# Net Investment Income Tax > Briefs, arguments, decisions, and more. URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2013-28410 ## Record - **Collection:** Federal Register - **Document type:** Rule - **Published:** December 2, 2013 - **Citation:** 78 FR 72394 ## Text DEPARTMENT OF THE TREASURY Internal Revenue Service 26 CFR Parts 1 and 602 [TD 9644] RIN 1545-BK44 Net Investment Income Tax AGENCY: Internal Revenue Service (IRS), Treasury. ACTION: Final Regulations. SUMMARY: This document contains final regulations under section 1411 of the Internal Revenue Code (Code). These regulations provide guidance on the general application of the Net Investment Income Tax and the computation of Net Investment Income. The regulations affect individuals, estates, and trusts whose incomes meet certain income thresholds. DATES: Effective Date: These regulations are effective on December 2, 2013. Applicability Dates: For dates of applicability, see §§ 1.469-11(b)(3)(iv)(D); 1.1411-1(g); 1.1411-2(e); 1.1411-3(f); 1.1411-4(i); 1.1411-5(d); 1.1411-6(c); 1.1411-8(c); 1.1411-9(d); and 1.1411-10(i). FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: David H. Kirk or Adrienne M. Mikolashek at (202) 622-3060 or (202) 317-6852 (not toll-free numbers). SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Paperwork Reduction Act The collection of information contained in these regulations has been reviewed and approved by the Office of Management and Budget in accordance with the Paperwork Reduction Act of 1995 (44 U.S.C. 3507) under control number 1545-2227. The collection of information in these final regulations is in § 1.1411-10(g). The collection of information in § 1.1411-10(g) is necessary for the IRS to determine whether a taxpayer has made an election pursuant to § 1.1411-10(g) and to determine whether the amount of tax has been reported and calculated correctly. An agency may not conduct or sponsor, and a person is not required to respond to, a collection of information unless it displays a valid control number assigned by the Office of Management and Budget. Books or records relating to a collection of information must be retained as long as their contents may become material in the administration of any internal revenue law. Generally, tax returns and return information are confidential, as required by section 6103. Background I. In General This document contains final amendments to 26 CFR part 1 under sections 469 and 1411 of the Internal Revenue Code (Code). Section 1402(a)(1) of the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010 (Public Law 111-152, 124 Stat. 1029) (HCERA) added section 1411 to a new chapter 2A of subtitle A (Income Taxes) of the Code effective for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2012. On December 5, 2012, the Treasury Department and the IRS published a notice of proposed rulemaking in the Federal Register (REG-130507-11; 77 FR 72612) relating to the Net Investment Income Tax. On January 31, 2013, corrections to the proposed regulations were published in the Federal Register (78 FR 6781). The Treasury Department and the IRS received numerous comments in response to the proposed regulations. All comments are available at www.regulations.gov or upon request. The Treasury Department and the IRS held a public hearing on the proposed regulations on April 2, 2013. In addition to these final regulations, the Treasury Department and the IRS are contemporaneously publishing a notice of proposed rulemaking in the Federal Register (REG-130843-13) relating to the Net Investment Income Tax. Public comments on the 2012 proposed regulations identified two issues that the IRS and the Treasury Department will study further and on which the IRS and the Treasury Department request additional comments. Those issues, the treatment of accumulation distributions from foreign trusts and material participation of estates and trusts, are discussed in parts 4.D and 4.F of this preamble, respectively. Comments on those issues should be submitted in writing by March 3, 2014, and can be mailed to the Office of Associate Chief Counsel (Passthroughs and Special Industries), Re: REG-130507-11—Estates/Trusts, CC:PSI:B02, Room 5011, 1111 Constitution Avenue NW., Washington, DC 20224. All comments received will be available for public inspection at www.regulations.gov (IRS REG-130507-11). II. Statutory Provisions Section 1402(a)(1) of the HCERA added section 1411 to a new chapter 2A of subtitle A (Income Taxes) of the Code effective for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2012. Section 1411 imposes a 3.8 percent tax on certain individuals, estates, and trusts. See section 1411(a)(1) and (a)(2). The tax does not apply to a nonresident alien or to a trust all of the unexpired interests in which are devoted to one or more of the purposes described in section 170(c)(2)(B). See section 1411(e). In the case of an individual, section 1411(a)(1) imposes a tax (in addition to any other tax imposed by subtitle A) for each taxable year equal to 3.8 percent of the lesser of: (A) the individual's net investment income for such taxable year, or (B) the excess (if any) of: (i) the individual's modified adjusted gross income for such taxable year, over (ii) the threshold amount. Section 1411(b) provides that the threshold amount is: (1) in the case of a taxpayer making a joint return under section 6013 or a surviving spouse (as defined in section 2(a)), $250,000; (2) in the case of a married taxpayer (as defined in section 7703) filing a separate return, $125,000; and (3) in the case of any other individual, $200,000. Section 1411(d) defines modified adjusted gross income as adjusted gross income increased by the excess of: (1) the amount excluded from gross income under section 911(a)(1), over (2) the amount of any deductions (taken into account in computing adjusted gross income) or exclusions disallowed under section 911(d)(6) with respect to the amount excluded from gross income under section 911(a)(1). Section 1.1411-2 of the final regulations provides guidance on the computation of the net investment income tax for individuals. In the case of an estate or trust, section 1411(a)(2) imposes a tax (in addition to any other tax imposed by subtitle A) for each taxable year equal to 3.8 percent of the lesser of: (A) the estate's or trust's undistributed net investment income, or (B) the excess (if any) of: (i) the estate's or trust's adjusted gross income (as defined in section 67(e)) for such taxable year, over (ii) the dollar amount at which the highest tax bracket in section 1(e) begins for such taxable year. Section 1.1411-3 of the final regulations provides guidance on the computation of the net investment income tax for estates and trusts. Section 1411(c)(1) provides that net investment income means the excess (if any) of: (A) the sum of (i) gross income from interest, dividends, annuities, royalties, and rents, other than such income derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business to which the tax does not apply, (ii) other gross income derived from a trade or business to which the tax applies, and (iii) net gain (to the extent taken into account in computing taxable income) attributable to the disposition of property other than property held in a trade or business to which the tax does not apply; over (B) the deductions allowed by subtitle A that are properly allocable to such gross income or net gain. Sections 1.1411-4 and 1.1411-10 of the final regulations provide guidance on the calculation of net investment income under section 1411(c)(1). Section 1411(c)(1)(A) defines net investment income, in part, by reference to trades or businesses described in section 1411(c)(2). A trade or business is described in section 1411(c)(2) if such trade or business is: (A) a passive activity (within the meaning of section 469) with respect to the taxpayer, or (B) a trade or business of trading in financial instruments or commodities (as defined in section 475(e)(2)). Section 1.1411-5 of the final regulations provides guidance on the trades or businesses described in section 1411(c)(2). Section 1411(c)(3) provides that income on the investment of working capital is not treated as derived from a trade or business for purposes of section 1411(c)(1) and is subject to tax under section 1411. Section 1.1411-6 of the final regulations provides guidance on working capital under section 1411(c)(3). In the case of the disposition of an interest in a partnership or an S corporation, section 1411(c)(4) provides that gain or loss from such disposition is taken into account for purposes of section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii) only to the extent of the net gain or net loss that would be so taken into account by the transferor if all property of the partnership or S corporation were sold at fair market value immediately before the disposition of such interest. Section 1.1411-7 of the final regulations is reserved for guidance under section 1411(c)(4). However, regulations are being proposed contemporaneously with these final regulations that address the application of section 1411(c)(4) to dispositions of interests in partnerships or S corporations. Section 1411(c)(5) provides that net investment income does not include distributions from a plan or arrangement described in section 401(a), 403(a), 403(b), 408, 408A, or 457(b). Section 1.1411-8 of the final regulations provides guidance on distributions from qualified plans under section 1411(c)(5). Section 1411(c)(6) provides that net investment income also does not include any item taken into account in determining self-employment income for a taxable year on which a tax is imposed by section 1401(b). Section 1.1411-9 of the final regulations provides guidance regarding self-employment income under section 1411(c)(6). Summary of Comments and Explanation of Provisions The Treasury Department and the IRS received numerous written and electronic comments regarding the proposed regulations. The comments included requests for clarification and recommendations relating to: (1) the calculation of net investment income; (2) the treatment of several special types of trusts; (3) the interaction between various aspects of section 469 and the regulations thereunder with the calculation of net investment income; (4) the method of gain calculation regarding a sale of an interest in a partnership or S corporation; and (5) multiple areas where the proposed regulations could be simplified. After consideration of all of the comments, the proposed regulations are adopted as amended by this Treasury decision. In general, the final regulations follow the approach of the proposed regulations with some modifications in response to comments and questions that have arisen with respect to the application of the proposed regulations. This preamble describes comments received by the Treasury Department and the IRS on the most significant issues. 1. Comments of General Applicability A. Confirmation in the Regulation Text of Certain Statements Made in the Preamble The Treasury Department and the IRS received a number of comments noting that some of the rules set forth in the preamble were not contained in the regulation text itself. In response to these comments, the final regulations provide additional guidance within the regulation text. For example, § 1.1411-1(d) of the final regulations contains additional guidance related to various definitions applicable to multiple sections of the regulations, which had appeared only in the preamble to the proposed regulations. In addition, the final regulations contain supplemental clarifications and examples. In addition, one commentator stated that the preamble to the proposed regulations acknowledges that certain types of income may not be subject to tax under section 1411, even if such income is not explicitly excepted from the tax under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) or (c)(1)(A)(iii), or is earned in a trade or business that is not a passive activity or in a trade or business of trading in financial instruments or commodities. Multiple commentators suggested that the final regulations confirm that there are types of income that are not included in net investment income. One commentator suggested the best way to illustrate principles of income that is not net investment income is inclusion of one or more examples of income not subject to tax under section 1411. Another commentator requested that the final regulations include a non-exhaustive list of items of income that are not net investment income. The final regulations do not provide a list of income or deduction items that are excluded from the calculation of net investment income. However, the final regulations provide, in certain instances, additional guidance on items of income that are or are not included in net investment income. For example, pursuant to one comment asking whether distributions from foreign pension plans are included in net investment income, the definition of “annuity” in § 1.1411-1(d) of the final regulations clarifies that the term annuities, as used in section 1411(c) and § 1.1411-4, does not include amounts paid in consideration for services rendered even if such amounts are subject to the rules of section 72. This is consistent with United States income tax treaties that prescribe one set of rules for “annuities” that are not paid in exchange for services, but another set of rules for pension distributions paid in the form of an annuity. See, for example, paragraphs 1 and 3 of Article 17 (Pensions, Social Security, Annuities, Alimony, and Child Support) of the 2006 United States Model Income Tax Convention. In addition, the final regulations provide examples of items excluded from net investment income in § 1.1411-1(d)(4). Furthermore, these final regulations, as with the notice of proposed rulemaking, re-confirm the application of chapter 1 provisions in the absence of special rules for purposes of the net investment income tax. The Treasury Department and the IRS may issue other guidance in the future, as necessary, to address the treatment of particular income items whose treatment is not apparent from the general rules of section 1411 and these final regulations or from chapter 1. B. Section 1411 and Estimated Taxes Two commentators stated that, because many investors do not know until the end of the year if a passthrough investment will generate net investment income for that year, the Treasury Department and the IRS should not penalize taxpayers for failure to include net investment income in their calculation of estimated tax payments. One commentator suggested that the estimated tax calculation fully exempt the tax imposed by section 1411. Another commentator urged the Treasury Department and the IRS to grant penalty relief for failure to pay the appropriate estimated tax payments due to the impact of section 1411. Section 1402(a)(2) of the HCERA amended section 6654 of the Code to provide that the tax imposed under chapter 2A (which includes section 1411) is subject to the estimated tax provisions. To assist taxpayers with their compliance obligations for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2012, the notice of proposed rulemaking extended reliance upon the proposed regulations for this first taxable year in which section 1411 was in effect. Although the Treasury Department and IRS recognize that the actual tax liability of a taxpayer may not be known at the time that an estimated tax payment is due, a similar issue is present for chapter 1 purposes. Moreover, taxpayers subject to estimated tax payments may not be subject to a penalty under certain circumstances. See section 6654(b). After consideration of these comments, the Treasury Department and IRS decline to extend penalty relief. C. Availability of Tax Credits To Reduce Section 1411 Tax The Treasury Department and the IRS received comments asking whether foreign income, war profits, and excess profits taxes (“foreign income taxes”) are allowed under sections 27(a) and 901 as a credit against the section 1411 tax. Under the express language of sections 27(a) and 901(a), foreign income taxes are not creditable against United States taxes other than those imposed by chapter 1 of the Code. Section 1.1411-1(e) of the final regulations clarifies that amounts that are allowed as credits only against the tax imposed by chapter 1 of the Code, including credits for foreign income taxes, may not be credited against the section 1411 tax, which is imposed by chapter 2A of the Code. This limitation is similar to the limitation applicable to a number of other credits that are allowed only against the tax imposed by chapter 1 of the Code. See, for example, section 38. The Treasury Department and the IRS also received comments asking whether United States income tax treaties may provide an independent basis to credit foreign income taxes against the section 1411 tax. The Treasury Department and the IRS do not believe that these regulations are an appropriate vehicle for guidance with respect to specific treaties. An analysis of each United States income tax treaty would be required to determine whether the United States would have an obligation under that treaty to provide a credit against the section 1411 tax for foreign income taxes paid to the other country. If, however, a United States income tax treaty contains language similar to that in paragraph 2 of Article 23 (Relief from Double Taxation) of the 2006 United States Model Income Tax Convention, which refers to the limitations of United States law (which include sections 27(a) and 901), then such treaty would not provide an independent basis for a credit against the section 1411 tax. 2. Comments Regarding Regrouping Under Section 469 Section 1.469-4(e)(1) provides that, except as provided in §§ 1.469-4(e)(2) and 1.469-11, after a taxpayer has grouped activities, the taxpayer may not regroup those activities in subsequent taxable years. The preamble to the proposed regulations acknowledged that the enactment of section 1411 may cause taxpayers to reconsider their previous grouping determinations. The proposed regulations provided taxpayers an opportunity to regroup their activities in the first taxable year beginning after December 31, 2012, in which: (1) the taxpayer met the applicable income threshold under section 1411, and (2) had net investment income. The determination in the preceding sentence was to be made without regard to the effect of the regrouping. Pursuant to proposed § 1.469-11(b)(3)(iv)(A), a taxpayer may regroup his or her activities once, and any such regrouping applies to the taxable year for which the regrouping is made and all subsequent years. Furthermore, the disclosure requirements of § 1.469-4(e) and Revenue Procedure 2010-13 (2010-1 CB 329) require taxpayers who regroup their activities pursuant to proposed § 1.469-11(b)(3)(iv) to report their regroupings to the IRS. The Treasury Department and the IRS received several comments regarding proposed amendments to § 1.469-11(b)(3)(iv). One commentator suggested that all individuals, trusts, and estates—regardless of whether they have net investment income or modified adjusted gross income above the threshold—be permitted a “fresh start” with respect to their section 469 groupings. The commentator stated that restricting the fresh start only to taxpayers subject to section 1411 places lower income taxpayers at a disadvantage. In addition, multiple commentators recommended that S corporations and partnerships be permitted to change their groupings in light of the application of section 1411 for any tax year that begins during 2013 or 2014. These commentators acknowledged that section 1411 does not apply to partnerships and S corporations directly, but stated that the Treasury Department and the IRS have regulatory authority to allow these entities to change the groupings reported to their owners and that the disclosure required under Revenue Procedure 2010-13 may operate to improve tax administration in this complex area. Multiple commentators suggested that, in the case of a failure to make regrouping elections in 2013 or 2014, the final regulations should allow taxpayers to make their regrouping election on an amended return. These commentators noted that denying regrouping on an amended return where there is an adjustment to income after a return has been filed may be unfair. The final regulations retain the requirement that regrouping under § 1.469-11(b)(3)(iv) may occur only during the first taxable year beginning after December 31, 2012, in which (1) the taxpayer meets the applicable income threshold under section 1411, and (2) has net investment income. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that the interaction between section 1411 and section 469 justifies the section 1411 regrouping rule, and that, if a taxpayer does not have a section 1411 tax liability, the reason for allowing the regrouping does not apply. The Treasury Department and the IRS acknowledge that, in the case of regrouping elections by partnerships and S corporations, one commentator's implied assertion is correct that imposition of section 1411 on a passthrough entity's owner(s) is the same change in law that precipitated the proposed regulation's allowance of regrouping in the first instance. However, if the Treasury Department and the IRS were to expand the scope of the regulations to allow regrouping by partnerships and S corporations, then taxpayers with no tax liability under section 1411 indirectly would be allowed to regroup. Accordingly, the final regulations do not adopt this suggestion. However, after considering the comments, the Treasury Department and the IRS agree with the commentators' concerns regarding the potential unfairness to taxpayers who become subject to section 1411 after adjustments to, for example, income or deduction items after an original return has been filed. Therefore, the final regulations allow a taxpayer to regroup under § 1.469-11(b)(3)(iv) on an amended return, but only if the taxpayer was not subject to section 1411 on his or her original return (or previously amended return), and if, because of a change to the original return, the taxpayer owed tax under section 1411 for that taxable year. This rule applies equally to changes to modified adjusted gross income or net investment income upon an IRS examination. However, if a taxpayer regroups on an original return (or previously amended return) under these rules, and then subsequently determines that the taxpayer is not subject to section 1411 in that year, such regrouping is void in that year and all subsequent years until a valid regrouping is done. The voiding of the regrouping may cause additional changes to the taxpayer's current year return and may warrant corrections to future year returns to restore the taxpayer's original groupings. The final regulations contain two exceptions to such voided elections. First, the final regulations allow a taxpayer to adopt the voided grouping in a subsequent year without filing an amended return if the taxpayer is subject to section 1411 in such year. Second, if the taxpayer is subject to section 1411 in a subsequent year, the taxpayer may file an amended return to regroup in a manner that differs from the previous year's voided regrouping. The final regulations provide four new examples on the amended return regrouping rules. Furthermore, § 1.1411-2(a)(2)(iii) of the final section 1411 regulations also contains a similar rule applicable to section 6013(g) elections. 3. Comments Regarding the Application of Section 1411 to Individuals Section 1411(a)(1) imposes a tax on individuals, but section 1411(e)(1) provides that section 1411 does not apply to a nonresident alien. The proposed regulations provided that the term individual for purposes of section 1411 is any natural person, except for natural persons who are nonresident aliens. The final regulations retain this position. A. Dual Resident Individuals During the consideration of comments concerning the application of section 1411 to foreign individuals, the Treasury Department and the IRS considered how section 1411 applies to a dual-resident individual, within the meaning of § 301.7701(b)-7(a)(1), who determines that he or she is a resident of a foreign country for tax purposes pursuant to an income tax treaty between the United States and that foreign country and claims benefits of the treaty as a nonresident of the United States. Consistent with § 301.7701(b)-7(a)(1), which provides that such an individual will be treated as a nonresident alien of the United States for purposes of computing that individual's United States income tax liability, the final regulations provide that the individual is treated as a nonresident for purposes of section 1411. B. Dual-Status Individuals The Treasury Department and the IRS also considered how section 1411 should apply to a dual-status individual who is a resident of the United States for part of the year and a nonresident for the other part of the year. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that a dual-status resident should be subject to section 1411 only with respect to the portion of the year during which the individual is a United States resident, and the final regulations clarify this. However, consistent with the rule for taxable years of less than 12 months in § 1.1411-2(d)(2), the threshold amount under § 1.1411-2(d)(1) is not reduced or prorated for a dual-status resident. The Treasury Department and the IRS may reconsider this rule if taxpayers are applying it inappropriately. C. Section 6013(h) Elections During the consideration of comments concerning the application of section 1411 to foreign individuals, the Treasury Department and the IRS considered whether the final regulations should provide an election with respect to section 6013(h) that is similar to the election that § 1.1411-2(a)(2)(i)(B) of the proposed regulations provided for section 6013(g). Section 6013(h) allows a dual-status individual who is a nonresident alien at the beginning of any taxable year but at the close of such taxable year is a United States resident, and who is married to a United States citizen or resident, to make a joint election with his or her spouse to be treated as a United States resident for purposes of chapters 1 and 24 for such taxable year. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that such an election is appropriate. Accordingly, § 1.1411-2(a)(2)(iv)(B) of the final regulations provides that a dual-status individual who makes a section 6013(h) election with his or her spouse for purposes of chapters 1 and 24 also may make a section 6013(h) election for purposes of chapter 2A. For purposes of calculating the tax imposed under section 1411(a)(1), the effect of such an election is to include the combined income of the United States citizen or resident spouse and the dual-status spouse in the section 1411(a)(1) calculation and subject the income of both spouses to the $250,000 threshold amount in section 1411(b)(1) for taxpayers filing a joint return. Section 1.1411-2(a)(2)(iv)(B)( 2 ) of the final regulations provides procedural requirements for making this election. If the spouses do not make a section 6013(h) election for purposes of chapter 2A (whether or not they make the election for purposes of chapters 1 and 24), the final regulations require each spouse to determine his or her own net investment income and modified adjusted gross income (MAGI), and subjects each spouse to the $125,000 threshold amount for spouses filing separately. Consistent with the rule for taxable years of less than 12 months in § 1.1411-2(d)(2), the threshold amount under § 1.1411-2(d)(1) is not reduced or prorated in the case of the dual-status resident spouse for the portion of the year that he or she is treated as a United States resident. The Treasury Department and the IRS may reconsider this rule if taxpayers are applying it inappropriately. 4. Comments Regarding the Application of Section 1411 to Estates and Trusts In general, section 1411(a)(2) imposes on estates and trusts a tax of 3.8 percent on the lesser of their undistributed net investment income or the excess of their adjusted gross income (as defined in section 67(e)) over the dollar amount at which the highest tax bracket in section 1(e) begins for such taxable year. A. Exclusion of Certain Estates and Trusts From the Application of Section 1411 The preamble to the proposed regulations stated that section 1411 applies to ordinary trusts described in § 301.7701-4(a) that are subject to the provisions of part 1 of subchapter J of chapter 1 of subtitle A of the Code, even if the trusts have special computational rules within part 1 of subchapter J. The proposed regulation preamble identified four such trusts to which section 1411 will apply: (1) pooled income funds described in section 642(c)(5), (2) cemetery perpetual care funds described in section 642(i), (3) qualified funeral trusts described in section 685, and (4) Alaska Native settlement trusts described in section 646. The Treasury Department and the IRS requested public comments as to whether there may be administrative reasons to exclude one or more of these types of trusts from section 1411. In response, numerous commentators advocated for exclusion or inclusion of the trusts identified above. i. Pooled Income Funds (PIFs) Commentators recommended that the final regulations provide that section 1411 not apply to PIFs because doing so would be tantamount to taxing a charity that ultimately receives the property after the expiration of the income interest. Specifically, only the PIF's undistributed short-term gains are subject to tax under chapter 1, and those gains are held for ultimate distribution to charity. The commentators stated that the provisions of the Code dealing with charitable organizations, and contributions to them, should be broadly construed in favor of charitable organizations and their donors and, thus, section 1411 should not apply to PIFs. Furthermore, one commentator stated that treating PIFs in a manner significantly different from charitable remainder trusts is inequitable. The commentator analogized PIFs, operationally, to charitable remainder trusts. However, the commentator acknowledged that, unlike charitable remainder trusts, PIFs, by being taxable on undistributed short-term capital gains, do not escape all instances of federal income taxation. The commentators recommended that the final regulations either: (1) provide that a PIF's short-term capital gains be excluded from net investment income, or (2) exclude PIFs from the application of section 1411 altogether. The final regulations do not adopt these suggestions. The Treasury Department and the IRS recognize that imposing tax on the PIF will reduce the amount of property the charitable remainderman will receive after the expiration of the income interest. However, section 1411 limits its exclusion to wholly charitable trusts; this group of trusts does not include either charitable remainder trusts or PIFs. While charitable remainder trusts are excluded from section 1411 by the express language of section 664, there is no comparable provision excluding PIFs. Another commentator recommended that the final regulations provide that the section 642(c) charitable set-aside deduction that is available for a PIF's long-term capital gains for income tax purposes also reduce a PIF's net investment income. For purposes of taxation under chapter 1 of the Code, the taxable income of the PIF is limited, generally, to the undistributed short-term capital gains because the PIF will receive an income distribution deduction for the income paid to the income beneficiaries and any long-term capital gains will be offset by the section 642(c)(3) charitable set aside deduction. As is generally true throughout these regulations, the final regulations mirror this treatment under chapter 1 for purposes of section 1411. ii. Cemetery Perpetual Care Funds One commentator stated that there is no administrative reason why Cemetery Perpetual Care Funds (Cemetery Trusts) should not be treated the same as other trusts for purposes of section 1411, and accordingly recommended taxing such trusts under section 1411. Two other commentators advocated for the exclusion of Cemetery Trusts from section 1411 because inclusion of such trusts would be inconsistent with the policy behind section 1411. They stated that Cemetery Trusts are established for consumer protection, and also to ensure that cemetery properties are maintained in perpetuity and do not become an obligation of the government. They noted that, as is the case with a qualified funeral trust, a cemetery perpetual care trust is essentially a collection of many small, individual trusts held for the benefit of unrelated gravesite owners whose only common interest is that they are owed the same promise of future services from the funeral provider or cemetery company. Thus, under section 642(i), the only “beneficiary” is a taxable cemetery company. Therefore, the commentators stated that the imposition of section 1411 tax on the aggregate income of a perpetual care fund would effectively be a tax on an operating business, which directly conflicts with the terms of section 1411. The Treasury Department and the IRS agree that cemetery trusts should be excluded from section 1411. By benefitting an operating company, these trusts are similar to the business trusts that are excluded from the operation of section 1411. Accordingly, § 1.1411-3(b)(1) of the final regulations exclude Cemetery Perpetual Care Funds described in section 642(i) from the application of section 1411. iii. Electing Alaska Native Settlement Trusts (ANSTs) Several commentators argued that ANSTs should be excepted from the net investment income tax as a matter of statutory construction and as a matter of tax policy. Some commentators explained that the usual rules regarding the income taxation of trusts and their beneficiaries do not apply to ANSTs and their beneficiaries, and accordingly, ANSTs should not be viewed as trusts for purposes of section 1411. Specifically, section 646 provides special rules for the taxation of ANSTs at the lowest individual tax rate. Furthermore, section 646 treats all distributions, to the extent of the trust's current and accumulated taxable income, as amounts excludable from the gross income of the recipient beneficiaries. Additionally, section 646 prohibits the trust from claiming a distribution deduction, which is a deduction allowed in computing a trust's income under chapter 1 and also a deduction allowable for purposes of section 1411. Commentators further explained that the statutory framework for the taxation of ANSTs reflects important policy considerations relating to the beneficiaries of ANSTs, which were expressed in the Congressional findings and declaration of policy in the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (Public Law 92-203, 85 Stat. 688) (“ANCSA”). See 43 U.S.C. 1601. The commentators said that those policies include the following: Alaska Natives have long been recognized as being among the poorest inhabitants of our nation, with poverty rates significantly higher than the national average; ANSTs are not vehicles wealthy individuals might use to avoid the reach of section 1411 by employing a trust to reinvest investment income rather than making distributions; rather, ANSTs are entities created to provide for “the real economic and social needs of Natives” by making distributions and/or reinvesting trust income to grow the trust to better provide for the future needs of its beneficiaries. The Treasury Department and the IRS agree with the commentators that ANSTs should not be subject to section 1411, and that this exclusion is consistent with the chapter 1 taxation of these entities at the lowest individual tax rate. Therefore, the final regulations modify § 1.1411-3(b)(1) to exclude from section 1411 all ANSTs that have made an election under section 646. iv. Qualified Funeral Trusts (QFTs) Taxable Under Section 685 One commentator stated that it was illogical for section 1411 to apply to QFTs because Congress intended to impose section 1411 on “private trusts,” which high-income individuals often establish as vehicles for the management and intergenerational transfer of wealth. Another commentator stated that there is no administrative reason why QFTs should not be treated the same as other trusts for purposes of section 1411. Three commentators noted that a QFT's regular tax liability is calculated on a per-contract basis and then consolidated into a single return. Specifically, section 685(c) provides that the tax imposed on the QFT is calculated by treating each beneficiary's interest in his or her contract as a separate trust. The commentators stated that, because the individual contracts are generally under $10,000, the annual investment income on them likewise is generally well under $10,000. Thus, as a practical matter, the commentators believed that QFTs would not incur this tax (due to the investment income on each contract being below the section 1411(a)(2)(B)(ii) threshold amount). The final regulations do not exclude QFTs from the application of the net investment income tax. However, the final regulations do confirm that the calculation of the section 1411 tax will be consistent with the taxation of QFTs in chapter 1. As a result, § 1.1411-3(b)(2)(i) of the final regulations provides that the section 1411 is applied to the QFT by treating each beneficiary's interest in that beneficiary's contract as a separate trust. v. Charitable Purpose Estates Section 1411(e)(2) and proposed § 1.1411-3(b)(1) exclude from the application of section 1411 a trust all of the unexpired interests in which are devoted to one or more of the purposes described in section 170(c)(2)(B) (referred to as “Charitable Purpose Trusts”). The final regulations retain this rule in § 1.1411-3(b)(1). One commentator pointed out that proposed § 1.1411-3(d) does not have an exclusion comparable to proposed § 1.1411-3(b)(1) to exempt an estate all of the unexpired interests in which are devoted to one or more of the purposes described in section 170(c)(2)(B) (referred to as “Charitable Purpose Estates”). The commentator noted that, although Charitable Purpose Trusts are statutorily exempt from the net investment income tax, Charitable Purpose Estates are subject to section 1411 but may achieve the same result through the use of the charitable deduction in section 642(c). Thus, through the operation of provisions outside of section 1411, it is expected that Charitable Purpose Estates typically will not have a section 1411 tax liability. The commentator also pointed out that a Charitable Purpose Estate's need to rely on the section 642(c) deduction to achieve this result (and thus, this inconsistency between Charitable Purpose Trusts and Charitable Purpose Estates) could have an inadvertent and adverse impact on both Charitable Purpose Estates and Charitable Purpose Trusts for chapter 1 purposes—specifically, on their decision to make an election under section 645 (a “645 Election”). Section 645 was enacted to eliminate the differences in income tax treatment between the disposition of a decedent's property by will (through an estate) and by a revocable trust (that becomes irrevocable on the decedent's death). See H.R. Rep. No. 148, 105th Cong., 1st Sess. 618 (1997). Assuming a wholly-charitable disposition by a decedent, the commentator stated that a trustee of the decedent's formerly revocable trust and the executor of the related estate would normally join in a 645 Election to minimize the cost and burden of administration and to achieve consistency in the income tax treatment of the estate and trust. However, unless an estate and trust have the same exemption from section 1411, the trustees of a Charitable Purpose Trust may be reluctant to join in an otherwise useful election. The Treasury Department and the IRS agree with the commentator's recommendation. Given that, whether under section 1411(e)(2) or section 642(c), no section 1411 tax is imposed on a wholly charitable trust or estate, respectively, the Treasury Department and the IRS believe it is consistent with the Congressional intent of both section 1411 and section 645 to treat both types of entities as exempt from section 1411. Accordingly, § 1.1411-3(b)(1) of the final regulations excludes from the application of section 1411 an estate in which all of the unexpired interests are devoted to one or more of the purposes described in section 170(c)(2)(B). B. Application of Section 1411 To Electing Small Business Trusts (ESBTs) The proposed regulations preserved the chapter 1 treatment of the ESBT as two separate trusts for computational purposes but consolidated the ESBT into a single trust for determining the adjusted gross income threshold in section 1411(a)(2)(B)(ii). This is consistent with the chapter 1 treatment of ESBTs, which are entitled to only a single personal exemption, rather than one per ESBT portion, notwithstanding the fact that the income for each portion is computed separately. Moreover, this rule in the proposed regulations put ESBTs on the same footing as other taxable trusts by applying a single section 1(e) threshold to ESBTs similar to other taxable trusts. Proposed § 1.1411-3(c)(1)(ii) described the method to determine the ESBT's section 1411 tax base. First, the ESBT separately calculates the undistributed net investment income of the S portion and non-S portion in accordance with the general rules for trusts under chapter 1, and then combines the undistributed net investment income of the S portion and the non-S portion. Second, the ESBT determines its adjusted gross income, solely for purposes of section 1411, by adding the net income or net loss from the S portion to the adjusted gross income of the non-S portion as a single item of income or loss. Finally, to determine whether the ESBT is subject to section 1411, the ESBT compares the combined undistributed net investment income with the excess of its adjusted gross income over the section 1(e) threshold. One commentator challenged the authority of the Treasury Department and the IRS to issue regulations that require the use of chapter 1's separate trust treatment of the S portion and non-S portion of an ESBT for purposes of section 1411. The commentator also stated that the lack of any mention of ESBTs in section 1411 or its legislative history means that there is no regulatory authority for the treatment of an ESBT as detailed in the proposed regulations. The preamble to the proposed regulations stated, in relevant part, that “[s]ection 1411 (which constitutes chapter 2A of the Code) contains terms commonly used in Federal income taxation and cross-references certain provisions of chapter 1 such as sections 67(e), 469, 401(a), and 475(e)(2).” However, the preamble also stated that “there is no indication in the legislative history of section 1411 that Congress intended, in every event, that a term used in section 1411 would have the same meaning ascribed to it for other Federal income tax purposes (such as chapter 1).” The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that the ESBT regulations under section 1411, which generally conform to the chapter 1 framework but with certain modifications needed for section 1411 compliance purposes, fall well within the general regulatory authority pursuant to section 7805. Two other commentators addressed the inability to offset net investment income losses (capital, ordinary, and/or passive) from one portion of the ESBT with net investment income from the other portion. The commentators recommended that, if one portion has income or a net capital gain and the other has a net capital loss, the ESBT should be able to offset one against the other in the same manner as a non-ESBT nongrantor trust. Both commentators focused on the annual calculation of net investment income, but neither addressed the potential problems from allowing income and losses to offset: (1) loss duplication in carryover years (because loss would offset gain across portions in year 1 and also be a carryover to year 2 within the originating portion), or (2) differences in loss carryforwards for purposes of chapters 1 and 2A. The Treasury Department and the IRS agree with the commentators' observations that the method of consolidation in the proposed regulations, in certain instances, may put ESBTs at a computational disadvantage, from a section 1411 perspective, to similarly situated nongrantor trusts in the case of netting of income and losses. However, this computational disadvantage exists with regard to the tax imposed under chapter 1, and the rules regarding ESBTs (and the final regulations generally) adopt chapter 1 principles. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe a full integration of the S portion and non-S portion into a single trust for purposes of section 1411 is administratively burdensome to both taxpayers and the IRS because it would cause the section 1411 calculations to deviate significantly from the calculations for purposes of chapter 1, resulting in the need for additional rules to address the computational differences and treatment of separate carryover regimes. For example, a full integration of the S and non-S portion would allow passive income and passive losses from each portion to offset each other, which would result in different loss carryforwards for regular tax and section 1411 purposes. A similar outcome would occur if capital gains and losses could offset between the portions in a manner inconsistent with chapter 1. Therefore, the final regulations retain the calculation of an ESBT's undistributed net investment income and modified adjusted gross income without change, but have relocated the operative ESBT rules to § 1.1411-3(c). One commentator recommended that the final regulations clarify that, when an ESBT disposes of S corporation stock, the rules under §§ 1.641(c)-1(d)(3) and 1.1361-1(m)(5)(ii) that permit the use of the installment method on the sale or disposition of stock in an S corporation by an ESBT, also should apply for purposes of section 1411. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that the general administrative principles enumerated in § 1.1411-1(a) accomplish this result for section 1411 purposes. Accordingly, a special rule within § 1.1411-3(c) is not necessary to achieve what the commentator requested. C. Application of Section 1411 to Charitable Remainder Trusts (CRTs) The proposed regulations provided special computational rules for the classification of the income of and the distributions from charitable remainder trusts, solely for section 1411 purposes. Proposed § 1.1411-3(c)(2)(i) provided that distributions from a CRT to a beneficiary for a taxable year consist of net investment income in an amount equal to the lesser of the total amount of the distributions for that year, or the current and accumulated net investment income of the CRT. Proposed § 1.1411-3(c)(2)(iii) defined the term accumulated net investment income (ANII) as the total amount of net investment income received by a CRT for all taxable years beginning after December 31, 2012, less the total amount of net investment income distributed for all prior taxable years beginning after December 31, 2012. The Treasury Department and the IRS acknowledged in the preamble to the proposed regulations that the classification of income as net investment income or non-net investment income would be separate from, and in addition to, the four tiers under section 664(b), which would continue to apply for chapter 1 purposes. The Treasury Department and the IRS also stated in the preamble that they considered an alternative method for determining the distributed amount of net investment income under which net investment income would be determined on a class-by-class basis within each of the § 1.664-1(d)(1) enumerated categories. The Treasury Department and the IRS acknowledged that, although differentiating between net investment income and non-net investment income within each class and category might be more consistent with the structure created for CRTs by section 664 and the corresponding regulations, the Treasury Department and the IRS were concerned that the apparent recordkeeping and compliance burden on trustees would outweigh the benefits of this alternative. Multiple commentators asked that the final regulations follow the existing rules under section 664 that create subclasses in each category of income as the tax rates on certain types of income are changed from time to time. They said that CRT trustees are already maintaining the appropriate records and are familiar with the existing rules, so compliance would be less complicated than under the new system described in the proposed regulations. Some of the commentators suggested that the final regulations allow the trustee to elect between the method described in the proposed regulations and the existing rules under section 664. Section 1.1411-3(d)(2) of the final regulations adopts the commentators' request to categorize and distribute net investment income based on the existing section 664 category and class system. The provisions of § 1.1411-3(d)(2), as discussed in this preamble, will apply to taxable years of CRTs that begin after December 31, 2012, provided however that, for CRTs that relied on the proposed regulations for returns filed before the publication of these final regulations in the Federal Register , the CRT and its beneficiary (as applicable) do not have to amend their returns to comply with rules set forth in these final regulations. For such a CRT, when transitioning from the method in the proposed regulations to the method in these final regulations, the CRT may use any reasonable method to allocate the remaining undistributed net investment income for that year to the categories and classes under section 664. The final regulations retain the concept of ANII. ANII is defined as the total amount of net investment income received by a charitable remainder trust for all taxable years beginning after December 31, 2012, less the total amount of net investment income distributed for all prior taxable years beginning after December 31, 2012. The final regulations apply the section 664 category and class system to ANII by providing that the Federal income tax rate applicable to an item of ANII, for purposes of allocating that item of ANII to the appropriate class within a category of income as described in § 1.664-1(d)(1), is the sum of the income tax rate imposed on that item under chapter 1 and the rate of the tax imposed under section 1411. Thus, if a charitable remainder trust has both excluded income (such as income received by the trust prior to January 1, 2013, or other income received after December 31, 2012, but excluded from net investment income) and ANII in an income category, such excluded income and ANII will constitute separate classes of income for purposes of § 1.664-1(d)(1)(i)(b). The Treasury Department and the IRS believe special rules are necessary to apply the section 664 category and class system contained in § 1.664-1(d) to certain distributions made to charitable remainder trusts that own interests in CFCs and PFICs not making the § 1.1411-10(g) election to account for the difference between the income inclusion for chapter 1 and for section 1411 purposes. Accordingly, the final regulations reserve paragraph § 1.1411-3(d)(2)(ii) for special rules in this case. The companion notice of proposed rulemaking (REG-130843-13) contains special rules relating to CFCs and PFICs and are proposed to be effective for tax years beginning after December 31, 2013. The final regulations reserve paragraph § 1.1411-3(d)(3) for rules allowing the CRT to elect between the simplified method contained in the proposed regulations and the section 664 method contained in these final regulations. The companion notice of proposed rulemaking (REG-130843-13) provides rules to enable a CRT to choose between the simplified method described in the proposed regulations (with the modification noted in the companion notice) and the existing rules under section 664. The rules contained in the companion proposed regulation are proposed to be effective for taxable years beginning after December 31, 2012. D. Application of Section 1411 to Foreign Estates and Trusts Section 1411 does not address specifically the treatment of foreign estates and foreign nongrantor trusts. Proposed §§ 1.1411-3(d)(2)(i) and 1.1411-3(b)(6) provided, as a general rule, that foreign estates and foreign trusts are not subject to section 1411. i. Foreign Estates The proposed regulations requested comments as to whether section 1411 should apply to foreign estates with United States beneficiaries. The Treasury Department and the IRS received several comments recommending that the section 1411 tax not apply to foreign estates, even those with United States beneficiaries, as there is little potential abuse in this context. Although some commentators recommended providing special rules for foreign estates with United States beneficiaries, the Treasury Department and the IRS continue to believe that section 1411 should not apply to foreign estates that often have little or no connection to the United States. Accordingly, § 1.1411-3(b)(1)(ix) of the final regulations provides that the section 1411 tax does not apply to foreign estates. This rule, however, does not exempt United States beneficiaries of foreign estates from the application of section 1411 to distributions from foreign estates. The taxation under section 1411 of United States beneficiaries receiving distributions of net investment income from a foreign estate will be consistent with the general operation of subparts A through D of part I of subchapter J and will be subject to section 1411. See §§ 1.1411-3(e)(3)(ii) and 1.1411-4(e)(1). ii. Foreign Trusts The preamble to proposed § 1.1411-3(c)(3) requested comments on the application of section 1411 to net investment income of foreign trusts that is earned or accumulated for the benefit of United States beneficiaries, including whether section 1411 should apply to the foreign trust, or to the United States beneficiaries upon an accumulation distribution. Commentators recommended that section 1411 should not apply to foreign trusts that accumulate income for the benefit of United States beneficiaries, but rather, that United States beneficiaries should be subject to section 1411 upon the receipt of an accumulation distribution from a foreign trust. The Treasury Department and the IRS agree that section 1411 should apply to United States beneficiaries that receive distributions of accumulated net investment income from a foreign trust rather than to the foreign trust itself. The Treasury Department and the IRS continue to study how section 1411 should apply to accumulation distributions from foreign trusts to United States beneficiaries and intend to issue subsequent guidance on this issue. Pending the issuance of such guidance, section 1411 will not apply to distributions of accumulated income from a foreign trust to United States beneficiary. Therefore, § 1.1411-4(e)(1)(ii) of the final regulations is reserved. The Treasury Department and the IRS request additional comments concerning this issue, including recommendations on methods by which to identify accumulation distributions as net investment income. In particular, the Treasury Department and the IRS are interested in possible methods by which to determine the “additional tax” imposed under section 667(b) when the distribution is “thrown back” to the relevant past tax year, possible methods by which to identify and exclude the “additional tax” imposed under section 667(b) from years prior to the effective date of section 1411, whether a default rule similar to that contained in Notice 97-34 may be a viable approach for section 1411 purposes, and other specific technical recommendations (accompanied by numerical examples, if possible) for applying section 1411 to accumulation distributions. E. Calculation of Undistributed Net Investment Income The proposed regulations provided that undistributed net investment income of an estate or trust is its net investment income (as determined under proposed § 1.1411-4), reduced by the net investment income included in the distribution to beneficiaries deductible by the estate or trust under section 651 or section 661, and by the net investment income for which the estate or trust was entitled to a section 642(c) deduction, in each case as computed in accordance with § 1.642(c)-2 and the allocation and ordering rules under § 1.662(b)-2. The proposed regulations adopted the class system of income categorization, generally embodied in sections 651 through 663 and the regulations thereunder, to arrive at the trust's net investment income reduction in the case of distributions that are comprised of both net investment income and net excluded income items. Section 1.1411-3(e) of the final regulations retain this approach. Proposed § 1.1411-3(f) provided examples of the calculation of undistributed net investment income. One commentator noted that Example 1 and Example 2 of the proposed regulations contain incorrect computations of distributable net income, which consequently causes an incorrect calculation of undistributed net investment income. The final regulations correct the computational error in these examples. Some commentators recommended that the final regulations allow fiduciaries to reconsider a previous decision to include capital gains in the distributable net income (DNI) of an estate or trust. Section 1.643(a)-3(b)(1) provides that a fiduciary may allocate capital gains between corpus and DNI as long as such decision is a reasonable and impartial exercise of discretion and part of a consistent practice over time. In general, the commentators noted that, because section 1411 causes many capital gains to be included in net investment income, an estate or trust that does not include capital gains in DNI causes such net investment income to be retained in the estate or trust and thus, because of the low income threshold applicable to estates and trusts, to be subjected to the section 1411 tax more readily than if it had been distributed. The commentators note that, when a fiduciary considers whether capital gains are to be treated as part of DNI pursuant to section 643, as part of its duty to the trust or estate and its beneficiaries, a fiduciary takes into account any tax that would be imposed, including any tax imposed pursuant to section 1411. If the tax imposed by section 1411 had existed in the year that an existing trust or estate had first incurred capital gains, the fiduciary may have exercised its discretion differently. The commentators request that the final regulations allow a fiduciary a “fresh start” to determine whether capital gains are to be treated as part of DNI. The final regulations do not adopt this suggestion. A fiduciary's decision regarding the inclusion of capital gains in DNI is comparable to other elections under chapter 1 that only indirectly impact the computation of net investment income. In addition, the potential for fluctuations in the effective tax rate on capital gains is a factor that is foreseeable by fiduciaries making these elections. F. Material Participation of Estates & Trusts Several commentators noted that the enactment of section 1411 has created an additional and compelling reason for the need to determine how an estate or a trust materially participates in an activity. An estate's or a trust's income or gain from a trade or business activity in which the entity materially participates does not constitute income from a passive activity under section 469 or section 1411. One commentator noted that, in the case of estates or trusts that have not incurred losses from a passive activity, those estates and trusts previously have not had to characterize either losses or income under section 469. Commentators stated that the legislative history of section 469 suggests that only a fiduciary's participation should control in determining whether an estate or a trust materially participates in a trade or business activity. In certain situations, case law has concluded that the participation of beneficiaries and employees also should be considered. One commentator noted that case law and IRS guidance conflict, leaving taxpayers with uncertainty in determining the material participation of a trust. A number of commentators requested that the Treasury Department and the IRS provide guidance on material participation of estates and trusts. However, the commentators acknowledged that guidance on material participation would apply under both sections 469 and 1411, and consequently suggested the initiation of a guidance project to propose the rules for which § 1.469-5T(g) has been reserved. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that the commentators have raised valid concerns. The Treasury Department and the IRS considered whether the scope of these regulations should be broadened to include guidance on q2material participation of estates and trusts. The Treasury Department and the IRS, however, believe that this guidance would be addressed more appropriately in the section 469 regulations. Further, because the issues inherent in drafting administrable rules under section 469 regarding the material participation of estates and trusts are very complex, the Treasury Department and the IRS believe that addressing material participation of trusts and estates at this time would significantly delay the finalization of these regulations. However, the issue of material participation of estates and trusts is currently under study by the Treasury Department and the IRS and may be addressed in a separate guidance project issued under section 469 at a later date. The Treasury Department and the IRS welcome any comments concerning this issue, including recommendations on the scope of any such guidance and on specific approaches to the issue. 5. Comments Regarding the Calculation of Net Investment Income Section 1411(c)(1) defines net investment income as the excess (if any) of (A) the sum of: (i) gross income from interest, dividends, annuities, royalties, and rents, other than such income derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business to which the tax does not apply, (ii) other gross income from trades or businesses to which the tax applies, and (iii) net gain (to the extent taken into account in computing taxable income) attributable to the disposition of property other than property held in a trade or business to which the tax does not apply, over (B) deductions allowed by subtitle A that are properly allocable to such gross income or net gain. Section 1.1411-4 of the proposed regulations provided guidance on the calculation of net investment income. The final regulations retain the general structure of proposed § 1.1411-4 with some modifications as discussed in this part. A. Interaction With Section 469 Section 469 and the regulations thereunder provide several rules that restrict the ability of taxpayers to artificially generate passive income from certain types of passive activities. The preamble to the proposed regulations provided a summary of the section 469 rules applicable for purposes of section 1411. The preamble identified certain aspects of the section 469 regulations that would apply for section 1411 purposes (such as the various types of recharacterization rules), and other areas where certain section 469 rules were not applicable for purposes of section 1411 (for example, the scope of a passive activity under section 469 is broader than the section 1411(c)(2)(A) definition of passive activity). The preamble to the proposed regulations identified a series of section 469 rules that recharacterize income from a passive activity as income not from a passive activity (income recharacterization rules). Commentators requested the final regulations clarify the interaction between certain aspects of the income recharacterization rules and items of gross income included in section 1411(c)(1)(A). One such income recharacterization involves section 469(e)'s definition of portfolio income versus working capital. The comments regarding portfolio income are discussed in this part of the preamble and comments regarding working capital are discussed in part 7 of this preamble. Part 6 discusses comments regarding the net income recharacterization rules. B. Gross Income Items Described in Section 1411(c)(1)(a)(i) i. Portfolio Income The Treasury Department and the IRS received several comments regarding the interaction between section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) and the portfolio income items described in section 469(e)(1)(A) and the regulations thereunder. One commentator suggested that the final regulations cross reference the definition of portfolio income so that items included in portfolio income for section 469 purposes are net investment income under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i). In general, section 469(e)(1)(A)(i)(I) defines portfolio income as interest, dividends, annuities, or royalties not derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business. The Treasury Department and the IRS recognize that this definition is similar to section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i). However, pursuant to the specific grant of authority to promulgate regulations under section 469 provided to the Treasury Department and the IRS in section 469(l), § 1.469-2T(c)(3) expands the definition of portfolio income to include, for example, income from controlled foreign corporations and qualified electing funds. Furthermore, § 1.469-1T(d)(1) provides that the characterization of items of income or deduction as passive activity gross income (within the meaning of § 1.469-2T(c)) does not affect the treatment of any item of income or gain under any provision of the Code other than section 469. Therefore, the characterization of certain types of income, gain, loss, and deduction as portfolio income under § 1.469-2T(c)(3) is expressly limited to the section 469 context. While many of the provisions of section 469 impact the classification of income, gain, loss, and deduction for net investment income purposes within section 1411, such interaction with section 469 is generally limited to the determination of whether those items are attributable to a passive activity within the meaning of section 1411(c)(2)(A). Accordingly, because the scope of portfolio income as defined in the regulations under section 469 does not match the scope of net investment income items in section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i), the final regulations do not adopt this recommendation. ii. Definition of “Derived in the Ordinary Course of a Trade or Business” The preamble to the proposed regulations stated that the ordinary course of a trade or business exception is a two-part test. First, the item must be “derived in” a trade or business not described in section 1411(c)(2). Second, such item must be derived in the “ordinary course” of such trade or business. The preamble to the proposed regulations provided that a trade or business refers to a trade or business within the meaning of section 162 but the phrase was not defined in the proposed regulations. The proposed regulations did not provide guidance on the meaning of “ordinary course.” a. Definition of a Trade or Business Several commentators requested guidance concerning the meaning of “trade or business.” Commentators suggested that the regulations include references to relevant case law and administrative guidance. A commentator requested that the regulations expand upon existing guidance by including bright-line examples of what constitutes a trade or business to aid taxpayers in determining if income is derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business and thus is excluded from net investment income. As noted in part 6.A. of the preamble to the proposed regulations, the rules under section 162 have long existed as guidance for determining the existence of a trade or business and are applied in many circumstances. Whether an activity constitutes a trade or business for purposes of section 162 is generally a factual question. For example, in Higgins v. Commissioner, 312 U.S. 212 (1941), the Supreme Court stated that the determination of “whether the activities of a taxpayer are `carrying on a trade or business' requires an examination of the facts in each case.” 312 U.S. at 217. Except for certain clarifications made in response to the proposed regulations, further guidance concerning the definition of trade or business is beyond the scope of these regulations. In response to these commentators, § 1.1411-1(d) of the final regulations provides that the term trade or business, when used in section 1411 and the final regulations, describes a trade or business within the meaning of section 162. The section 162 reference incorporates case law and administrative guidance applicable to section 162. One commentator noted that determining whether income is earned in a section 162 trade or business under a separate entity approach, as reflected in proposed § 1.1411-4(b), will yield unexpected results that are inconsistent with section 162. For purposes of determining whether income is earned under section 162, the commentator noted that § 1.183-1(d) provides that activities are determined and their section 162 trade or business status is evaluated by aggregating undertakings in any reasonable manner determined by the taxpayer. The Treasury Department and the IRS do not believe that the determination of a trade or business under section 162 mandates the use of the definition of “activity” within the meaning of § 1.183-1(d). Section 183 disallows expenses in excess of income attributable to activities not engaged in for profit. Section 1.183-1(a) provides that section 162 and section 212 activities are not subject to section 183 limitations. The definition of activity within § 1.183-1(d) allows taxpayers latitude to combine different activities into a single activity to establish that the taxpayer is engaged in an activity for profit, and thus is not subject to the section 183 limitation. However, once the taxpayer determines that section 183 is not applicable, the taxpayer then must determine whether the activity is a section 162 trade or business or a section 212 for-profit activity. Furthermore, different definitions of “activity” can be found in sections 465 and 469. Therefore, the Treasury Department and the IRS do not believe that determining whether a trade or business exists using the activity determinations of Code provisions unrelated to section 162 is appropriate. The Treasury Department and the IRS received multiple comments regarding the determination of a trade or business within the context of rental real estate. Specifically, commentators stated that Example 1 of proposed § 1.1411-5(b)(2) is inconsistent with existing case law regarding the definition of a trade or business of rental real estate. Commentators cited cases such as Fackler v. Commissioner, 45 BTA 708 (1941), aff'd, 133 F.2d 509 (6th Cir. 1943); Hazard v. Commissioner, 7 T.C. 372 (1946); and Lagreide v. Commissioner, 23 T.C. 508 (1954), for the proposition that the activities of a single property can rise to the level of a trade or business. The Treasury Department and the IRS agree with commentators that, in certain circumstances, the rental of a single property may require regular and continuous involvement such that the rental activity is a trade or business within the meaning of section 162. However, the Treasury Department and the IRS do not believe that the rental of a single piece of property rises to the level of a trade or business in every case as a matter of law. For example, § 1.212-1(h) provides that the rental of real property is an example of a for-profit activity under section 212 and not a trade or business. Within the scope of a section 162 determination regarding a rental activity, key factual elements that may be relevant include, but are not limited to, the type of property (commercial real property versus a residential condominium versus personal property), the number of properties rented, the day-to-day involvement of the owner or its agent, and the type of rental (for example, a net lease versus a traditional lease, short-term versus long-term lease). Therefore, due to the large number of factual combinations that exist in determining whether a rental activity rises to the level of a section 162 trade or business, bright-line definitions are impractical and would be imprecise. The same is true wherever the section 162 trade or business standard is used and is not unique to section 1411. The Treasury Department and the IRS decline to provide guidance on the meaning of trade or business solely within the context of section 1411. However, the Treasury Department and the IRS have modified Example 1 in § 1.1411-5(b)(3) to explicitly state that the rental property in question is not a trade or business under applicable section 162 standards. In cases where other Code provisions use a trade or business standard that is the same or substantially similar to the section 162 standard adopted in these final regulations, the IRS will closely scrutinize situations where taxpayers take the position that an activity is a trade or business for purposes of section 1411, but not a trade or business for such other provisions. For example, if a taxpayer takes the position that a certain rental activity is a trade or business for purposes of section 1411, the IRS will take into account the facts and circumstances surrounding the taxpayer's determination of a trade or business for other purposes, such as whether the taxpayer complies with any information reporting requirements for the rental activity imposed by section 6041. b. Definition of “Derived in the Ordinary Course” Section 1411 does not define the phrase “derived in the ordinary course” within the context of a trade or business. The preamble to the proposed regulations stated that other regulation sections and case law provide guidance on whether an item of gross income is derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business and specifically referenced § 1.469-2T(c)(3)(ii) as an example. The Treasury Department and the IRS received comments regarding the meaning of the phrase “derived in the ordinary course” within the context of section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) and proposed § 1.1411-4(b). Within the context of section 469, income from interest, dividends, royalties, and annuities is classified as portfolio income unless such income is derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business. Section 1.469-2T(c)(3)(ii)(A) through (c)(3)(ii)(G), which implements section 469(e)(1)(B), identifies several situations where interest, dividends, royalties, or annuities are derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business, and therefore are not portfolio income. If the interest, dividends, royalties, or annuities do not fall into one of these situations, then they constitute working capital because they are not derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business. If the assets that generate the interest, dividends, royalties, and annuities are not held in a trade or business, however, then the classification of the income as working capital by reference to § 1.469-2T(c)(3)(ii) is irrelevant. Proposed § 1.1411-6 defined working capital by reference to section 469(e)(1)(B) and § 1.469-2T(c)(3)(ii). The definition of working capital in § 1.1411-6(a) of the final regulations continues to reference § 1.469-2T(c)(3)(ii). If a trade or business receives interest, dividends, royalties, or annuities, and the income is working capital under § 1.1411-6(a), then it is not derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business for purposes of section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) and § 1.1411-4(b). Conversely, if a trade or business receives interest, dividends, royalties, or annuities, and the income is not working capital under § 1.1411-6(a) because it falls within one of the situations in § 1.469-2T(c)(3)(ii), then such income is derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business for both section 469 and section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) and § 1.1411-4(b). As a result of the interaction between § 1.1411-6(a) and § 1.469-2T(c)(3)(ii), the Treasury Department and the IRS do not believe that any special rules are necessary within § 1.1411-4(b) defining “derived in the ordinary course” or, conversely, “working capital” with respect to section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) income other than rents. In the case of rents, which are not covered by § 1.469-2T(c)(3), case law will provide guidance on whether rents are derived in the ordinary course of a trade or business. Additional public comments pertaining to the definition of working capital are discussed in part 7 of this preamble. iii. Income From Annuities The preamble of the proposed regulations provided that gross income from annuities includes the amount received as an annuity under an annuity, endowment, or life insurance contract that is includible in gross income as a result of the application of section 72(a) and section 72(b), and an amount not received as an annuity under an annuity contract that is includible in gross income under section 72(e). The Code does not define the term annuity. Section 72(a) provides that gross income includes any amount received as an annuity under an annuity, endowment, or life insurance contract. Section 72(b), however, excludes from gross income that part of an amount received as annuity that bears the same ratio to that amount as the investment in the contract bears to the expected return under the contract (determined as of the annuity starting date). Section 72(e) governs the treatment of amounts received under an annuity contract that are not received as an annuity (such as lump sum distributions or surrenders). Section 72(e)(2) provides in general that such amounts received on or after the annuity starting date are included in gross income, and that amounts received before the annuity starting date are included in gross income to the extent allocable to income on the contract on an income-first basis. The preamble to the proposed regulations provided that gain or loss from the sale of an annuity is treated as net investment income for purposes of section 1411. To the extent the sales price of an annuity does not exceed its surrender value, the gain recognized is treated as gross income described in section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) and § 1.1411-4(a)(1)(i). If the sales price of the annuity exceeds its surrender value, the seller treats the gain equal to the difference between the basis in the annuity and the surrender value as gross income described in section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) and § 1.1411-4(a)(1)(i), and treats the excess of the sales price over the surrender value as gain from the disposition of property under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii) and § 1.1411-4(a)(1)(iii). The final regulations generally retain this approach. One commentator stated that the definition of the term “annuity” provided in the preamble of the proposed regulations is too expansive. The commentator requested that the final regulations clarify that only items of income for which a taxpayer is liable under section 72(a) are subject to the net investment income tax. The final regulations do not adopt the requested change. The principles and rules under chapter 1 of the Code generally apply, where appropriate, in interpreting the statutory language of section 1411. Section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) provides that net investment income includes “gross income from . . . annuities.” Amounts received as an annuity under an annuity contract are includible in gross income under section 72(a) and section 72(b). However, there are other types of distributions from annuity contracts that are includible in gross income under section 72(e). Such amounts may include, for example, dividends received from an annuity contract. See section 72(e)(1)(B). We believe it is appropriate to apply these same rules in determining what constitutes gross income from annuities for purposes of section 1411. Therefore, amounts received under annuity contracts that are includible in income under section 72(a), (b), and (e) are subject to the net investment income tax. One commentator requested that the final regulations clarify that net investment income from charitable gift annuities established post-2012 will be spread over the annuitant's life expectancy, similar to other items of income, pursuant to § 1.1011-2(c), Example 8. The commentator also requested that the final regulations clarify that the income recognized and distributed from charitable gift annuities established prior to 2013 is not subject to the net investment income tax. The commentator asked that the final regulation extend the benefit afforded to CRTs with regard to pre-2013 gifts to pre-2013 funded charitable gift annuities. Charitable gift annuities, like installment sales and other tax deferral transactions, defer the recognition of income to a future year. Charitable gift annuities share more characteristics with installment sales than with CRTs. In the case of installment sales, amounts received in taxable years beginning after December 31, 2012, on installment sales made prior to the effective date of section 1411 are included in net investment income, unless an exception applies. See § 1.1411-4(d)(4)(i)(C), Example 2. A CRT, as defined in section 664, must provide for the distribution of a specified payment, at least annually, to one or more persons (at least one of which is a noncharitable beneficiary). Upon the termination of the noncharitable interest or interests, the remainder must either be held in continuing trust for charitable purposes or be paid to or for the use of one or more organizations described in section 170(c). During its operation, a CRT is a tax-exempt entity. Unlike charitable gift annuities, the Federal income tax character of the income received by a CRT's annuity or unitrust beneficiary is dependant on the Federal income tax character of the income received by the CRT in the year of distribution and, in many cases, income received in year(s) prior to the distribution. In the case of charitable gift annuities, the amount and character of the income paid to the annuity recipient generally is known at the inception of the annuity. Furthermore, the amount and character of the income paid to the annuity recipient is not dependent on the charity's use (or sale) of the property exchanged for the annuity. The section 1411 policy reason behind the exclusion of pre-2013 accumulated income within a CRT from net investment income is that the character is passed through from the CRT to the recipient, and pre-2013 income is not net investment income. Because the character of the distribution to the recipient of a charitable gift annuity is not dependent on its character in the hands of the payor, the final regulations do not adopt the requested change. B. Gross Income Items Described in Section 1411(c)(1)(a)(ii) Net investment income also includes other gross income derived from a trade or business described in section 1411(c)(2). For a trade or business described in section 1411(c)(2)(A), that is, a trade or business that is a passive activity with respect to the taxpayer, proposed § 1.1411-4(c) provided that section 1411(c)(1)(A)(ii) includes other gross income that is not included in section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) or section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii). For a trade or business described in section 1411(c)(2)(B), that is, a trade or business of trading in financial instruments or commodities (a “trading business”), proposed § 1.1411-4(c) provided that section 1411(c)(1)(A)(ii) includes all other gross income from such trade or business that is not included in section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i). See part 5.b.ii.a of this preamble for a discussion of the definition of a trade or business for purpose of section 1411. The Treasury Department and the IRS received a number of comments regarding the proper treatment of gains and losses from a trade or business of trading in financial instruments or commodities described in section 1411(c)(2)(B). For chapter 1 purposes, a taxpayer engaged in a trading business combines gains and losses from trading activities to arrive at a net amount of gain or loss from the trading business. Under proposed § 1.1411-4(c)(2), all gross income from a trading business is included in net investment income under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(ii), except for interest, dividends, rents, royalties, and annuities included in net investment income under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i). Under proposed § 1.1411-4(f)(4), section 165 losses are taken into account under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii) and are subject to a limit on net losses. Commentators interpreted these proposed regulations to mean that all gains from the trading activities of a trading business are included in net investment income under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(ii), while the offsetting trading losses would be under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii). As a result, the section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii) loss limitation would prevent a trading business from netting the gains and losses for purposes of the net investment income tax. Multiple commentators recommended that trading losses generated by a trading business should be allocated to the same category as trading gains. Some commentators recommended that proposed § 1.1411-4(f)(4) not apply to trading gains, which would allow trading losses to offset trading gains under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(ii). Other commentators recommended that trading gains should be included in net investment income under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii) rather than under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(ii). The Treasury Department and the IRS agree that trading gains and losses should be assigned to the same category of net investment income. Because section 1411(c)(2)(B) does not distinguish between a trader who has made a section 475(f) mark-to-market election (a “section 475 trader”) and a trader who has not made a section 475(f) mark-to-market election (a “non-section 475 trader”), aligning gains and losses from a trading business requires rules that apply equally to a section 475 trader and to a non-section 475 trader. Chapter 1, however, provides different timing and character rules for the two types of traders. For a section 475 trader, all securities and commodities held in a trading business are marked to market on the last day of the tax year, both realized and mark-to-market gains or losses have ordinary character, and any net trading loss may be used to offset other income under chapter 1. In contrast, a non-section 475 trader generally does not mark securities and commodities to market, gains and losses recognized from trading are capital in character, and any net trading loss would be subject to chapter 1 capital loss limitations. One possible solution is to assign the trading gains and losses from both section 475 traders and non-section 475 traders to section 1411(c)(1)(A)(ii), which would permit a non-section 475 trader to use net trading losses to offset other net investment income. Another possible solution is to assign the trading gains and losses from both section 475 traders and non-section 475 traders to section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii), thereby making a section 475 trader subject to the loss limitations of that section. Under either scenario, some traders would be treated differently for purposes of section 1411 and chapter 1. This would have required those traders to maintain a separate set of books and records specifically to comply with section 1411. To minimize the inconsistencies between chapter 1 and section 1411 for traders, the final regulations assign all trading gains and trading losses to section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii). The final regulations also permit a taxpayer to deduct excess losses from the trading business of a section 475 trader from other categories of income. Part 5.C of this preamble describes the treatment of those excess losses. Section 1.1411-4(c) of the final regulations provides that gross income from a trading business is included in net investment income under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(ii) only to the extent that income is not included in section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) or (c)(1)(A)(iii). This change aligns the categorization of income between section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i), (c)(1)(A)(ii), and (c)(1)(A)(iii) in a manner consistent with income from a passive activity trade or business described in section 1411(c)(2)(A). As a result, the final regulations now categorize gross gains from the disposition of property associated with a trading business as net investment income under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii), which may be offset by losses from trading dispositions. However, see part 5.C of this preamble for a discussion of additional changes relative to section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii) and section 1411(c)(1)(B) that impact the calculation of net investment income for items of gain and loss attributable to a trading business. C. Calculation of Net Gain in Section 1411(c)(1)(a)(iii) The proposed regulations provided that net investment income includes net gain (to the extent taken into account in computing taxable income) attributable to the sale, exchange, transfer, conversion, cash settlement, cancellation, termination, lapse, expiration, or other disposition (collectively, referred to as the disposition) of property other than property held in a trade or business not described in section 1411(c)(2). The proposed regulations provided that, because section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii) uses the term “net gain” and not the term “net gain or loss,” the amount of net gain included in net investment income may not be less than zero. However, the proposed regulations also provided that losses allowable under section 1211(b)(1) and (b)(2) are permitted to offset gain from the disposition of assets other than capital assets that are subject to section 1411. i. Overall Limits on Losses Several commentators suggested that, instead of limiting net gain to zero, losses in excess of gains should offset other net investment income in order to reflect the true economic net investment income for any given year. One commentator acknowledged that the position taken by the proposed regulations appears consistent with the statutory definition of net investment income because section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii) appears to preclude the possibility of a net loss. Another commentator observed that the proposed regulations place excessive stress on the word “gain” in section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii), and insufficient stress on the word “net.” Stressing the word “gain” prevents a taxpayer from deducting a $3,000 capital loss limit against other investment income (such as interest). Another commentator stated that, because chapter 1 imposes significant constraints on deducting capital losses against non-capital income (such as the prohibition on carrybacks of such losses for individuals), and imposes a variety of limitations on deducting ordinary losses under section 165, including losses that become section 165 deductions through the operation of other provisions such as section 475, 988, or 1231, there does not appear to be any reason to impose additional limitations on those deductions for section 1411 purposes. A number of commentators recommended that losses in excess of gains be allowed as a properly allocable deduction that may offset other net investment income from section 1411(c)(1)(A)(i) or (c)(1)(A)(ii). Some commentators suggested that section 1411(c)(1)(B) properly allocable deductions include any capital losses allowed for chapter 1 purposes. Several other commentators suggested that there should be no limit imposed on losses, capital or ordinary. Section 1.1411-4(d)(2) of the final regulations retains the overall limitation of the proposed regulations on allowable losses that the calculation of net gain within section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii) cannot be less than zero. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that provision follows the statutory language of section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii). However, § 1.1411-4(f)(4) of the final regulations provides that losses described in section 165, whether described in section 62 or section 63(d), are allowed as a properly allocable deduction to the extent such losses exceed the amount of gain described in section 61(a)(3) and are not taken into account in computing net gain by reason of § 1.1411-4(d). Thus, although § 1.1411-4(d)(2) imposes an overall limitation on net gain included in net investment income by reason of section 1411(c)(1)(A)(iii), § 1.1411-4(f)(4) allows losses in excess of gains as a properly allocable deduction to the extent the losses would be allowable in computing taxable income under chapter 1. Losses are first applied to calculate net gain under § 1.1411-4(d), and then § 1.1411-4(f)(4) applies to the excess losses. This ordering rule prevents taxpayers from deducting the same loss twice: first in calculating net gain under § 1.1411-4(d), and then again in § 1.1411-4(f)(4). As a result, final § 1.1411-4(f)(4) allows, as a properly allocable deduction, the $3,000 capital loss ($1,500 in the case of an individual filing as married filing separately) allowed by section 1211(b) in all cases. Furthermore, a taxpayer, such as a section 475 trader, that has ordinary losses in excess of ordinary gains and net capital gains, may claim those excess losses as a § 1.1411-4(f)(4) properly allocable deduction. Furthermore, the final regulations retain the definition of disposition as the sale, exchange, transfer, conversion, cash settlement, cancellation, termination, lapse, expiration, or other disposition of property. A commentator suggested that section 1411 does not apply to a deemed sale resulting from section 877A. Section 877A(a)(1) provides, in relevant part, that “For purposes of this subtitle, all property of a covered expatriate shall be treated as sold on the day before the expatriation date for its fair market value.” The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that any gain taken into account in computing a covered expatriate's taxable income is also included in net investment income because the operative provision of section 877A(a)(1) treats the property as sold for purposes of subtitle A, which includes section 1411. Accordingly, the final regulations clarify that a deemed sale under section 877A, which applies for purposes of subtitle A, is a disposition of property subject to section 1411. ii. Treatment of Certain Capital Loss Carryforwards The proposed regulations provided, and the final regulations retain, the provision that except as otherwise expressly provided in regulations, the income tax gain and loss recognition rules in chapter 1 apply for purposes of determining net gain under section 1411. Losses properly taken into account in determining net gain include all losses deductible under section 165 to the extent they are attributable to property that is either: (1) not held in a trade or business, or (2) held in a trade or business described in proposed § 1.1411-5. Therefore, under the proposed regulations, net gain took into account capital losses carried over from prior years by reason of section 1212(b)(1) (including years preceding the effective date of section 1411). The final regulations retain this position. The Treasury Department and the IRS received several comments and inquiries regarding the treatment of capital loss carryforwards. The final regulations reserve paragraph § 1.1411-4(d)(4)(iii) for special rules that the Treasury Department and the IRS believe are necessary to properly address capital loss carryforwards. The companion notice of proposed rulemaking (REG-130843-13) contains an explanation of the proposed rule and the proposed regulation text. D. Properly Allocable Deductions Described in Section 1411(C)(1)(b) Section 1411(c)(1)(B) provides that net investment income includes deductions allowed by subtitle A that are properly allocable to gross income or net gain described in section 1411(c)(1)(A). Section 1.1411-4(f)(1)(i) of the proposed regulations provided that “[u]nless specifically stated otherwise, only properly allocable deductions described in this paragraph (f) may be taken into account in determining net investment income.” Specifically, proposed § 1.1411-4(f)(3) provided that properly allocable deductions include: (A) investment interest expense, (B) investment expenses described in section 163(d)(4)(C), and (C) state, local, and foreign income taxes described in section 164(a)(3). The Treasury Department and the IRS intend this rule to limit the deductions against net investment income to those specifically enumerated in paragraph (f). One commentator recommended that the final regulations provide that the phrase “properly allocable deductions” comprise all of the chapter 1 deductions that are allowed against chapter 1 gross income from rent, dividends, royalties, annuities and interest, other gross income derived from a trade or business, and net gains attributable to the disposition of property other than property held in a trade or business. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe the recommended language would permit taxpayers to argue that they can take deductions that have no direct relation to net investment income, and it would lead to uncertainty and to disputes between taxpayers and the IRS over what constitutes properly allocable deductions. However, the Treasury Department and the IRS acknowledge that flexibility is needed within § 1.1411-4(f) so that future changes in law or circumstances can be more easily integrated into the regulations. Although the cross-references in § 1.1411-4(f)(2) to deductions described in section 62(a) provide section 1411(c)(1)(B) flexibility to automatically take into account additions or changes to chapter 1 deductions attributable to trades or business, rents, and royalties, these regulations would have to be amended to expand properly allocable deductions in the event of such changes not captured by section 62(a)(1) or 62(a)(4). To strike a balance between the intent of the proposed rule (to provide a specific list of deductions to limit uncertainty and controversy) and the recognized value of future flexibility inherent in the commentators' recommendation, § 1.1411-4(f)(6) of the final regulations allows the Treasury Department and the IRS to publish additional guidance in the Internal Revenue Bulletin that expands the list of properly allocable deductions. i. Inclusion of Additional Properly Allocable Deductions Commentators requested that properly allocable deductions also include amounts described in sections 72(b)(3), 642(h), 691(b), 691(c), 1341, and 7518 (c)(1)(A). Section 72(b)(3) allows a deduction for unrecovered basis in an annuity when an annuitant dies with unrecovered basis in the annuity contract. Section 72(b)(3) allows the deduction on the decedent's final income tax return. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that, because an annuity contract would have produced income subject to tax under section 1411 had the annuitant continued living, it is appropriate to allow the deduction under section 72(b)(3) in calculating the net investment income for the decedent's final taxable year. Accordingly, § 1.1411-4(f)(3)(iv) of the final regulations provides that the section 72(b)(3) deduction for unrecovered annuity basis is a properly allocable deduction. Section 642(h) provides “[i]f on the termination of an estate or trust, the estate or trust has (1) a net operating loss carryover under section 172 or a capital loss carryover under section 1212, or (2) for the last taxable year of the estate or trust deductions (other than the deductions allowed under subsections (b) or (c)) in excess of gross income for such year, then such carryover or such excess shall be allowed as a deduction . . . to the beneficiaries succeeding to the property of the estate or trust.” Section 691(b) provides that an estate (or successor to property) may take deductions described in section 162, 163, 164, 212, or 611 in respect of a decedent, which are not properly allowable to the decedent in the taxable period prior to or in which falls the date of the decedent's death (these items are often referred to as Deductions in Respect of a Decedent, or “DRD”). Section 691(b) is the statutory mechanism that allows a deduction to the estate (or other successor to property) because, under the normal accounting rules, the decedent would have been entitled to the deduction but failed to live long enough to take it. The section 691(b) listing of deductions is an exclusive list. If a deduction is not listed (such as suspended capital losses), then it is not deductible under this provision. The Treasury Department and the IRS believe that it is appropriate to provide a special rule that allows a beneficiary to succeed to the deductions of a terminating estate or trust in the same fashion as that provided by section 642(h) for chapter 1 purposes. In addition, the Treasury Department and the IRS believe that it is appropriate to provide a special rule that allows for deductions described in section 691(b) to be claimed by an estate or a successor to the estate. However, to limit the deductions to those that would have been deductible had the predecessor been able to deduct the expenses, the scope of allowable deductions under these special rules is limited to only those deductions allowed under § 1.1411-4(f), and only to the extent that the terminating estate or trust has negative net investment income upon termination. Section 691(c) allows a deduction for estate taxes imposed on items of income that are Income in Respect of a Decedent (IRD) under section 691(a). The section 691(c) deduction allowed for estate tax attributable to IRD that is ordinary income must be claimed as an itemized deduction, and not as a deduction from gross income in arriving at adjusted gross income (AGI), because it is not among the deductions listed in section 62. However, the section 691(c) deduction is not subject to the 2-percent floor under section 67. In the case of IRD that is capital gain, section 691(c)(4) provides that “[f]or purposes of section 1(h), 1201, 1202, and 1211, the amount taken into account with respect to any item described in subsection (a)(1) shall be reduced (but not below zero) by the amount of the deduction allowable under paragraph (1) of this subsection with respect to such item.” Net investment income may include items of IRD (such as annuities and outstanding installment sale payments) that may carry with it a deduction under section 691(c) for chapter 1 purposes. Therefore, the Treasury Department and the IRS believe it is consistent with the general principles of section 691 also to allow the section 691(c) deduction to reduce net investment income. Section 1.1411-4(f)(3)(v) of the final regulations provides that the deduction described in section 691(c) is a properly allocable deduction, except to the extent that the section 691(c) deduction is taken into account in determining net gain (within the meaning of § 1.1411-4(d)) by reason of section 691(c)(4). Generally, section 1341 applies if: (1) a taxpayer included an item in gross income in a prior taxable year because it appeared that the taxpayer had a claim of right to the item, and (2) a deduction is allowable for the repayment of the item in a later taxable year under some provision of the Code other than section 1341 because it is established that the taxpayer did not have a right to the item. If section 1341 applies, a taxpayer's tax liability for the year of repayment (or the taxable year in which the obligation to make repayment otherwise gives rise to a deduction) is based on the lesser of: (A) the tax for the taxable year, computed with a deduction of the repayment amount (“section 1341 deduction amount”), or (B) the tax for the year of repayment computed without the repayment deduction, less the decrease in tax imposed by chapter 1 in the prior taxable year(s) that would result solely from the exclusion of the restored item from gross income in the prior taxable year(s) (“section 1341 credit amount”). The section 1341 credit amount is intended to compensate the taxpayer for the tax paid in the year of income inclusion (for example, if the tax rates were higher in the year of inclusion). One commentator recommended that the final regulations contain certain provisions similar to section 1341 to the extent that section 1341 would apply for chapter 1 in a particular year. The commentator noted that, because some types of income that might be restored under section 1341 might have been subjected to tax under section 1411 when included in a prior year, it would be equitable for the section 1411 regulations to contain a mechanism similar to section 1341 to allow a deduction under section 1411(c)(1)(B) for repayment of the income in a later year. To the extent that a deduction is allowable under a provision of chapter 1 that specifically is allowed under section 1411(c)(1)(B) and § 1.1411-4(f), that amount also would be a deduction for section 1411 purposes in the year of the repayment (or the taxable year in which the obligation to make repayment otherwise gives rise to a deduction). For example, if the repayment constituted a section 165 loss that was a properly allocable deduction, then that deduction also would be available for section 1411 purposes. However, if the section 1341 credit amount produces a lower tax for the repayment year when compared to the section 1341 deduction amount, section 1341(b)(3) denies the taxpayer a deduction in the year of repayment in favor of the alternative credit for the tax cost. In this instance, the deduction is not allowed by subtitle A (which includes chapter 1, chapter 2, and chapter 2A) in the recovery year, and therefore would not be a properly allocable deduction under section 1411(c)(1)(B) and § 1.1411-4(f). Therefore, the final regulations do not incorporate this recommendation. One commentator recommended that the final regulations include amounts deposited in capital construction funds described in section 7518 as a properly allocable deduction under section 1411(c)(1)(B). Section 7518(c)(1)(A), which is in chapter 77 of subtitle F of the Code, provides that taxable income is reduced by certain amounts described in section 7518(a)(1)(A) that a taxpayer deposits into the fund. The final regulations do not adopt this recommendation. Section 1411(c)(1)(B) provides that net investment income includes deductions allowed by subtitle A that are properly allocable to such gross income or net gain described in section 1411(c)(1)(A). The reduction in taxable income provided by section 7518(c)(1)(A) is not a deduction allowed by subtitle A of the Code. Therefore, these deductible amounts are outside of the scope of section 1411(c)(1)(B). Section 1.1411-4(f) of the final regulations also provides that properly allocable deductions include amounts described in section 212(3). Section 212(3) allows a deduction for all the ordinary and necessary expenses paid or incurred during the taxable year in connection with the determination, collection, or refund of any tax. Section 1.212-1(l) provides, in relevant part, that expenses paid or incurred by a taxpayer for tax counsel or expenses paid or incurred in connection with the preparation of tax returns or in connection with any proceedings involved in determining or contesting a tax liability are deductible. Section 1.1411-4(f)(3)(vi) of the final regulations provides that amounts described in section 212(3) and § 1.212-1(l) that are allocable to net investment income using any reasonable method are properly allocable deductions. Section 1.1411-4(f) also includes two additional properly allocable deductions attributable to investments in certain types of debt instruments. In the case of a contingent payment debt instrument, the holder may receive a payment that is less than the corresponding projected payment determined under the noncontingent bond method, resulting in a negative adjustment under § 1.1275-4(b)(6). In general, a holder treats a negative adjustment as a reduction in interest income otherwise includible for the taxable year and, if there is any excess, as an ordinary loss for the taxable year to the extent of prior interest inclusions. The loss, in effect, reverses the holder's prior interest over-inclusions on the debt instrument. One commentator recommended that the final regulations provide that a holder's negative adjustment treated as an ordinary loss under § 1.1275-4(b)(6) be a properly allocable deduction. The final regulations adopt this recommendation and treat the loss as a properly allocable deduction because it accurately reflects the taxpayer's economic net investment income attributable to the debt instrument and is otherwise allowed by chapter 1. The final regulations also provide a similar rule for a deflation adjustment on an inflation-indexed debt instrument subject to § 1.1275-7. If a taxpayer purchases a taxable debt instrument at a premium, the taxpayer can elect under section 171 to amortize the bond premium. In general, the amount of amortizable bond premium for a period offsets the interest income allocable to the period and the taxpayer includes the net amount of interest in taxable income. In certain circumstances, however, the taxpayer is entitled to deduct all or a portion of the bond premium under section 171(a)(1). For example, if an electing taxpayer acquires a Treasury bill at a premium and holds the bill until maturity, the taxpayer can deduct the premium at maturity under section 171(a)(1). See § 1.171-2T(a)(4)(i)(C). In these circumstances, the final regulations provide that a deduction under section 171(a)(1) is a properly allocable deduction. ii. Deduction for Income Taxes Described in Section 164(a)(3) The Treasury Department and the IRS received comments on multiple aspects of proposed § 1.1411-4(f)(3)(i)(C), which pertains to itemized deductions for state and local, and foreign income, war profits, and excess profits taxes described in section 164(a)(3) (“section 164(a)(3) taxes”). Proposed § 1.1411-4(f)(3)(i)(C) provided that income taxes imposed on investment income that are described in section 164(a)(3) are deductible in determining net investment income. In the case of taxes imposed on both investment income and non-investment income, the proposed regulations provided that the portion of taxes properly allocable to investment income may be determined by taxpayers using any reasonable method. The proposed regulations further provided that allocating the deduction based on the ratio of investment income to total gross income is an example of a reasonable method. Commentators recommended that the final regulations provide additional examples of reasonable methods of allocation of taxes between net investment income and non-net investment income. One commentator recommended that the final regulations provide that state income tax reported on the state income tax return, rather than the actual state income tax payments made during the year, should be used in calculating a trust or estate's deduction under proposed § 1.1411-4(f)(3)(i)(C) for taxes under section 164(a)(3). One commentator requested alignment between the reasonable method of allocating section 164(a)(3) taxes in proposed § 1.1411-4(f)(3)(i)(C) with the existing allocation rules in chapter 1 for estates and trusts. One commentator stated that the proposed method of allocation creates a problem because a trust or estate deducts state and local taxes for DNI purposes in a different manner. Another commentator recommended that the final regulations follow the long-standing state and local tax allocation rules of § 1.652(b)-3(b). The final regulations generally retain the position of the proposed regulations. Although the regulations provide an example of a reasonable method of allocation, it is not the only reasonable method. The final regulations do not provide other examples of generally applicable reasonable allocation methods because the Treasury Department and the IRS believe that providing multiple examples of reasonable methods may lead to taxpayers to incorrectly conclude that the methods listed are the only acceptable methods. Therefore, the Treasury Department and the IRS believe that the final regulations allow taxpayers flexibility to determine a method of allocation that best applies to their specific facts. The final regulations do provide, however, that for estates and trusts, an allocation between classes of income under § 1.652(b)-3 is a reasonable allocation. Several commentators suggested that foreign taxes should be a properly allocable deduction under section 1411(c)(1)(B), without reference to any election made by the taxpayer for chapter 1 purposes. Another commentator, however, suggested that the final regulations confirm that foreign taxes included in the foreign tax credit computation are not taxes included in section 164(a)(3) and, therefore, would not be allowed as a deduction allocable to net investment income. Section 1.1411-4(f)(3)(iii) of the final regulations provides that foreign income, war profits, and excess profits taxes may be allowable as deductions in determining net investment income only if the taxpayer does not choose to take any foreign tax credits under section 901 with respect to the same taxable year. This rule is consistent with the limitation in section 275(a)(4) on deductibility of those taxes. Several commentators requested that the final regulations address the proper treatment of refunds of taxes deductible under section 164(a)(3). In response to this request, § 1.1411-4(g)(2) of the final regulations provides guidance on refunds and recoveries of amounts deducted under section 1411(c)(1)(B) and § 1.1411-4 in prior taxable years. In general, the final regulations provide that the recovery or refund of a previously deducted item shall reduce the total amount of properly allocable deductions in the year of the recovery. The final regulations first determine the recovered amount without regard to the application of the tax benefit rule in section 111 for chapter 1 purposes. For example, if a taxpayer receives a refund of state income taxes from a prior year, such a refund would be included in the taxpayer's gross income. However, if the taxpayer was subject to the alternative minimum tax in the year of the payment, the taxpayer may not have received any tax benefit under chapter 1, and therefore section 111 may exclude some, or all, of the refund from gross income. However, the deductibility of state income taxes for section 1411 purposes is independent of the deductibility of the taxes for alternative minimum tax purposes. Therefore, the applicability of the recovery rule in § 1.1411-4(g)(2) is determined without regard to whether the recovered amount was excluded from gross income by reason of section 111. The final regulations contain two exceptions to the general rule. The two exceptions apply the tax benefit rule of section 111 within the section 1411 system, and therefore operate independently of the application of section 111 for chapter 1 purposes. First, properly allocable deductions are not reduced in the year of the recovery if the amount deducted in the prior year did not reduce the amount of section 1411 liability. For example, the receipt in 2014 of a refund of income taxes paid in 2012 would not reduce a taxpayer's section 1411(c)(1)(B) deduction because section 1411 was not in effect in 2012 and thus the 2012 taxes were not properly allocable to net investment income. Second, properly allocable deductions are not reduced in the year of the recovery if the amount deducted in the prior year is included in net investment income by reason of section 1411(c)(1)(A). For example, a reimbursement of a deduction from a passive activity trade or business that is gross income for chapter 1 purposes is included as gross income from a passive activity under section 1411(c)(1)(A)(ii). Therefore, the recovery is already reflected in the recovery year's net investment income calculation. In addition, § 1.1411-4(g)(2) of the final regulations provides a special rule in the case of a recovery of a deduction that was allocated between net investment income and non-net investment income (such as section 164(a)(3) taxes). The final regulations provide that the amount taken into account under the recovery rule is based on the ratio used to allocate the item in the year of the deduction. For example, if a taxpayer allocated 45 percent of its total section 164(a)(3) taxes to net investment income in the year of the deduction, 45 percent of the recovery of such taxes will reduce the total amount of properly allocable deductions in the year of the recovery even though the taxpayer's allocation of section 164(a)(3) taxes to net investment income in the year of recovery may be, for example, 30 percent. iii. Treatment of Estate and Trust Administration Expenses Several commentators requested that the final regulations explicitly provide that section 1411(c)(1)(B) properly allocable deductions include fiduciary commissions, legal and accounting fees, and other estate and trust administration expenses. Subject to the limitations pursuant to section 67(e), the final regulations adopt this comment by amending proposed § 1.1411-4(f)(3) to provide that properly allocable deductions include amounts described in § 1.212-1(i) (allowing a deduction for reasonable amounts paid or incurred by the fiduciary of an estate or trust on account of administration expenses, including fiduciaries' fees and expenses of litigation) to the extent they are allocable to net investment income. The final regulations require that estates and trusts apportion any § 1.212-1(i) expenses between net investment income and excluded income using any reasonable method. iv. Limitations on Properly Allocable Deductions Under the proposed regulations, properly allocable deductions that are itemized deductions subject to the 2-percent floor on miscellaneous itemized deductions under section 67 or to the overall limitation on itemized deductions under section 68 are deducted in determining net investment income only to the extent that they are deductible for income tax purposes after the application of both limitations. The proposed regulations provided a method for apportioning these limitations to determine the amount of deductions allowed in computing net investment income after applying sections 67 and 68. This method first applies section 67 to all deductions subject to the 2-percent floor. The disallowance is applied proportionately to each deduction subject to section 67. The proposed regulations then apply a similar process to deductions subject to section 68. One commentator argued that applying general limitations on deductions under sections 67 and 68 is inconsistent with congressional intent, and that it may cause “taxable” net investment income to exceed “economic” net investment income. The commentator recommended that the final regulations allow the full amount of properly allocable itemized deductions to offset income items comprising net investment income without regard to the limitations imposed under sections 67 and 68. Section 1411(c)(1)(B) provides that only those deductions that are allowed u [Text truncated at 120,000 characters. The full text is on the page linked above.] --- Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2013-28410. Public record. Not legal advice.