# Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Species Status for Cape Sable Thoroughwort, Florida Semaphore Cactus, and Aboriginal Prickly-Apple, and Designation of Critical Habitat for Cape Sable Thoroughwort

> Briefs, arguments, decisions, and more.

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2012-24466

## Record

- **Collection:** Federal Register
- **Document type:** Proposed Rule
- **Published:** October 11, 2012
- **Citation:** 77 FR 61836

## Text

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
Fish and Wildlife Service
50 CFR Part 17
[Docket No. FWS-R4-ES-2012-0076; 4500030113]
RIN 1018-AY08
Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Endangered Species Status for Cape Sable Thoroughwort, Florida Semaphore Cactus, and Aboriginal Prickly-Apple, and Designation of Critical Habitat for Cape Sable Thoroughwort

AGENCY:

Fish and Wildlife Service, Interior.

ACTION:

Proposed rule.

SUMMARY:

We, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, propose to list
Chromolaena frustrata
(Cape Sable thoroughwort),
Consolea corallicola
(Florida semaphore cactus), and
Harrisia aboriginum
(aboriginal prickly-apple) as an endangered species under the Endangered Species Act, and we propose to designate critical habitat for
Chromolaena frustrata.
We have determined that designation of critical habitat is not prudent for
Consolea corallicola
and
H. aboriginum.
These are proposed regulations, and if finalized, their effect will be to add all three species to the List of Endangered or Threatened Plants and to designate critical habitat for one species under the Endangered Species Act.

DATES:

We will accept comments received or postmarked on or before December 10, 2012. Comments submitted electronically using the Federal eRulemaking Portal (see
ADDRESSES
section, below) must be received by 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on the closing date. We must receive requests for public hearings, in writing, at the address shown in the
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT
section by November 26, 2012.

ADDRESSES:

You may submit comments by one of the following methods:

(1)
Electronically:
Go to the Federal eRulemaking Portal:
http://www.regulations.gov.
In the search box, enter Docket No. FWS-R4-ES-2012-0076, which is the docket number for this rulemaking. Then, click the Search button. You may submit a comment by clicking on “Comment Now!” If your comments will fit in the provided comment box, please use this feature of
http://www.regulations.gov,
as it is most compatible with our comment review procedures. If you attach your comments as a separate document, our preferred file format is Microsoft Word. If you attach multiple comments (such as form letters), our preferred format is a spreadsheet in Microsoft Excel.

(2)
By hard copy:
Submit by U.S. mail or hand-delivery to: Public Comments Processing, Attn: FWS-R4-ES-2012-0076; Division of Policy and Directives Management; U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; 4401 N. Fairfax Drive, MS 2042-PDM; Arlington, VA 22203.

We request that you send comments only by the methods described above. We will post all comments on
http://www.regulations.gov.
This generally means that we will post any personal information you provide us (see the Information Requested section below for more information).

The coordinates, or plot points, or both, from which the critical habitat maps are generated are included in the administrative record for this rulemaking and are available at
http://www.fws.gov/verobeach/, http://www.regulations.gov
at Docket No. FWS-R4-ES-2012-0076, and at the South Florida Ecological Services Office (see
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT
). Any additional tools or supporting information that we have used for this rulemaking will also be available at the Fish and Wildlife Service Web site and Field Office set out above, and may also be included in the preamble of this proposed rule or at
http://www.regulations.gov.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT:

Larry Williams, Field Supervisor, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, South Florida Ecological Services Office, 1339 20th Street, Vero Beach, FL 32960; by telephone 772-562-3909; or by facsimile 772-562-4288. Persons who use a telecommunications device for the deaf (TDD) may call the Federal Information Relay Service (FIRS) at 800-877-8339.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION:

This document consists of: (1) A proposed rule to list
Chromolaena frustrata Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
as an endangered species; and (2) a proposed rule to designate critical habitat for
Chromolaena frustrata.

Executive Summary

Why we need to publish a rule.
Under the Endangered Species Act (Act), a species may warrant protection through listing if it is an endangered or threatened species throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
are highly restricted in their ranges and the threats occur throughout their ranges; therefore, these species qualify for listing. We are proposing to list these plants as endangered species. Their protection under the Act can only be done by issuing a rule.

•
Chromolaena frustrata
has been extirpated (no longer in existence) from half of the islands where it occurred in the Florida Keys, and threats of competition from nonnative plants and habitat loss still exist in the remaining populations.

•
Consolea corallicola
has been extirpated from half of the islands where it occurred in the Florida Keys, and threats of poaching, predation by a nonnative moth, competition from nonnative plant species, and habitat loss still exist in the remaining populations.

•
Harrisia aboriginum
has been extirpated from the northern extent of its range in Manatee County, and threats of poaching, competition from nonnative plant species, and habitat loss still exist in the remaining populations.

The basis for our action.
Under the Act, a species may be determined to be an endangered or threatened species based on any of five factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence.

We have determined that threats to
Chromolaena frustrata
include destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; inadequate existing regulatory mechanisms; and other natural or man-made factors, including climate change (sea level rise), small populations, and competition from nonnative plant species.

We have determined that threats to
Consolea corallicola
include destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; overuse (poaching) and predation; inadequate existing regulatory mechanisms; and other natural or man-made factors, including climate change (sea level rise), small populations, low genetic diversity, and competition from nonnative plant species.

We have determined that the threats to
Harrisia aboriginum
include destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; overuse (poaching); inadequate existing regulatory mechanisms; and other natural or man-made factors, including climate change (sea level rise), small populations, and competition from nonnative plant species.

This rule proposes to designate critical habitat for
Chromolaena frustrata.

• In total, approximately 3,466 hectares (8,565 acres) are being proposed for designation as critical habitat for
C. frustrata.
The proposed critical habitat is located in Miami-Dade and Monroe Counties, Florida.

• The proposed designation includes both occupied and unoccupied critical habitat, although those areas are not differentiated in the proposed rule or on the maps. Where the unit is not occupied by
Chromolaena frustrata,
we have concluded that the area is essential for the conservation of the species because the designation would allow for the expansion of
Chromolaena frustrata
`s range and reintroduction of individuals into areas where the species previously occurred.

This rule does not propose critical habitat for
Consolea corallicola
or
Harrisia aboriginum.
We have determined that designation of critical habitat would not be prudent for either species.

• Designation would increase the likelihood and severity of illegal collection of
C. corallicola
and
H. aboriginum,
and in doing so make enforcement of take prohibitions more difficult.

• These threats outweigh the benefits of designation for the two species.

Peer Review

We are seeking comments from knowledgeable individuals with scientific expertise to review our technical assumptions, analysis of the best available science, and application of that science and to provide any additional scientific information to improve this proposed rule.

Information Requested

We intend that any final action resulting from this proposed rule will be based on the best scientific and commercial data available and be as accurate and as effective as possible. Therefore, we request comments or information from other concerned governmental agencies, Native American tribes, the scientific community, industry, or any other interested parties concerning this proposed rule. We particularly seek comments concerning:

(1) The species' biology, range, and population trends, including:

(a) Habitat requirements for feeding, breeding, and sheltering;

(b) Genetics and taxonomy;

(c) Historical and current range, including distribution patterns;

(d) Historical and current population levels, and current and projected trends; and

(e) Past and ongoing conservation measures for the species, its habitat, or both.

(2) The factors that are the basis for making a listing determination for a species under section 4(a) of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1531
et seq.
), which are:

(a) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range;

(b) Overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes;

(c) Disease or predation;

(d) The inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; or

(e) Other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence.

(3) Biological, commercial trade, or other relevant data concerning any threats (or lack thereof) to these species and existing regulations that may be addressing those threats.

(4) Additional information concerning the historical and current status, range, distribution, and population size of these species, including the locations of any additional occurrences or populations of these species.

(5) Any information on the biological or ecological requirements of these species and ongoing conservation measures for these species and their habitats.

(6) The reasons why we should or should not designate habitat as “critical habitat” under section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1531
et seq.
), including whether there are threats to all the species from human activity, the degree of which can be expected to increase due to the designation, and whether that increase in threat outweighs the benefit of designation such that the designation of critical habitat is not prudent.

(7) Specific information on:

(a) The amount and distribution of
Chromolaena frustrata
habitat;

(b) What areas, that were occupied at the time of listing (or are currently occupied) and that contain features essential to the conservation of the species, should be included in the designation and why;

(c) What areas not occupied at the time of listing are essential for the conservation of the species and why.

(8) Land use designations and current or planned activities in the areas occupied by
Chromolaena frustrata
or proposed to be designated as critical habitat, and possible impacts of these activities on the species and proposed critical habitat.

(9) Information on the projected and reasonably likely impacts of climate change on
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum,
and proposed critical habitat for
Chromolaena frustrata.

(10) Probable economic, national security, or other relevant impacts that may result from designating any area that may be included in the final designation. We are particularly interested in any impacts on small entities, and the benefits of including or excluding areas from the proposed designation that are subject to these impacts.

(11) Whether our approach to designating critical habitat could be improved or modified in any way to provide for greater public participation and understanding, or to assist us in accommodating public concerns and comments.

(12) The likelihood of adverse social reactions to the designation of critical habitat and how the consequences of such reactions, if likely to occur, would relate to the conservation and regulatory benefits of the proposed critical habitat designation.

Please include sufficient information with your submission (such as scientific journal articles or other publications) to allow us to verify any scientific or commercial information you include.

Please note that submissions merely stating support for or opposition to the action under consideration without providing supporting information, although noted, will not be considered in making a determination, as section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act directs that determinations as to whether any species is an endangered or threatened species must be made “solely on the basis of the best scientific and commercial data available.”

You may submit your comments and materials concerning this proposed rule by one of the methods listed in the
ADDRESSES
section. We request that you send comments only by the methods described in the
ADDRESSES
section.

If you submit information via
http://www.regulations.gov,
your entire submission—including any personal identifying information—will be posted on the Web site. If your submission is made via a hardcopy that includes personal identifying information, you may request at the top of your document that we withhold this information from public review. However, we cannot guarantee that we will be able to do so. We will post all hardcopy submissions on
http://www.regulations.gov
. Please include sufficient information with your comments to allow us to verify any scientific or commercial information you include.

Comments and materials we receive, as well as supporting documentation we used in preparing this proposed rule, will be available for public inspection on
http://www.regulations.gov,
or by appointment, during normal business hours, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, South Florida Ecological Services Office, Vero Beach, Florida (see
FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT
).

Previous Federal Actions

Consolea corallicola
was first recognized as a candidate species (under the species' former name
Opuntia spinosissima
) on September 27, 1985 (50 FR 39526). It was removed from the candidate list from 1996 to 1998 because there was not sufficient information on the species' biological vulnerability and threats to support issuance of a proposed rule. The 1999 Candidate Notice of Review (CNOR) published in the
Federal Register
on October 25, 1999 (64 FR 57534) included
C. corallicola
(under the species' previous name
Opuntia corallicola
) as a candidate for listing under the Act. We determined that listing was warranted, but was precluded due to workloads and priorities, and we assigned a listing priority number (LPN) of 5 to the species (64 FR 57534). Candidate species are assigned LPNs based on immediacy and magnitude of threats, as well as taxonomic status. The lower the LPN, the higher priority that species is for us to determine appropriate action using our available resources. In 2001,
C. corallicola
(under the species' previous name
Opuntia corallicola
) remained a candidate species with the LPN of 5 (66 FR 54808, October 30, 2001). In the 2002 CNOR published on June 13, 2002 (67 FR 40657), and under the name
Consolea (opuntia) corallicola,
we changed the LPN of the species from a 5 to a 2 because the threats to the species were found to be more imminent than previously known.
Consolea corallicola
retained the LPN of 2 in the 2004 CNOR published on May 4, 2004 (69 FR 24876). We published a finding for the species in the 2005 CNOR on May 11, 2005 (70 FR 24869) in response to a petition received on May 11, 2004. The species remained on the candidate list as published in the CNORs from 2006 to 2011 with the LPN of 2 (71 FR 53756, September 12, 2006; 72 FR 69034, December 6, 2007; 73 FR 75176, December 10, 2008; 74 FR 57804, November 9, 2009; 75 FR 69222, November 10, 2010; 76 FR 66370, October 26, 2011).

Chromolaena frustrata
was first recognized as a candidate species in the 1999 CNOR published in the
Federal Register
on October 25, 1999 (64 FR 57534). We determined that listing was warranted, but was precluded due to workloads and priorities, and we assigned a LPN of 5 to the species (64 FR 57534). In 2001,
C. frustrata
remained on the candidate species with the LPN of 5 (66 FR 54808, October 30, 2001). In the 2002 and 2004 CNORs (67 FR 40657, June 13, 2002; 69 FR 24876, May 4, 2004)
C. frustrata
retained the LPN of 5. We published a finding for the species in the 2005 CNOR on May 11, 2005 (70 FR 24869), in response to a petition received on May 11, 2004. We also changed the LPN of C.
frustrata
from a 5 to a 2 because the threats to the species were found to be more imminent than previously known. The species remained on the candidate list as published in the CNORs from 2006 to 2011 with the LNP of 2 (71 FR 53756, September 12, 2006; 72 FR 69034, December 6, 2007; 73 FR 75176, December 10, 2008; 74 FR 578040, November 9, 2009; 75 FR 69222, November 10, 2010; 76 FR 66370, October 26, 2011).

The Service first recognized
Harrisia aboriginum
as a candidate species in the CNOR published on September 12, 2006, and we assigned an LPN of 5 (71 FR 53756). We determined that listing was warranted, but was precluded due to workloads and priorities.
Harrisia aboriginum
retained its candidate status in 2007 (72 FR 69034, December 6, 2007) and an LPN of 5. In the CNOR published on December 10, 2008 (73 FR 75176), we changed the LPN of
H. aboriginum
from a 5 to a 2 because the threats to the species were found to be more imminent than previously known. The species remained on the candidate list as published in the CNORs from 2009 to 2011 with the LNP of 2 (74 FR 57804, November 9, 2009; 75 FR 69222, November 10, 2010; 76 FR 66370, October 26, 2011).

On May 10, 2011, the Service announced a work plan to restore biological priorities and certainty to the Service's listing process. As part of an agreement with one of the agency's most frequent plaintiffs, the Service filed a work plan with the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia. The work plan will enable the agency to, over a period of 6 years, systematically review and address the needs of more than 250 species listed within the 2010 Candidate Notice of Review, including
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum,
to determine if these species should be added to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. This work plan will enable the Service to again prioritize its workload based on the needs of candidate species, while also providing state wildlife agencies, stakeholders, and other partners clarity and certainty about when listing determinations will be made. On July 12, 2011, the Service reached an agreement with a second frequent plaintiff group and further strengthened the work plan, which will allow the agency to focus its resources on the species most in need of protection under the Act. These agreements were approved on September 9, 2011. The timing of this proposed listing is, in part, therefore, an outcome of the work plan.

Status Assessment for
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum

Background

It is our intent to discuss below only those topics directly relevant to the listing of
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
as endangered in this section of the proposed rule.

Chromolaena frustrata

General Biology

Chromolaena frustrata
(Family: Asteraceae) is a perennial herb. Mature plants are 15 to 25 centimeters (cm) (5.9 to 9.8 inches ((in)) tall with erect stems. The leaves and stems are covered in short, fuzzy hairs. The leaves have three distinct veins, are roughly oval or egg shaped, and have toothed edges. The blue to lavender flowers are borne in heads usually in clusters of two to six. Flowers are produced mostly in the fall, though sometimes year round (Nesom 2006, pp. 544-545).

Taxonomy, Life History, and Distribution

Chromolaena frustrata
was first reported by Chapman in 1886, from the Florida Keys, who called it
Eupatorium heteroclinium
(Chapman 1889, p. 626). Early authors assigned the species to the genus
Osmia
(Small 1913, p. 147; 1933, p. 1320). In 1970, R.M. King and H.E. Robinson placed this species in the genus
Chromolaena
(King and Robinson 1970, p. 201). Some authors continued to assign the species to the genus
Eupatorium
(i.e., Long and Lakela 1971, p. 873 and Cronquist 1980, p. 185). The authors of
Vascular Plants of Florida
recognize
Chromolaena frustrata
(Wunderlin and Hansen 2008, pp. 1-2). The Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) (2012, p. 1) indicates that the taxonomic standing for
C. frustrata
(B.L. Robinson) King and H.E. Robinson is accepted. Synonyms include
Eupatorium frustratum
B.L. Robinson

and
Osmia frustrata
(B.L. Robinson) Small.

Climate

The climate of south Florida where
Chromolaena frustrata
occurs is classified as tropical savanna and is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons, a monthly mean temperature above 18 °C (64.4 °F) in every month of the year, and annual rainfall averaging 75 to 150 cm (30 to 60 in) (Gabler
et al.
1994, p. 211). Freezes can occur in the winter months, but are very infrequent at this latitude in Florida.

Habitat

Chromolaena frustrata
grows in open canopy habitats, including coastal berms and coastal rock barrens, and in semi-open to closed canopy habitats, including buttonwood forests and rockland hammocks.

Coastal Berm

Coastal berms are landscape features found along low-energy coastlines in south Florida and the Florida Keys. Coastal berm is a short forest or shrub thicket found on long, narrow, storm-deposited ridges of loose sediment formed by a mixture of coarse shell fragments, pieces of coralline algae, and other coastal debris. These ridges parallel the shore and may be found on the seaward edge or landward edge of the mangroves or farther inland depending on the height of the storm surge that formed them. They range in height from 30 to 305 cm (1 to 10 feet (ft)). Structure and composition of the vegetation is variable depending on height and time since the last storm event. The most stable berms may share some tree species with rockland hammocks, but generally have a greater proportion of shrubs and herbs. Tree species may include
Bursera simaruba
(gumbo limbo),
Coccoloba uvifera
(seagrape),
Coccothrinax argentata
(silver palm),
Guapira discolor
(blolly),
Drypetes diversifolia
(milkbark),
Genipa clusiifolia
(seven year apple), and
Metopium toxiferum
(poisonwood). Characteristic tall shrub and short tree species include
Eugenia foetida
(Spanish stopper),
Ximenia americana
(hog plum),
Randia aculeata
(white indigoberry),
Pithecellobium keyense
(Florida Keys blackbead)
,
and
Sideroxylon celastrinum
(saffron plum). Short shrubs and herbs include
Hymenocallis latifolia
(perfumed spiderlily)
, Capparis flexuosa
(bayleaf capertree),
Lantana involucrata
(buttonsage), and
Rivina humilis
(rougeplant). More seaward berms or those more recently affected by storm deposition may support a suite of plants similar to beaches, including shoreline
Sesuvium portulacastrum
(sea purslane),
Distichlis spicata
(saltgrass), and
Sporobolus virginicus
(seashore dropseed), or scattered to dense shrub thickets with
Conocarpus erectus
(buttonwood), stunted
Avicennia germinans
(black mangrove),
Rhizophora mangle
(red mangrove),
Laguncularia racemosa
(white mangrove),
Suriana maritima
(bay cedar),
Manilkara jaimiqui
(wild dilly),
Jacquinia keyensis
(joewood), and
Borrichia frutescens
(bushy seaside oxeye) (Florida Natural Areas Inventory (FNAI) 2010a
,
p. 1).

Coastal berms are deposited by storm waves along low-energy coasts. Their distance inland depends on the height of the storm surge. Tall berms may be the product of repeated storm deposition. Coastal berms that are deposited far enough inland and remain long-undisturbed may in time succeed to hammock. This is a structurally variable community that may appear in various stages of succession following storm disturbance, from scattered herbaceous beach colonizers to a dense stand of tall shrubs (FNAI 2010a
,
p. 2).

Coastal Rock Barren

Also known as Keys tidal rock barren or Keys cactus barren, coastal rock barren is confined to the Florida Keys on limestone bedrock along shores facing both Florida Bay and the Straits of Florida. Coastal rock barrens are flat rocklands with much exposed and eroded limestone, little soil or leaf litter, and a sparse cover of stunted halophytic herbs and shrubs in tidal rock barrens (FNAI 2010b, p. 1), or a wide variety of herbs and succulents in cactus barrens (FNAI 2010c, p. 1). The amount of exposed rock varies from practically 0 to over 50 percent of the area.

In tidal rock barrens, patches of low, salt-tolerant herbaceous species include
Borrichia frutescens
and
B. arborescens
(seaside oxeye)
, Sarcocornia perennis
(perennial glasswort),
Batis maritima
(saltwort),
Monanthochloe littoralis
(shoregrass)
, Distichlis spicata, Sporobolus virginicus,
and
Fimbristylis spadicea
(marsh fimbry).
Conocarpus erectus
is the dominant woody plant and varies from stunted, sprawling, multi-stemmed shrubs to tree size. Other typical woody species are
Rhizophora mangle, Avicennia germinans,

Laguncularia racemosa,
and
Lycium carolinianum
(christmasberry). At the transition to upland vegetation
C. erectus
may be joined by a variety of shrubs and stunted trees of inland woody species, including
Sideroxylon celastrinum, Gossypium hirsutum
(wild cotton),
Pithecellobium keyense, Suriana maritima,

Randia aculeata, Manilkara jaimiqui,

Metopium toxiferum, Jacquinia keyensis,

Maytenus phyllanthoides
(Florida mayten), and
Acanthocereus tetragonus
(barbed-wire cactus) (FNAI 2010b, p. 1).

In cactus barrens, the vegetation consists of a wide variety of herbaceous and succulent species which characteristically includes cacti, agaves, and several rare herbs. Among the latter are
Evolvulus convolvuloides
(dwarf bindweed),
Cienfuegosia yucatanensis
(Yucatan flymallow),
Jacquemontia pentanthos
(skyblue clustervine), and
Indigofera mucronata
var.
keyensis
(Florida Keys indigo). These frequently occur with grasses and sedges, such as
Leptochloa dubia
(green sprangletop),
Paspalidium chapmanii
(coral panicum), and
Cyperus elegans
(royal flatsedge). Spiny species, particularly the rare
Opuntia triacantha
(three-spined pricklypear), are characteristic but their abundance is variable. Other spiny species include
Agave decipiens
(false sisal),
Acanthocereus tetragonus,
and
Opuntia stricta
(erect pricklypear). Scattered clumps of stunted trees may be present, including
Bursera simaruba, Conocarpus erectus, Eugenia foetida,
and
Pithecellobium unguis-cati
(catclaw blackbead) (FNAI 2010c, p. 1).

Coastal rock barren occurs above the daily tidal range, but is subject to flooding by seawater during extreme tides and storm events. Salt spray from coastal winds, as well as shallow soils, may limit height growth of woody plants. Aside from bare rock substrate, discontinuous patches of thin marl soils may be present. Fires are rare to non existent in this community (FNAI 2010b, p. 2). The natural process giving rise to cactus barrens is not known, but because they occur on sites where the thin layer of organic soil over limestone bedrock is missing, they may have formed by soil erosion following destruction of the plant cover by fire, storm, or artificial clearing (FNAI 2010c, p. 2).

At its seaward edge, coastal rock barren borders mangrove swamp or salt marshes that are regularly inundated. At its upland edge, coastal rock barrens may grade into rockland hammock or pine rockland (FNAI 2010b, p. 2; 2010c, p. 2).

Buttonwood Forest

Forests dominated by buttonwood often exist in upper tidal areas, especially where mangrove swamp transitions to rockland hammock. These buttonwood forests have canopy dominated by
Conocarpus erectus
and often have an understory dominated by

Borrichia frutescens, Lycium

carolinianum,

and
Limonium carolinianum
(sea lavender) (FNAI 2010d, p. 4).

Temperature, salinity, tidal fluctuation, substrate, and wave energy influence the size and extent of buttonwood forests (FNAI 2010e, p. 3). Buttonwood forests often grade into salt marsh, coastal berm, rockland hammock, and coastal rock barren (FNAI 2010d, p. 5).

Rockland Hammock

Rockland hammock is a species-rich tropical hardwood forest on upland sites in areas where limestone is very near the surface and often exposed. The forest floor is largely covered by leaf litter with varying amounts of exposed limestone and has few herbaceous species. Rockland hammocks typically have larger, more mature trees in the interior, while the margins can be almost impenetrable in places with dense growth of smaller shrubs, trees, and vines. Typical canopy and subcanopy species include
Bursera simaruba, Lysiloma latisiliquum
(false tamarind),
Coccoloba diversifolia
(pigeon plum),
Sideroxylon foetidissimum
(false mastic),
Ficus aurea
(strangler fig),
Piscidia piscipula
(Jamaican dogwood),
Ocotea coriacea
(lancewood),
Drypetes diversifolia, Simarouba glauca
(paradisetree),
Sideroxylon salicifolium
(willow bustic),
Krugiodendron ferreum
(black ironwood),
Exothea paniculata
(inkwood),
Metopium toxiferum,
and
Swietenia mahagoni
(West Indies mahogany). Mature hammocks can be open beneath a tall,well-defined canopy and subcanopy. More commonly, in less mature or disturbed hammocks, dense woody vegetation of varying heights from canopy to short shrubs is often present. Species that generally make up the shrub layers within rockland hammock include several species of
Eugenia
(stoppers),
Thrinax morrisii
and
T. radiata
(thatch palms),
Amyris elemifera
(sea torchwood),
Ardisia escallonioides
(marlberry),
Psychotria nervosa
(wild coffee),
Chrysophyllum oliviforme
(satinleaf),
Sabal palmetto
(cabbage palm),
Guaiacum sanctum
(lignum-vitae),
Ximenia americana, Colubrina elliptica
(soldierwood),
Pithecellobium unguis-cati
and
Pithecellobium keyense, Coccoloba uvifera,
and
Colubrina arborescens
(greenheart). Vines can be common and include
Toxicodendron radicans
(eastern poison ivy),
Smilax auriculata
(earleaf greenbrier),
Smilax havanensis
(Everglades greenbrier),
Parthenocissus quinquefolia
(Virginia creeper),
Hippocratea volubilis
(medicine vine), and
Morinda royoc
(redgal). The typically sparse short shrub layer may include
Zamia pumila
(coontie) and
Acanthocereus tetragonus.
Herbaceous species are occasionally present and generally sparse in coverage. Characteristic species include
Lasiacis divaricata
(smallcane),
Oplismenus hirtellus
(basketgrass), and many species of ferns (FNAI 2010e, p.1).

Rockland hammock occurs on a thin layer of highly organic soil covering limestone on high ground that does not regularly flood, but it is often dependent upon a high water table to keep humidity levels high. Rockland hammocks are frequently located near wetlands; in the Everglades they can occur on organic matter that accumulates on top of the underlying limestone; in the Keys they occur inland from tidal flats (FNAI 2010e, p.1).

Rockland hammock is susceptible to fire, frost, canopy disruption, and ground water reduction. Rockland hammock can be the advanced successional stage of pine rockland, especially in cases where rockland hammock is adjacent to pine rockland. In such cases, when fire is excluded from pine rockland for 15 to 25 years, it can succeed to rockland hammock vegetation. Historically, rockland hammocks in south Florida evolved with fire in the landscape, fire most often extinguished near the edges when it encountered the hammock's moist microclimate and litter layer. However, rockland hammocks are susceptible to damage from fire during extreme drought or when the water table is lowered. In these cases, fire can cause tree mortality and consume the organic soil layer (FNAI 2010e, p.2).

Rockland hammocks are also sensitive to the strong winds and storm surge associated with infrequent hurricanes. Canopy damage often occurs, which causes a change in the microclimate of the hammock. Decreased relative humidity and drier soils can leave rockland hammocks more susceptible to fire. Rockland hammock can grade into glades marsh, mangrove swamp, salt marsh, coastal rock barren, pine rockland, maritime hammock, or marl prairie (FNAI 2010e, p. 2).

The sparsely vegetated edges or interior portions laid open by canopy disruption are the areas of rockland hammock that have light levels sufficient to support
Chromolaena frustrata.
However, the dynamic nature of the habitat means that areas not currently open may become open in the future as a result of canopy disruption from hurricanes, while areas currently open may develop more dense canopy over time, eventually rendering that portion of the hammock unsuitable for
C. frustrata.

The ecological communities and substrate upon which
Chromolaena frustrata
is found differ between the mainland populations and those in the Florida Keys. The mainland populations occur only in Everglades National Park (ENP), where
C. frustrata
occurs in rockland hammocks and buttonwood forest, often occupying the transitional areas (ecotone) between these habitats and salt marsh dominated by
Conocarpus erectus
and salt-tolerant species, on marl (an unconsolidated sedimentary rock or soil consisting of clay and lime) substrate (Sadle 2008 and 2012, pers. comm.). In the Florida Keys,
C. frustrata
occurs on coastal rock barrens, coastal berms, and rockland hammocks on exposed bare limestone rock or with a thin layer of leaf litter (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 37).
Chromolaena frustrata
is often found in the shade of associated canopy and subcanopy plant species; these canopies buffer
C. frustrata
from full exposure to the sun (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 37).

Historical Range

Chromolaena frustrata
was historically known from Monroe County, both on the Florida mainland and the Keys, and in Miami-Dade County along Florida Bay (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 36). In mainland Monroe County,
C. frustrata
was known from the Flamingo area to the Madeira Bay area in what is now ENP. In the Florida Keys,
C. frustrata
was known from Key Largo to Boca Grande Key (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 36; Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 2). The species was observed historically on Big Pine Key, Boca Grande Key, Fiesta Key, Key Largo, Key West, Knight's Key, Lignumvitae Key, Long Key, Upper Matecumbe Key, and Lower Matecumbe Key (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 36; Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 4-7).

The common name of
Chromolaena frustrata,
Cape Sable thoroughwort, places it in a locality where it may have never occurred. Usage of this place name may have been referring to the greater Cape Sable-Flamingo area, and not specifically to Cape Sable itself. No additional specimens or verifiable reports have documented it on Cable Sable proper. Other reports of
C. frustrata
are also suspect. It was reported from “Turner's River Hammock” in Collier County and the Ten Thousand Islands area of ENP, but no voucher specimen has ever been located for these collections (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 7).

Current Range

In ENP, the species appears to have a distribution approaching what was reported historically. Eleven populations supporting approximately 1,500 to 2,500 plants occur in buttonwood forests and rockland hammocks from the Coastal Prairie Trail near the southern tip of Cape Sable to Madeira Bay (Sadle 2007 and 2012, pers. comm.).

In the Florida Keys,
Chromolaena frustrata
has been extirpated from half of the islands where it occurred (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 4). It no longer occurs on Key Largo, Big Pine Key, Fiesta Key, Knight's Key, or Key West (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 4-6). The current range of
C. frustrata
includes a small portion of ENP, and six islands in the Florida Keys (Upper Matecumbe Key, Lower Matecumbe Key, Lignumvitae Key, Long Key, Big Munson Island, and Boca Grande Key) (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3-4). Extant populations of
C. frustrata
are identified in Table 1 and discussed below.

Table 1—Extant populations of
Chromolaena frustrata.

Population
Ownership

Size
Numbers of plants

Habitat

Everglades National Park—Flamingo District
Federal—National Park Service
1634-2633 (Sadle 2012, pers. comm.)
Buttonwood forest, rockland hammock.

Upper Matecumbe—Choate Tract
State—Florida Department of Environmental Protection
18 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3-6)
Coastal rock barren, rockland hammock.

Lower Matecumbe—Klopp Tract
State—Florida Department of Environmental Protection
15 (Duquesnel 2012, pers. comm.)
Coastal rock barren, rockland hammock.

Lignumvitae Key
State—Florida Department of Environmental Protection
81 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3-6)
Rockland hammock.

Long Key State Park
State-Florida Department of Environmental Protection
200 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3-6)
Coastal rockland barren.

Long Key—North Layton Hammock
State—Florida Department of Environmental Protection—and Private
162 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3-6)
Coastal rock barren, rockland hammock.

Big Munson Island
Private
4,500 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3-6)
Rockland hammock.

Key West National Wildlife Refuge—Boca Grande Key
Federal—Fish and Wildlife Service
25 (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3-6)
Rockland hammock.

Demographics

Little is known about the long-term demographics or population trends of
Chromolaena frustrata.
Populations may experience declines due to the effects of hurricanes and storm surges, but the species appears to be able to rebound at affected sites within a few years. For example, after Hurricane Wilma in 2005, some populations of
C. frustrata
vanished and the habitat at these sites was significantly altered due to hurricane storm surge (Duquesnel 2005, pers. comm.; Bradley 2007, pers. comm.; Maschinski 2007, pers. comm.). However, it appears that the species is returning at these locations (Bradley 2009, pers. comm.). Furthermore, canopy disturbance may also benefit the species, as it has been speculated that the large number of plants observed at Big Munson Island in 2003 was due to thinning of the hammock canopy caused by Hurricane Georges in 1998 (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 4).

Reproductive Biology and Genetics

The reproductive biology and genetics of
Chromolaena frustrata
have not been studied (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 37). We have no other information available regarding the ecology of the species beyond the habitat preferences and demographic trends discussed above.

Consolea corallicola

Consolea corallicola
(Family: Cactaceae) is a tree-like cactus; mature plants grow 2 meters (m) (6 feet (ft)) tall with an erect main trunk, which is elliptical or oval in cross section and armed with spines. Near the top of the plant there is a dense cluster of branches. The stem branches (pads) are green, elliptical, relatively thin, often curved, and 12 to 30 cm (5 to 12 in) long. The spines are in clusters of five to nine, 7 to 11 cm (2.8 to 4.7 in) long, needle-like, with one of the spines much longer than the others. Spines on the main stems of older plants are enlarged. The flowers are bright red and 1.3 to 1.9 cm (0.50 to 0.75 in) wide, and the fruits are yellow, egg-shaped, and 2.5 to 5.1 cm (1 to 2 in) long (Small 1930, pp. 25-26; Anderson 2001, pp. 170-171).

Taxonomy

John Kunkel Small discovered and described
Consolea corallicola
in 1930 (Small 1930, pp. 25-26). In 1971, Long and Lakela (1971, p. 626) reassigned the plants occurring in the Florida Keys to
Opuntia spinosissima
Miller, a species restricted to the Blue Hills of south coastal Jamaica. Austin
et al.
(1998, pp. 151-158) determined that the plants in Florida are morphologically distinct from
O. spinosissima
and retained them as
O. corallicola.
Genetic studies by Gordon and Kubisiak (1998, p. 209) confirmed that the Florida plants are a genetically distinct species. Recent taxonomic treatments accept the genus
Consolea
and apply the name
C. corallicola
to the Florida species (Areces-Mallea 1996, pp. 224-226; Anderson 2001, pp. 170-171; Parfitt and Gibson 2004a, pp. 92-94). Synonyms include
Opuntia corallicola
(Small) Werdermann (Parfitt and Gibson 2004, p. 94).

Climate

The climate of south Florida where
Consolea corallicola
occurs is classified as tropical savanna, as described above for
Chromolaena frustrata.

Habitat

Consolea corallicola
occurs in rockland hammocks near sea level (Small 1930, pp. 25-26; Benson 1982, p. 531) and in buttonwood forests in the transitional area between rockland hammocks and mangrove swamps (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 77; Gann
et al.
2002, p. 480; Higgins 2007, pers. comm.). These community types are described above for
Chromolaena frustrata. Consolea corallicola
occurs on sandy soils and limestone rockland soils with little organic matter (Small 1930, pp. 25-26) and seems to prefer areas where canopy cover and sun exposure are moderate (Grahl and Bradley 2005, p. 4).

Historical Range

Consolea corallicola
was known historically from three islands of the Florida Keys in Monroe County (Small 1930, pp. 25-26) and one small island in Biscayne Bay in Miami-Dade County (Bradley and Woodmansee 2002, p. 810). A population on the southeast portion of Big Pine Key in the Florida Keys (Small 1921, p. 50) was extirpated by the 1960s, as a result of road building and “collecting by cactus enthusiasts” (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 77). A population known from Key Largo in the Florida Keys was also extirpated, although the cause of its loss is unknown (Bradley and Woodmansee 2002, p. 810).

Current Range

The current range of
Consolea corallicola
includes two naturally occurring populations, one in Biscayne National Park (BNP; Miami-Dade County) and one on a small island in the Florida Keys (Monroe County) (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 77; Bradley and Woodmansee 2002, p. 810). These naturally occurring populations account for fewer than 1,000 plants.
Consolea corallicola
was also reintroduced at several sites in the Florida Keys, and plants survive at two of these sites on State-owned lands (Stiling 2009, pers. comm.; Stiling 2010, p. 1; Duquesnel 2011a,b, pers. comm.). Both sites together represent fewer than 50 plants. A survey of other areas containing suitable habitat in BNP was undertaken in 2002 and 2003, to locate additional populations, but none were found (Bradley and Koop 2003, p. 2).

Extant populations of
Consolea corallicola
are provided in Table 2 and are discussed below.

Table 2—Extant Populations of Consolea corallicola

Population
Ownership
Size
Habitat
Trend

Biscayne National Park
Federal—National Park Service
600 (McDonough 2010a, pers. comm.)
rockland hammock
Stable.

Island in Florida Keys
Private—The Nature Conservancy
9 to 11 adults, 100s of juveniles (Gun 2012, pers. comm.)
rockland hammock, rockland hammock-buttonwood forest ecotone
Declining.

Island in Florida Keys (reintroduced)
State—Florida Department of Environmental Protection
40 juveniles (Duquesnel 2011a, pers. comm.)
buttonwood forest-saltmarsh ecotone, coastal rock barren
Declining.

Island in Florida Keys (reintroduced)
State—Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission
7 juveniles (Stiling 2010, p.1)
Unknown
Declining.

Reintroductions

Experimental plantings of
Consolea corallicola
were conducted at several sites on State and Federal conservation lands in the Florida Keys from 1996 to 2004. However, these plantings were largely unsuccessful (with most plants succumbing to
Cactoblastis
moth damage or rot), and plants currently remain at only two of these sites, one of which is inundated too frequently during high tides to be favorable for population expansion (Duquesnel 2008, 2009, 2011a,b, pers. comm.; Stiling 2007, p. 2; Stiling 2009, pers. comm.; Stiling 2010, pp. 2, 193-194).

Reproductive Biology and Genetics

Consolea corallicola
flowering occurs throughout the year, but peaks in February and March (Bradley and Koop 2003, p. 2). Plants of
C. corallicola
are functionally dioecious (i.e., with male and female flowers on separate plants), but the flowers give the appearance of a species that is hermaphroditic with perfect flowers (i.e., each flower produces stamens and ovules) (Negrón-Ortiz and Strittmatter 2004, p. 22; Negrón-Ortiz 2007a, p. 3; 2007b, p. 1362).

Sexual reproduction has not been observed in
Consolea corallicola.
All documented
C. corallicola
reproduction has been vegetative (clonal), with new plants originating from pads that fall from larger plants and take root (Negrón-Ortiz 1998, p. 208). Survival rates of fallen pads in research populations are low due to rot and
Cactoblastis
moth damage (Stiling 2010, p. 193; see Summary of Factors Affecting the Species below). Production of seeds is rare and the few seeds that have been observed are thought to be the product of asexual seed reproduction (agamospermy) (Negrón-Ortiz 1998, p. 211). Two hypotheses have been suggested to explain the lack of seed production of
C. corallicola.
The first hypothesis is that the species is a sterile polyploid (abnormal cell division that results in more than two sets of chromosomes) (Negrón-Ortíz 1998, p. 212). An alternative hypothesis is the dioecious breeding system of
C. corallicola.
All plants in the known populations produce only male flowers, and no female individuals have ever been located. As a result, all existing occurrences of
C. corallicola
appear to be incapable of sexual reproduction at this time (Negrón-Ortiz and Strittmatter 2004, p. 22).

Cariaga
et al.
(2005, pp. 225-230) found no genetic diversity within the two remaining wild populations of
Consolea corallicola
and concluded that all plants within each population are likely derived clonally from a single parent plant. These data support asexual propagation as the reproductive strategy of
C. corallicola.
However, there is a small amount of variation between the two remaining wild populations, suggesting the possibility that they originated from different parent plants (Lewis 2007, p. 3). Likewise, Cariaga
et al.
(2005, p. 225) found that a single plant collected by George Avery in 1963 from Big Pine Key and maintained at Fairchild Tropical Botanical Gardens was a unique genotype, but Lewis (2007, pp. 6-7) found it to be identical to the plants from the other populations. Thus,
C. corallicola
has extremely limited genetic diversity, consisting of just one to three genetic lines.

Demographics

Annual monitoring has provided a perspective on the population structure and dynamics of
Consolea corallicola.
The wild population at BNP was monitored from 2002 to 2005. At the beginning of the study, the population consisted of 655 plants. At the end of the 3-year study in 2005, 594 plants were alive, and 61 had died (9 percent decline). Only 8 percent of plants produced flowers, and plants grew very slowly (about 1.2 cm (0.5 in) per year) (Grahl and Bradley 2005, pp. 4-5). From 2008 to 2010, the population was estimated to number approximately 600 individuals (McDonough 2010a, pers. comm.). Annual fluctuations in the number of plants is largely due to mortality of branches (pads) that fall from the larger plants but fail to

permanently establish (McDonough 2010a, pers. comm.). Overall, the number of plants comprising this population appears to be stable (Bradley and Koop 2003, p. 2; Grahl and Bradley 2005, p. 2; McDonough 2010a, pers. comm.).

Population decline has been shown in a wild population on an island in the Florida Keys, which now consists of 9 to 11 adult plants (defined as plants greater than 91.4 cm (3 ft) tall) and hundreds of small juveniles originating from fallen pads. Overall, the number of adult plants in this population has declined more than 50 percent over the past 10 years, due to crown rot and damage caused by the
Cactoblastis
moth and hurricanes (Higgins 2007, pers. comm.; Gun 2012, pers. comm.; see Summary of Factors Affecting the Species below).

Harrisia aboriginum

Description

Harrisia aboriginum
(Family: Cactaceae) is a sprawling cactus, usually with multiple stems arising from a single base. The stems are erect, slender, and cylindrical. They possess 9 to 11 longitudinal ribs, and may reach 6 m (20 ft) in height. Spines are 1.0 cm (0.4 in) long and originate in clusters of seven to nine spines. Flowers are funnel-shaped, white, up to 15 cm (5.9 in) long, and have a slight scent. The inside of the flower is lined with stiff, brown hairs. Fruits are yellow, round in shape, and 6.1 to 7.6 cm (2.4 to 3.0 in) in diameter (Small in Britton and Rose 1920, p. 154; Anderson 2001, p. 370; Parfitt and Gibson 2004b, p. 153). Each fruit contains hundreds of small black seeds. Plants in full to partial sun typically consist of several stems from a single base. Plants shaded by overstory vegetation usually have stems that tend to be slender and taller. These slender stems will topple over and eventually recorrect their growth upward, or they may reproduce new upright stems along the prostrate stems. Some of the prostrate stems deteriorate over time, obscuring the clonal origin (single source) of upright stems. This results in more diffuse groupings of clonal stems leaning at various angles (Bender 2011, p. 18).

Taxonomy

Harrisia aboriginum
was described by John Kunkel Small, after he discovered it in Manatee County in 1919 (Small in Britton and Rose 1920, p. 154). This name is still in use (Parfitt and Gibson 2004b, p. 153; Wunderlin and Hansen 2008, pp. 1-2), although possible alternative names for the species have been proposed over the years. The genus-level placement of
H. aboriginum
and other Florida relatives has been in flux since they were first described, with some authors placing them in the large and variable genus
Cereus
(i.e. Benson 1969, p. 126), and others segregating them into the smaller
Harrisia
genus. Recent authors have included the Florida species in the genus
Harrisia
(Hooten 1991, pp. 64-66; Anderson 2001, p. 370; Ward 2004, pp. 365-371; Parfitt and Gibson 2004b, pp. 150-153; Wunderlin and Hansen 2008, pp. 1-2).

Based upon the best available scientific information,
Harrisia

aboriginum
is a distinct taxon, endemic to the west coast of Florida. Synonyms include
Cereus aboriginum
(Small ex Britton and Rose) Little,
C. gracilis
var.
aboriginus
(Small ex Britton and Rose) L. D. Benson, and
Harrisia donae-antoniae
Hooten (Parfitt and Gibson 2004b, p. 153).

Climate

The climate of south Florida where
Harrisia aboriginum
occurs is classified as tropical savanna as described above for
Chromolaena frustrata.

Habitat

Harrisia aboriginum
occurs on coastal berms, coastal strand, coastal grasslands and maritime hammocks, with a sand substrate. It also occurs on shell mounds with a calcareous shell substrate (Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 4, 14). The coastal berm community is described above for
Chromolaena frustrata. Harrisia aboriginum
growing in coastal berm habitat sometimes occur close to the mangrove zone, but never within it.

Coastal Strand

Coastal strand is an evergreen shrub community growing on stabilized coastal dunes. It is usually the first woody plant community inland from the coast. On the southwest Gulf coast of Florida, coastal strand is patchily distributed. It usually develops as a band between dunes dominated by
Uniola paniculata
(sea oats) along the immediate coast, and maritime hammock, scrub, or mangrove swamp communities farther inland. On broad barrier islands, it may also occur as patches of shrubs within a coastal grassland matrix (FNAI 2010f, p. 2).

On the southwest Gulf coast of Florida, the species composition of coastal strand consists of tropical plant species, including
Coccoloba uvifera, Forestiera segregata
(Florida swampprivet),
Rapanea punctata
(myrsine),
Lantana involucrata, Randia aculeata,

Chiococca alba
(snowberry),
Eugenia foetida, Guapira discolor,

Zanthoxylum fagara
(wild lime),
Pithecellobium keyense, Chrysobalanus icaco
(coco plum),
Dalbergia ecastaphyllum
(coinvine),
Sophora tomentosa
var.
truncata
(yellow necklacepod),
Caesalpinia bonduc
(gray nicker),
Sideroxylon celastrinum,
and
Jacquinia keyensis,
(FNAI 2010f, p. 2).

Soils are deep, well-drained sands and may be somewhat alkaline, consisting of quartz sand mixed with varying proportions of shell fragments (FNAI 2010f, p. 2).

Storm waves periodically destroy dunes and the coastal strand behind them, with the resulting bare area being recolonized first by pioneer beach species and then by coastal grassland. The resulting coastal grassland is in turn invaded by patches of woody species, which eventually coalesce into a continuous woody community of coastal strand. Natural disturbances, such as strong winds and storm surge associated with hurricanes, or hard freezes, serve to open up coastal strand canopies. There is little information on natural fire frequency in coastal strand (FNAI 2010f, p. 2).

Coastal strand is distinguished from maritime hammock by the absence of distinct tree canopy and understory layers. It is distinguished from coastal berm and shell mound by its occurrence on sand deposits along a high-energy sandy coast, rather than on shell deposits along a low-energy, mangrove-dominated coast. It is distinguished from coastal grassland by the dominance of woody, rather than herbaceous, species.

Coastal Grassland

Coastal grassland is a predominantly herbaceous community occupying the drier portions of the transition zone between beach dunes on the immediate coast and communities dominated by woody species, such as coastal strand or maritime hammock, farther inland. It occurs primarily on the broader barrier islands and capes along the sandy coasts of Florida. The specialized dune building grasses of the beach dune community,
Uniola paniculata, Panicum amarum
(bitter panicgrass), and
Spartina patens
(saltmeadow cordgrass), are usually present, along with a variety of other herbaceous species typically found on more stable soils, such as
Andropogon
and
Schizachyrium
(bluestem grasses),
Heterotheca subaxillaris
(camphorweed), and
Smilax auriculata.
On the southwest Gulf coast, a distinctive coastal grassland community is found on the broad barrier islands such as Cayo Costa, North Captiva, and

formerly Captiva and Sanibel. It consists of a short, dense sward (a portion of ground covered with grass) of
Bouteloua hirsuta
(hairy grama). Other species present include
Ernodea littoralis
(beach creeper),
Opuntia stricta,
and
Lantana depressa
var.
sanibelensis
(Gulf Coast Florida lantana) (FNAI 2010g, entire).

Coastal grassland develops either as a barrier island builds seaward, developing new dune ridges along the shore that protect the inland ridges from sand burial and salt spray, or as a beach recovers after storm overwash and a new foredune ridge builds up along the shore, protecting the overwashed area behind it from sand burial and salt spray. As time passes, absent further storms, the coastal grassland community itself will gradually be replaced by woody species to form scrub, coastal strand, or maritime hammock communities (FNAI 2010g, entire).

Fire is naturally rare and localized in this community, with water barriers and sparse fuels combining to limit its spread (FNAI 2010g, entire).

Coastal grassland is distinguished from the beach dune community by its position inland from the immediate coastline and the presence of a variety of grasses, forbs, and pioneer dune-building grasses. It differs from coastal berm in its position on a sandy coast, rather than on a storm-deposited shell ridge on a mangrove-dominated shoreline. Coastal grassland is distinguished from coastal strand and maritime hammock in being dominated by herbaceous, rather than woody, species (FNAI 2010g, entire).

Maritime Hammock

Maritime hammock is a predominantly evergreen hardwood forest growing on stabilized coastal dunes lying at varying distances from the shore. On the southwest Gulf coast of Florida, most of the barrier islands and peninsulas are long and narrow with correspondingly small, narrow areas of hammock. Maritime hammock is best developed on the few broad islands, including Caladesi, Cayo Costa, North Captiva, and the inner barrier islands at Stump Pass and Keewaydin Island (FNAI 2010h, entire).

Canopy species include
Cococarpus erectus, Piscidia piscipula,

Bursera simaruba, Sideroxylon foetidissimum,

Exothea paniculata, Eugenia axillaris
(white stopper),
Ficus aurea, Coccoloba uvifera,

Eugenia foetida,
and
Pithecellobium keyense;
shrubs include
Rapanea punctata, Myrcianthes fragrans
(Simpson's stopper),
Ardisia escallonioides, Psychotria nervosa,

Chiococca alba,
and
Randia aculeata.
Cacti and other spiny species, such as
Agave sisalana
(sisal)
and Acanthocereus tetragonus,
may also be present. The herb layer is sparse to absent (FNAI 2010h, entire).

Maritime hammock occurs on deep, well-drained, acid quartz sands, or well-drained, moderately alkaline, quartz sands mixed with shell fragments (FNAI 2010h, entire).

Due to their coastal location with water barriers on at least one, if not two sides, fire was probably naturally rare and very spotty in maritime hammock, especially on the narrower barrier islands. Maritime hammocks are principally influenced by wind-borne salt spray, storm waves, and sand burial. If storm waves destroy the protective dunes seaward of the hammock, sand can blow inland, burying the trees. In addition to physical destruction by storm waves, hammock trees are susceptible to being killed by standing salt water deposited in low areas by storm surge (FNAI 2010h, entire).

Tropical maritime hammock can be distinguished from rockland hammock by their occurrence on sand substrate, rather than limestone. They may be similar in species composition to coastal berm, being distinguished primarily by location along a high wave energy sandy coast, rather than a low-energy, mangrove-dominated coast, and the presence of a distinct canopy layer. They are very similar to shell mounds in species composition, being distinguished by their occurrence on a natural sand deposit rather than on pure shell (FNAI 2010h, entire).

Shell Mound

Shell mounds are small hills, usually in coastal locations, composed entirely of shells (clams, oysters, whelks) discarded by generations of Native Americans. Shell mounds are found along the coast throughout Florida and range westward and northward along the coastlines of the southeastern United States. Originally, there were many such shell mounds along coastal lagoons and at the mouths of rivers, but most were destroyed for road building in the early part of the last century. A rich, calcareous soil develops on the deposited shells, which supports a diverse hardwood forest on undisturbed mounds. Several shell mounds are now surrounded by mangroves, evidence that they were built when sea level was lower than today (FNAI 2010i, entire).

The plant species composition of shell mound forests tends to be more strictly tropical than that of maritime hammocks on sandy substrates in the same region. South Florida shell mounds are often characterized by tropical tree species such as
Bursera simaruba, Eugenia axillaris,

Amyris elemifera, Zanthoxylum fagara,

Sideroxylon foetidissimum, Exothea paniculata,

Ficus aurea,
and
Ocotea coriacea.
Characteristic shrub species include
Chiococca alba, Forestiera segregata,
and
Sideroxylon celastrinum.
Shell mounds may have vegetation similar to tropical or temperate types of maritime hammock, but differ in that they grow on pure shells rather than sand or sand mixed with shell fragments (FNAI 2010i, entire).

In the habitats described above,
Harrissia aboriginum
seems to prefer areas where canopy cover is open to partially closed (Fellows
et al.
2001, p. 3; Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 115). Mortality of plants growing in deep shade under fully closed canopy has been observed (Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 11; Bender 2011, p. 5). Plants growing in open to partially closed canopy sites tend to be more robust and produce more flowers and fruits (Bender 2011, p. 17; Conrad 2012, pers. comm.).

Historical Range

Harrisia aboriginum
was known historically from coastal areas of southwest Florida along the Gulf coast in Manatee, Charlotte, Sarasota, and Lee Counties. The species was documented on six keys along approximately 125 km (78 mi) of Gulf coastline. Populations reported for Delnor-Wiggins Pass State Park, San Marco Island, Fort Pierce, and ENP are considered unsubstantiated (Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 5-6).

Current Range

A 2004 status survey confirmed 10 extant populations along a 100-km (62-mile) stretch of coast (Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 8), one of which has since been extirpated (Nielsen 2009, pers. comm.). The species is extirpated in the northern extent of its historic range in Manatee County (Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 3, 8-9). Currently 12 sites support extant populations. Plants occur on seven public and private conservation areas, four County parcels not managed for conservation, and at least three unprotected private parcels. In total, the species was represented by an estimated 300 to 500 individuals in 2007 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87). Besides a few anecdotal accounts, population trends were unknown prior to 2004. Extant populations of
Harrisia aboriginum
are provided in Table 3.

Table 3—Extant Populations of
Harrisia aboriginum

Population No.
Ownership
Size (Number of plants)
Trend
Habitat

1
Private conservation

5 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87)

declining
maritime hammock.

2
Private conservation

5 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87)

declining
shell mound.

3
Sarasota County

50-75 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87)

declining
coastal strand, coastal berm.

4
Sarasota County
3 (Bender 2011, pp. 9-12)
unknown
spoil mound.

5
Private

at least 13 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87)

declining
coastal strand, coastal berm.

6
State—Florida Department of Environmental Protection

27 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87)

declining
coastal berm, shell mound.

7
Private and Charlotte County

approx. 10 (Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 10-37)

unknown
coastal berm.

8
Private Conservation

1 (Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 10-37)

unknown
coastal berm.

9
Lee County

1 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87)

stable
spoil mound.

10
Lee County

4 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87)

declining
coastal berm.

11
Lee County

300-400 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87)

stable
coastal berm.

12
Federal—Fish and Wildlife Service

100-200 (Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 10-37)

stable
coastal berm.

Reproductive Biology and Population Genetics

There has been little research into the reproductive biology of
Harrisia aboriginum.
Flowers are produced May through September. Ripe fruits have been observed from June through October. In some populations, fruits are frequently removed from plants by unknown animals (Fellows
et al.
2001, p. 2). Observations suggest that establishment of new plants is likely an infrequent event. Seedlings are rarely observed. Plant fragmentation has been observed, suggesting that this could be a dispersal mechanism. New clonal plants are observed to arise from small stem fragments ranging from 5.1 to 7.6 cm (2 to 3 in) in length (Bender 2011, p. 17). Establishment from plant fragments is probably more frequent than from seed (Fellows
et al.
2001, p. 2). There have been no genetic studies of
H. aboriginum.

Summary of Factors Affecting the Species

Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533) and its implementing regulations at 50 CFR part 424 set forth the procedures for adding species to the Federal Lists of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the Act, we may list a species based on any of the following five factors: (A) The present or threatened destruction, modification, or curtailment of its habitat or range; (B) overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes; (C) disease or predation; (D) the inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms; and (E) other natural or manmade factors affecting its continued existence. Listing actions may be warranted based on any of the above threat factors, singly or in combination. Each of these factors as applied to these three plants is discussed below.

A. The Present or Threatened Destruction, Modification, or Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range

Human Population Growth and Development

Destruction and modification of habitat are a threat to
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum.
Terrestrial ecosystems of south Florida have been heavily impacted by humans, through widespread clearing for agricultural, residential, commercial, and infrastructure development. Extensive areas of rockland hammock, pine rockland, and other ecosystems have been lost (Solecki 2001, p. 350; Hodges and Bradley 2006, p. 6). Because of their proximity to the beach and relatively higher elevations, coastal hammocks, strands, and berms have been heavily impacted by residential and tourism development. As a result, only isolated fragments of these habitats remain (Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 3-4). Loss and modification of coastal habitat due to development is expected to continue and increase in the coming decades in Florida (Zwick and Carr 2006, p. 13). Species populations are more secure on public lands than on private lands, but still face the threats of habitat loss and modification through development of public facilities such as new buildings, parking lots, and other associated facilities and through recreational opportunities to support visitor services. Impacts to each of the species are discussed below.

Chromolaena frustrata

Habitat destruction and modification resulting from development are considered a major threat to
Chromolaena frustrata
throughout the species' range (Gann
et al.
2002, p. 387). The populations on Fiesta Key, Knights Key, Key Largo, and Key West were lost due to development. Fiesta Key is completely developed as a Kampgrounds of America (KOA) campground and is devoid of native plant communities. Knights Key is almost completely developed and has no remaining suitable habitat (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 5). Key Largo has undergone extensive disturbance and development. Although suitable coastal berm and rockland hammock habitat are still located in State and Federal conservation sites on Key Largo (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 8), despite extensive surveys of the island
C. frustrata
has not been located (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 5).

Two
Chromolaena frustrata
populations, including the largest population, are located on privately owned sites, which are vulnerable to further development (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 7; Table 1). The statewide population of
C. frustrata
was estimated at fewer than 5,000 plants in 2004, but 4,500 plants (90 percent) are located at a single, privately owned, unprotected site (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 7). The site, Big Munson Island, is owned by the Boy Scouts of America (BSA) and is utilized as a Boy Scout Camp. Scout campsites have been established along the coastal berm (Hodges and Bradley 2006, p. 10), and recreation development (campsites) and possibly recreational activities (trampling) potentially remain a threat to
C. frustrata
at this site. At this time, we do not believe that this site faces threats from residential or commercial development. However, if development pressure and BSA recreational usage increase, this largest population may face threats from habitat loss and modification.

The population on Long Key at Layton Hammock is vulnerable to commercial or residential development (Bradley and Gann 2004, pp. 3-20). In addition, development remains a threat to any suitable rock barren or rockland hammock habitat on private lands within the species' historic range. Overall, the human population in Monroe County is expected to increase from 79,589 to more than 92,287 people by 2060 (Zwick and Carr 2006, p. 21). All vacant land in the Florida Keys is projected to be developed by then, including lands not currently accessible by automobile (Zwick and Carr 2006, p. 14).

Chromolaena frustrata
populations in conservation areas have been impacted and may continue to be impacted by development with increased public use. Mechanical disturbances such as trail construction in coastal berms may have exacerbated nonnative plant invasions (see Factor E discussion below) (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 4).
C. frustrata
has been impacted by park development on State lands, and habitat modifications such as mowing and trail maintenance remain a threat (Gann
et al.
2002, p. 391; Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 6; Hodges and Bradley 2006, p. 30).

Consolea corallicola

Destruction and modification of habitat from development throughout the species' range continue to be a threat to
Consolea corallicola.
Unoccupied suitable habitat throughout the species' former range is under intense development pressure. Development and road building were the causes of this species' original extirpation on Big Pine Key (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 77; Bradley and Woodmansee 2002, p. 810). Residential and commercial development and roadway construction continue to occur throughout Miami-Dade County and the Florida Keys. Both remaining wild populations are secure from habitat destruction because they are located within private and Federal conservation areas. However, at one State-owned site where a reintroduction was attempted, all of the plants were accidentally destroyed by the expansion of a trail.

Harrisia aboriginum

Destruction and modification of habitat from development throughout the species' range continue to be a threat to
Harrisia aboriginum.
The coastal habitats of this species have been heavily impacted by development over the past 50 years (Morris and Miller 1981, pp. 1-11; Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 3). Shell mounds created by Native Americans were among the first areas colonized by early Western Europeans because of their higher elevation and were later extensively utilized for construction material, in some cases resulting in the complete destruction of the habitat. Coastal hammocks, strands, and berms, because of their proximity to the beach and higher elevations, were also used for coastal residential construction. Only isolated fragments of suitable habitat for
H. aboriginum
remain (Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 3).

The species was extirpated from the northern extent of its range in Manatee County by the 1970s, due to urbanization (Morris and Miller 1981, p. 2; Austin 1984, p. 69). Despite the recent downturn in residential construction, coastal development is ongoing in the habitat of
H. aboriginum.
Populations on private land or non-conservation public land are most vulnerable to habitat loss. Threats include residential development, road widening, and landscape maintenance (Morris and Miller 1981, pp. 2-11; Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 36-37). Suitable habitat within the species' range was recently destroyed by encroachment from a private development onto State land (FNAI 2011a, pp. 207-208). The threats of habitat loss, modification, and degradation are expected to increase with increased human population, development pressure, and infrastructure needs. Sarasota, Charlotte, and Lee Counties, where this plant currently occurs, are expected to build out before 2060 (Zwick and Carr 2006, p. 13), placing further pressure on remaining natural areas.

Populations located on public lands are better protected than those on private land, but still may face the threat of habitat loss through development of park facilities such as new buildings, parking lots, and trails (Morris and Miller 1981, p. 4). Construction of new bathrooms in 2011 at a site owned by Sarasota County eliminated a portion of the coastal berm habitat, and parking lot renovations are planned for 2012 at a second County site where
Harrisia aboriginum
occurs (Bender 2011, p. 11). Not all land managers are aware of the presence of
H. aboriginum
at sites under their jurisdiction; for example, managers at one site in Charlotte County were unaware of
H. aboriginum
on county lands (Bender 2011, p. 13)
.
Nevertheless, the population has persisted, probably due to its anonymity and difficulty of access. The lack of management, however, has allowed a heavy infestation of nonnative plants, which have modified the habitat and are shading out
H. aboriginum
(Bender 2011, p. 13). Portions of at least two populations located on public land also extend onto adjacent unprotected, private lands (Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 16, 36).

Populations on privately owned conservation sites may have inadequate protection from habitat loss or modification as well. One such site that was declared a “Preserve” in 1992 as part of a residential community has no formal protection; it was partially bulldozed and landscaped with native species within the past 10 years (Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 10). The number of plants observed at this “Preserve” site decreased from 226 plants in 1981 (Morris and Miller 1981, p. 5), to 5 plants in 2006 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 87). Another site is owned by a nonprofit organization and managed for historical preservation. The site is severely disturbed from a long history of human activity and is currently open to public visitation (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 103). This population has declined over the past 30 years from 21 stems comprising 7 plants in 1981 (Morris and Miller 1981, p. 4), to only 3 plants in 2003 (Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 13). Development of the site for public visitation likely played a role in the decline (Morris and Miller 1981, p. 4).

Other Conservation Efforts

The National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 and the Fish and Wildlife Service Manual (601 FW 3, 602 FW 3) require maintaining biological integrity and diversity, comprehensive conservation planning for each refuge, and set standards to ensure that all uses of refuges are compatible with their purposes and the Refuge System's wildlife conservation mission. The comprehensive conservation plans (CCP) address conservation of fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their related habitats, while providing opportunities for compatible wildlife-dependent recreation uses. An overriding consideration reflected in these plans is that fish and wildlife conservation has first priority in refuge management, and that public use be allowed and encouraged as long as it is compatible with, or does not detract from, the Refuge System mission and refuge purpose(s).

The CCP for the Lower Florida Keys National Wildlife Refuges (National Key Deer Refuge, Key West National Wildlife Refuge, and Great White Heron National Wildlife Refuge) provides a description of the environment and priority resource issues that were considered in developing the objectives and strategies that guide management over the next 15 years. The CCP promotes the enhancement of wildlife populations by

maintaining and enhancing a diversity and abundance of habitats for native plants and animals, especially imperiled species that are only found in the Florida Keys. The CCP also provides for obtaining baseline data and monitoring indicator species to detect changes in ecosystem diversity and integrity related to climate change. In the Lower Key Refuges CCP management objective no. 16 provides specifically for maintaining and expanding populations of candidate plant species including
Chromolaena frustrata
and

Consolea corallicola

Special Use Permits (SUPs) are also issued by the Refuges as authorized by the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act (16 U.S.C. 668dd-ee) as amended, and the Refuge Recreation Act (16 U.S.C. 460k-460k-4). The SUPs cover commercial activities (such as guiding hunters, anglers or other outdoor users, commercial filming, agriculture, cabins, and trapping); research and monitoring by students, universities, or other non-Service organizations; and general use (woodcutting, miscellaneous events (fishing tournaments, one-time events, other special events), cabins/subsistence cabins, education activity). The Service has no information concerning the effects of the issuance of SUPs for any of the three species.

Summary of Factor A

In summary, the decline of
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
habitat is the result of threats that have operated in the past, are impacting these species now, and will continue to impact these species in the future. It is reasonable to conclude that the changes in the habitats historically and currently occupied by the species are the cause of observed population-level declines. The decline of these species is primarily the result of the long-lasting effects of habitat loss, degradation, and modification from human population growth and associated development. Thus, we believe these changes in the species' historic or current range will not be ameliorated in the future; therefore, we find it reasonably likely that the effects on the species will continue at current levels or potentially increase.

B. Overutilization for Commercial, Recreational, Scientific, or Educational Purposes

Overutilization (collection by hobbyists, also known as poaching) is a major threat to
Consolea corallicola
(Gann
et al.
2002, p. 440) and
Harrisia aboriginum
(Austin
et al.
1980, p. 2; Morris and Miller 1981, pp. 1-11; Gann
et al.
2002, p. 481; Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 6; Bender 2011, p. 5)
.
Cactus poaching is an international phenomenon. Cacti are frequently impacted at sites that are known and easily accessed by poachers (Anderson 2001, pp. 73-78). The rarity of
C. corallicola
and
H. aboriginum,
coupled with their showy flowers, make these cacti particularly desirable to collectors. Seeds of
H. aboriginum
and
H. fragrans
(the fragrant prickly-apple, a federally listed endangered cactus (listed as
Cereus eriophorus
var.
fragrans
) from Florida's east coast) are currently offered for sale by online plant distributors, demonstrating that a demand exists for these cacti from collectors. The severity of the threat of poaching is exacerbated by the fact that some populations of these cacti are limited to just a few individual plants. These smaller populations could easily be extirpated by a single poaching episode.

Consolea corallicola

Collecting by cactus hobbyists is suspected to have played a part in the extirpation of
Consolea corallicola
from Big Pine Key and Key Largo in the late 1970s, and poaching remains a major threat to this species (Gann
et al.
2002, p. 481). Other species of
Consolea
are currently offered for sale by online plant distributors. Probable evidence of poaching activity was observed at a site in Monroe County on multiple occasions, and caused the death of one
C. corallicola
plant (Slapcinsky
et al.
2006, p. 3). Although the remaining populations are somewhat protected due to their location on conservation lands, these plants remain vulnerable to illegal collection because the sites are remote and not patrolled regularly by enforcement personnel.

Collection for scientific and recovery purposes has so far relied on the harvesting of cuttings from plants growing in botanical garden and private collections. We expect that collection for the purposes of recovery will continue and ultimately be beneficial in augmenting and reintroducing
C. corallicola
at suitable sites. We have no evidence that collection for scientific or recovery purposes is a threat to the species at this time.

Harrisia aboriginum

Poaching of
Harrisia aboriginum
is a major threat (Morris and Miller 1981, pp. 1-11; Gann
et al.
2002, p. 440; Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 6). Damage and evidence of
H. aboriginum
poaching was reported by Morris and Miller (1981, pp. 1-11) at several sites. Evidence of poaching was recently observed at a site in Sarasota County that has high public visitation. At that site, there was evidence that cuttings had been removed from multiple
H. aboriginum
plants at numerous different times (Bender 2011, pp. 5-6).

Chromolaena frustrata

We have no evidence suggesting that overutilization for commercial, recreational, scientific, or educational purposes are a threat to
Chromolaena frustrata.
Except for its rarity, the species does not possess any attributes that would make it desirable to collectors, such as showy foliage or flowers, and there are no known medicinal, culinary, or religious uses for this species.

Summary of Factor B

In summary, based on our analysis of the best available scientific and commercial information we find that collecting for commercial or scientific reasons or recreational activities is not a threat to
Chromolaena frustrata
in any portion of its range at this time and is not likely to become so in the future.

We find that overutilization by poachers is a major threat to
Consolea corallicola
and
Harrisia aboriginum.
There is a current market for these cacti and evidence of ongoing collecting activity such that it is reasonable to conclude that collecting has caused declines and extirpation of populations. All populations of
C. corallicola
and
H. aboriginum
are vulnerable to this ongoing threat; however, populations at sites that are easily accessible to the public likely face the greatest threat from collectors. The small number of remaining plants at most sites exacerbates this threat; smaller populations could be completely lost to a single collection episode. The areas that support these cacti are somewhat remote, making enforcement extremely difficult. These threats have operated in the past, are impacting these species now, and are expected to continue into the future. Based on our analysis of the best available information, we find that overutilization is a threat to these species throughout their entire range. We believe that overutilization will not be ameliorated in the future; therefore, we find it reasonably likely that the effects on the species will continue at current levels or potentially increase.

C. Disease or Predation

Chromolaena frustrata

On Big Munson Island, much of the
Chromolaena frustrata
population was

observed to suffer from severe herbivory in 2004. No insects were observed on any plants, and the endangered Key deer (
Odocoileus virginianus clavium
) was the suspected culprit (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 4). The significance of herbivory on
C. frustrata
population dynamics is unknown. No diseases have been reported for
C. frustrata.

Consolea corallicola

A fungal pathogen,
Fusarium oxysporum,
can infect
Consolea corallicola,
causing crown rot, a disease in which plants rot near their base (Slapcinsky
et al.
2006, p. 2; Stiling 2010, p. 191). Cacti in the Florida Keys populations that are affected by this disease have also tested positive for a fungus,
Phomopsis
sp. (Slapcinsky
et al.
2006, p. 3). This disease was largely responsible for the high mortality rates in some reintroduced populations in the Florida Keys (Stiling 2010, p. 193). At present, crown rot does not appear to be affecting the population at BNP.

Predation by the moth
Cactoblastis cactorum
(Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is considered a significant threat to
Consolea corallicola
(Stiling
et al.
2000, pp. 2, 6; Gann
et al.
2002, p. 481; Wright and Maschinski 2004, p. 4; Grahl and Bradley 2005, pp. 2, 7; Slapcinsky
et al.
2006, pp. 2-4). Native to South America,
Cactoblastis cactorum
was introduced to Australia in 1925, as a biological control agent for nonnative species of
Opuntia.
Adult moths deposit eggs on the branches of host species. When these eggs hatch, larvae then burrow into the cacti and feed on the inner tissue of the plant's stems. The larvae then pupate, and the cycle repeats.
Cactoblastis cactorum
was extremely effective as a biological control agent, and credited with reclaiming 6,474,970 ha (16,000,000 ac) of land infested with
Opuntia
species in Australia alone. The moth also has been an effective control agent for
Opuntia
species in Hawaii, India, and South Africa. It was introduced to a few Caribbean islands in the 1960s and 1970s, and rapidly spread throughout the Caribbean. The effectiveness of
C. cactorum
at controlling
Opuntia
populations is described as “rapid and spectacular” (Habeck and Bennett 1990. p. 1). The moth had spread to Florida by 1989, prompting the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services (FDACS) to issue an alert that
C. cactorum,
along with another unidentified species of moth, had the potential to adversely impact
Opuntia
populations due to the high rate of
Opuntia
infestation and mortality, as demonstrated in other localities in the Caribbean and elsewhere (Habeck and Bennett 1990. p. 1). Among local cactus species in the Florida Keys,
C. corallicola
is a preferred host (Stiling 2010, p. 190). Between 1990 and 2009, the moth infested and damaged multiple
C. corallicola
plants in the Florida Keys' wild populations, killing one plant and damaging others (Gun 2012 pers.comm. Fortunately, these infestations were detected very early and controlled before
C. cactorum
could kill multiple plants and fully spread throughout the population. Planted
C. corallicola
populations in the Florida Keys fared much worse; at one planting site, 90 individuals (50 percent of those planted) were killed by
C. cactorum
over a 4-year period (Stiling 2010, p. 193). To date,
C. cactorum
has not been observed in BNP (McDonough 2010a, pers. comm.). Even if the moth has not yet reached the Park, it likely will, based on its rapid spread in the Caribbean and Florida. This threat has the potential to cause steep declines in populations of
Consolea corallicola
if they become infested. No satisfactory method of large-scale control is known at this time (Habeck
et al.
2009, p. 2). Potential impacts to
C. corallicola
at the population level as a result of predation by
C. cactorum
are severe. As stated above, experts are certain of the potential for the moth to cause massive mortality in populations of
C. corallicola
if they become infested and the infestation is not caught early and aggressively controlled.

Predation by the Cuban garden snail (
Zachrysia provisoria
) has been observed at one
Consolea corallicola
reintroduction site (Duquesnel 2008, pers. comm.). The population-level impact of the Cuban garden snail is not known.

Harrisia aboriginum

An as yet unidentified pathogen can attack
Harrisia aboriginum
and cause stems to rot and die within about a week (Austin 1984, p. 2; Bradley 2005, pers. comm.). However, no signs of this disease were observed at several sites visited in 2011 (Bender 2011, p. 19).

Herbivory of flowers by iguanas (Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 30) and stems by gopher tortoises (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 108) has been noted. Scale insects have been observed in some
H. aboriginum
populations, occasionally causing severe damage to plants (Bradley 2005, pers. comm.).

Overall, evidence indicates disease and predation are relatively minor stressors to
H. aboriginum
at present, but could become threats in the future if they become more prevalent in the cacti populations.

Summary of Factor C

In summary,
Chromolaena frustrata
does not appear to be affected by disease or predation; disease and predation have been reported occasionally for
Harrisia aboriginum.
We have no evidence that the severity of either stressor has affected either species at a population level. Though it is possible the amount of disease or predation may increase in the future, there is no evidence that this stressor is growing in extent. Thus, based on our analysis of the best available scientific and commercial data available, we find that disease or predation is not a significant stressor to the overall status of
C. frustrata
or
H. aboriginum
at current levels, though these stressors could potentially become a threat in the future if these pests become more prevalent.

Disease and predation are severe threats to
Consolea corallicola.
Threats from disease include a pathogen that can cause crown rot and predation by the nonnative moth,
Cactoblastis cactorum.
Both are severe and pervasive threats, and it is reasonable to conclude that disease and predation have caused population declines. We have no reason to believe that diseases or predation will be ameliorated in the future; therefore, we find it reasonably likely that the effects on
C. corallicola
will continue at current levels or potentially increase in the future.

D. The Inadequacy of Existing Regulatory Mechanisms

Under this factor, we examine whether existing regulatory mechanisms are inadequate to address the threats to the species discussed under the other factors. Section 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act requires the Service to take into account “those efforts, if any, being made by any State or foreign nation, or any political subdivision of a State or foreign nation, to protect such species * * *.” In relation to Factor D, we interpret this language to require the Service to consider relevant Federal, State, and tribal laws, plans, regulations, and other such mechanisms that may minimize any of the threats we describe in threat analyses under the other four factors, or otherwise enhance conservation of the species. We give strongest weight to statutes and their implementing regulations and to management direction that stems from those laws and regulations. An example would be State governmental actions enforced under a State statute or constitution, or Federal action under statute.

State

Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
are listed on the Regulated Plant Index as endangered under Chapter 5B-40, Florida Administrative Code. The Regulated Plant Index also includes all federally listed endangered and threatened plant species. Florida Statutes 581.185 sections (3)(a) and (b) prohibit any person from willfully destroying or harvesting any species listed as endangered or threatened on the Index, or growing such a plant on the private land of another, or on any public land, without first obtaining the written permission of the landowner and a permit from the Florida Department of Plant Industry (DPI). The statute also requires that collection permits issued for species listed under the Act must be consistent with Federal standards (i.e., only the Service can issue permits to collect plants on Federal lands). The statute further provides that any person willfully destroying or harvesting; transporting, carrying, or conveying on any public road or highway; or selling or offering for sale any plant listed in the Index must have a permit from the State at all times when engaged in any such activities. However, despite these regulations, recent poaching is evident, and threats to the three species (particularly the two cacti) remain. Lack of implementation or compliance with existing regulations may be a result of funding, work priorities, or staffing.

In addition, subsections (8)(a) and (b) of the statute waive State regulation for certain classes of activities for all species on the Regulated Plant Index, including the clearing or removal of regulated plants for agricultural, forestry, mining, construction (residential, commercial, or infrastructure), and fire-control activities by a private landowner or his or her agent. However, section (10) of the statute provides for consultation similar to section 7 of the Federal Act for listed species by requiring the Department of Transportation to notify the FDACS and the Endangered Plant Advisory Council of planned highway construction at the time bids are first advertised, to facilitate evaluation of the project for listed plants populations, and to “provide for the appropriate disposal of such plants” (i.e., transplanting,). The Service has no information concerning the State of Florida's implementation of the enforcement of these statutes. However, it is clear that illegal collection and vandalism of cacti are both occurring, despite these and other provisions that specifically prohibit these activities. Insufficient implementation or enforcement of these statutes constitutes a threat to both
Consolea corallicola
and
Harrisia aboriginum
as they continue to decline in numbers.

Shell mounds on State land, some of which support populations of
Harrisia aboriginum,
are protected as historical resources under Florida Statute 267.13, sections (1)(a) and (b). Despite these protections, there is a long history of utilization and excavation of shell mounds by artifact hunters in Florida, causing erosion and opening areas for invasion by invasive plants (FNAI 2010i, p.3).

The Florida Division of Forestry (FDOF) administers Florida's outdoor burning and forest fire laws. Florida Statute 590.08 prohibits any person to willfully or carelessly burn or cause to be burned, or to set fire to or cause fire to be set to, any forest, grass, woods, wildland, or marshes not owned or controlled by such person. Despite this protection, unauthorized bonfires have been documented at sites supporting
Harrisia aboriginum
(Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 108; Bender 2011, pp. 5-6).

Federal

National Park Service (NPS) regulations at 36 CFR 2.1 prohibit visitors from harming or removing plants, listed or otherwise, from ENP or BNP.

The Archaeological Resources Protection Act of 1979 (ARPA) (16 U.S.C. 470aa-470mm) protects archaeological sites, including shell mounds, on Federal lands. Shell mounds are known from the area of ENP where
Chromolaena frustrata
occurs; however the Service has no specific information regarding illegally excavated or vandalized shell mounds at ENP.

The Service has no information concerning ENP's or BNP's implementation or the enforcement of these Federal regulations protecting the plants and their habitats from harm. Insufficient implementation or enforcement could become a threat to the two species in the future if the species continue to decline in numbers.

Summary of Factor D

In summary, there are currently State regulatory mechanisms and NPS regulatory mechanisms that provide for the conservation of
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum.
Despite the existing regulatory mechanisms, these species continue to decline due to the effects of a wide array of threats, and it is reasonable to conclude that the limitations of current regulatory mechanisms have allowed population declines of
Chromolaena frustrata
and
Consolea corallicola
due to habitat loss and modification and declines of
Consolea corallicola
and
Harrisia aboriginum
due to poaching, vandalism, and illegal bonfires.

Based on our analysis of the best available information, we find that existing regulatory mechanisms, due to their inherent limitations and constraints, are inadequate to address threats to these species throughout their ranges. We have no information to indicate that poaching, unauthorized fires, or habitat loss will be ameliorated in the future by enforcement of existing regulatory mechanisms. Therefore, we find it reasonably likely that the effects on
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
will continue at current levels or potentially increase in the future.

E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Their Continued Existence

Wildfire

Wildfire, whether naturally ignited or caused by unauthorized burning, such as bonfires, is a threat to
Consolea corallicola
and
Harrisia aboriginum.
In general these plants do not survive fires, making this a severe threat to remaining populations and occupied sites. At a site in Sarasota County, a large illegal bonfire pit is located within the habitat that supports one of the larger populations of
H. aboriginum.
The bonfires occur just a few yards from the plants (Bender 2011, pp. 5-6). At least one plant was killed by an escaped fire that affected part of this site in 2006 (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 108) and should another fire escape into occupied habitat in the future, it is reasonable to conclude this could result in the loss of individuals or extirpation of populations.

Nonnative Plant Species

Nonnative, invasive plant species are a threat to all three species (Morris and Miller 1981, pp. 1-11; Bradley
et al.
2004, pp. 6, 25; Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 91; Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 8; Bradley 2007, pers. comm.; Sadle 2010, pers. comm.; McDonough 2010b, pers. comm.). They compete with native plants for space, light, water, and nutrients, and they have caused population declines in all three species.

Schinus terebinthifolius
(Brazilian pepper), a nonnative, invasive tree, occurs in all of the habitats of the three species.
Schinus terebinthifolius
forms dense thickets of tangled, woody stems that completely shade out and displace

native vegetation (Loflin 1991, p. 19; Langeland and Craddock-Burks 1998, p. 54).
Schinus terebinthifolius
can dramatically change the structure of rockland hammocks, coastal berms, and shell mounds, making habitat conditions unsuitable for
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum,
which prefer moderate to full sun exposure. For example, at more than one site, numerous
H. aboriginum
plants occurring in the shade of
S. terebinthifolius
were observed to have died (Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 10; Bender 2011, pp. 5, 13). By the mid-1990s,
S. terebinthifolius
had spread dramatically and had become a dominant woody species at sites known to support
H. aboriginum
(Morris and Miller 1981, pp. 5, 10; Loflin 1991, p. 19; Herwitz
et al.
1996, pp. 705-715; Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 7).
Schinus terebinthifolius
is a threat to populations of
Chromolaena frustrata
along the Coastal Prairie Trail in ENP (Sadle 2010, pers. comm.) and is invading the habitat of
Consolea corallicola
(McDonough 2010b, pers. comm.).

Colubrina asiatica
(lather leaf), a nonnative shrub, has invaded large areas of coastal berm and coastal berm edges (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 4).
Colubrina asiatica
also forms dense thickets and mats, and is of particular concern in coastal hammocks (Langeland and Craddock-Burks 1998, p. 122).
Colubrina asiatica
is invading large areas of hammocks within ENP along the edge of Florida Bay (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 37). Populations of
Chromolaena frustrata
along the Coastal Prairie Trail and habitat within ENP face threats from
Colubrina asiatica
(Sadle pers. comm. 2010).
Colubrina asiatica
is also present in BNP in areas supporting
Consolea corallicola
(McDonough 2010b, pers. comm.).

Casuarina equisetifolia
(Australian pine) invades coastal berm and is a threat to suitable habitat at most sites that could support all three species (FNAI 2010a, p. 2)
. Casuarina equisetifolia
forms dense stands that exclude all other species through dense shade and a thick layer of needles that contain substances that leach out and suppress the growth of other plants. Coastal strand habitat that once supported
Harrisia aboriginum
has experienced dramatic increases in
C. equisetifolia
over the past 30 years (Loflin 1991, p. 19; Herwitz
et al.
1996, pp. 705-715).

Other invasive plant species that are a threat to
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
include
Scaevola taccada
(beach naupaka),
Neyraudia reynaudiana
(Burma reed),
Cupaniopsis anacardioides
(carrotwood)
Thespesia populnea
(Portia tree),
Manilkara zapota
(sapodilla),
Hibiscus tiliaceus
(hau), and
Hylocereus undatus
(night blooming cactus) (FNAI 2010f, p. 4; Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 13; McDonough 2010b, pers. comm.;).

Vandalism

Vandalism is a threat to
Consolea corallicola
and
Harrisia aboriginum,
and has caused population declines in both species. For
Consolea corallicola,
vandalism has been documented twice. In 1990, branches were cut off plants at one site, but instead of being taken (as would be the case for poaching), the cut stems were left at the base of plants. In 2003, vegetative recruits and pads were damaged by unauthorized removal of protective cages from plants (Slapcinsky
et al.
2006, p. 3). At a Sarasota County site, the Service has documented numerous
H. aboriginum
plants that have been uprooted, trampled, and hacked with sharp implements. This population is impacted by people who use the coastal berm and hammock interface to engage in a variety of recreational (including unauthorized) activities as evidenced by a very large bonfire site and vast quantities of garbage, bottles, and discarded clothing (Bender 2011, p. 5).

Due to their historic significance and possible presence of artifacts, shell mounds are susceptible to vandalism by artifact hunters. Despite regulations that protect these sites on State lands (Florida Statute 267. 13), there is a long history of artifact hunters conducting unauthorized excavation of shell mounds in Florida, including some mounds where
Harrisia aboriginum
has been found, causing erosion and opening areas for invasion by nonnative plants (FNAI 2010i, p.3).

Recreation

Recreational activities may inadvertently impact some populations of
Chromolaena frustrata.
These activities may affect some individual plants in some populations but have not likely caused significant population declines in the species. Foot traffic and campsites at Big Munson Island may be a threat to
Chromolaena frustrata.
Recreation is a threat to some populations of
Harrisia aboriginum.
Coastal berms and dunes are impacted by recreational activities that cause trampling of plants, exacerbate erosion, and facilitate invasion by nonnative plants. As noted above, in 2011, numerous plants at a Sarasota County site were observed to be intentionally uprooted, hacked, and trampled, and there was a large amount of trash deposited nearby. At the same site, there is an ongoing problem with recreational bonfires in the coastal berm habitat just a few yards from
H. aboriginum
plants (Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 16; Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p.108; Bender 2011, pp. 5-6). One escaped bonfire has the potential to destroy this entire population.

Hurricanes, Storm Surge, and Extreme High Tide Events

Hurricanes, storm surge, and extreme high tide events are natural events that can pose a threat to all three species. Hurricanes and tropical storms can modify habitat (e.g., through storm surge) and have the potential to destroy entire populations. Climate change may lead to increased frequency and duration of severe storms (Golladay
et al.
2004, p. 504; McLaughlin
et al.
2002, p. 6074; Cook
et al.
2004, p. 1015). All three species experienced these disturbances historically, but had the benefit of more abundant and contiguous habitat to buffer them from extirpations. With most of the historical habitat having been destroyed or modified, the few remaining populations of these species could face local extirpations due to stochastic events.

The Florida Keys were impacted by three hurricanes in 2005: Katrina on August 26th, Rita on September 20th, and Wilma on October 24th. Hurricane Wilma had the largest impact, with storm surges flooding much of the landmass of the Keys. The vegetation in many areas was top-killed due to salt water inundation (Hodges and Bradley 2006, p. 9).

Chromolaena frustrata

The ecology of coastal rock barrens is poorly understood. Periodic storm events may be responsible for maintaining the community (Bradley and Gann 1999, p. 37). There is some evidence that, over the long term, hurricanes can be beneficial to the species by opening up tree canopies allowing more light to penetrate, thereby creating the necessary conditions for growth (Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 115). The large population of
Chromolaena frustrata
observed at Big Munson Island in 2004 suggests that this species may respond positively to occasional hurricanes or tropical storms that thin hammock canopies, providing more light (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 8). Populations of
C. frustrata
in ENP initially appeared to have been eliminated by storm surge during Hurricane Wilma in 2005 (Bradley 2007, pers. comm.; Duquesnel 2005, pers.

comm.), and habitat was significantly altered (Maschinski 2007, pers. comm.). All communities where
C. frustrata
was found showed impacts from the 2005 hurricane season, primarily thinning of the canopy and numerous blow downs (Sadle 2007, pers. comm.). However, it appears that the species has returned to some locations (Bradley 2009, pers. comm.). The population of
C. frustrata
in ENP may have benefited from hurricanes; surveys at some sites in ENP in 2007 detected more plants than ever previously reported (Sadle 2007, pers. comm.). However, if nonnative, invasive plants are present at sites when a storm hits, they may respond similarly, becoming dominant and not allowing for a pulse in the population of native species. This may radically alter the long-term population dynamics of
C. frustrata,
keeping population sizes small or declining, until they eventually disappear (Bradley and Gann 2004, p. 8).

Consolea corallicola

Suitable habitat such as coastal rock barrens on Key Largo have been inundated with saltwater during spring and fall high tides over the past 5 to 10 years; these extreme events killed planted
Consolea corallicola
at one location (Duquesnel 2011a, pers. comm.). In the future, sea level rise could cause increases in flooding frequency or duration, prolonged or complete inundation of plants, and loss of suitable habitat (see
Climate Change and Sea Level Rise,
below for more information).

Harrisia aboriginum

In 2004, Hurricane Charley, a Category 4 hurricane, passed within 8 km (5 miles) of seven populations of
Harrisia aboriginum
and within 29 km (18 miles) of all populations (Bradley and Woodmansee 2004, p. 1). Several populations suffered damage and loss of plants (Nielsen 2007, pers. comm.; Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 85) due to fallen limbs and shock caused by the sudden increase in sun exposure when the canopy was opened. However, some plants damaged by Hurricane Charley in 2004 have since recovered and seem to be thriving (Nielsen 2009, pers. comm.).

Freezing Temperatures

Occasional freezing temperatures that occur in south Florida are a threat to
Chromolaena frustrata
(Bradley 2009, pers. comm.; Sadle 2011, pers. comm.) and
Harrisia aboriginum
(Woodmansee
et al.
2007, p. 91). Under normal circumstances, occasional freezing temperatures would not result in a significant impact to these species; however, the small size of some populations makes impacts from freezing more significant.

Effects of Small Population Size and Isolation

Endemic species whose populations exhibit a high degree of isolation are extremely susceptible to extinction from both random and nonrandom catastrophic natural or human-caused events. Species that are restricted to geographically limited areas are inherently more vulnerable to extinction than widespread species because of the increased risk of genetic bottlenecks, random demographic fluctuations, climate change, and localized catastrophes such as hurricanes and disease outbreaks (Mangel and Tier 1994, p. 607; Pimm
et al.
1988, p. 757). These problems are further magnified when populations are few and restricted to a very small geographic area, and when the number of individuals is very small. Populations with these characteristics face an increased likelihood of stochastic extinction due to changes in demography, the environment, genetics, or other factors (Gilpin and Soule 1986, pp. 24-34).

Small, isolated populations often exhibit reduced levels of genetic variability, which diminishes the species' capacity to adapt and respond to environmental changes, thereby decreasing the probability of long-term persistence (e.g., Barrett and Kohn 1991, p. 4; Newman and Pilson 1997, p. 361). Very small plant populations may experience reduced reproductive vigor due to ineffective pollination or inbreeding depression. Isolated individuals have difficulty achieving natural pollen exchange, which limits the production of viable seed. The problems associated with small population size and vulnerability to random demographic fluctuations or natural catastrophes are further magnified by synergistic interactions with other threats, such as those discussed above (Factors A, B, and C).

Chromolaena frustrata

The current range of
Chromolaena frustrata
includes eight populations spread across 209 km (130 mi) between ENP and Boca Grande Key; four of eight
C. frustrata
populations consist of fewer than 100 individuals (see Table 1). These populations may not be viable in the long term due to their small number of individuals. Threats exacerbated by small population size include hurricanes, storm surges, freezing temperatures, and recreation impacts.

Consolea corallicola

The two natural populations of
Consolea corallicola
are spread across 193 km (120 mi) between Biscayne Bay and Big Pine Key. One of the two remaining natural populations of
C. corallicola
consists of fewer than 20 adult plants (see Table 2). Threats exacerbated by small population size include hurricanes, storm surges, and poaching. Populations can also be impacted by demographic stochasticity, where populations are skewed toward either male or female individuals by chance. This may be the case with
C. corallicola,
in which the two remaining populations do not contain any female plants. While the species may continue to reproduce indefinitely by clonal means, populations may not be viable over the long term due to a lack of genetic mixing and thus the potential to adapt to environmental changes.

Harrisia aboriginum

The current range of
Harrisia aboriginum
spans such a small geographic area (100-km (62-mi)) stretch of coastline north to south) that all populations could be affected by a single event (e.g., hurricane). Six of the 12 remaining populations have 10 or fewer individual plants (see Table 3). Threats exacerbated by small population size include hurricanes, storm surges, freezing temperatures, recreation impacts, wildfires, and poaching.

Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
have restricted geographic distributions, and few populations, some or all of which are relatively small in number and extent. Therefore, it is essential to maintain the habitats upon which they depend, which require protection from disturbance caused by development, recreational activities and facilities maintenance, nonnative species, or a combination of these. Due to ongoing and pervasive threats, the number and size of existing populations of these species are probably not sufficient to sustain them into the future.

Climate Change and Sea Level Rise

Climatic changes, including sea level rise, are major threats to south Florida and
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum.
Our analyses under the Act include consideration of ongoing and projected changes in climate. The terms “climate” and “climate change” are defined by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). “Climate” refers to the mean and variability of different types of weather conditions over time, with 30 years being a typical period for such

measurements, although shorter or longer periods also may be used (IPCC 2007, p. 78). The term “climate change” thus refers to a change in the mean or variability of one or more measures of climate (e.g., temperature or precipitation) that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer, whether the change is due to natural variability, human activity, or both (IPCC 2007, p. 78). Various types of changes in climate can have direct or indirect effects on species. These effects may be positive, neutral, or negative, and they may change over time, depending on the species and other relevant considerations, such as the effects of interactions of climate with other variables (e.g., habitat fragmentation) (IPCC 2007, pp. 8-14, 18-19). In our analyses, we use our expert judgment to weigh relevant information, including uncertainty, in our consideration of various aspects of climate change.

Projected changes in climate and related effects can vary substantially across and within different regions of the world (e.g., IPCC 2007a, pp. 8-12). Thus, although global climate projections are informative and in some cases are the only or the best scientific information available, to the extent possible we use “downscaled” climate projections, which provide higher resolution information that is more relevant to the spatial scales used to assess effects to a given species (see Glick
et al.
2011, pp. 58-61 for a discussion of downscaling).

With regard to our analysis for
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum,
downscaled projections suggest that sea-level rise is the largest climate-driven challenge to low-lying coastal areas and refuges in the subtropical ecoregion of southern Florida (U.S. Climate Change Science Program (CCSP) 2008, pp. 5-31, 5-32). The long-term record at Key West shows that sea level rose on average 0.224 cm (0.088 in) annually between 1913 and 2006 (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 2008, p. 1). This equates to approximately 22.3 cm (8.76 in) over the last 100 years (NOAA 2008, p. 1). IPCC (2008, p. 28) emphasized it is very likely that the average rate of sea level rise during the 21st century will exceed that rate, although it was projected to have substantial geographical variability.

Other processes expected to be affected by climate change include temperatures, rainfall (amount, seasonal timing, and distribution), and storms (frequency and intensity). Temperatures are projected to rise from 2 °C to 5 °C (35.6 °F to 41.5 °F) for North America by the end of this century (IPCC 2007, pp. 7-9, 13).

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) modeled several scenarios for the Florida Keys, and predicted that sea level rise will first result in the conversion of habitat, and eventually the complete inundation of habitat. In the best-case scenario, by the year 2100, a rise of 18 cm (7 in) would result in the inundation of 745 ha (1,840 acres) (34 percent) of Big Pine Key and the loss of 11 percent of the island's upland habitat (TNC 2010, p. 1). In the worst-case scenario, a rise of 140 cm (4.6 ft) would result in the inundation of about 2,409 ha (5,950 acres) (96 percent) and the loss of all upland habitat on the Key (TNC 2010, p. 1).

Hydrology has a strong influence on plant distribution in these and other coastal areas (IPCC 2008, p. 57). Such communities typically grade from salt to brackish to freshwater species. From the 1930s to 1950s, increased salinity of coastal waters contributed to the decline of cabbage palm forests in southwest Florida (Williams
et al.
1999, pp. 2056-2059), expansion of mangroves into adjacent marshes in the Everglades (Ross
et al.
2000, pp. 9, 12-13), and loss of pine rockland in the Keys (Ross
et al.
1994, pp. 144, 151-155). The possible effects of sea level rise were noted in the 1980s, at a site supporting
Harrisia aboriginum
(Morris and Miller 1981, p. 10), and recent deaths of cabbage palms at this location suggest that this is a continuing threat (Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 7). Furthermore, Ross
et al.
(2000, pp. 109-111) suggested that interactions between sea level rise and pulse disturbances (e.g., storm surges) can cause vegetation to change sooner than projected based on sea level alone. Patterns of development will also likely be significant factors influencing whether natural communities can move and persist (IPCC 2008, p. 57; CCSP 2008, p. 7-6).

Most populations of
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
are located just slightly above mean sea level, and the effects of sea level rise are expected to be a continual problem for coastal species and habitats (Gann
et al.
2002, p. 391, 481; Bradley
et al.
2004, p. 7; Sadle 2007, pers. comm.; Higgins 2007, pers. comm.; Duquesnel 2008, pers. comm.). Research on
C. corallicola
(Stiling 2010, p. 2) and other Florida cacti suggests that increased soil salinity levels can cause mortality of these plants (Goodman
et al.
2012, pp. 9-11). Natural populations of
Harrisia aboriginum
and
Consolea corallicola
do not occur on saturated soils (fresh or saline) and would likely be extirpated at sites affected by sea level rise.

Similarly, the extant populations of
Consolea corallicola
occur near sea level in a transitional zone between mangrove and hardwood hammock habitats. Populations at two sites have been declining for years, and this may be partially attributed to rising sea level, as most of the cacti are on the edge of the hammock and buttonwood transition zone or directly in the transition zone (Higgins 2007, pers. comm.; Duquesnel 2008, 2009, pers. comm.).

Summary of Factor E

In summary,
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
are vulnerable to a wide array of threats from human activities; invasive, nonnative plant species; small population sizes; weather events, and climate change, which have operated in the past, are impacting these species now, and have caused population declines in all three species. Based on our analysis of the best available information, these threats are likely to continue in the future at current levels or potentially increasing.

Cumulative Effects of Threats

The limited distributions and small population sizes of
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia aboriginum
make them extremely susceptible to further habitat loss and competition from nonnative species. Poaching, vandalism, and wildfires are additional threats to
C. corallicola
and
H. aboriginum.
Mechanisms leading to the decline of these species as discussed above, range from local (e.g., poaching, vandalism, wildfire), to regional (e.g., development, nonnative species), to global (e.g., climate change, sea level rise). The synergistic (interaction of two or more components) effects of threats (such as hurricane effects on a species with a limited distribution consisting of just a few small populations) make it difficult to predict population viability. While these stressors may act in isolation, it is more probable that many stressors are acting simultaneously (or in combination) on populations of
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
H. aboriginum.

Proposed Determination

We have carefully assessed the best scientific and commercial information available regarding the past, present, and future threats to
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and
Harrisia

aboriginum.
Section 3(6) of the Act defines an endangered species as “any species that is in danger of

extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range,” and section 3(20) of the Act defines a threatened species as “any species that is likely to become endangered throughout all or a significant portion of its range within the foreseeable future.”

As described in detail above, these three species are currently at risk throughout all of their respective ranges due to the immediacy, severity, and scope of threats from habitat destruction and modification (Factor A), inadequacy of existing regulatory mechanisms (Factor D), and other natural or manmade factors affecting their continued existence (Factor E).
Consolea corallicola
and
Harrisia

aboriginum
are currently at risk throughout all of their respective ranges due to the immediacy, severity, and scope of threats from overutilization (Factor B), and
C. corallicola
is immediately threatened by disease or predation (Factor C). Although there are ongoing actions to alleviate some threats, there appear to be no populations without current significant threats. Current State and Federal regulatory mechanisms (Factor D) are inadequate to protect
Chromolaena frustrata, Consolea corallicola,
and

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/fr%3A2012-24466. Public record. Not legal advice.