# Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for 49 Species From the Hawaiian Islands

> Briefs, arguments, decisions, and more.

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2015-24305

## Record

- **Collection:** Federal Register
- **Document type:** Proposed Rule
- **Published:** September 30, 2015
- **Citation:** 80 FR 58820

## Text

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS-R1-ES-2015-0125; 4500030113]
RIN 1018-BB07
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Status for 49 Species From the Hawaiian Islands

AGENCY:

Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION:

Proposed rule.

SUMMARY:

We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), propose to list 10 animal species, including the band-rumped storm-petrel (
Oceanodroma castro
), the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (
Megalagrion xanthomelas
), the anchialine pool shrimp (
Procaris hawaiana
), and seven yellow-faced bees (
Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans,

H. facilis, H. hilaris,

H. kuakea, H. longiceps,
and
H. mana
), and 39 plant species from the Hawaiian Islands as endangered species under the Endangered Species Act (Act). If we finalize this rule as proposed, it would extend the Act's protections to these species.

DATES:

We will accept comments received or postmarked on or before November 30, 2015. Comments submitted electronically using the Federal eRulemaking Portal (see
ADDRESSES
, below) must be received by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on the closing date. We must receive requests for public hearings, in writing, at the address shown in
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT
by November 16, 2015.

ADDRESSES:

You may submit comments by one of the following methods:

(1)
Electronically:
Go to the Federal eRulemaking Portal:
http://www.regulations.gov
. In the Search box, enter FWS-R1-ES-2015-0125, which is the docket number for this rulemaking. Then, in the Search panel on the left side of the screen, under the Document Type heading, click on the Proposed Rules link to locate this document. You may submit a comment by clicking on “Comment Now!”

(2)
By hard copy:
Submit by U.S. mail or hand-delivery to: Public Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R1-ES-2015-0125, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, MS: BPHC, 5275 Leesburg Pike, Falls Church, VA 22041-3803.

We request that you send comments only by the methods described above. We will post all comments on
http://www.regulations.gov
. This generally means that we will post any personal information you provide us (see
Public Comments,
below, for more information).

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:

Field Supervisor, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, 300 Ala Moana Boulevard, Honolulu, HI 96850; by telephone at 808-792-9400; or by facsimile at 808-792-9581. Persons who use a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) may call the Federal Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

Executive Summary

Why we need to publish a rule.
Under the Act, if a species is determined to be an endangered or threatened species throughout all or a significant portion of its range, we are required to promptly publish a proposal in the
Federal Register
and make a determination on our proposal within 1 year. Listing a species as an endangered or threatened species can only be completed by issuing a rule.

This rulemaking
proposes to list of the 49 species from the Hawaiian Islands as endangered species. These species are candidate species for which we have on file sufficient information on biological vulnerability and threats to support preparation of a listing proposal, but for which development of a proposed listing rule had been precluded by other higher priority listing activities. This proposed rule reassesses all available information regarding status of and threats to the 49 species.

The basis for our action.
Under the Act, we can determine that a species is an endangered or threatened species based on any of five factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence. These 49 species are experiencing population-level impacts as the result of the following current and ongoing threats:

• Habitat loss and degradation due to urbanization; nonnative, feral ungulates (hoofed mammals,
e.g.,
pigs, goats, deer, black-tailed deer, mouflon, cattle); nonnative plants; wildfire; and water extraction.

• Predation or herbivory by nonnative, feral ungulates; rats; slugs; ants; and wasps.

• Inadequate existing regulatory mechanisms to prevent the introduction and spread of nonnative plants and animals.

• Stochastic events such as landslides, flooding, drought, and hurricanes.

• Human activities such as recreational use of anchialine pools, dumping of nonnative fish and trash into anchialine pools, and manmade structures and artificial lighting.

• Vulnerability to extinction due to small numbers of individuals and occurrences and lack of regeneration.

• Competition with nonnative plants and nonnative invertebrates.

The effects of climate change are likely to exacerbate the impacts of these threats, and may become a threat in the future.

We will seek peer review.
We will seek comments from independent specialists to ensure that our designation is based on scientifically sound data, assumptions, and analyses. We will invite these peer reviewers to comment on our listing proposal. Because we will consider all comments and information we receive during the comment period, our final determinations may differ from this proposal.

Information Requested

Public Comments

We intend that any final action resulting from this proposed rule will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we request comments or information from the public, including land owners and land managers, other concerned governmental agencies, the scientific community, industry, or any other interested parties, concerning this proposed rule. We particularly seek comments concerning:

(1) The biology, range, and population trends of these species, including:

(a) Biological or ecological requirements, including habitat requirements for feeding, breeding, and sheltering;

(b) Genetics and taxonomy;

(c) Historical and current range, including distribution patterns;

(d) Historical and current population levels, and current and projected trends; and

(e) Past and ongoing conservation measures for these species, their habitats, or both.

(2) Factors that may affect the continued existence of these species, which may include habitat modification or destruction, overutilization, disease, predation, the inadequacy of existing

regulatory mechanisms, or other natural or manmade factors.

(3) Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning any threats (or lack thereof) to these species and existing regulations that may be addressing those threats.

(4) Empirical data or other scientific information describing the specific impacts of climate change on the habitat, life history, and/or ecology of these species, for example, the species' biological response, or likely response, to changes in habitat resulting from climate-change related changes in ambient temperature, precipitation, drought, storm severity, or sea level.

(5) Additional information concerning the historical and current status, range, distribution, and population size of these species, including the locations of any additional populations of these species.

Please include sufficient information with your submission (such as scientific journal articles or other publications) to allow us to verify any scientific or commercial information you include.

Please note that submissions merely stating support for or opposition to the action under consideration without providing supporting information, although noted, will not be considered in making a determination, as section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1531
et seq.
) directs that determinations as to whether any species is an endangered or threatened species must be made “solely on the basis of the best scientific and commercial data available.”

You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed rule by one of the methods listed in the
ADDRESSES
section. We request that you send comments only by the methods described in the
ADDRESSES
section.

If you submit information via
http://www.regulations.gov
, your entire submission—including any personal identifying information—will be posted on the Web site. If your submission is made via a hardcopy that includes personal identifying information, you may request at the top of your document that we withhold this information from public review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We will post all hardcopy submissions on
http://www.regulations.gov
.

Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be available for public inspection on
http://www.regulations.gov
, or by appointment, during normal business hours, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT
).

Public Hearing

Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for one or more public hearings on this proposal, if requested. Requests must be received within 45 days after the date of publication of this proposed rule in the
Federal Register
(see
DATES
, above). Such requests must be sent to the address shown in the
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT
section. We will schedule public hearings on this proposal, if any are requested, and announce the dates, times, and places of those hearings, as well as how to obtain reasonable accommodations, in the
Federal Register
and local newspapers at least 15 days before the hearing.

Peer Review

In accordance with our joint policy on peer review published in the
Federal Register
on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270), during the public comment period we will seek the expert opinions of appropriate and independent specialists regarding this proposed rule. The purpose of peer review is to ensure that our listing determinations are based on scientifically sound data, assumptions, and analyses. The peer reviewers have expertise in one or more of the 49 species' biology, habitat, life-history needs, vulnerability to threats, and other physical or biological factors.

Previous Federal Action

All 49 species proposed for listing as endangered species are candidate species (79 FR 72450, December 5, 2014). Candidate species are those taxa for which the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (we or Service) has sufficient information on their biological status and threats to propose them for listing under the Act, but for which the development of a listing regulation has been precluded to date by other higher priority listing activities. The current candidate species addressed in this proposed rule include the following 10 animal species: The band-rumped storm-petrel (
Oceanodroma castro
), the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (
Megalagrion xanthomelas
), the anchialine pool shrimp (
Procaris hawaiana
), and seven yellow-faced bees,
Hylaeus anthracinus, H. assimulans,

H. facilis, H. hilaris,

H. kuakea, H. longiceps,
and
H. mana;
and the following 39 plant species:
Asplenium diellaciniatum
(no common name (NCN)),
Calamagrostis expansa
(Maui reedgrass),
Cyanea kauaulaensis
(NCN),
Cyclosorus
(previously
Christella
)
boydiae
(kupukupu makalii),
Cyperus neokunthianus
(NCN),
Cyrtandra hematos
(haiwale),
Deparia kaalaana
(NCN),
Dryopteris glabra
var.
pusilla
(hohiu),
Exocarpos menziesii
(heau),
Festuca hawaiiensis
(NCN),
Gardenia remyi
(nanu),
Huperzia stemmermanniae
(NCN),
Hypolepis hawaiiensis
var.
mauiensis
(olua),
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
(ohe),
Kadua
(previously
Hedyotis
)
fluviatilis
(kamapuaa, pilo),
Kadua haupuensis
(NCN),
Labordia lorenciana
(NCN),
Lepidium orbiculare
(anaunau),
Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis
(NCN),
Myrsine fosbergii
(kolea),
Nothocestrum latifolium
(aiea),
Ochrosia haleakalae
(holei),
Phyllostegia brevidens
(NCN),
Phyllostegia helleri
(NCN),
Phyllostegia stachyoides
(NCN),
Portulaca villosa
(ihi),
Pritchardia bakeri
(Baker's loulu),
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium
var.
molokaiense
(enaena),
Ranunculus hawaiensis
(makou),
Ranunculus mauiensis
(makou),
Sanicula sandwicensis
(NCN),
Santalum involutum
(iliahi),
Schiedea diffusa
ssp.
diffusa
(NCN),
Schiedea pubescens
(maolioli),
Sicyos lanceoloideus
(anunu),
Sicyos macrophyllus
(anunu),
Solanum nelsonii
(popolo),
Stenogyne kaalae
ssp.
sherffii
(NCN), and
Wikstroemia skottsbergiana
(akia). The candidate status of these species was most recently reaffirmed in the December 5, 2014, Review of Native Species That Are Candidates for Listing as Endangered or Threatened (CNOR) (79 FR 72450).

On May 4, 2004, the Center for Biological Diversity petitioned the Secretary of the Interior to list 225 species of plants and animals, including 27 of the 49 candidate species listed above, as endangered or threatened under the provisions of the Act. Since then, we have published our annual findings on the May 4, 2004, petition in the CNORs dated May 11, 2005 (70 FR 24870), September 12, 2006 (71 FR 53756), December 6, 2007 (72 FR 69034), December 10, 2008 (73 FR 75176), November 9, 2009 (74 FR 57804), November 10, 2010 (75 FR 69222), October 26, 2011 (76 FR 66370), November 21, 2012 (77 FR 69994), November 22, 2013 (78 FR 70104), and December 5, 2014 (79 FR 72450).

Background

Hawaiian Islands Species Addressed in this Proposed Rule

Table 1A (plants) and Table 1B (animals), below, provide the common name, scientific name, and range (by Hawaiian Island) for the 49 species addressed in this proposed rule.

Table 1A—Candidate Plant Species Proposed for Listing as Endangered Species

Scientific name
Common name
Hawaiian Island

Asplenium diellaciniatum

No common name (NCN)
Kauai.

Calamagrostis expansa

Maui reedgrass
Hawaii, Maui.

Cyanea kauaulaensis

NCN
Maui.

Cyclosorus boydiae

kupukupu makalii
Hawaii (H), Maui, Oahu.

Cyperus neokunthianus

NCN
Maui (H).

Cyrtandra hematos

haiwale
Molokai.

Deparia kaalaana

NCN
Hawaii (H), Maui, Kauai (H).

Dryopteris glabra
var.
pusilla

hohiu
Kauai.

Exocarpos menziesii

heau
Hawaii, Lanai (H).

Festuca hawaiiensis

NCN
Hawaii, Maui (H).

Gardenia remyi

nanu
Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Kauai.

Huperzia stemmermanniae

NCN
Hawaii, Maui (H).

Hypolepis hawaiiensis
var.
mauiensis

olua
Maui.

Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens

ohe
Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai.

Kadua fluviatilis

kamapuaa, pilo
Oahu, Kauai.

Kadua haupuensis

NCN
Kauai (H).

Labordia lorenciana

NCN
Kauai.

Lepidium orbiculare

anaunau
Kauai.

Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis

NCN
Hawaii, Maui, Oahu.

Myrsine fosbergii

kolea
Oahu, Kauai.

Nothocestrum latifolium

aiea
Maui, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu, Kauai (H).

Ochrosia haleakalae

holei
Hawaii, Maui.

Phyllostegia brevidens

NCN
Hawaii (H), Maui.

Phyllostegia helleri

NCN
Kauai.

Phyllostegia stachyoides

NCN
Hawaii (H), Maui, Molokai.

Portulaca villosa

ihi
Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu (H), Kaula (H), Lehua (H), Nihoa (H).

Pritchardia bakeri

Baker's loulu
Oahu.

Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium
var.
molokaiense

enaena
Maui, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu (H).

Ranunculus hawaiensis

makou
Hawaii, Maui (H).

Ranunculus mauiensis

makou
Hawaii (H), Maui, Molokai, Oahu (H), Kauai.

Sanicula sandwicensis

NCN
Hawaii (H), Maui.

Santalum involutum

iliahi
Kauai.

Schiedea diffusa
ssp.
diffusa

NCN
Maui, Molokai.

Schiedea pubescens

maolioli
Maui, Lanai (H), Molokai.

Sicyos lanceoloideus

anunu
Oahu, Kauai.

Sicyos macrophyllus

anunu
Hawaii, Maui (H).

Solanum nelsonii

popolo
Hawaii, Maui (H), Molokai, Niihau (H), Pearl & Hermes, Kure, Midway, Laysan, Nihoa.

Stenogyne kaalae
ssp.
sherffii

NCN
Oahu (H).

Wikstroemia skottsbergiana

akia
Kauai.

(H) = historically known from island, but not observed in the past 20 years.

Table 1B—Candidate Animal Species Proposed for Listing as Endangered Species

Common name
Scientific name
Hawaiian Island

Band-rumped storm-petrel

Oceanodroma castro

Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe (H), Molokai (H), Oahu (H), Kauai, Lehua.

Yellow-faced bee

Hylaeus anthracinus

Hawaii, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu.

Yellow-faced bee

Hylaeus assimulans

Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Oahu (H).

Yellow-faced bee

Hylaeus facilis

Maui (H), Lanai (H), Molokai, Oahu.

Yellow-faced bee

Hylaeus hilaris

Maui (H), Lanai (H), Molokai.

Yellow-faced bee

Hylaeus kuakea

Oahu.

Yellow-faced bee

Hylaeus longiceps

Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu.

Yellow-faced bee

Hylaeus mana

Oahu.

Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly

Megalagrion xanthomelas

Hawaii, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai (H).

Anchialine pool shrimp

Procaris hawaiana

Hawaii, Maui.

(H) = Historically known from the island, but not observed in the last 20 years

The Hawaiian Islands

The State of Hawaii consists of eight “main” larger Hawaiian Islands, and a long chain of older, eroded islands and atolls referred to as the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI). These islands are formed as the Pacific plate passes over a volcanic “hot spot,” an ongoing process over the last 40 million years (Clague
in
Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 37). The Pacific plate is currently moving northwestward at about 4 inches (in) (9 centimeters (cm)) per year (Clague
in
Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 38). Each island was formed from eruptions of one or more volcanoes, over several hundred thousand years, with several million years passing before activity ended and the volcano became extinct (Clague
in
Juvik and Juvik 1998; pp. 38-39). Haleakala volcano, forming east Maui, last erupted in 1790, and is considered dormant. Kilauea volcano, on the island

of Hawaii, has been erupting continuously since 1983. Loihi Seamount, at 3,200 feet (ft) (975 meters (m)) below sea level, and 19 miles (mi) (29 kilometers (km)) off Hawaii Islands' southeast coast, has infrequent eruptions, earthquake swarms nearly every year, and is destined to emerge as an island within the next 200,000 years (Clague
in
Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 45-46).

EP30SE15.000

The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands extend more than 1,000 mi (1,600 km) beyond Kauai and include (from southeast to northwest) Nihoa Island (171 acres (ac) (69 hectares (ha))), Necker Island (46 ac (19 ha)), French Frigate Shoals (an atoll with multiple islets totalling 0.1 square (sq) mi (0.2 sq km)), Gardner Pinnacles (2 islets, 6 ac (2.5 ha) with 940 sq mi (2,435 sq km) of surrounding reef), Maro Reef (mostly submerged), Laysan Island (1,016 ac (411 ha)), Lisianski Island (364 ac (147 ha)), Pearl and Hermes Atoll (submerged reef with 7 sandy islets totaling 89 ac (36 ha)), Midway Atoll (2.5 sq mi (6 sq km), consisting of three islands: Sand, Eastern, and Spit), and Kure Atoll (4 sq mi (10 sq km), with two islands: Green and Sand, totaling 213 ac (86 ha)) (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 304). All of the NWHI except Kure Atoll are within the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge or Midway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge. In 2006, all of the NWHI were designated as the Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument (Monument); in 2010, the Monument was inscribed as a World Heritage Site. The Monument is managed in partnership by the Department of Commerce's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the Department of the Interior, and the State of Hawaii.

The island of Kauai, the northernmost of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is 552 sq mi (1,430 sq km) in area (Foote
et al.
1972, p. 3). Kauai's highest elevations are over 5,000 ft (1,500 m), and the island's summit is one of the wettest areas on earth, receiving over 400 in (11,278 millimeters (mm)) of annual rainfall. The island is over 5 million years old, and erosion has created dramatic canyons (Waimea Canyon) and cliffs on the Na Pali Coast. Kauai has been severely affected by hurricanes, most recently by Hurricane Iniki in 1992. The privately-owned island of Niihau (43 mi (69 km) southwest of Kauai) was formed from a single volcanic shield, is slightly younger than Kauai, and has unique geographic features such as intermittent lakes. Niihau is relatively arid (20 to 40 in annual rainfall) because it lies in the rain shadow of Kauai and lacks the elevation needed to intercept moist air carried by the prevailing northeast trade winds, which would generate rain if forced to sufficiently high altitude by mountains (orographic rainfall) (Stearns and McDonald 1947, p. 31). However, Kona storms (storms from a southerly direction) provide some rainfall. Although only 1,280 ft (390 m) high, there are precipitous sea cliffs on the northern coast. Lehua Island (geologically part of Niihau), a crescent-shaped tuff cone (284 ac (115 ha)), is a Hawaii State Seabird Sanctuary (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 3-6). Kaula Island (158 ac (64 ha)), also known as Kaula Rock, is small, crescent-shaped, 550 ft (167 m) high, and lies southwest of Niihau. Currently, Kaula is used for gunnery and inert ordnance target practice by the U.S. Navy (Harrison 1990, p. 193; Hawaii Range Complex FEIS 2008, p. 3-124).

The island of Oahu (600 sq mi (1,557 sq km)), the third oldest and third largest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is located southeast of Kauai and northwest of Molokai (Foote
et al.
1972, p. 19; Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 7). Two shield volcanoes ceased erupting about 1 to 2 million years ago, forming two mountain ranges, the western Waianae range and the eastern Koolau range, with a central plateau connecting them. These mountain ranges are oriented perpendicular to the trade winds, so that distinctive leeward and windward climates result, with the arid Waianae range in the rain shadow of the Koolau range, which receives most of the orographic rainfall (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 7; Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 39). The maximum elevation on Oahu is at the summit of the Waianae Mountains (4,025 ft (1,225 m)) (Wagner
et al.
1999, pp. 39-41). Rainfall on the island ranges from less than 20 in (500 mm) to more than 250 in (6,350 mm) per year. This island supports the largest population in

the State, nearly one million people (World Population Review 2015, in litt.). The flora and fauna of Oahu have undergone extreme alterations because of past and present land use and other activities.

The island of Molokai (260 sq mi (673 sq km)), the fifth largest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, lies southeast of Oahu. The island is formed from three shield volcanoes, resulting in the east and west Molokai Mountains and the Kalaupapa Peninsula (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 11, 13). The taller and larger east Molokai Mountain rises 4,970 ft (1,514 m) above sea level and comprises roughly 50 percent of the island's area (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 11). Precipitous cliffs line the windward coast and deep valleys dissect the coastal area. Annual rainfall on the windward side of the island is 75 to more than 150 in (200 to more than 375 cm) (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, p. 50).

The island of Lanai (140 sq mi (364 sq km)), the sixth largest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is located southeast of Molokai and southwest of west Maui. Lanai was formed from a single shield volcano and is located in the rain shadow of the west Maui Mountains (Clague
in
Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 42). Lanaihale is the highest point at 3,366 ft (1,027 m), with annual rainfall on the summit of 30 to 40 in (76 to 100 cm). Annual rainfall is much less, 10 to 20 in (25 to 50 cm), over the rest of the island (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, p. 56).

The island of Maui (729 sq mi (1,888 sq km)), the second largest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is located southeast of Molokai and northwest of Hawaii Island (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14). It arose from two shield volcanoes resulting in formation of the west Maui Mountains, which are about 1.3 million years old, and the east Maui Mountains (Haleakala volcano), about 750,000 years old (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14), which are connected by the central Maui isthmus. The highest point on west Maui is Puu Kukui at 5,788 ft (1,764 m), which receives 400 in (1,020 cm) rainfall per year (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14; Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 41). East Maui's Haleakala volcano last erupted only 200 years ago and is considered dormant (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 14). Haleakala is higher in elevation (10,023 ft (3,055 m)) than Puu Kukui, and since it is geologically younger, lacks the diverse vegetation of the older west Maui Mountains. Annual rainfall is about 35 in (89 cm) at the highest elevations, above the trade wind inversion, resulting in a dry cinder desert (Giambelluca and Schroeder 1998, p. 55). Lower elevations on windward east Maui receive as much as 404 in (1,026 cm) annual rainfall (Giambelluca
et al.
2013, p. 1).

The island of Kahoolawe (45 sq mi (116 sq km)), the smallest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is located south of east Maui, and was formed from a single shield volcano (Clague
in
Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 42; Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 7, 16). The maximum elevation on Kahoolawe is 1,476 ft (450 m) at the summit of Puu O Moaula Nui (Juvik and Juvik 1998, pp. 15-16). Kahoolawe is in the rain shadow of Haleakala and is arid, receiving no more than 25 in (65 cm) of rainfall annually (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 16; Mitchell
et al.
2005, p. 6-66). The island was inhabited as early as 400 A.D., with small fishing villages established along the coast. It was used briefly as a penal colony, for grazing by sheep and goats, and for cattle ranching, until 1941, when the United States declared martial law throughout Hawaii, leading to the use of the island as a training ground and bombing range (Kahoolawe Island Reserve Commission (KIRC) 2015, in litt.). In 1990, the island was placed under the administration of the Kahoolawe Island Reserve Commission. The grazing, ranching, and bombing activities had a serious impact on the environment, resulting is substantial loss of soil through accelerated erosion (KIRC 2015, in litt.). After an extensive 10-year cleanup by the U.S. Navy, unexploded ordnance remains on one-third of the island, including surrounding waters (KIRC 2015, in litt.).

The island of Hawaii, the largest, highest, and youngest of the eight main Hawaiian Islands, is also the easternmost and southernmost island in the chain. At 4,038 sq mi (10,458 sq km), it comprises approximately two-thirds of the land area of the State of Hawaii, giving rise to its common name, the “Big Island.” Five large shield volcanoes make up the island: Mauna Kea at 13,796 ft (4,205 m) and Kohala at 5,480 ft (1,670 m), both extinct volcanoes; Hualalai at 8,270 ft (2,520 m), a dormant volcano; and Mauna Loa (13,677 ft (4,169 m)) and Kilauea (4,093 ft (1,248 m)), both active volcanoes (McDonald
et al.
1990, pp. 345-379; 59 FR 10305, March 4, 1994; U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 2012, pp. 1-2). Hawaii Island has a greater range of climatic zones than any other island in the State, with the highest and lowest temperatures, and coastal to alpine ecosystems (Juvik and Juvik 1998, p. 22; Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 38; The Nature Conservancy of Hawaii (TNCH) 2007). The windward slopes receive the most rainfall, but orographic effects cause drier conditions to prevail in the leeward saddle area and in high-elevation areas. The west, or leeward, side of the island (Kona) is in the rain shadow of the mountains, but does receive convection-driven rainfall in the afternoons, resulting in greater than expected annual rainfall (50 to more than 100 in (127 to 254 cm)), which supports mesic forest (Mitchell
et al.
2005, pp. 6-71-6-91).

An Ecosystem-Based Approach To Assessing the Conservation Status of the 49 Species in the Hawaiian Islands

In this document, we have analyzed the threats to each of the 49 species individually to determine the appropriate status of each species on its own merits under the Act. However, because many of these species, and particularly those that share the same habitat types (ecosystems), share a similar suite of threats, we have organized the 49 species addressed in this proposed rule by common ecosystem for efficiency, to reduce repetition for the reader, and to reduce publication costs.

In addition, as an ancillary benefit of assessing the threats to the 49 species using shared ecosystems as an organizational tool, we have laid the groundwork for better addressing threats to these species, should they be listed. In the Hawaiian Islands, native species occurring in the same habitat types depend on many of the same physical and biological features and the successful functioning of specific ecosystems to survive. Because species that share ecosystems face a suite of shared threats, managing or eliminating these threats holistically at an ecosystem level is more cost effective and should lead to better resource protection for all native species. This approach is in accord with the primary stated purpose of the Act (see section 2(b)): “to provide a means whereby the ecosystems upon which endangered species and threatened species depend may be conserved.”

On all the main Hawaiian Islands, vegetation on land with rich soils was cultivated and altered by the early Hawaiians and, more recently, converted to commercial agricultural and urban use (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 45). Intentional and inadvertent introduction of alien plant and animal species has also contributed to the reduction in range of native vegetation. Throughout this proposed rule, the terms “alien,” “feral,” “nonnative,” and “introduced” all refer to species that are not native to the Hawaiian Islands. Most of the candidate species included in this proposed rule persist on steep slopes,

precipitous cliffs, valley headwalls, and other regions where unsuitable topography has prevented urbanization and agricultural development, or where inaccessibility has limited encroachment by nonnative plant and animal species.

Each of the 49 Hawaiian Islands species is found in one or more of the 11 ecosystems types described in this proposed rule: anchialine pool, coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane wet, montane mesic, montane dry, subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff (see Table 2).

Table 2—The 49 Hawaiian Islands Species and the Ecosystems Upon Which They Depend

Species
Island
Hawaii
Maui
Kahoolawe
Lanai
Molokai
Oahu
Kauai
Niihau
Lehua
Kaula
NWHI

Plants:

Asplenium diellaciniatum

MM

Calamagrostis expansa

MW
MW

Cyanea kauaulaensis

LW

Cyclosorus boydiae

LW
LW, MW

MW

Cyperus neokunthianus

LW

Cyrtandra hematos

MW

Deparia kaalaana

LM, LW
LM, LW

LM, LW

Dryopteris glabra
var.
pusilla

MW

Exocarpos menziesii

LM
MM
MD

LM

Festuca hawaiiensis

MD
MD

Gardenia remyi

LM, LW
LW

LM, LW

LM, LW

Huperzia stemmermanniae

MW
MW

Hypolepis hawaiiensis
var.
mauiensis

MW

Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens

LW, MW
LW MW

LW, MW
LW, MW
LM, MW, MM

Kadua fluviatilis

LW
LM

Kadua haupuensis

LM

Labordia lorenciana

MM

Lepidium orbiculare

LM

Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis

MW, MM
MW

LM

Myrsine fosbergii

LM, LW
LM, LW, MW

Nothocestrum latifolium

LD, LM, DC

LD, LM, DC
LM
LD, LM, DC
DC

Ochrosia haleakalae

LM, LW
LM, MM, DC

Phyllostegia brevidens

MW
LW, WC

Phyllostegia helleri

LW, MW, WC

Phyllostegia stachyoides

MW, MM
MW, MM

MW

Portulaca villosa

C, LD, MD
C, LD
C, LD
LD
LD
C, LD

C
C
C

Pritchardia bakeri

LM

Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium
var.
molokaiense

C

C
C
C

Ranunculus hawaiensis

MM, MD, SA
SA

Ranunculus mauiensis

MM, MD
MW, MM, WC

MW, MM, WC
MW
MW, MM

Sanicula sandwicensis

MM, MD, SA
MM, SA

Santalum involutum

LM, LW

Schiedea diffusa
ssp.
diffusa

LW, MW

MW

Schiedea pubescens

LW, MM, WC

WC
LW, MW, WC

Sicyos lanceoloideus

LM, DC
LM, MM

Sicyos macrophyllus

MM, MD
MW

Solanum nelsonii

C
C

C

C

C

Stenogyne kaalae
ssp.
sherffii

LW

Wikstroemia skottsbergiana

LW

Animals:

Band-rumped storm-petrel (
Oceanodroma castro
)

DC
DC, WC
C

C
C
DC, WC

C

Yellow-faced bee (
Hylaeus anthracinus
)

C, LD
C, LD
LD
LD
C
C

Yellow-faced bee
Hylaeus assimulans
)

C, LD
C
LD

C, LD

Yellow-faced bee (
Hylaeus facilis
)

C, LM

LD, LM
C
C, LD, LM

Yellow-faced bee (
Hylaeus hilaris
)

C, LD

C
C

Yellow-faced bee (
Hylaeus kuakea
)

LM

Yellow-faced bee (
Hylaeus longiceps
)

C, LD

C, LD
C, LD
C

Yellow-faced bee (
Hylaeus mana
)

LM

Orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (
Megalagrion xanthomelas
)

AP, C *
AP, LD *

C,* LM *
C,* LD *
LM *
C * LD,* LM *

Anchialine pool shrimp (
Procaris hawaiana
)

AP
AP

C = Coastal ecosystem; MW = Montane Wet ecosystem; DC = Dry Cliff ecosystem; LD = Lowland Dry ecosystem; MM = Montane Mesic ecosystem; WC = Wet Cliff ecosystem; LM = Lowland Mesic ecosystem; MD = Montane Dry ecosystem; AP = Anchialine Pool ecosystem; LW = Lowland Wet ecosystem; SA = Subalpine ecosystem; * = with species-specific water pool or pond.

Hawaiian Islands Ecosystems

Eleven distinct ecosystems (anchialine pool, coastal, lowland dry, lowland mesic, lowland wet, montane mesic, montane wet, montane dry, subalpine, dry cliff, and wet cliff) on the main eight Hawaiian Islands and NWHI currently harbor or historically harbored one or more of the 49 species under consideration for listing as endangered in this proposed rule. These ecosystems are described below.

Anchialine Pool

The anchialine pool ecosystem is found on Oahu, Molokai, Maui, Kahoolawe, and Hawaii Island. Anchialine pools are land-locked bodies of water that have indirect underground connections to the sea and show tidal fluctuations in water level. These pools are mixohaline (brackish), with salinities typically ranging from 2 parts per thousand (ppt) to concentrations just below that of sea water (32 ppt), although some pools are recorded as having salinities as high as 41 ppt (Maciolek 1983, pp. 607-612; Brock
et al.
1987, p. 200). Because all anchialine pools occur within coastal areas, they are technically part of the coastal ecosystem (see below) with the same

climate conditions and many of the same applicable and overlapping habitat threats. However, we are addressing this ecosystem separately because of the uniqueness of the anchialine pools and the biota that occurs within them.

Over 80 percent of the State's anchialine pools are found on the island of Hawaii, with a total of approximately 600 to 650 pools distributed over 130 sites along all but the island's northernmost and steeper northeastern shorelines. On east Maui, eight locations along the north and south coasts have anchialine pools (some containing more than one pool,
e.g.,
the anchialine pool system at Ahihi-Kinau Natural Area Reserve (NAR) consists of dozens of pools) (The Nature Conservancy (TNC) 2009, pp. 2-3). Characteristic animal species within the anchialine pool ecosystem include crustaceans (
e.g.,
shrimps, prawns, amphipods, and isopods), molluscs (
e.g.,
snails, sea slugs, and bivalves), and other invertebrates adapted to the pools' surface and subterranean habitats (TNC 2009, pp. 1-3). Generally, vegetation within the pools consists of various types of algal forms (blue-green, green, red, and golden-brown). The majority of Hawaii's anchialine pools occur in bare or sparsely vegetated lava fields, although some pools occur in areas with various ground cover, shrub, and tree species (Chai
et al.
1989, pp. 2-24; Brock 2004, p. 35). The anchialine pool shrimp,
Procaris hawaiana,
and the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly,
Megalagrion xanthomelas,
which are proposed for listing as endangered species in this rule, are reported currently or historically from this ecosystem on Maui and Hawaii Island (Kensley and Williams 1986, pp. 417-437; Hawaii Biodiversity and Mapping Program (HBMP) 2010).

Coastal

The coastal ecosystem is found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands and the NWHI, with the highest native species diversity in the least populated areas and associated islets. The coastal ecosystem includes mixed herblands, shrublands, and grasslands, from sea level to 980 ft (300 m) elevation, generally within a narrow zone above the influence of waves to within 330 ft (100 m) inland, sometimes extending farther inland if strong prevailing onshore winds drive sea spray and sand dunes into the lowland zone (TNCH 2006). The coastal ecosystem is typically dry, with annual rainfall of less than 20 in (50 cm); however, windward rainfall may be high enough (up to 40 in (100 cm)) to support mesic-associated and sometimes wet-associated vegetation (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 54-66). Biological diversity is low to moderate in this ecosystem, but may include some specialized plants and animals such as nesting seabirds, the endangered plant
Sesbania tomentosa
(ohai) (TNCH 2006), and endangered birds in the NWHI (
e.g.,
the Nihoa finch (
Telespyza ultima
) on Nihoa Island). The following plants proposed as endangered in this rule are reported currently or historically from this ecosystem:
Portulaca villosa
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Kahoolawe, Oahu, Lehua, and Kaula),
Pseudognaphalium sandwicensium
var.
molokaiense
(Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu), and
Solanum nelsonii
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, Niihau, and the NWHI) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). The following animals proposed as endangered in this rule are reported currently or historically from this ecosystem: the band-rumped storm-petrel (Kahoolawe, Molokai, Oahu, and Lehua); orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Hawaii Island, Lanai, and Molokai); the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus anthracinus
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and Oahu),
H. assimulans
(Maui, Kahoolawe, and Oahu),
H. facilis
(Maui, Molokai, and Oahu),
H. hilaris
(Maui, Lanai, and Molokai), and
H. longiceps
(Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu).

Lowland Dry

The lowland dry ecosystem is found on all the main Hawaiian Islands and includes shrublands and forests generally below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) elevation that receive less than 50 in (130 cm) annual rainfall, or are in otherwise prevailingly dry substrate conditions that range from weathered reddish silty loams to stony clay soils, rocky ledges with very shallow soil, or relatively recent little-weathered lava (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 67). Areas consisting of predominantly native species in the lowland dry ecosystem are now rare and are best represented on the leeward sides of the islands (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 67; TNCH 2006). Native biological diversity is low to moderate in this ecosystem, and includes specialized animals and plants such as the Hawaiian owl (pueo) and
Santalum ellipticum
(iliahialoe, coastal sandalwood) (Wagner
et al.
1999, pp. 1220-1221; TNCH 2006). The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Nothocestrum latifolium
(Maui, Lanai, and Oahu) and
Portulaca villosa
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Kahoolawe, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu). The following animals proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are: the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Maui, Molokai), the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus anthracinus
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Kahoolawe, and Lanai),
H. assimulans
(Maui, Lanai, and Oahu),
H. facilis
(Lanai and Oahu),
H. hilaris
(Maui), and
H. longiceps
(Maui, Lanai, and Molokai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Lowland Mesic

The lowland mesic ecosystem is found on all the main Hawaiian Islands except Kahoolawe and Niihau, and includes a variety of grasslands, shrublands, and forests, generally below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) elevation, that receive between 50 and 75 in (130 and 190 cm) annual rainfall (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 75; TNCH 2006). Native biological diversity is high in this system (TNCH 2006). The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Deparia kaalaana
(Hawaii Island, Maui, and Kauai),
Exocarpos menziesii
(Hawaii Island and Lanai),
Gardenia remyi
(Hawaii Island, Molokai, and Kauai),
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
(Kauai),
Kadua fluviatilis
(Kauai),
K. haupuensis
(Kauai),
Lepidium orbiculare
(Kauai),
Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis
(Oahu),
Myrsine fosbergii
(Oahu and Kauai),
Nothocestrum latifolium
(Maui, Lanai, Molokai, and Oahu),
Ochrosia haleakalae
(Hawaii Island and Maui),
Pritchardia bakeri
(Oahu),
Santalum involutum
(Kauai), and
Sicyos lanceoloideus
(Oahu and Kauai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). The following animals proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are: the orangeblack Hawaiian damselfly (Lanai, Oahu), and the yellow-faced bees
Hylaeus facilis
(Maui, Lanai, and Oahu),
H. kuakea
(Oahu), and
H. mana
(Oahu).

Lowland Wet

The lowland wet ecosystem is generally found below 3,300 ft (1,000 m) elevation on the windward sides of the main Hawaiian Islands, except for Kahoolawe and Niihau (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 85; TNCH 2006). These areas include a variety of wet grasslands, shrublands, and forests that receive greater than 75 in (190 cm) annual rainfall, or are in otherwise wet substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This system is best developed in wet valleys and slopes on Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (TNCH 2006). Native biological diversity is high in this system (TNCH 2006). The following

plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Cyanea kauaulaensis
(Maui),
Cyclosorus boydiae
(Hawaii Island and Maui),
Cyperus neokunthianus
(Maui),
Deparia kaalaana
(Hawaii Island, Maui, and Kauai),
Gardenia remyi
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai),
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, and Oahu),
Kadua fluviatilis
(Oahu),
Myrsine fosbergii
(Oahu and Kauai),
Ochrosia haleakalae
(Hawaii Island),
Phyllostegia brevidens
(Maui),
P. helleri
(Kauai),
Santalum involutum
(Kauai),
Schiedea diffusa
ssp.
diffusa
(Maui),
S. pubescens
(Maui and Molokai),
Stenogyne kaalae
ssp.
sherffii
(Oahu), and
Wikstroemia skottsbergiana
(Kauai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Montane Wet

The montane wet ecosystem is composed of natural communities (grasslands, shrublands, forests, and bogs) at elevations between 3,300 and 6,500 ft (1,000 and 2,000 m), in areas where annual rainfall is greater than 75 in (190 cm) (TNCH 2006). This system is found on all of the main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau and Kahoolawe (TNCH 2006). Native biological diversity is moderate to high (TNCH 2006). The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Calamagrostis expansa
(Hawaii Island and Maui),
Cyclosorus boydiae
(Maui and Oahu),
Cyrtandra hematos
(Molokai),
Dryopteris glabra
var.
pusilla
(Kauai),
Huperzia stemmermanniae
(Hawaii Island and Maui),
Hypolepis hawaiiensis
var.
mauiensis
(Maui),
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai),
Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis
(Hawaii Island and Maui),
Myrsine fosbergii
(Kauai),
Phyllostegia brevidens
(Hawaii Island),
P. helleri
(Kauai),
P. stachyoides
(Hawaii Island, Maui, and Molokai),
Ranunculus mauiensis
(Maui, Molokai, Oahu, and Kauai),
Schiedea diffusa
ssp.
diffusa
(Maui and Molokai),
S. pubescens
(Molokai), and
Sicyos macrophyllus
(Maui) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Montane Mesic

The montane mesic ecosystem is composed of natural communities (forest and shrublands) found at elevations between 3,300 and 6,500 ft (1,000 to 2,000 m), in areas where annual rainfall is between 50 and 75 in (130 and 190 cm), or are in otherwise mesic substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This system is found on Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 97-99; TNCH 2007). Native biological diversity is moderate, and this habitat is important for Hawaiian forest birds (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 98-99; TNCH 2006). The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Asplenium diellaciniatum
(Kauai),
Exocarpos menziesii
(Hawaii Island),
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
(Kauai),
Labordia lorenciana
(Kauai),
Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis
(Hawaii Island),
Ochrosia haleakalae
(Maui),
Phyllostegia stachyoides
(Hawaii Island and Maui),
Ranunculus hawaiensis
(Hawaii Island),
R. mauiensis
(Hawaii Island, Maui, Molokai, Kauai),
Sanicula sandwicensis
(Hawaii Island and Maui),
Schiedea pubescens
(Maui),
Sicyos lanceoloideus
(Kauai), and
S. macrophyllus
(Hawaii Island) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Montane Dry

The montane dry ecosystem is composed of natural communities (one grassland type, shrublands, forests) found at elevations between 3,300 and 6,500 ft (1,000 and 2,000 m), in areas where annual rainfall is less than 50 in (130 cm), or are in otherwise dry substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This system is found on Maui and Hawaii Island, and is best developed in the saddle region between mountains on Hawaii Island, with rich native plant communities (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, pp. 93-97; TNCH 2007). The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Exocarpos menziesii
(Hawaii Island),
Festuca hawaiiensis
(Hawaii Island and Maui),
Portulaca villosa
(Hawaii Island),
Ranunculus hawaiensis
(Hawaii Island),
R. mauiensis
(Hawaii Island),
Sanicula sandwicensis
(Hawaii Island), and
Sicyos macrophyllus
(Hawaii Island) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Subalpine

The subalpine ecosystem is composed of natural communities (grasslands, shrublands, forests) at elevations between 6,500 and 9,800 ft (2,000 and 3,000 m), in areas where annual rainfall is seasonal, between 15 and 40 in (38 and 100 cm), or are in otherwise dry substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). Native biodiversity is not high in this system, but contains specialized invertebrates and plants adapted to dry, exposed conditions (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 107). Because rainfall is low in this area, fog drip is an important moisture source (Gagne and Cuddihy 1999, p. 110). The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Ranunculus hawaiensis
(Hawaii Island and Maui) and
Sanicula sandwicensis
(Hawaii Island and Maui) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Dry Cliff

The dry cliff ecosystem is composed of vegetation communities occupying steep slopes (greater than 65 degrees) in areas that receive less than 75 in (190 cm) of annual rainfall, or are in otherwise dry substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This ecosystem is found on all the main Hawaiian Islands except Niihau, and is best represented along the leeward slopes of Lanai, Maui, the Waianae Mountains of Oahu, and Kauai (TNCH 2006). A variety of shrublands occur within this ecosystem (TNCH 2006). Native biological diversity is low to moderate (TNCH 2006). The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Nothocestrum latifolium
(Maui, Lanai, Oahu, and Kauai),
Ochrosia haleakalae
(Maui), and
Sicyos lanceoloideus
(Oahu) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). The band-rumped storm-petrel is reported currently or historically from the dry cliff ecosystem on Hawaii Island, Maui, and Kauai (TNCH 2007).

Wet Cliff

The wet cliff ecosystem is generally composed of shrublands on near-vertical slopes (greater than 65 degrees) in areas that receive more than 75 in (190 cm) annual rainfall, or are in otherwise wet substrate conditions (TNCH 2006). This system is found on all the main islands except for Niihau and Kahoolawe (TNCH 2006). Native biological diversity is low to moderate (TNCH 2006). The following plants proposed for listing as endangered in this rule reported currently or historically from this ecosystem are:
Phyllostegia brevidens
(Maui),
P. helleri
(Kauai),
Ranunculus mauiensis
(Maui and Molokai), and
Schiedea pubescens
(Maui, Lanai, and Molokai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). The band-rumped storm-petrel is reported currently or historically from the wet cliff ecosystem on Maui and Kauai (TNCH 2007).

Description of the 49 Hawaiian Islands Species

The Act directs us to determine whether any species is an endangered species or a threatened species because

of any factors affecting its continued existence. We summarize, below, the biological condition of, and factors affecting, each of the 49 species to assess whether each species should be listed as endangered or threatened.

The summaries below include only brief lists of factors affecting each species. Each of these factors is fully considered, in detail, in the section “Summary of Factors Affecting the 49 Species Proposed for Listing,” below.

Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment for Hawaiian Plants

Twenty-eight of the plant species proposed for listing and described below were evaluated for their vulnerability to climate change as part of a comprehensive vulnerability analysis of native Hawaiian plants, as indicated in Table 3 (Fortini
et al.
2013, 134 pp.). This analysis used “climate envelopes” (geographic ranges encompassing suitable climate for each species, as defined by temperature and moisture (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 17)) developed from field records by Price
et al.
(2012) to project each species' potential range in the year 2100. The location and spatial extent of these future ranges, and their overlap with current ranges, allows calculation of a vulnerability score. Estimates of vulnerability based on climate-envelope modeling are conservative in that they do not take into account potential changes in interspecific interactions such as predation, disease, pollination, or competition. This study provides a landscape- or island-scale picture of potential climate-change vulnerability of Hawaiian plants; the results are less clear at finer spatial scales (Fortini
et al.
p. 42). However, all 28 of these plant species scored moderately or highly vulnerable in the analysis because of their relative inability to exhibit the possible responses necessary for persistence under projected climate change (Fortini
et al.
2013, 134 pp.). These responses include the migration response (dispersal and establishment in new areas beyond their current distribution), the microrefugia response (persistence in topographically complex areas that are less exposed), evolutionary adaptation response (morphological changes in response to the changing environment), and toleration response (adaptation to environmental changes through phenotypic plasticity). Therefore, if the species is moderately to highly vulnerable, then the likelihood of its persistence with the impacts of climate change is low, and the environmental changes associated with climate change are likely to become a threat to these species' continued existence in the future.

Plants

Asplenium diellaciniatum
(no common name (NCN)), a terrestrial or epipetric (growing on rocks) fern in the spleenwort family (Aspleniaceae), is endemic to Kauai (Palmer 2003, p. 117). This fern has extremely variable frond morphology, depending on age, development, and possibly microhabitat (Wood and Aguraiuja, pers. obs.
in
Lorence
et al.
2013, p. 167). Stipes (stalks joining the stem to the blade) and rachis (blade midribs) are black or purple-black to maroon and shiny. Blade divisions are entire to shallowly or deeply cut into lobes or twice-divided, with free veins that seldom join to form a vein network (Lorence
et al.
2013, p. 170). Hillebrand (1888, pp. 621-622) recognized this species as
Lindsaya laciniata
(Botanischer Garten und Botanisches Museum (BGBM) 2014, in litt.). Brackenridge also interpreted
Diellia
as lindsaeoid (ferns having morphological characteristics of those in the genus
Lindsaea
) (1854, pp. 218-220), followed by other Hawaiian authors, and this fern was described as
Diellia laciniata
in Rock (1913, p. 59) and in Wagner (1952, pp. 11, 57-63). Palmer did not recognize
D. laciniata
as separate from
D. erecta
(2003, p. 117). Molecular phylogenetic studies by Schneider
et al.
(2005, pp. 455-460) placed
Diella
within
Asplenium,
and with further taxonomic reassessment (Lorence
et al.
2013, pp. 167, 170-171), this species is recognized as
Asplenium diellaciniatum.
Little is known of the historical distribution of this species. It was described from a collection from “Halemanu,” the Knudsen homestead area on western Kauai. This fern is found in the montane mesic ecosystem at Kawaiiki, approximately 4.5 mi (7 km) southeast of the original collection site (Palmer 2003, p. 117; HBMP 2010; Lorence
et al.
2013, p. 167) in 2 occurrences, once totaling approximately 100 individuals (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; Lorence
et al.
2013, p. 167; however, currently, there are only 31 mature and 9 juvenile individuals (Wood 2013, in litt.; PEPP 2014, p. 33).

Feral pigs, goats, and black-tailed deer (
Odocoileus hemionus columbianus)
modify and destroy the habitat of
Asplenium diellaciniatum
on Kauai, with evidence of the activities of these animals reported in the areas where
A. diellaciniatum
occurs (HBMP 2010; Wood 2013, in litt.). Feral pigs, goats, and black-tailed deer may also forage on
A. diellaciniatium
(HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson
et al.
2007, in litt.; Hawaii Administrative Rule—Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources (HAR-DLNR) 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants in the Kawaiiki area, such as
Buddleja asiatica
(dog tail),
Lantana camara
(lantana), and
Sphaeropteris cooperi
(Australian tree fern), compete with
A. diellaciniatum
and modify and destroy its native habitat, and displace it and other native Hawaiian plant species by competing for water, nutrients, light, and space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek
et al.
1987
in
Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood 2013, in litt.). Additionally, the small number of individuals of
A. diellaciniatum
may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental change.

The remaining occurrences of
Asplenium diellaciniatum
and its habitat for its reintroduction are at risk;
A. diellaciniatum
numbers are observed to be decreasing on Kauai, and both the species and its habitat continue to be negatively affected by modification and destruction by ungulates and by direct competition by nonnative plants, combined with predation by nonnative ungulates. We find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Calamagrostis expansa
(Maui reedgrass), a perennial in the grass family (Poaceae), is known from the islands of Maui and Hawaii (O'Connor 1999, p. 1509; Wagner and Herbst 2003, p. 59). This species was described by Hitchcock (1922, p. 148) and is recognized as a distinct taxon in O'Connor (1999, p. 1509) and in Wagner and Herbst (2003, p. 59), the most recently accepted taxonomic treatments for this species. Historically,
Calamagrostis expansa
was known from wet forest, open bogs, and bog margins at 17 locations on East Maui, and in a large occurrence covering nearly the entire summin on West Maui, and was discovered in 7 occurrences totaling approximately 750 individuals on the island of Hawaii in 1995 (O'Connor 1999, p. 1509; HBMP 2010; Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History (NMNH) Botany Collections 2014, in litt.). Currently, this species is known from 13 occurrences totaling fewer than 750 individuals from both islands. On

the island of Maui, there are 2 occurrences in the west Maui Mountains (approximately 100 individuals) and 7 occurrences in the east Maui Mountains (totaling about 200 individuals), in the montane wet ecosystem (Wood 2005, in litt.; TNCH 2007; Welton 2008 and 2010, in litt.; Fay 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer 2010 in litt.; Agorastos 2011, in litt.). On the island of Hawaii, there are 3 occurrences in the Kohala Mountains (totaling approximately 400 individuals) and 1 occurrence of a few individuals in Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, in the montane wet ecosystem (Perry 2006, in litt.; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of
Calamagrostis expansa
on Maui and Hawaii, with evidence of the activities of feral pigs reported in the areas where
C. expansa
occurs on east Maui, and on Hawaii Island in the Kohala Mountains and in the Waiakea Forest Reserve of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park (Hobdy 1996, in litt.; Medeiros 1996, in litt.; Perlman 1996, in litt.; Wood 1996, in litt.; Perry 2006, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson
et al.
2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Rats have been noted by biologists to affect
C. expansa
at Laupahoehoe Natural Area Reserve (NAR) on Hawaii Island, by consuming seeds (HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants compete with this species, and modify and destroy native habitat, negatively affecting
C. expansa
on east and west Maui and Hawaii Island. Additionally, the small number of individuals may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental change. Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystem that support this species. The species, which already is affected by multiple stressors, may be unable to tolerate or adapt to projected changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 68).

The remaining occurrences of
Calamagrostis expansa
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk;
C. expansa
populations are decreasing on Maui and Hawaii Island, and this species continues to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction, and by direct competition from nonnative plants, combined with herbivory by nonnative ungulates and rats. The effects of climate change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. We find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Cyanea kauaulaensis
(NCN), a shrub in the bellflower family (Campanulaceae), is endemic to Maui (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p. 15). This species is 6.5 to 13 ft (2 to 4 m) tall, and is distinguished from other
Cyanea
species by its many-branched habit, with branches often rooting when coming in contact with the soil. Leaves are glabrous and narrow (2 to 3 in (5 to 7 cm) wide), clustered near the end of the branches, flowers are white and tubular, and fruit are bright orange (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. 15-23).
Cyanea kauaulaensis
is recognized as a distinct taxon by Oppenheimer and Lorence (2012, pp. 15-23).

Cyanea kauaulaensis
occurs on leeward west Maui, on talus or basalt boulder-strewn slopes along perennial streams at 2,400 to 3,000 ft (730 to 900 m), in the lowland wet ecosystem (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010; Oppenheimer and Lorence 2010, pp. 17-18). Associated native species include those within
Metrosideros
(ohia) lowland wet forest, with herbaceous plants, ferns, and some riparian plants (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2010, pp. 17-18). This species was first collected during a botanical survey in 1989. Further surveys (in 2008, 2009, and 2011) revealed more individuals, and study of the collections indicated that it was a new species of
Cyanea.
Currently,
C. kauaulaensis
is known from Kauaula Valley (approximately 50 individuals) and Waikapu Valley (12 individuals) (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. 15-16, 20).

The greatest threats to this species currently are the low numbers of occurrences and individuals, its limited range, poor seedling recruitment, and loss of pollinators and dispersal agents (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p. 20). Rats and slugs are noted as a threat to
Cyanea kauaulaensis
by herbivory and seed predation (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p. 20). Additionally, nonnative plants modify and destroy native habitat and outcompete native species, negatively affecting
C. kauaulaensis
and its habitat (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, p. 20). Although feral ungulates are present on west Maui, the known occurrences of
C. kauaulaensis
are likely not at risk from ungulates because of their location in extremely steep and rugged terrain; however, because of the terrain, landslides and flooding may impact this species (Oppenheimer and Lorence 2012, pp. 20-21). Because of the threats described above, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Cyclosorus boydiae
(previously
Christella boydiae
) (kupukupu makalii) is a small to medium-sized member of the thelypteroid fern family (Thelypteridaceae), with reclining or erect stems and a large, tangled mass of roots that form a holdfast (Pukui and Elbert 1986, p. 186; Palmer 2003, pp. 87-88). In 1879, Eaton (pp. 361-362) named it for the original collector, Miss E.S. Boyd, calling it
Aspidium
(
Cyrtomium
)
boydiae,
for those plants occurring on Oahu. In 1888, Hillebrand (p. 572) described two varieties,
A. cyatheoides
var.
depauperatum,
occurring on the islands of Hawaii and Oahu, and
A. cyatheoides
var.
exaltatum
occurring on Kauai. Iwatsuki moved the two species to the genus
Thelypteris
in 1964 (Iwatsuki 1964, p. 28
in
Medeiros
et al.
1993, pp. 87-88; Palmer 2003, pp. 87-88). In 1999, Wagner (W.H.,
et al.)
moved the genus
Aspidium
to
Cyclosorus
and recognized two varieties:
Cyclosorus
variety
boydiae
on Oahu and
Cyclosorus
variety
kipahuluensis
on Maui (Wagner
et al.
1999, pp. 153, 156-157). In 2003, Palmer returned the species to
Christella
and did not recognize any varieties (2003, pp. 87-88). Following Smith (
et al.
2006, p. 716),
Christella
was merged into
Cyclosorus. Cyclosorus boydiae
is the most recently accepted scientific name for this fern. Typical habitat for
Cyclosorus boydiae
is exposed, rocky, or moss-covered banks of stream courses in dense-wet
Metrosideros-Acacia
(ohia-koa) forest, at 4,300 to 4,400 ft (1,300 to 1,350 m), with other native ferns, grasses, and dwarfed woody species, in the lowland wet and montane wet ecosystems (Hillebrand 1888, p. 572; Medeiros
et al.
1993, p. 87; Wagner (W.H.)
et al.
1999, p. 156; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Historically, this fern was known from near sea level to 4,400 ft (1,350 m) on Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island (Hillebrand 1888, p. 572; Medeiros
et al.
1993, pp. 86-87; Palmer 2003, pp. 87-88). Currently,
Cyclosorus boydiae
is found only at higher elevations on Oahu and east Maui, in 7 occurrences totaling approximately 400 individuals (Palmer 2003, pp. 87-88; Oppenheimer 2008, in litt.; Fay 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Welton 2010, in litt.). On east Maui, there are 5 occurrences (approximately 360 individuals) in the lowland wet and

montane wet ecosystems, and on Oahu, there are 2 occurrences in the Koolau Mountains in the montane wet ecosystem, totaling 40 individuals (Palmer 2003, pp. 87-88; Wood 2007, in litt.; Kam 2008, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2008 and 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Welton 2010, in litt.; Ching 2011, in litt.). The historical occurrence of
C. boydiae
on the island of Hawaii was found in the lowland wet ecosystem (HBMP 2010).

Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of
Cyclosorus boydiae
on Maui and Oahu, with evidence of the activities of feral pigs reported at three occurrences of
C. boydiae
on east Maui and at two occurrences on Oahu. However, on east Maui, two of the five occurrences are provided protection in Haleakala National Park (Wood 2007, in litt.; Wood 2013, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Kawelo 2011, in litt.). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson
et al.
2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Historical occurrences of
C. boydiae
on Oahu have dramatically declined in numbers or disappeared as a result of habitat alteration, landslides and flooding, nonnative plant species invading lower elevation stream courses, and man-made stream diversions (Medeiros
et al.
1993, p. 88; Palmer 2003, p. 88). Nonnative plants such as
Tibouchina herbaceae
(glorybush) modify and destroy native habitat of
C. boydiae,
and outcompete this and other native species for water, nutrients, light, and space, or a nonnative plant may produce chemicals that inhibit growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek
et al.
1987
in
Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood 2013, in litt.). Herbivory by feral pigs negatively impacts this species (HBMP 2010). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Cyclosorus boydiae,
which already is affected by multiple stressors, may be unable to tolerate or adapt to projected changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 72).

The remaining occurrences of
Cyclosorus boydiae
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk;
C. boydiae
populations are decreasing on Oahu, Maui, and Hawaii Island, and the species continues to be negatively affected by habitat loss and destruction by ungulates, direct competition with nonnative plants, and herbivory by ungulates. The effects of climate change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. We find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Cyperus neokunthianus
(NCN) is a perennial plant in the sedge family (Cyperaceae). Culms are three-sided, 16 to 47 in (40 to 120 cm) tall, with short and slightly thickened rhizomes. Leaves are shorter than to as long as the culm, with flat or curved margins and reddish brown to dark brown sheaths. Inflorescences are umbelliform (with a short axis), open to moderately dense, bearing numerous spikelets (flower clusters). Achenes (fruit) are oblong, 3-sided, and about 1 in (2 mm) long (Koyama 1999, p. 1420).

Cyperus neokunthianus
was previously recognized as
Mariscus kunthianus,
following the taxonomic treatment of Koyama (1990, p. 1420). In 1997, Strong and Wagner (p. 39) following Tucker (1994, p. 9), and more recently Wagner and Herbst (2003, pp. 52-53; 2012, p. 81), moved all Hawaiian species of
Mariscus
to
Cyperus,
and provides the most currently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species.
Cyperus neokunthianus
occurs in riparian areas of the lowland wet ecosystem on west Maui (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 1420; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Historically, this species is known from Honokohau Falls at 2,800 ft (854 m) and Waihee Valley (HBMP 2010; Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) database 2014). This species was last observed in 1996. Currently, there are no known individuals in the wild; however, Waihee Valley and Maui County lands have been suggested as potential habitat for further surveys (PEPP 2013, p. 32; PEPP 2014, p. 59).

Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of
Cyperus neokunthianus
on west Maui, with evidence of the activities of feral pigs reported in the area where this species was last observed (HBMP 2010). Habitat modifications resulting from activities of feral pigs that affect
C. neokunthianus
include direct destruction of this species and other native plants, disruption of topsoil leading to erosion, and establishment and spread of nonnative plants. Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson
et al.
2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Additionally, nonnative plants degrade and destroy native habitat and outcompete native species, also negatively affecting habitat of
C. neokunthianus
on west Maui. Currently, there are no known extant individuals; however, if it is extant, low numbers make this species more vulnerable to extinction because of the higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations, and localized catastrophes.

Habitat for any remaining individuals of
Cyperus neokunthianus,
and for its reintroduction, is at risk; the species continues to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by nonnative animals and plants. We find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Cyrtandra hematos
(haiwale), a shrub in the African violet family (Gesneriaceae), is endemic to Molokai (Wagner
et al.
1999, pp. 760, 762). This species is 1 to 6.5 ft (0.3 to 2 m) tall, with minimally branched stems. The leaves are in whorls of 3 to 4 per node, often closely spaced and borne on the upper 5 to 8 nodes. Flowers are solitary, white with a greenish calyx, and narrowly tubular. Flower stalks are 0.3 to 0.4 in (8 to 10 mm) long, and tubes are about 0.7 in (18 mm) long (Wagner
et al.
1999, pp. 760, 762).
Cyrtandra hematos
is recognized as a distinct taxon by Wagner
et al.
(1999, pp. 760, 762), who provide the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species.
Cyrtandra hematos
occurs in wet forest at 3,400 to 3,800 ft (1,030 to 1,150 m) on eastern Molokai, in the montane wet ecosystem (Wagner
et al.
1999, pp. 760, 762; HBMP 2010; TNCH 2007). Historically, this species was known from the Olokui Plateau, Kawela, and Kahuoahu Valley on Molokai (Wagner
et al.
1999, pp. 760, 762). Currently, approximately 30 individuals are known from Kapulei, but this occurrence has not been monitored since 1999 (USFWS Rare Taxon Database, in litt.).

Feral pigs and goats modify and destroy the habitat of
Cyrtandra hematos
on Molokai, with evidence of the activities of these animals reported in the areas where this species occurs (USFWS Rare Taxon Database, in litt.). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals

(Anderson
et al.
2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Additionally, nonnative plants modify and destroy native habitat of
C. hematos
and outcompete this and other native species for water, nutrients, light, and space, or a nonnative plant may produce chemicals that inhibit growth of other plants (USFWS Rare Taxon Database, in litt.). This species may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to low numbers and lack of regeneration, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, and thereby lessening the probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). The reasons for this species' lack of regeneration in the wild are unknown at this time. Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystem that support this species.
Cyrtandra hematos,
which already is affected by multiple stressors, may be unable to tolerate or adapt to projected changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 72).

The remaining occurrences of
Cyrtandra hematos
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals are restricted to a small area on Molokai and continue to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates, and by direct competition with nonnative plants combined with predation by nonnative ungulates. The low number of remaining individuals may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental changes. The effects of climate change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. We find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Deparia kaalaana
(NCN), a small, terrestrial fern in the ladyfern family (Athyraceae), is recognized as a distinct taxon by Palmer (2003, pp. 109-111) and Christenhusz
et al.
(2012, p. 16). Fronds (fern leaves) are 6 to 12 in (15 to 30 cm) long, sometimes bearing plantlets at the end of the rachis (the midrib of the fern blade, which is the expanded part of the frond above the stipe). Stipes (the stalk of the frond joining the stem to the blade) are straw-colored and sparsely scaly. Blades are oblong-lanceolate, with 9 to 11 pairs of pinnae. This species is distinguished from
D. marginalis
by its smaller, short-stalked and obliquely arranged pinnae, ultimate segments, and veins (Palmer 2003, pp. 109-111).

This fern is historically known from the islands of Kauai, Maui, and Hawaii, on rocky stream banks and in wet forest, in the lowland mesic and lowland wet ecosystems (Oppenheimer and Bustamente 2014, p. 103; Palmer 2003, pp. 109-111; PEPP 2014, p. 95; HBMP 2010; TNCH 2007).
Deparia kaalaana
was presumed extinct on all three islands where it previously occurred until one individual was discovered on east Maui, growing along a perennial stream on the western side of a small pool with other native ferns and herbaceous plants (Oppenheimer and Bustamente 2014, pp. 103-107; PEPP 2014, p. 95).

Feral pigs modify and destroy habitat of
Deparia kaalaana
by facilitating the spread of nonnative plants, which converts vegetation communities from native to nonnative (Oppenheimer and Bustamente 2014, p. 106; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 63). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson
et al.
2007, in litt; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants such as
Blechnum appendiculatum
(NCN),
Clidemia hirta
(Koster's curse),
Hedychium gardnerianum
(kahili ginger),
Prunella vulgaris
(selfheal), and
Rubus argutus
(prickly Florida blackberry) are capable of displacing all of the riparian habitat elements, such as native plants, in the area where
D. kaalaana
occurs. Nonnative slugs such as
Derocerus laevis
and
Limax maximus
are common in the area and can consume young plants (Joe and Daehler 2008, pp. 252-253). Climate change may induce frequent and severe drought or cause extreme flooding events, and may impact the habitat and
D. kaalaana
directly (Chu
et al.
2010, pp. 4887, 4891, 4898). A single catastrophic event may result in extirpation of the remaining individual.

The remaining occurrence of
Deparia kaalaana
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk, and both the species and its habitat on Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai continues to be negatively affected by modification and destruction by nonnative ungulates, and by direct competition with nonnative plants, combined with herbivory by nonnative ungulates and slugs. We find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Dryopteris glabra
var.
pusilla
(hohiu) is a small, terrestrial fern in the wood fern family (Dryopteridaceae). Fronds are 1.5 to 12 in (4 to30 cm) long and densely clustered, with very thin stipes, and fertile when small. Blades are 2- to 3-pinnate, with winged rachises, and marginal to submarginal sori (clusters of sporangia, the spore-bearing (reproductive) structures of ferns, along the blade edge). This species is recognized as a distinct taxon by Palmer (2003, p. 144). Habitat for
Dryopteris glabra
var.
pusilla
is deep shade on rocky, mossy streambanks in wet forest at about 4,000 ft (1,200 m), in the montane wet ecosystem on Kauai (Palmer 2003, p. 144; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Historically,
D. glabra
var.
pusilla
was known from the Kawaikoi stream area (HBMP 2010). Currently, this species is known from fewer than 250 individuals in the Alakai Wilderness Preserve (including the Kawaiko stream area) on Kauai (National Tropical Botanical Garden (NTBG) Herbarium Database 1995, in litt.; HBMP 2010).

Dryopteris glabra
var.
pusilla
is at risk from habitat degradation by nonnative plants and feral ungulates, loss of reproductive vigor, and the species' vulnerability to climate change. Habitat modification and destruction by nonnative plants and feral ungulates is an ongoing threat to
Dryopteris glabra
var.
pusilla.
Although most individuals occur in the Alakai Wilderness Preserve, only portions of the Preserve are fenced to prevent ungulate incursion. Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson
et al.
2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). In addition, the limited number of occurrences and few individuals lead to a diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of long-term persistence, and a single catastrophic event may result in extirpation of remaining occurrences. Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystem that support this species.
Dryopteris glabra
var.
pusilla pusilla
may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 74). Because of these threats, we find that this species plant should be listed as endangered throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or

threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Exocarpos menziesii
(heau) is shrub in the sandalwood family (Santalaceae). Individuals are from 2 to 6.5 ft (0.5 to 2 m) tall. Stems are densely branched toward the ends, with conspicuously maroon-tinged tips. The leaves are usually scale-like, with occasional oblanceolate, foliaceous leaves 0.4 to 0.6 in (10 to 14 mm) long. Flowers are red and drupes are reddish brown to red at maturity, ovoid, 0.3 to 0.4 in (7 to 10 mm) long, with a small terminal beak partially embedded in a yellow, fleshy, receptacle (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 1218).
Exocarpos menziesii
is recognized as a distinct taxon by Wagner
et al.
(1999, p. 1218), who provide the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species. This species occurs in
Metrosideros
shrubland or drier forest areas, and on lava flows with sparse vegetation, from 4,600 to 6,900 ft (1,400 to 2,100 m), in the montane dry ecosystem on the island of Hawaii (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 1218; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Historically, this species was also found in the lowland mesic (Lanai and Hawaii Island) and montane mesic ecosystems (Hawaii Island) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Exocarpos menziesii
is historically known from the island of Lanai (Kaiholena Gulch) and was formerly more wide-spread on the island of Hawaii (from Kahuku Ranch in the south to Hualalai and Puukapele on the leeward slopes)
(
Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 1218; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Currently, there is 1 scattered occurrence of fewer than 20 individuals on the slopes of Hualalai and approximately 1,800 individuals in the U.S. Army's Pohakuloa Training Area (PTA) on the island of Hawaii (PEPP 2013, pp. 10, 33; Thomas 2014, in litt.; Evans 2015, in litt.). There are no known occurrences of this species on Lanai today.

Feral goats, mouflon, and sheep modify and destroy the habitat of
Exocarpos menziesii
on Hawaii Island, with evidence of the activities of these animals reported in the areas where this species occurs (USFWS Rare Taxon Database 2015, in litt.). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson
et al.
2007, in litt; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Feral ungulate management is incorporated into the U.S. Army's PTA management plan. These plants are provided some protection within fenced management units in the training area; however, feral goats are still being removed from within the fenced area (Evans 2015, in litt.; Nadig 2015, in litt.). Any individuals of
E. menziesii
outside of fenced exclosures or outside of the managed area are at risk. Occurrences and numbers of individuals have declined on the island of Hawaii (HBMP 2010; Thomas 2014, in litt.), once widely distributed from the south to the west sides of the island, and are now restricted to two locations;, consequently
E. menziesii
may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to reduced levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, thereby reducing the probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP 2010). Fire is a potential threat to this species; although the U.S. Army has constructed firebreaks and has standard operating procedures in place for prevention and suppression of wildfires at PTA, wildfires may encroach from other areas (U.S. Army Garrison 2013, in litt.). The small number of individuals outside the occurrence at PTA may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental change. Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Exocarpos menziesii
may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 76).

The remaining occurrences of
Exocarpos menziesii
and suitable locations for reintroductions are at risk from habitat modification and destruction; from herbivory, by feral goats, mouflon, and sheep; and from the small number of remaining occurrences. Fire is a potential threat to this species. The effects of climate change are likely to exacertbate these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Festuca hawaiiensis
(NCN) is a cespitose (growing in tufts or clumps) annual in the grass family (Poaceae) (O'Connor 1999, p. 1547). This species has numerous erect culms (stems or stalks) 2 to 5 ft (0.5 to 1.5 m) tall, branching above the base, which are glabrous to slightly hairy. Sheaths are open and blades are flat and smooth, 10 to 16 in (25 to 40 cm) long, and 0.1 to 0.5 in (0.3 to 1 cm) wide. Branched inflorescences are composed of 6 to 8 alternate racemes (many flowers on one branch), with a flattened rachis (main axis) with flat hairs. The fruits are ellipsoid, dorsally compressed, and approximately 0.2 in (5 mm) long (O'Connor 1999, p. 1547).
Festuca hawaiiensis
was treated by Hillebrand (1888, pp. 534-535) as an introduced species,
F. drymeia;
however,
F. hawaiiensis
is currently recognized as a distinct taxon in O'Connor (1999, p. 1547), the most recently accepted Hawaiian plant taxonomy.

Typical habitat for this species is dry forest at 6,500 ft (2,000 m), in the montane dry ecosystem (O'Connor 1999, p. 1547). Historically,
F. hawaiiensis
occurred at Hualalai and Puu Huluhulu on the island of Hawaii, and possibly at Ulupalakua on Maui; however, it is no longer found at these sites (O'Connor 1999, p. 1547). Currently,
F. hawaiiensis
is only known from PTA on the island of Hawaii (HBMP 2010). These remaining four occurrences are within an area of less than 10 square miles (26 square kilometers) and total approximately 1,500 individuals (U.S. Army Garrison 2013, in litt.; Evans 2015, in litt.).

Habitat destruction by feral goats, sheep, and mouflon is a threat to the habitat of
Festuca hawaiiensis.
These ungulates browse on native plants such as grasses, and likely browse on
F. hawaiiensis.
Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction, or to eliminate herbivory by these animals (Anderson
et al.
2007, in litt.; HAR-DLNR 2010, in litt.). Feral ungulate management is incorporated into the U.S. Army's PTA management plan. These plants are provided some protection within fenced management units in the training area; however, goats were recently removed from within fenced areas (Evans 2015, in litt.; Nadig 2015, in litt.). Any individuals of
F. hawaiiensis
outside of fenced exclosures or outside of the managed area are at risk. Nonnative plants, such as
Cenchrus setaceus
(
Pennisetum setaceum,
fountain grass), are naturalized in the area, and outcompete
F. hawaiiensis
and other native plants. Occurrences and numbers of individuals are declining on the island of Hawaii, and
F. hawaiiensis
likely experiences reduced reproductive vigor due to reduced levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, thereby reducing the probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP 2010).

Fire is a potential threat to this species, especially because of the ingress of nonnative grass species. Although the U.S. Army has constructed firebreaks and has standard operating procedures in place for prevention and suppression of wildfires at PTA, fires may encroach from other areas, exacerbated by fuel loads provided by nonnative grasses (U.S. Army Garrison 2013, in litt.). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Festuca hawaiiensis
may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 76).

The remaining occurrence of
Festuca hawaiiensis
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk;
F. hawaiiensis
occurences have decreased on Hawaii Island, as it no longer occurs at Hualalai and Puu Huluhulu, and the species may be extirpated from Maui. This species continues to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates and by direct competition with nonnative plants, combined with herbivory by ungulates, especially on Maui. Fire is a potential threat to the species and its habitat. The effects of climate change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Gardenia remyi
(nanu) is a tree in the coffee family (Rubiaceae). This species is 10 to 43 ft (3 to 13 m) tall with branches that are quadrangular and covered with fine, short, sticky hairs. Leaves are clustered towards the tips of the branches, broadly elliptic to ovate, 4 to 10 in (9 to 24 cm) long, 2 to 4 in (5 to 10 cm) wide, with a glabrous upper surface and dull lower surface. Flowers are fragrant, solitary, with a 6- to 8-lobed white corolla. Fruit are orange, round to ellipsoid, 1 in (3 cm) in diameter, with small seeds (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 1133).
Gardenia remyi
was described by Mann (1867, p. 171). This species is recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner
et al.
(1999, p. 1133), which provides the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this species. Typical habitat for
G. remyi
is mesic to wet forest at 190 to 2,500 ft (60 to 760 m), in the lowland mesic (Kauai, Molokai, and Hawaii Island) and lowland wet ecosystems (Kauai, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island) (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 1133; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Historically, this species was found on the island of Hawaii at Wao Kele O Puna NAR, Waiakea Forest Reserve (FR), Pahoa, and Hakalau Nui. On Maui, this species was known from Wailuaiki and Waikamoi in the Koolau FR, and from Papaaea and Kipahulu. On Molokai, this species was known from Keopukaloa, Pukoo, Honomuni, Halawa, and Kaluaaha (HBMP 2010). On Kauai, this species ranged across the island, and was known from Halelea, Kealia, Moloaa, and Lihue-Koloa FRs, including Hanakapiai Valley, Mahaulepu, and east Wahiawa Bog. Currently,
Gardenia remyi
is known from 19 occurrences totaling approximately 90 individuals on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Kauai (Wood 2005, in litt.; Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.; Perry 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; Agorastos 2010, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Perlman 2010, in litt.). On Hawaii, individuals occur in Puu O Umi NAR (12), Wao Kele O Puna (3), Waiakea FR (1), and in Kohala NAR (1 individual in poor health and threatened by habitat modification and destruction and competition with
Melastoma
sp.). On east Maui, there is 1 individual at Kipahulu, and on west Maui, there are 2 individuals at Honokohau drainage, an occurrence of 21 individuals at Honolua peak, and 9 individuals at Honokohau-Hononana ridge (Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.; Welton 2009, in litt.). The number of individuals in the Molokai FR declined from 20 to 4 over a period of 5 years (Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.). Currently, on Molokai, there are 2 individuals within the Molokai FR, 1 individual at Manuahi ridge, and possibly 1 remaining individual at Mapulehu. On Kauai there are 6 individuals at Limahuli, 14 at Kalalau, 1 at Puuauuka, 2 at Puu Kolo, 1 at Waioli Valley, 1 at Kahili, and 6 at Waipa (NTBG 2008, in litt; Perlman 2010, in litt.).

Habitat modification and destruction by feral pigs, goats, and deer negatively affects
Gardenia remyi
and areas for its reintroduction (Perry, in litt. 2006; PEPP 2008, p. 102; HBMP 2010). Feral pigs and signs of their activities have been reported at occurrences of
G. remyi
in the Kohala Mountains and at Wao Kele O Puna on the island of Hawaii; the Halelea and Lihue-Koloa FRs on Kauai; the West Maui FR and West Maui NAR, and the Puu Kukui Preserve on Maui; and the Molokai FR. Goats and signs of their activities are reported at the occurrences of
G. remyi
on the island of Kauai at the Kalalau Valley, and on the island of Molokai in Pelekunu Preserve and the Molokai FR. Axis deer and signs of their activities are reported at the occurrences of
G. remyi
in the Molokai FR (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by these ungulates is a likely threat to
G. remyi,
as they browse on leaves and other parts of almost any woody or fleshy plant species. Nonnative plants modify and destroy native habitat of
G. remyi
and outcompete this and other native plant for water, nutrients, light, and space, in areas where
G. remyi
occurs on Hawaii Island, Kauai, Maui, and Molokai (Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.; Perry 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Landslides are a threat to the occurrences and habitat of
G. remyi
ranging from Honopue to Waipio in the Kohala Mountains on Hawaii Island (Perry 2006, in litt.). Lack of pollination was suggested as the cause for abortion of immature fruits that were seen among plants at Wao Kele O Puna FR on the island of Hawaii (PEPP 2010, p. 73). Similarly, Agorastos (2011, in litt.) reported no viable seed production in the wild or within
ex situ
collections at Volcano Rare Plant Facility and no recruitment in the wild among the 14 individuals observed on the island of Hawaii, for unknown reasons. Predation of seeds by rats is reported as a threat to individuals on Kauai (NTBG 2008, in litt.). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Gardenia remyi
may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 76).

The remaining occurrences of
Gardenia remyi
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk.
Gardenia remyi
continues to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates, and by direct competition from nonnative plants, combined with herbivory by ungulates and seed predation by rats. Natural events such as landslides are a threat to occurrences on the island of Hawaii. Pollination and seed production are observed to be limited. Low numbers of individuals (90 total individuals distributed across 4 islands) makes this species more vulnerable to extinction because of the higher risks from genetic bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations, and localized catastrophes. The effects of climate change are likely to exacerbate these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Huperzia stemmermanniae
(NCN) is an epiphytic, hanging fir-moss (a fern ally) in the club moss family (Lycopodiaceae). Sterile stem bases are unforked or once-forked, short, usually less than 6 in (15 cm) long, green to pale yellow, with fertile terminal strobili (fertile leaves). The strobili fork at an acute angle and the branches are usually straight (Palmer 2003, pp. 257-259).
Huperzia stemmermanniae
was first described as
Phlegmariurus stemmermanniae
by Medeiros and Wagner (Medeiros
et al.
1996, pp. 90-96). Kartesz (1999,
in
NatureServe Explorer 2014, in litt.) moved the species to the genus
Huperzia.
Currently this species is recognized as a distinct taxon in the latest treatment (Palmer 2003, pp. 257-259). This species is epiphytic on rough bark of living trees or fallen logs in
Metrosideros polymorpha-Acacia koa
forest on east Maui and the island of Hawaii, at 3,200 to 3,800 ft (975 to 1,160 m), in the montane wet ecosystem (Medeiros
et al.
1996, p. 93; Palmer 2003, pp. 257, 259; TNCH2007; HBMP 2010). There is little information available on the historical range of this species.
Huperzia stemmermanniae
was first collected in 1981, from two occurrences totaling 10 individuals in Laupahoehoe NAR on the island of Hawaii, and was mistakenly identified as
H. mannii
(Medeiros
et al.
1996, p. 93; HBMP 2010). Currently, approximately 30 individuals occur in the Laupahoehoe area on the island of Hawaii. One individual occurred in Kaapahu Valley on east Maui, but this individual has not been relocated since 1995 (Perry 2006, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; HBMP 2010; Conry 2012, in litt.).

Feral pigs, goats, axis deer, and cattle modify and destroy the habitat of
Huperzia stemmermanniae
on Maui, and feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of this species on Hawaii Island (Medeiros
et al.
1996, p. 96; Wood 2003, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral pigs, goats, cattle, and axis deer is a potential threat to
H. stemmermanniae.
Nonnative plants modify and destroy the forest habitat that supports the native species upon which this epiphytic plant grows, and drought may also negatively affect this species and its habitat (Medeiros
et al.
1996, p. 96; Perry 2006, in litt.; HBMP 2010).
Huperzia stemmermanniae
may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to reduced levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, thereby lessening the probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; HBMP 2010). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Huperzia stemmermanniae
may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 77).

The remaining occurrences of
Huperzia stemmermanniae
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals are restricted to a small area on Hawaii Island, and this species continues to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates. The low numbers of individuals
H. stemmermanniae
may reduce the probability of its long-term persistence. The effects of climate change are likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Hypolepis hawaiiensis
var.
mauiensis
(olua) is a small terrestrial member of the bracken fern family (Dennstaedtiaceae), and is recognized as a distinct taxon by Palmer (2003, pp. 168-169). This variety is a miniature form of
H. hawaiiensis.
Fronds are 2.5 to 10 in (6 to 25 cm) long; rhizomes are slender, 0.04 to 0.1 in (1 to 3 mm) in diameter; and parts are covered with chainlike, acute-tipped, tan hairs. Fronds are fully fertile at their smallest size (Palmer 2003, pp. 168-169).
Hypolepis hawaiiensis
var.
mauiensis
occurs in mesic and wet forest, but predominately in the montane wet ecosystem (Palmer 2003, pp. 168-170). This species is historically known from Eke Crater, Kapunakea, and Puu Kukui, on west Maui (Palmer 2003, pp. 168-170). Currently, 5 to 10 individuals are known from openings between bogs above 5,000 ft on west Maui, and a few individuals occur at Hanawi on east Maui (Maui Nui Task Force (MNTF) 2010, in litt.).

Nonnative plants modify and destroy the habitat of
Hypolepis hawaiiensis
var.
mauiensis
on east and west Maui (HBMP 2010; MNTF 2010, in litt.). Nonnative plants also displace this and other native Hawaiian plant species by competing for water, nutrients, light, and space, or they may produce chemicals that inhibit growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek
et al.
1987
in
Cuddihy and Stones 1990, p. 74; MNTF 2010). This fern may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to low numbers of individuals, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, and thereby lessening the probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Hypolepis hawaiiensis
var.
mauiensis
may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini et al. 2013, p. 78).

The remaining occurrences of
Hypolepis hawaiiensis
var.
mauiensis
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk. Nonnative plants modify and destroy native habitat, and also outcompete native Hawaiian plants. This variety is moderately vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, and the small number of remaining individuals may limit this variety's ability to adapt to environmental change. Because of these threats, we find that this plant should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
(ohe) is an erect, perennial herb in the Joinvillea family (Joinvilleaceae) (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 1450). This subspecies is 5 to 16 ft (2 to 5 m) tall. Leaf blades are narrowly elliptic, up to 32 in (80 cm) long and 6 in (16 cm) wide. Both leaf surfaces have scattered bristles, with the lower surface also sparsely to moderately pubescent. Fruit are 0.2 in (6 mm) in diameter (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 1450).
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
was described by Brongniart and Gris (Brongniart 1861, pp. 264-269), and is recognized as a distinct taxon by Wagner
et al.
(1999, pp. 1450-1451), who provide the most recently accepted taxonomic treatment of this subspecies.
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
occurs in wet to mesic
Metrosideros polymorpha-Acacia koa
lowland and montane forest, and along intermittent streams, at 1,000 to 4,300 ft (305 to 1,300 m); in the lowland mesic (Kauai), lowland wet (Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island), montane wet (Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island), and montane mesic ecosystems (Kauai) (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010).

Historically, this subspecies was found in widely distributed occurrences on the islands of Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Maui, and Hawaii Island (HBMP 2010). On Kauai, this subspecies was wide-ranging across the mountains and into coastal areas (HBMP 2010). On Oahu,

this subspecies was known from the summit area of the Waianae Mountains, and ranged along the entire length of the Koolau Mountain range. On Molokai, this subspecies was known from the eastern half of the island ranging from Pelekunu Preserve and east to Halawa Valley. On west Maui, it occurred in the summit area, and on east Maui, it ranged on the northeastern side from the Koolau FR south to Kipahulu Valley. On Hawaii Island, it occurred almost island-wide. Currently,
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
is still found on the same islands, in 56 occurrences totaling approximately 200 individuals (HBMP 2010; Conry 2012, in litt.). On Kauai, this subspecies is no longer known from the east and south side of the island (since the 1930s), but there are approximately 10 known occurrences on the north side of the island. On Oahu, this subspecies no longer occurs in the southern Koolau Mountains (range reduction since the 1930s), about 12 of the 20 known occurrences remain, with the range and numbers of occurrences remaining about the same (6) in the Waianae Mountains. On east Maui, the known occurrences have decreased from 12 to 4 (since the 1980s); on west Maui, 1 formerly large occurrence has decreased to approximately 40 individuals (since 1980), with 1 other occurrence approximately 2 mi to the east. On Molokai, the number of occurrences has increased to 20, but these are restricted to a much smaller central area of the island (range reduction since the 1930s). On Hawaii Island, the known occurrences have decreased from 17 locations to 2 since the 1950s (HBMP 2010; Oahu Task Force Meeting (OTFM) 2014, in litt.).

Nonnative ungulates modify and destroy habitat on all of the islands where
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
occurs (Oppenheimer 2006, pers. comm.; Moses 2006, in litt.; Welton and Haus 2008, p. 16; HBMP 2010; Perlman 2010, in litt.). Herbivory by feral pigs, goats, deer, and rats is a likely threat to this species. Many nonnative plant species modify and destroy habitat, and outcompete this subspecies (HBMP 2010). Randomly occurring natural events, such as landslides, are a likely threat to the occurrences of
J. ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
on Kauai and Molokai (HBMP 2010). Fire is a potential threat to this species in the drier areas of the Waianae Mountains of Oahu (HBMP 2010). This subspecies is usually found as widely separated individuals. Seedlings have rarely been observed in the wild, and, although mature seeds germinate in cultivation, the seedlings rarely survive to maturity, with a loss of individuals through attrition. It is uncertain if this rarity of reproduction is typical, or if it is related to habitat disturbance (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 1451). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendensascendens
may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 76).

The remaining occurrences of
Joinvillea ascendens
ssp.
ascendens
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk. The known individuals continue to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by ungulates, compounded with possible herbivory by ungulates and rats. The small number of remaining individuals, smaller distribution, and poor recruitment in the wild may limit this subspecies' ability to adapt to environmental changes. Because of these threats, we find that this subspecies should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Kadua fluviatilis
(previously
Hedyotis fluviatilis
) (kamapuaa, pilo) is a climbing shrub in the coffee family (Rubiaceae) family. Plants are foetid when bruised. Stems are cylindrical and slightly flattened, 1 to 8 ft (0.3 to 3 m) long, with short lateral branches. Leaves are widely spaced, papery, elliptic-oblanceolate to elliptic-lanceolate, 3 to 7 in (8 to 17 cm) long, and 1 to 2 in (3 to 5 cm) wide. White flowers are fleshy and waxy, with several small, sac-like glands between corolla lobes. Capsules are woody, strongly quadrangular or winged, 0.5 in (1 cm) long, and 0.5 in (1 cm) in diameter. Seeds are translucent reddish brown, wedge-shaped, and minutely reticulate (netted) (Wagner
et al.
1999, pp. 1142-1144). First described as
Kadua fluviatilis
by Forbes (1912, p. 6), this species was moved to the genus
Hedyotis
by Fosberg (1943, p. 90), and was recognized as a distinct taxon in Wagner
et al.
(1999, pp. 1142-1144). Terrell
et al.
(2005, pp. 832-833) placed
Hedyotis fluviatilis
in synonymy with
Kadua fluviatilis,
the earlier, validly published name, and this is the currently accepted scientific name. Typical habitat for this species on Kauai is mixed native shrubland and
Metrosideros
forest at 750 to 2,200 ft (230 to 680 m), in the lowland mesic ecosystem (TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010), and in open shrubland with sparse tree cover in the lowland mesic ecosystem (Wood 1998, in litt.; TNCH 2007). On Oahu,
K. fluviatilis
occurs along rocky streambanks in wet
Metrosideros
forest from 820 to 1,990 ft (250 to 607 m) in the lowland wet ecosystem (HBMP 2010; TNCH 2007).

Historically,
Kadua fluviatilis
was known from the island of Kauai in at least 5 occurrences ranging from the north coast across the central plateau to the south coast, and from the island of Oahu in at least 11 occurrences in the northern Koolau Mountains, ranging from Koloa Gulch to Waipio (HBMP 2010). Currently, this species is known from only 11 occurrences totaling between 400 and 900 individuals on the islands of Kauai and Oahu (Wood 2005, p. 7; NTBG 2009, in litt.; HBMP 2010). On Kauai,
K. fluviatilis
is known from two locations: Hanakapiai on the north coast and Haupu Mountain on the south coast. On Oahu,
K. fluviatilis
is no longer found in the most northern and southern historical locations in the Koolau Mountains, and currently ranges in the north from Kaipapau to Helemano (HBMP 2010; U.S. Army database 2014).

Feral pigs and goats modify and destroy habitat of
Kadua fluviatilis
(HBMP 2010). Evidence of the activities of feral pigs has been reported at the Hanakapiai and Haupu occurrences on Kauai, and at all of the Oahu occurrences (Wood 1998, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Feral goats and evidence of their activities have been observed at Hanakapiai on Kauai (HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral pigs and goats is a likely threat to
K. fluviatilis.
Nonnative plants modify and destroy native habitat of
K. fluviatilis
and outcompete this and other native species for water, nutrients, light, and space, or a nonnative plant may produce chemicals that inhibit growth of other plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek
et al.
1987 in Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood 1998, in litt.; HBMP 2010).
Kadua fluviatilis
is negatively affected by landslides on Kauai (HBMP 2010). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support this species.
Kadua fluviatilis
may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 78).

The remaining occurrences of
Kadua fluviatilis
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk. Numbers of occurrences and individuals are decreasing on Oahu and Kauai, from 16 occurrences to 11, and from over 1,000 individuals to between 400 and 900

individuals (HBMP 2010; Oahu Task Force Meeting 2014, in litt.). This species continues to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by feral pigs and goats, stochastic events such as landslides, and direct competition from nonnative plants, combined with herbivory by nonnative ungulates. Climate change is likely to further exacerbate these threats. Because of these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Kadua haupuensis
(NCN) is a shrub in the coffee family (Rubiaceae). This species is subdioecious (male and female flowers on separate plants, with sporadic hermaphroditic flowers), 3 to 5 ft (1 to 1.5 m) tall, with erect, brittle stems and glabrous branchlets with minutely hairy nodes. Older branches are brown with longitudinally fissured bark. Leaves are oblong to lanceolate or lanceolate-ovate and glabrous or sparsely hairy, 1 to 5 in (3 to 12 cm) long and 0.4 to 1 in (1 to 3cm) wide, with conspicuous reticulate veins. Petioles are narrowly winged. Flowers are white or greenish-white with a purple tint. Fruit capsules produce numerous brown or blackish seeds (Lorence
et al.
2010, pp. 137-144).
Kadua haupuensis
is recognized as a distinct taxon by Lorence
et al.
(2010, pp. 137-144). There is no historical information for this species as it was recently discovered and described (Lorence
et al.
2010, pp. 137-144).
Kadua haupuensis
was discovered in 2007, just below and along cliffs in an isolated area on the north face of Mt. Haupu, on southern Kauai, from 980 to 1,640 ft (300 to 500 m), in the lowland mesic ecosystem (TNCH 2007; Lorence
et al.
2010, pp. 137-144). Currently, there are no known extant individuals of
K. haupuensis
in the wild; however, there are 11 individuals of this species propagated from collections from the wild plants.

Feral pigs modify and destroy the habitat of
Kadua haupuensis
on Kauai (Lorence
et al.
2010, p. 140). Predation of fruits and seeds by rats is a potential threat. Landslides are an additional threat to this species at its last known occurrence. Nonnative plants such as
Caesalpinia decapetala
(wait-a-bit) and
Passiflora laurifolia
(yellow granadilla), and various grasses that modify and destroy native habitat and outcompete native plants are found at the last known location of
K. haupuensis.
The small number of remaining individuals in propagation, and no known remaining wild individuals, may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental change. Because of these threats, we find that
K. haupuensis
should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Labordia lorenciana
(NCN) is a small tree in the Logania family (Loganiaceae). Individuals are 10 to 13 ft (3 to 4 m) tall. The bark is grayish brown and mottled white or dark brown. Leaves are opposite, chartaceous (papery), and hairy. Flowers, functionally unisexual, are green, forming unbranched cymes. Fruit mature to brown capsules 1 to 1.5 in (25 to 37 mm) with ellipsoid 0.08 to 0.12 in (2 to 3 mm) seeds (Wood
et al.
2007, pp. 195-197).
Labordia lorenciana
was discovered and validated by Wood
et al.
(2007, pp. 195-199). This species occurs on the island of Kauai at 3,800 ft (1,160 m), in forest in the montane mesic ecosystem (Wood
et al.
2007, pp. 197-198). Currently, there are four known individuals in Kawaiiki Valley. Additional surveys for
L. lorenciana
have not been successful; however, experts believe this species may occur in other areas (Wood
et al.
2007, p. 198).

Labordia lorenciana
is at risk from habitat modification and destruction and herbivory by nonnative mammals, displacement of individuals through competition with nonnative plants, stochastic events, and potential problems associated with small populations. Feral pigs and goats modify and destroy the habitat of
Labordia lorenciana
(Wood
et al.
2007, p. 198). Ungulates are managed in Hawaii as game animals, but public hunting does not adequately control the numbers of ungulates to eliminate habitat modification and destruction by these animals. Predation of seeds by rats is a likely threat to this species (Wood
et al.
2007, p. 198). Competition with nonnative plant species, including
Lantana camara, Passiflora tarminiana
(banana poka),
Psidium cattleianum
(strawberry guava), and
Rubus argutus,
is a threat to
L. lorenciana,
as these nonnative plants have the ability to spread rapidly and cover large areas in the forest understory, and can outcompete native plants (Smith 1985, pp. 180-250; Vitousek
et al.
1987
in
Cuddihy and Stone 1990, p. 74; Wood
et al.
2007, p. 198). Randomly occurring natural events, such as landslides, flash floods, fallen tree limbs, and fire, are a likely threat to
L. lorenciana
where it occurs on Kauai (Wood
et al.
2007, p. 198). This species may experience reduced reproductive vigor as there is no
in situ
seedling recruitment and a very small number of individuals remain (Wood
et al.
2007, p. 198). Because of these threats, we find that
L. lorenciana
should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Lepidium orbiculare
(anaunau) is a small, many-branched shrub in the mustard family (Brassicaceae). Individuals are 2 to 4 ft (0.6 to 1 m) tall (St. John 1981, pp. 371-373; Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 409). Glabrous leaves are thin and crowded at the stem apex, not very fleshy and usually elliptical, occasionally lanceolate or oblanceolate, 3 to 7 in (6 to 17 cm) long, with rounded serrate margins. White flowers are in indeterminate racemes with branches subtended by linear, leaf-like bracts (1 in (2 cm)) long, with fine, short hairs. Seeds are reddish brown, orbicular (the name
L. orbiculare
is in reference to the seed shape) with pale, membranous-winged margins (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 409; St. John 1981, pp. 371-373).
Lepidium orbiculare
was resurrected from synonymy with
L. serra
and is recognized as a distinct taxon by Wagner and Herbst (2003, p. 13). This species occurs in mesic forest on Mt. Haupu, on the island of Kauai, in the lowland mesic ecosystem (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 409; HBMP 2010; PEPP 2014, p. 34; TNCH 2007). Historically,
Lepidium orbiculare
species was known from widely scattered occurrences on Kauai (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 409). Currently, there is one occurrence of fewer than 50 individuals at Mt. Haupu (Wagner
et al.
2012, p. 19; PEPP 2014, p. 34; Smithsonian Institution 2015, in litt.).

Feral pigs have been documented to modify and destroy habitat of other rare and endangered native plant species at the same location on Mt. Haupu, Kauai (Lorence
et al.
2010, p. 140); therefore, we consider that activities of feral pigs also pose a threat to
Lepidium orbiculare.
Nonnative plants degrade native habitat and outcompete native plants, are found at the last known location of
L. orbiculare.
Landslides are an additional threat to this species.
Lepidium orbiculare
may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to reduced levels of genetic variability, leading to diminished capacity to adapt to environmental changes, and thereby lessening the probability of long-term persistence (Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361; PEPP 2014, p. 34).

The remaining occurrence of
Lepidium orbiculare
and habitat for its reintroduction are at risk; the species continues to be negatively affected by habitat modification and destruction by

feral pigs, and by direct competition from nonnative plants. Natural events such as landslides are a threat to the only known occurrence of the species (HBMP 2010). The small number of individuals may limit this species' ability to adapt to environmental change. Because of these threats, we find that this species should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis
(NCN) is a terrestrial, medium-sized fern in the bracken fern family (Dennstaedtiaceae), with fronds to 40 in (100 cm) long. This variety is extremely hairy, with the stipes, rachises (midribs), costae (frond rib), and entire fronds covered with uniform, jointed hairs with pointed tips. The rachises are often zigzag (Palmer 2003, p. 186). This fern was originally described as
Microlepia mauiensis
by Wagner (1993, pp. 73-75) from a collection made at Hanaula, west Maui. In the most recent treatment of all Hawaiian ferns, Palmer (2003, p. 186) recognizes this entity as an endemic variety of the indigenous
Microlepia strigosa.
Typical habitat for
Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis
is mesic to wet forest at 1,400 to 6,000 ft (425 to 1,830 m), in the lowland mesic (Oahu), montane mesic (Hawaii Island), and montane wet (Maui and Hawaii Island) ecosystems (Palmer 2003, p. 186; TNCH 2007; HBMP 2010). Little is known of the historical locations of
Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis;
however, it had a wide range on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Oahu (HBMP 2010). Currently,
Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis
is known most recently from nine occurrences totaling fewer than 100 individuals on the islands of Oahu (15 to 20 individuals), Maui (fewer than 20 individuals last observed in 2007), and Hawaii (35 individuals last observed in 2004) (Palmer 2003, p. 186; Lau 2007, pers. comm.; Oppenheimer 2007 and 2008, in litt.; Welton 2008, in litt.; Ching 2011, in litt.).

Microlepia strigosa
var.
mauiensis
is highly threatened by habitat modification and destruction by feral pigs and goats (Oppenheimer 2007, in litt.; Bily 2009, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Herbivory by feral pigs is a likely threat to
M. strigosa
var.
mauiensis
(Oppenheimer 2007, in litt.; Bily 2009, in litt.; HBMP 2010). Nonnative plants degrade habitat and outcompete
M. strigosa
var.
mauiensis
on Maui (Oppenheimer, in litt. 2007). Hybridization with other varieties of
Microlepia
is a threat to this species on Oahu that is compounded by the low number of individuals (Kawelo 2010, in litt.). Climate change may result in alteration of the environmental conditions and ecosystems that support
M. strigosa
var.
mauiensis.
This variety may be unable to tolerate or respond to changes in temperature and moisture, or may be unable to move to areas with more suitable climatic regimes (Fortini
et al.
2013, p. 82), and the effects of climate change are likely to exacerbate the threats listed above. Because of those threats, we find that this plant should be listed throughout all of its range, and, therefore, we find that it is unnecessary to analyze whether it is endangered or threatened in a significant portion of its range.

Myrsine fosbergii
(kolea) is a branched shrub or small tree in the myrsine family (Myrsinaceae). This species is 7 to 13 ft (2 to 4 m) tall, with dark reddish brown, glabrous branches and glabrous, narrowly elliptic leaves clustered at the tips of the branches (dark green with dark purple bases). Flowers are perfect or possibly unisexual (dioecious), arising on short woody knobs among the leaves. Drupes are purplish black, globose, 0.2 to 0.4 in (6 to 9 mm) in diameter (Wagner
et al.
1999, p. 9

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2015-24305. Public record. Not legal advice.