storage, and handling are relatively small for this source category. The primary organic HAP emitted from metal furniture surface coating operations are xylene, glycol ethers, ethylbenzene, toluene, and cumene. These compounds account for more than 95 percent of this category's nationwide organic HAP emissions from major sources. Inorganic HAP emissions, such as chromium, lead, and manganese compounds, were considered in the development of the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture NESHAP, and the EPA determined that inorganic HAP emissions would be very low (67 FR 20206, April 24, 2002). At that time, approximately 680 coatings were reported in the survey responses from the metal furniture industry, and only two coatings were reported as containing inorganic HAP. In the NEI data used for this risk and technology review, only one facility reported inorganic HAP emissions (antimony, 0.015 tpy, and nickel, 0.003 tpy) from metal furniture surface coating operations. According to the reporting facility, the reported emissions in the NEI were conservatively over-estimated by an approximate factor of 10. 3 3 Telephone communication between Kaye Whitfield, U.S. EPA and Marley Ayres, Pinnacle Engineering, February 7, 2018. c. NESHAP Requirements for Control of HAP We estimated the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture NESHAP requirements would reduce the emissions of organic HAP from the source category by 73 percent or 16,300 tpy (68 FR 28606, May 23, 2003). The NESHAP specifies numerical emission limits for organic HAP emissions from surface coating application operations. The organic HAP emission rate for existing sources is no more than 0.10 kg organic HAP/liter (0.83 lb/gal) of coating solids used during each compliance period. A new or reconstructed affected source can emit no organic HAP during any compliance period unless a source requests approval from the Administrator to use an alternative new source emission limit for specific metal furniture components or types of components. The Surface Coating of Metal Furniture NESHAP provides existing sources three compliance options: (1) Use only compliant coatings i.e., all coatings have less than or equal to 0.10 kg organic HAP/liter (0.83 lb/gal) of coating solids used; (2) collectively manage the coatings such that the monthly emission rate of organic HAP is less than or equal to 0.10 kg organic HAP/liter (0.83 lb/gal) coating solids used; or (3) use emission capture systems and control devices to achieve an organic HAP emission rate of less than or equal to 0.10 kg organic HAP/liter (0.83 lb/gal) coating solids used. For any metal furniture coating operation(s) on which the facility uses the compliant material option or the emission rate without add-on controls option, the facility is not required to meet any work practice standards. If the facility uses an add-on control device to demonstrate compliance, the facility must develop and implement a work practice plan to minimize organic HAP emissions from the storage, mixing, and conveying of coatings, thinners, and cleaning materials used in, and waste materials generated by, the coating operation(s) using that option. The plan must specify practices and procedures to ensure that a set of minimum work practices specified in the NESHAP are implemented. The facility must also comply with site-specific operating limits for the emission capture and control system. C. What data collection activities were conducted to support this action? For the risk modeling portion of these RTRs, the EPA used data from the 2011 and 2014 NEI. The NEI is a database that contains information about sources that emit criteria air pollutants, their precursors, and HAP. The database includes estimates of annual air pollutant emissions from point, nonpoint, and mobile sources in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. The EPA collects this information and releases an updated version of the NEI database every three years. The NEI includes data necessary for conducting risk modeling, including annual HAP emissions estimates from individual emission points at facilities and the related emissions release parameters. We used NEI emissions and supporting data as the primary data to develop the model input files for the risk assessments for each of these three source categories. Additional information on the development of the modeling file for each source category can be found in Appendix 1 to the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report in the Large Appliances Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670), Appendix 1 to the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report in the Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0668), and Appendix 1 to the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report in the Metal Furniture Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0669). For both the risk modeling and technology review portion of these RTRs, we also gathered data from facility construction and operating permits, regarding emission points, air pollution control devices, and process operations. We collected permits and supporting documentation from state permitting authorities through state-maintained online databases. The facility permits were also used to confirm that the facilities were major sources of HAP and were subject to the NESHAP that are the subject of these risk assessments. In certain cases, we contacted facility owners or operators to confirm and clarify the sources of emissions that were reported in the NEI. No formal information collection request was performed. For the technology review portion of these RTRs, we also used information from the EPA's ECHO database as a tool to identify which facilities were potentially subject to the NESHAP. The ECHO database provides integrated compliance and enforcement information for approximately 800,000 regulated facilities nationwide. Using the search feature in ECHO, the EPA identified facilities that could potentially be subject to each of these three NESHAP. We then reviewed operating permits for these facilities, when available, to confirm that they were major sources of HAP with emission sources subject to these NESHAP. Also for the technology reviews, we collected information from the Reasonably Available Control Technology (RACT), Best Available Control Technology (BACT), and Lowest Achievable Emission Rate (LAER) determinations in the EPA's RACT/BACT/LAER Clearinghouse (RBLC). 4 This is a database that contains case-specific information on air pollution technologies that have been required to reduce the emissions of air pollutants from stationary sources. Under the EPA's New Source Review (NSR) program, if a facility is planning new construction or a modification that will increase the air emissions by a large amount, an NSR permit must be obtained. This central database promotes the sharing of information among permitting agencies and aids in case-by-case determinations for NSR permits. We examined information contained in the RBLC to determine what technologies are currently used for these surface coating operations to reduce air emissions. 4 https://www.epa.gov/catc/ractbactlaer-clearinghouse-rblc-basic-information. Additional information about these data collection activities for the technology reviews is contained in the technology review memoranda titled Technology Review for Surface Coating Operations in the Large Appliance Category, August 2017 (hereafter referred to as the Large Appliances Technology Review Memo ), Technology Review for Printing, Coating, and Dyeing Category, August 2017 (hereafter referred to as the Fabrics and Other Textiles Technology Review Memo ), and Technology Review for Surface Coating Operations in the Metal Furniture Category, September 2017 (hereafter referred to as the Metal Furniture Technology Review Memo ), available respectively in the Large Appliances Docket, Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Metal Furniture Docket. D. What other relevant background information and data are available? For the technology review for each source category, we reviewed the NESHAP for various industries that were promulgated since the MACT standards being reviewed in this action. We reviewed the regulatory requirements and/or technical analyses associated with these later regulatory actions to identify any practices, processes, and control technologies considered in those rulemakings that could be applied to emission sources in each of these three source categories, as well as the costs, non-air impacts, and energy implications associated with the use of those technologies. We also reviewed information available in the American Coatings Association's (ACA) Industry Market Analysis, 9th Edition (2014-2019), 5 for the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture and Surface Coating of Large Appliances source categories. The ACA Industry Market Analysis provided information on trends in coatings technology that can affect emissions from the metal furniture and large appliance source categories, but did not address the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category. Additional details regarding our review of these information sources are contained in the Large Appliances Technology Review Memo, the Fabrics and Other Textiles Technology Review Memo, and the Metal Furniture Technology Review Memo, available in the Large Appliances Docket, Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Metal Furniture Docket, respectively. 5 Prepared for the American Coatings Association, Washington, DC, by The ChemQuest Group, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio. 2015. III. Analytical Procedures In this section, we describe the analyses performed to support the proposed decisions for the RTRs and other issues addressed in this proposal. A. How do we consider risk in our decision-making? As discussed in section II.A of this preamble and in the Benzene NESHAP, in evaluating and developing standards under CAA section 112(f)(2), we apply a two-step approach to determine whether or not risks are acceptable and to determine if the standards provide an ample margin of safety to protect public health. As explained in the Benzene NESHAP, “the first step judgment on acceptability cannot be reduced to any single factor” and, thus, “[t]he Administrator believes that the acceptability of risk under section 112 is best judged on the basis of a broad set of health risk measures and information.” 54 FR 38046, September 14, 1989. Similarly, with regard to the ample margin of safety determination, “the Agency again considers all of the health risk and other health information considered in the first step. Beyond that information, additional factors relating to the appropriate level of control will also be considered, including cost and economic impacts of controls, technological feasibility, uncertainties, and any other relevant factors.” Id. The Benzene NESHAP approach provides flexibility regarding factors the EPA may consider in making determinations and how the EPA may weigh those factors for each source category. The EPA conducts a risk assessment that provides estimates of the MIR posed by the HAP emissions from each source in the source category, the hazard index (HI) for chronic exposures to HAP with the potential to cause noncancer health effects, and the hazard quotient (HQ) for acute exposures to HAP with the potential to cause noncancer health effects. 6 The assessment also provides estimates of the distribution of cancer risks within the exposed populations, cancer incidence, and an evaluation of the potential for adverse environmental effects. The scope of EPA's risk analysis is consistent with EPA's response to comments on our policy under the Benzene NESHAP where the EPA explained that: 6 The MIR is defined as the cancer risk associated with a lifetime of exposure at the highest concentration of HAP where people are likely to live. The HQ is the ratio of the potential exposure to the HAP to the level at or below which no adverse chronic noncancer effects are expected; the HI is the sum of HQs for HAP that affect the same target organ or organ system. “[t]he policy chosen by the Administrator permits consideration of multiple measures of health risk. Not only can the MIR figure be considered, but also incidence, the presence of noncancer health effects, and the uncertainties of the risk estimates. In this way, the effect on the most exposed individuals can be reviewed as well as the impact on the general public. These factors can then be weighed in each individual case. This approach complies with the Vinyl Chloride mandate that the Administrator ascertain an acceptable level of risk to the public by employing his expertise to assess available data. It also complies with the Congressional intent behind the CAA, which did not exclude the use of any particular measure of public health risk from the EPA's consideration with respect to CAA section 112 regulations, and thereby implicitly permits consideration of any and all measures of health risk which the Administrator, in his judgment, believes are appropriate to determining what will `protect the public health'.” See 54 FR 38057, September 14, 1989. Thus, the level of the MIR is only one factor to be weighed in determining acceptability of risks. The Benzene NESHAP explained that “an MIR of approximately one in ten thousand should ordinarily be the upper end of the range of acceptability. As risks increase above this benchmark, they become presumptively less acceptable under CAA section 112, and would be weighed with the other health risk measures and information in making an overall judgment on acceptability. Or, the Agency may find, in a particular case, that a risk that includes MIR less than the presumptively acceptable level is unacceptable in the light of other health risk factors.” Id. at 38045. Similarly, with regard to the ample margin of safety analysis, the EPA stated in the Benzene NESHAP that: “EPA believes the relative weight of the many factors that can be considered in selecting an ample margin of safety can only be determined for each specific source category. This occurs mainly because technological and economic factors (along with the health-related factors) vary from source category to source category.” Id. at 38061. We also consider the uncertainties associated with the various risk analyses, as discussed earlier in this preamble, in our determinations of acceptability and ample margin of safety. The EPA notes that it has not considered certain health information to date in making residual risk determinations. At this time, we do not attempt to quantify those HAP risks that may be associated with emissions from other facilities that do not include the source categories under review, mobile source emissions, natural source emissions, persistent environmental pollution, or atmospheric transformation in the vicinity of the sources in the categories. The EPA understands the potential importance of considering an individual's total exposure to HAP in addition to considering exposure to HAP emissions from the source category and facility. We recognize that such consideration may be particularly important when assessing noncancer risks, where pollutant-specific exposure health reference levels ( e.g., reference concentrations (RfCs)) are based on the assumption that thresholds exist for adverse health effects. For example, the EPA recognizes that, although exposures attributable to emissions from a source category or facility alone may not indicate the potential for increased risk of adverse noncancer health effects in a population, the exposures resulting from emissions from the facility in combination with emissions from all of the other sources ( e.g., other facilities) to which an individual is exposed may be sufficient to result in increased risk of adverse noncancer health effects. In May 2010, the Science Advisory Board (SAB) advised the EPA “that RTR assessments will be most useful to decision makers and communities if results are presented in the broader context of aggregate and cumulative risks, including background concentrations and contributions from other sources in the area.” 7 7 The EPA's responses to this and all other key recommendations of the SAB's advisory on RTR risk assessment methodologies (which is available at: https://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/4AB3966E263D943A8525771F00668381/$File/EPA-SAB-10-007-unsigned.pdf ) are outlined in a memorandum to this rulemaking docket from David Guinnup titled EPA's Actions in Response to the Key Recommendations of the SAB Review of RTR Risk Assessment Methodologies. In response to the SAB recommendations, the EPA is incorporating certain cumulative risk analyses into its RTR risk assessments, including those reflected in this proposal. Specifically, the Agency is (1) conducting facility-wide assessments, which include source category emission points, as well as other emission points within the facilities; (2) combining exposures from multiple sources in the same category that could affect the same individuals; and (3) for some persistent and bioaccumulative pollutants, analyzing the ingestion route of exposure. In addition, the RTR risk assessments have always considered aggregate cancer risk from all carcinogens and aggregate noncancer HI from all noncarcinogens affecting the same target organ system. Although we look at the cumulative risks from all sources at facilities within the category, we do not assess the cumulative risks from facilities outside the category that may be in the vicinity. We are interested in placing source category and facility-wide HAP risks in the context of total HAP risks from all sources of HAP in the vicinity of each source. However, because of the contribution to total HAP risk from emission sources other than those that we have studied, in depth, during this RTR review, such estimates of total HAP risks would have significantly greater associated uncertainties than the source category or facility-wide estimates. Such aggregate or cumulative assessments would compound those uncertainties, making the assessments too unreliable. B. How do we perform the technology review? Our technology reviews focus on the identification and evaluation of developments in practices, processes, and control technologies that have occurred since the MACT standards were promulgated. Where we identify such developments, in order to inform our decision of whether it is “necessary” to revise the emissions standards, we analyze the technical feasibility of applying these developments and the estimated costs, energy implications, and non-air environmental impacts, and we also consider the emission reductions. In addition, we consider the appropriateness of applying controls to future affected sources versus retrofitting affected sources currently subject to the NESHAP. For this exercise, we consider any of the following to be a “development”: • Any add-on control technology or other equipment that was not identified and considered during development of the original MACT standards; • Any improvements in add-on control technology or other equipment (that were identified and considered during development of the original MACT standards) that could result in additional emissions reduction; • Any work practice or operational procedure that was not identified or considered during development of the original MACT standards; • Any process change or pollution prevention alternative that could be broadly applied to the industry and that was not identified or considered during development of the original MACT standards; and • Any significant changes in the cost (including cost effectiveness) of applying controls (including controls the EPA considered during the development of the original MACT standards). In addition to reviewing the practices, processes, and control technologies that were considered at the time we originally developed the NESHAP ( i.e., the 2002 Surface Coating of Large Appliances NESHAP; the 2003 Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles NESHAP; and the 2003 Surface Coating of Metal Furniture NESHAP), we reviewed a variety of data sources in our investigation of potential practices, processes, or controls that were not considered for each of the three source categories during development of the NESHAP. Among the sources we reviewed were the NESHAP for various industries that were promulgated since the MACT standards being reviewed in this action ( e.g., NESHAP for Miscellaneous Metal Parts and Products (40 CFR part 63, subpart MMMM)). We also reviewed the results of other technology reviews for other surface coating source categories since the promulgation of the NESHAP ( e.g., the technology reviews conducted for the Shipbuilding and Ship Repair (Surface Coating) NESHAP (40 CFR part 63, subpart II) and the Wood Furniture Manufacturing Operations NESHAP (40 CFR part 63, subpart JJ)). We reviewed the regulatory requirements and/or technical analyses associated with these regulatory actions to identify any practices, processes, and control technologies considered in these efforts that could be applied to emission sources in the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category, the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category, and the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source category, as well as the costs, non-air impacts, and energy implications associated with the use of these technologies. Finally, we reviewed information from other sources, such as state and/or local permitting agency databases and industry-sponsored market analyses and trade journals, searching for advancements in add-on controls, advancements in lower HAP technology for coatings and solvents. For a more detailed discussion of our methods for performing these technology reviews, refer to the Large Appliances Technology Review Memo, the Fabrics and Other Textiles Technology Review Memo, and the Metal Furniture Technology Review Memo, available respectively in the Large Appliances Docket, Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Metal Furniture Docket. C. How did we estimate post-MACT risks posed by these source categories? The EPA conducted risk assessments that provide estimates of the MIR for cancer posed by the HAP emissions from each source in each source category, the HI for chronic exposures to HAP with the potential to cause noncancer health effects, and the HQ for acute exposures to HAP with the potential to cause noncancer health effects. The assessments also provide estimates of the distribution of cancer risks within the exposed populations, cancer incidence, and an evaluation of the potential for adverse environmental effects. The seven sections that follow this paragraph describe how we estimated emissions and conducted the risk assessments. The Large Appliances Docket, Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Metal Furniture Docket contain, respectively, the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report, the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report, and the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report, which provide more information on the risk assessment inputs and models. The methods used to assess risks (as described in the seven primary steps below) are consistent with those peer-reviewed by a panel of the EPA's SAB in 2009 and described in their peer review report issued in 2010; 8 they are also consistent with the key recommendations contained in that report. 8 U.S. EPA SAB. Risk and Technology Review (RTR) Risk Assessment Methodologies: For Review by the EPA's Science Advisory Board with Case Studies—MACT I Petroleum Refining Sources and Portland Cement Manufacturing, May 2010. 1. How did we estimate actual emissions and identify the emissions release characteristics? The actual emissions and the emission release characteristics for each facility were obtained primarily from either the 2011 NEI or the 2014 NEI. Most data were obtained from the 2011 NEI, unless the 2014 NEI included HAP data for emission units or processes for which the 2011 NEI included only volatile organic compounds (VOC) or particulate matter. In some cases, the facilities were contacted to confirm emissions that appeared to be outliers, that were otherwise inconsistent with our understanding of the industry, or that were associated with high risk values in our initial risk screening analyses. When appropriate, emission values and release characteristics were corrected based on these facility contacts, and these changes were documented. Additional information on the development of the modeling file for each source category, including the development of the actual emissions and emissions release characteristics, can be found in Appendix 1 to the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report in the Large Appliances Docket, Appendix 1 to the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report in the Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Appendix 1 to the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report in the Metal Furniture Docket. 2. How did we estimate MACT-allowable emissions? The available emissions data in the RTR emissions dataset include estimates of the mass of HAP emitted during a specified annual time period. These “actual” emission levels are often lower than the emission levels allowed under the requirements of the current MACT standards. The emissions level allowed to be emitted under the MACT standards is referred to as the “MACT-allowable” emissions level. We discussed the use of both MACT-allowable and actual emissions in the final Coke Oven Batteries RTR (70 FR 19998-19999, April 15, 2005) and in the proposed and final Hazardous Organic NESHAP RTRs (71 FR 34428, June 14, 2006, and 71 FR 76609, December 21, 2006, respectively). In those actions, we noted that assessing the risks at the MACT-allowable level is inherently reasonable since these risks reflect the maximum level facilities could emit and still comply with national emission standards. We also explained that it is reasonable to consider actual emissions, where such data are available, in both steps of the risk analysis, in accordance with the Benzene NESHAP approach. (54 FR 38044, September 14, 1989.) For the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category, the EPA calculated allowable emissions by developing a source category-specific multiplier of 1.2 that was applied to the current emissions to estimate allowable emissions. The multiplier was calculated using annual coating sales volumes provided in the ACA Industry Market Analysis for appliance finishes in the years 2005 to 2014. For more information on how the EPA calculated the MACT-allowable emissions for the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category, please see Appendix 1 to the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report in the Large Appliances Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670). For the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category, the EPA calculated allowable emissions by developing a source category-specific multiplier of 1.1 that was applied to the current emissions to estimate allowable emissions. We gathered current and historical publicly available category-specific production data from U.S. Census and based the calculation on plant capacity utilization rates for six different NAICS codes related to fabric and textile production for the years 2008 to 2016. We assumed the annual plant capacity utilization rates represented industry annual production rates. The multiplier of 1.1, or the ratio of the peak annual utilization rate in 2013 to the average annual utilization rate for the years 2008 to 2016, was applied to the actual emissions to estimate allowable emissions. For more details on how the EPA calculated the MACT-allowable emissions for the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category, please see Appendix 1 to the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report in the Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0668). For the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source category, the EPA calculated allowable emissions by developing a source category-specific multiplier of 1.8 that was applied to the current emissions to estimate allowable emissions. The multiplier was calculated using annual coating sales volumes from the ACA Industry Market Analysis for non-wood furniture, fixture, and business equipment coatings from 2005 to 2014. For more details on how the EPA calculated the MACT-allowable emissions for the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source category, please see Appendix 1 to the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report in the Metal Furniture Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0669). 3. How did we conduct dispersion modeling, determine inhalation exposures, and estimate individual and population inhalation risks? Both long-term and short-term inhalation exposure concentrations and health risks from the source categories addressed in this proposal were estimated using the Human Exposure Model (HEM-3). The HEM-3 performs three primary risk assessment activities: (1) Conducting dispersion modeling to estimate the concentrations of HAP in ambient air, (2) estimating long-term and short-term inhalation exposures to individuals residing within 50 kilometers (km) of the modeled sources, and (3) estimating individual and population-level inhalation risks using the exposure estimates and quantitative dose-response information. a. Dispersion Modeling The air dispersion model AERMOD, used by the HEM-3 model, is one of the EPA's preferred models for assessing air pollutant concentrations from industrial facilities. 9 To perform the dispersion modeling and to develop the preliminary risk estimates, HEM-3 draws on three data libraries. The first is a library of meteorological data, which is used for dispersion calculations. This library includes one year (2016) of hourly surface and upper air observations from 824 meteorological stations, selected to provide coverage of the U.S. and Puerto Rico. A second library of U.S. Census Bureau census block 10 internal point locations and populations provides the basis of human exposure calculations (U.S. Census, 2010). In addition, for each census block, the census library includes the elevation and controlling hill height, which are also used in dispersion calculations. A third library of pollutant-specific dose-response values is used to estimate health risks. These dose-response values are the latest values recommended by the EPA for HAP. They are available at https://www.epa.gov/fera/dose-response-assessment-assessing-health-risks-associated-exposure-hazardous-air-pollutants and are discussed in more detail later in this section. 9 U.S. EPA. Revision to the Guideline on Air Quality Models: Adoption of a Preferred General Purpose (Flat and Complex Terrain) Dispersion Model and Other Revisions (70 FR 68218, November 9, 2005). 10 A census block is the smallest geographic area for which census statistics are tabulated. b. Risk From Chronic Exposure to HAP That May Cause Cancer In developing the risk assessment for chronic exposures, we used the estimated annual average ambient air concentrations of each HAP emitted by each source for which we have emissions data in the source categories. The air concentrations at each nearby census block centroid were used as a surrogate for the chronic inhalation exposure concentration for all the people who reside in that census block. We calculated the MIR for each facility as the cancer risk associated with a continuous lifetime (24 hours per day, seven days per week, 52 weeks per year, for a 70-year period) exposure to the maximum concentration at the centroid of inhabited census blocks. Individual cancer risks were calculated by multiplying the estimated lifetime exposure to the ambient concentration of each HAP (in micrograms per cubic meter) by its unit risk estimate (URE). The URE is an upper bound estimate of an individual's probability of contracting cancer over a lifetime of exposure to a concentration of one microgram of the pollutant per cubic meter of air. For residual risk assessments, we generally use UREs from the EPA's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). For carcinogenic pollutants without IRIS values, we look to other reputable sources of cancer dose-response values, often using California EPA (CalEPA) UREs, where available. In cases where new, scientifically credible dose-response values have been developed in a manner consistent with the EPA guidelines and have undergone a peer review process similar to that used by the EPA, we may use such dose-response values in place of, or in addition to, other values, if appropriate. To estimate incremental individual lifetime cancer risks associated with emissions from the facilities in the source categories, the EPA summed the risks for each of the carcinogenic HAP 11 emitted by the modeled sources. Cancer incidence and the distribution of individual cancer risks for the population within 50 km of the sources were also estimated for the source category by summing individual risks. A distance of 50 km is consistent with both the analysis supporting the 1989 Benzene NESHAP (54 FR 38044, September 14, 1989) and the limitations of Gaussian dispersion models, including AERMOD. 11 The EPA classifies carcinogens as: Carcinogenic to humans, likely to be carcinogenic to humans, and suggestive evidence of carcinogenic potential. These classifications also coincide with the terms “known carcinogen, probable carcinogen, and possible carcinogen,” respectively, which are the terms advocated in the EPA's Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment, published in 1986 (51 FR 33992, September 24, 1986). In August 2000, the document, Supplemental Guidance for Conducting Health Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures (EPA/630/R-00/002), was published as a supplement to the 1986 document. Copies of both documents can be obtained from https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=20533&CFID=70315376&CFTOKEN=71597944. Summing the risks of these individual compounds to obtain the cumulative cancer risks is an approach that was recommended by the EPA's SAB in their 2002 peer review of the EPA's National Air Toxics Assessment (NATA) titled NATA—Evaluating the National-scale Air Toxics Assessment 1996 Data—an SAB Advisory, available at https://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/214C6E915BB04E14852570CA007A682C/$File/ecadv02001.pdf. c. Risk From Chronic Exposure to HAP That May Cause Health Effects Other Than Cancer To assess the risk of noncancer health effects from chronic exposure to HAP, we calculate either an HQ or a target organ-specific hazard index (TOSHI). We calculate an HQ when a single noncancer HAP is emitted. Where more than one noncancer HAP is emitted, we sum the HQ for each of the HAP that affects a common target organ system to obtain a TOSHI. The HQ is the estimated exposure divided by the chronic noncancer dose-response value, which is a value selected from one of several sources. The preferred chronic noncancer dose-response value is the EPA RfC ( https://iaspub.epa.gov/sor_internet/registry/termreg/searchandretrieve/glossariesandkeywordlists/search.do?details=&vocabName=IRIS%20Glossary ), defined as “an estimate (with uncertainty spanning perhaps an order of magnitude) of a continuous inhalation exposure to the human population (including sensitive subgroups) that is likely to be without an appreciable risk of deleterious effects during a lifetime.” In cases where an RfC from the EPA's IRIS database is not available or where the EPA determines that using a value other than the RfC is appropriate, the chronic noncancer dose-response value can be a value from the following prioritized sources, which define their dose-response values similarly to EPA: (1) The Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) Minimum Risk Level ( https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mrls/index.asp ); (2) the CalEPA Chronic Reference Exposure Level (REL) ( https://oehha.ca.gov/air/crnr/notice-adoption-air-toxics-hot-spots-program-guidance-manual-preparation-health-risk-0 ); or (3), as noted above, a scientifically credible dose-response value that has been developed in a manner consistent with the EPA guidelines and has undergone a peer review process similar to that used by the EPA. d. Risk From Acute Exposure to HAP That May Cause Health Effects Other Than Cancer For each HAP for which appropriate acute inhalation dose-response values are available, the EPA also assesses the potential health risks due to acute exposure. For these assessments, the EPA makes conservative assumptions about emission rates, meteorology, and exposure location. We use the peak hourly emission rate (when available), 12 worst-case dispersion conditions, and, in accordance with our mandate under section 112 of the CAA, the point of highest off-site exposure to assess the potential risk to the maximally exposed individual. 12 In the absence of hourly emission data, we develop estimates of maximum hourly emission rates by multiplying the average actual annual emissions rates by a factor (either a category-specific factor or a default factor of 10) and dividing by the total number of hours in a year (8,760 hours) to account for variability. This is documented in Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report, Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report, and Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report and in Appendix 5 of the report: Analysis of Data on Short-term Emission Rates Relative to Long-term Emission Rates. These documents are available in the Large Appliances Docket, Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Metal Furniture Docket. To characterize the potential health risks associated with estimated acute inhalation exposures to a HAP, we generally use multiple acute dose-response values, including acute RELs, acute exposure guideline levels (AEGLs), and emergency response planning guidelines (ERPG) for 1-hour exposure durations), if available, to calculate acute HQs. The acute HQ is calculated by dividing the estimated acute exposure by the acute dose-response value. For each HAP for which acute dose-response values are available, the EPA calculates acute HQs. An acute REL is defined as “the concentration level at or below which no adverse health effects are anticipated for a specified exposure duration.” 13 Acute RELs are based on the most sensitive, relevant, adverse health effect reported in the peer-reviewed medical and toxicological literature. They are designed to protect the most sensitive individuals in the population through the inclusion of margins of safety. Because margins of safety are incorporated to address data gaps and uncertainties, exceeding the REL does not automatically indicate an adverse health impact. AEGLs represent threshold exposure limits for the general public and are applicable to emergency exposures ranging from ten minutes to eight hours. 14 They are guideline levels for “once-in-a-lifetime, short-term exposures to airborne concentrations of acutely toxic, high-priority chemicals.” Id. at 21. The AEGL-1 is specifically defined as “the airborne concentration (expressed as ppm (parts per million) or mg/m 3 (milligrams per cubic meter)) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience notable discomfort, irritation, or certain asymptomatic nonsensory effects. However, the effects are not disabling and are transient and reversible upon cessation of exposure.” The document also notes that “Airborne concentrations below AEGL-1 represent exposure levels that can produce mild and progressively increasing but transient and nondisabling odor, taste, and sensory irritation or certain asymptomatic, nonsensory effects.” Id. AEGL-2 are defined as “the airborne concentration (expressed as parts per million or milligrams per cubic meter) of a substance above which it is predicted that the general population, including susceptible individuals, could experience irreversible or other serious, long-lasting adverse health effects or an impaired ability to escape.” Id. 13 CalEPA issues acute RELs as part of its Air Toxics Hot Spots Program, and the 1-hour and 8-hour values are documented in Air Toxics Hot Spots Program Risk Assessment Guidelines, Part I, The Determination of Acute Reference Exposure Levels for Airborne Toxicants, which is available at https://oehha.ca.gov/air/general-info/oehha-acute-8-hour-and-chronic-reference-exposure-level-rel-summary. 14 National Academy of Sciences, 2001. Standing Operating Procedures for Developing Acute Exposure Levels for Hazardous Chemicals, page 2. Available at https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2015-09/documents/sop_final_standing_operating_procedures_2001.pdf . Note that the National Advisory Committee for Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Hazardous Substances ended in October 2011, but the AEGL program continues to operate at the EPA and works with the National Academies to publish final AEGLs, ( https://www.epa.gov/aegl ). ERPGs are “developed for emergency planning and are intended as health-based guideline concentrations for single exposures to chemicals.” 15 Id. at 1. The ERPG-1 is defined as “the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed that nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to one hour without experiencing other than mild transient adverse health effects or without perceiving a clearly defined, objectionable odor.” Id. at 2. Similarly, the ERPG-2 is defined as “the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed that nearly all individuals could be exposed for up to one hour without experiencing or developing irreversible or other serious health effects or symptoms which could impair an individual's ability to take protective action.” Id. at 1. 15 ERPGS Procedures and Responsibilities. March 2014. American Industrial Hygiene Association. Available at: https://www.aiha.org/get-involved/AIHAGuidelineFoundation/EmergencyResponsePlanningGuidelines/Documents/ERPG%20Committee%20Standard%20Operating%20Procedures%20%20-%20March%202014%20Revision%20%28Updated%2010-2-2014%29.pdf. An acute REL for 1-hour exposure durations is typically lower than its corresponding AEGL-1 and ERPG-1. Even though their definitions are slightly different, AEGL-1s are often the same as the corresponding ERPG-1s, and AEGL-2s are often equal to ERPG-2s. The maximum HQs from our acute inhalation screening risk assessment typically result when we use the acute REL for a HAP. In cases where the maximum acute HQ exceeds 1, we also report the HQ based on the next highest acute dose-response value (usually the AEGL-1 and/or the ERPG-1). For these source categories, we did not have short term emissions data; therefore, we developed source category-specific factors based on information about each industry. We request comment on our assumptions regarding hour-to-hour variation in emissions and our methods of calculating the multiplier for estimating the peak 1-hour emissions for each source category and any additional information that could help refine our approach. For the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category, we do not expect to see substantial hour-to-hour variation in emissions during routine operations because the industry employs the use of compliant low HAP coatings in a continuous (non-batch) coating process. Thus, applying the default emission factor of ten to estimate the worst-case hourly emission rate is not reasonable for this category. We expect that minimal variations in emissions could possibly occur due to cleaning of process equipment during routine operations for coating operations using the emission rate without add-on controls compliance option. We calculated worst-case hourly emissions by developing a source category-specific multiplier of 1.2 that was applied to the annual emissions, which were then divided by the total number of hours in a year (8,760 hours). The multiplier was based on historical data on coating sales volumes from the ACA Industry Market Analysis for appliance finishes 2005 to 2014. The multiplier was the ratio of the peak coating sales volume (in gallons) in 2006 to the average sales volume for the years 2005 to 2014. The peak coating sales volume in 2006 was assumed to represent the maximum utilization of the current large appliance surface coating industry. A further discussion of why this factor was chosen can be found in Appendix 1 to the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report in the Large Appliances Docket. For the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category, we do not expect to see substantial hour-to-hour variation in emissions during routine operations because the industry employs the use of various compliance options, including add-on controls, compliant low HAP coatings, or emission rate without add-on controls option, in a continuous (non-batch) coating process that achieve consistent emission rates. Thus, applying the default emission factor of ten to estimate the worst-case hourly emission rate is not reasonable for this category. We expect that minimal variations in emissions could possibly occur during routine operations due to cleaning of process equipment. We calculated acute emissions by developing a source category-specific multiplier of 1.4 that was applied to the annual emissions, which were then divided by the total number of hours in a year (8,760 hours). The multiplier was based on historical U.S. Census data on plant capacity utilization rates for six different NAICS codes related to fabric and textile production for the years 2008 to 2016. The multiplier was the ratio of the maximum utilization rate (100 percent) to the peak utilization rate of 71.7 percent for the years 2008 to 2016. A further discussion of why this factor was chosen can be found in Appendix 1 to the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report in the Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket. For the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source category, we do not expect to see substantial hour-to-hour variation in emissions during routine operations because the industry employs the use of compliant low HAP coatings in a continuous (non-batch) coating process. Thus, applying the default emission factor of ten to estimate the worst-case hourly emission rate is not reasonable for this category. We expect that minimal variations in emissions could possibly occur due to cleaning of process equipment during routine operations for coating operations using the emission rate without add-on controls compliance option. We calculated worst-case hourly emissions by developing a source category-specific multiplier of 1.8 that was applied to the annual emissions, which were then divided by the total number of hours in a year (8,760 hours). The multiplier was based on historical data on coating sales volumes from the ACA Industry Market Analysis for non-wood furniture, fixture and business equipment coatings from 2005 to 2014. The multiplier was the ratio of the peak coating sales volume (in gallons) in 2005 to the average sales volume for the years 2005 to 2014. The peak sales volume in 2005 was assumed to represent maximum utilization of the current metal furniture surface coating industry. A further discussion of why this factor was chosen can be found in Appendix 1 to the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report in the Metal Furniture Docket. In our acute inhalation screening risk assessment, acute impacts are deemed negligible for HAP where acute HQs are less than or equal to one (even under the conservative assumptions of the screening assessment), and no further analysis is performed for these HAP. In cases where an acute HQ from the screening step is greater than 1, we consider additional site-specific data to develop a more refined estimate of the potential for acute impacts of concern. For all three source categories, the acute data refinements employed consisted of plotting the HEM-3 polar grid results for each HAP with an acute HQ value greater than one on aerial photographs of the facilities. We then assessed whether the highest acute HQs were off-site and at locations that may be accessible to the public ( e.g., roadways and public buildings). These refinements are discussed more fully in the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report, the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report, and the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report, available respectively in the Large Appliances Docket, Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Metal Furniture Docket. 4. How did we conduct the multipathway exposure and risk screening assessment? The EPA conducted a tiered screening assessment examining the potential for significant human health risks due to exposures via routes other than inhalation ( i.e., ingestion). We first determined whether any sources in the source categories emitted any HAP known to be persistent and bioaccumulative in the environment (PB-HAP), as identified in the EPA's Air Toxics Risk Assessment Library (See Volume 1, Appendix D, at https://www2.epa.gov/fera/risk-assessment-and-modeling-air-toxics-risk-assessment-reference-library ). For the Surface Coating of Large Appliances; the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles; and Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source categories, we did not identify emissions of any PB-HAP. Because we did not identify PB-HAP emissions, no further evaluation of multipathway risk was conducted for these source categories. 5. How did we conduct the environmental risk screening assessment? a. Adverse Environmental Effects, Environmental HAP, and Ecological Benchmarks The EPA conducts a screening assessment to examine the potential for adverse environmental effects as required under section 112(f)(2)(A) of the CAA. Section 112(a)(7) of the CAA defines “adverse environmental effect” as “any significant and widespread adverse effect, which may reasonably be anticipated, to wildlife, aquatic life, or other natural resources, including adverse impacts on populations of endangered or threatened species or significant degradation of environmental quality over broad areas.” The EPA focuses on eight HAP, which are referred to as “environmental HAP,” in its screening assessment: Six PB-HAP and two acid gases. The PB-HAP included in the screening assessment are arsenic compounds, cadmium compounds, dioxins/furans, polycyclic organic matter, mercury (both inorganic mercury and methyl mercury), and lead compounds. The acid gases included in the screening assessment are HCl and hydrogen fluoride (HF). HAP that persist and bioaccumulate are of particular environmental concern because they accumulate in the soil, sediment, and water. The acid gases, HCl and HF, were included due to their well-documented potential to cause direct damage to terrestrial plants. In the environmental risk screening assessment, we evaluate the following four exposure media: Terrestrial soils, surface water bodies (includes water-column and benthic sediments), fish consumed by wildlife, and air. Within these four exposure media, we evaluate nine ecological assessment endpoints, which are defined by the ecological entity and its attributes. For PB-HAP (other than lead), both community-level and population-level endpoints are included. For acid gases, the ecological assessment evaluated is terrestrial plant communities. An ecological benchmark represents a concentration of HAP that has been linked to a particular environmental effect level. For each environmental HAP, we identified the available ecological benchmarks for each assessment endpoint. We identified, where possible, ecological benchmarks at the following effect levels: Probable effect levels, lowest-observed-adverse-effect level, and no-observed-adverse-effect level. In cases where multiple effect levels were available for a particular PB-HAP and assessment endpoint, we use all of the available effect levels to help us to determine whether ecological risks exist and, if so, whether the risks could be considered significant and widespread. For further information on how the environmental risk screening assessment was conducted, including a discussion of the risk metrics used, how the environmental HAP were identified, and how the ecological benchmarks were selected, see Appendix 9 of the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report, the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report, and the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report, in the Large Appliances Docket, Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Metal Furniture Docket, respectively. b. Environmental Risk Screening Methodology For the environmental risk screening assessment, the EPA first determined whether any facilities in the Surface Coating of Large Appliances; Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles; and Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source categories emitted any of the environmental HAP. For the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category, we identified emissions of HCl and HF. No environmental HAP were emitted from the other two source categories. Because one or more of the environmental HAP evaluated are emitted by at least one facility in the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category, we proceeded to the second step of the evaluation for that source category. c. Acid Gas Environmental Risk Methodology The environmental screening assessment for acid gases evaluates the potential phytotoxicity and reduced productivity of plants due to chronic exposure to HCl and HF. The environmental risk screening methodology for acid gases is a single-tier screening assessment that compares modeled ambient air concentrations (from AERMOD) to the ecological benchmarks for each acid gas. To identify potential adverse environmental effects (as defined in section 112(a)(7) of the CAA) from emissions of HCl and HF, we evaluate the following metrics: The size of the modeled area around each facility that exceeds the ecological benchmark for each acid gas, in acres and km 2 ; the percentage of the modeled area around each facility that exceeds the ecological benchmark for each acid gas; and the area-weighted average screening value around each facility (calculated by dividing the area-weighted average concentration over the 50-km modeling domain by the ecological benchmark for each acid gas). For further information on the environmental screening assessment approach, see Appendix 9 of the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report in the Large Appliances Docket. 6. How did we conduct facility-wide assessments? To put the source category risks in context, we typically examine the risks from the entire “facility,” where the facility includes all HAP-emitting operations within a contiguous area and under common control. In other words, we examine the HAP emissions not only from the source category emission points of interest, but also emissions of HAP from all other emission sources at the facility for which we have data. For this source category, we conducted the facility-wide assessment using a dataset compiled from the 2014 NEI. The source category records of that NEI dataset were removed, evaluated, and updated as described in section II.C of this preamble: “What data collection activities were conducted to support this action?” Once a quality assured source category dataset was available, it was placed back with the remaining records from the NEI for that facility. The facility-wide file was then used to analyze risks due to the inhalation of HAP that are emitted “facility-wide” for the populations residing within 50 km of each facility, consistent with the methods used for the source category analysis described above. For these facility-wide risk analyses, the modeled source category risks were compared to the facility-wide risks to determine the portion of the facility-wide risks that could be attributed to the source categories addressed in this proposal. We also specifically examined the facility that was associated with the highest estimate of risk and determined the percentage of that risk attributable to the source category of interest. The Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report, the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report, and the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report, available respectively in the Large Appliances Docket, Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Metal Furniture Docket, provide the methodology and results of the facility-wide analyses, including all facility-wide risks and the percentage of source category contribution to facility-wide risks. 7. How did we consider uncertainties in risk assessment? Uncertainty and the potential for bias are inherent in all risk assessments, including those performed for this proposal. Although uncertainty exists, we believe that our approach, which used conservative tools and assumptions, ensures that our decisions are health and environmentally protective. A brief discussion of the uncertainties in the RTR emissions datasets, dispersion modeling, inhalation exposure estimates, and dose-response relationships follows below. Also included are those uncertainties specific to our acute screening assessments, multipathway screening assessments, and our environmental risk screening assessments. A more thorough discussion of these uncertainties is included in the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report, the Fabrics and Other Textiles Risk Assessment Report, and the Metal Furniture Risk Assessment Report, available respectively in the Large Appliances Docket, Fabrics and Other Textiles Docket, and Metal Furniture Docket. If a multipathway site-specific assessment was performed for this source category, a full discussion of the uncertainties associated with that assessment can be found in Appendix 11 of that document, Site-Specific Human Health Multipathway Residual Risk Assessment Report. a. Uncertainties in the RTR Emissions Datasets Although the development of the RTR emissions datasets involved quality assurance/quality control processes, the accuracy of emissions values will vary depending on the source of the data, the degree to which data are incomplete or missing, the degree to which assumptions made to complete the datasets are accurate, errors in emission estimates, and other factors. The emission estimates considered in this analysis generally are annual totals for certain years, and they do not reflect short-term fluctuations during the course of a year or variations from year to year. The estimates of peak hourly emission rates for the acute effects screening assessment were based on an emission adjustment factor applied to the average annual hourly emission rates, which are intended to account for emission fluctuations due to normal facility operations. b. Uncertainties in Dispersion Modeling We recognize there is uncertainty in ambient concentration estimates associated with any model, including the EPA's recommended regulatory dispersion model, AERMOD. In using a model to estimate ambient pollutant concentrations, the user chooses certain options to apply. For RTR assessments, we select some model options that have the potential to overestimate ambient air concentrations ( e.g., not including plume depletion or pollutant transformation). We select other model options that have the potential to underestimate ambient impacts ( e.g., not including building downwash). Other options that we select have the potential to either under- or overestimate ambient levels ( e.g., meteorology and receptor locations). On balance, considering the directional nature of the uncertainties commonly present in ambient concentrations estimated by dispersion models, the approach we apply in the RTR assessments should yield unbiased estimates of ambient HAP concentrations. We also note that the selection of meteorology dataset location could have an impact on the risk estimates. As we continue to update and expand our library of meteorological station data used in our risk assessments, we expect to reduce this variability. c. Uncertainties in Inhalation Exposure Assessment Although every effort is made to identify all of the relevant facilities and emission points, as well as to develop accurate estimates of the annual emission rates for all relevant HAP, the uncertainties in our emission inventory likely dominate the uncertainties in the exposure assessment. Some uncertainties in our exposure assessment include human mobility, using the centroid of each census block, assuming lifetime exposure, and assuming only outdoor exposures. For most of these factors, there is neither an under nor overestimate when looking at the maximum individual risks or the incidence, but the shape of the distribution of risks may be affected. With respect to outdoor exposures, actual exposures may not be as high if people spend time indoors, especially for very reactive pollutants or larger particles. For all factors, we reduce uncertainty when possible. For example, with respect to census-block centroids, we analyze large blocks using aerial imagery and adjust locations of the block centroids to better represent the population in the blocks. We also add additional receptor locations where the population of a block is not well represented by a single location. d. Uncertainties in Dose-Response Relationships There are uncertainties inherent in the development of the dose-response values used in our risk assessments for cancer effects from chronic exposures and noncancer effects from both chronic and acute exposures. Some uncertainties are generally expressed quantitatively, and others are generally expressed in qualitative terms. We note, as a preface to this discussion, a point on dose-response uncertainty that is stated in the EPA's 2005 Cancer Guidelines 16 ; namely, that “the primary goal of EPA actions is protection of human health; accordingly, as an Agency policy, risk assessment procedures, including default options that are used in the absence of scientific data to the contrary, should be health protective” (EPA's 2005 Cancer Guidelines, pages 1-7). This is the approach followed here as summarized in the next paragraphs. 16 Guidelines for Carcinogen Risk Assessment, EPA/630/P-03/001F, March 2005. ( https://www.epa.gov/risk/guidelines-carcinogen-risk-assessment ). Cancer UREs used in our risk assessments are those that have been developed to generally provide an upper bound estimate of risk. That is, they represent a “plausible upper limit to the true value of a quantity” (although this is usually not a true statistical confidence limit). 17 In some circumstances, the true risk could be as low as zero; however, in other circumstances the risk could be greater. 18 Chronic noncancer RfC and reference dose (RfD) values represent chronic exposure levels that are intended to be health-protective levels. To derive dose-response values that are intended to be “without appreciable risk,” the methodology relies upon an uncertainty factor (UF) approach 19 which considers uncertainty, variability, and gaps in the available data. The UFs are applied to derive dose-response values that are intended to protect against appreciable risk of deleterious effects. 17 IRIS glossary ( https://ofmpub.epa.gov/sor_internet/registry/termreg/searchandretrieve/glossariesandkeywordlists/search.do?details=&glossaryName=IRIS%20Glossary ). 18 An exception to this is the URE for benzene, which is considered to cover a range of values, each end of which is considered to be equally plausible, and which is based on maximum likelihood estimates. 19 U.S. EPA, 1993. Reference Dose (RfC); Description and Use in Health Risk Assessments. ( https://www.epa.gov/iris/reference-dose-rfd-description-and-use-health-risk-assessments ). U.S. EPA, 1994b. Methods for Derivation of Inhalation Reference Concentrations and Application of Inhalation Dosimetry. ( https://www.epa.gov/risk/methods-derivation-inhalation-reference-concentrations-and-application-inhalation-dosimetry ). Many of the UFs used to account for variability and uncertainty in the development of acute dose-response values are quite similar to those developed for chronic durations. Additional adjustments are often applied to account for uncertainty in extrapolation from observations at one exposure duration ( e.g., 4 hours) to derive an acute dose-response value at another exposure duration ( e.g., one hour). Not all acute dose-response values are developed for the same purpose, and care must be taken when interpreting the results of an acute assessment of human health effects relative to the dose-response value or values being exceeded. Where relevant to the estimated exposures, the lack of acute dose-response values at different levels of severity should be factored into the risk characterization as potential uncertainties. Uncertainty also exists in the selection of ecological benchmarks for the environmental risk screening assessment. We established a hierarchy of preferred benchmark sources to allow selection of benchmarks for each environmental HAP at each ecological assessment endpoint. We searched for benchmarks for three effect levels ( i.e., no-effects level, threshold-effect level, and probable-effect level) but not all combinations of ecological assessment/environmental HAP had benchmarks for all three effect levels. Where multiple effect levels were available for a particular HAP and assessment endpoint, we used all of the available effect levels to help us determine whether risk exists and whether the risk could be considered significant and widespread. Although every effort is made to identify appropriate human health effect dose-response values for all pollutants emitted by the sources in this risk assessment, some HAP emitted by this source category are lacking dose-response assessments. Accordingly, these pollutants cannot be included in the quantitative risk assessment, which could result in quantitative estimates understating HAP risk. To help to alleviate this potential underestimate, where we conclude similarity with a HAP for which a dose-response value is available, we use that value as a surrogate for the assessment of the HAP for which no value is available. To the extent use of surrogates indicates appreciable risk, we may identify a need to increase priority for an IRIS assessment for that substance. We additionally note that, generally speaking, HAP of greatest concern due to environmental exposures and hazard are those for which dose-response assessments have been performed, reducing the likelihood of understating risk. Further, HAP not included in the quantitative assessment are assessed qualitatively and considered in the risk characterization that informs the risk management decisions, including consideration of HAP reductions achieved by various control options. For a group of compounds that are unspeciated ( e.g., glycol ethers), we conservatively use the most protective dose-response value of an individual compound in that group to estimate risk. Similarly, for an individual compound in a group ( e.g., ethylene glycol diethyl ether) that does not have a specified dose-response value, we also apply the most protective dose-response value from the other compounds in the group to estimate risk. e. Uncertainties in Acute Inhalation Screening Assessments In addition to the uncertainties highlighted above, there are several factors specific to the acute exposure assessment that the EPA conducts as part of the risk review under section 112 of the CAA. The accuracy of an acute inhalation exposure assessment depends on the simultaneous occurrence of independent factors that may vary greatly, such as hourly emissions rates, meteorology, and the presence of humans at the location of the maximum concentration. In the acute screening assessment that we conduct under the RTR program, we assume that peak emissions from the source category and worst-case meteorological conditions co-occur, thus resulting in maximum ambient concentrations. These two events are unlikely to occur at the same time, making these assumptions conservative. We then include the additional assumption that a person is located at this point during this same time period. For these source categories, these assumptions would tend to be worst-case actual exposures as it is unlikely that a person would be located at the point of maximum exposure during the time when peak emissions and worst-case meteorological conditions occur simultaneously. f. Uncertainties in the Multipathway and Environmental Risk Screening Assessments For each source category, we generally rely on site-specific levels of PB-HAP or environmental HAP emissions to determine whether a refined assessment of the impacts from multipathway exposures is necessary or whether it is necessary to perform an environmental screening assessment. None of the three source categories in this action emit PB-HAP, therefore, multipathway assessments were not conducted. Since no environmental HAP are emitted from the Printing, Coating, and Dyeing of Fabrics and Other Textiles source category or the Surface Coating of Metal Furniture source category, an environmental risk screen was not conducted for these categories. Small amounts of the environmental HAP, HCl, and HF are emitted from the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category, therefore, an environmental risk screen was conducted. The environmental screening assessment relies on the outputs from AERMOD—that estimates environmental pollutant concentrations for two acid gases (HCl and HF). Two important types of uncertainty associated with the use of these models in RTR risk assessments and inherent to any assessment that relies on environmental modeling are model uncertainty and input uncertainty. 20 Model uncertainty concerns whether the model adequately represents the actual processes ( e.g., movement and accumulation) that might occur in the environment. For example, does the model adequately describe the movement of a pollutant through the soil? This type of uncertainty is difficult to quantify. However, based on feedback received from previous EPA SAB reviews and other reviews, we are confident that the models used in the screening assessments are appropriate and state-of-the-art for the environmental screening risk assessment conducted in support of RTR. 20 In the context of this discussion, the term “uncertainty” as it pertains to exposure and risk encompasses both variability in the range of expected inputs and screening results due to existing spatial, temporal, and other factors, as well as uncertainty in being able to accurately estimate the true result. Input uncertainty is concerned with how accurately the models have been configured and parameterized for the assessment at hand. For the environmental screening assessment for acid gases, we employ a single-tiered approach. We use the modeled air concentrations and compare those with ecological benchmarks. IV. Analytical Results and Proposed Decisions A. What are the analytical results and proposed decisions for the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category? 1. What are the results of the risk assessment and analyses? As described in section III of this preamble, for the Surface Coating of Large Appliances source category, we conducted a risk assessment for all HAP emitted. We present results of the risk assessment briefly below and in more detail in the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report in the Large Appliances Docket (Docket ID No. EPA-HQ-OAR-2017-0670). a. Inhalation Risk Assessment Results Table 2 of this preamble provides a summary of the results of the inhalation risk assessment for the source category. As discussed in section III.C.2 of this preamble, we set MACT-allowable HAP emission levels at large appliance coating facilities equal to 1.2 times actual emissions. For more detail about the MACT-allowable emission levels, see Appendix 1 to the Large Appliances Risk Assessment Report in the Large Appliances Docket. Table 2—Surface Coating of Large Appliances Source Category Inhalation Risk Assessment Results Risk assessment Maximum individual cancer risk (in 1 million) Based on actual emissions Based on allowable emissions Estimated population at increased risk of cancer ≥ 1-in-1 million Based on actual emissions Based on allowable emissions Estimated annual cancer incidence (cases per year) Based on actual emissions Based on allowable emissions Maximum chronic noncancer TOSHI 1 Based on actual emissions Based on allowable emissions Maximum screening acute noncancer HQ 2 Based on actual emissions Based on allowable emissions Source Category 0.9 1 0 50 0.0001 0.0002 0.07 0.08 HQREL = 2 Whole Facility 6 600 0.0002 0.2 1 The target organ specific hazard index (TOSHI) is the sum of the chronic noncancer hazard quotients for substances that affect the same target organ or organ system. 2 The maximum estimated acute exposure concentration was divided by a [Text truncated at 120,000 characters. The full text is on the page linked above.] --- Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2018-19018. Public record. Not legal advice.