# Controlling Air Emissions from Outer Continental Shelf Sources: A Comparison of Two Programs—EPA and DOI

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## Record

- **Collection:** Congressional research report
- **Document type:** CRS Report
- **Published:** November 26, 2012
- **Citation:** R42123

## Text

Controlling Air Emissions from Outer
Continental Shelf Sources: A Comparison
of Two Programs—EPA and DOI
/name redacted/
Specialist in Environmental Policy
November 26, 2012

Congressional Research Service
7-....
www.crs.gov
R42123

CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress

Controlling Air Emissions from Outer Continental Shelf Sources

Summary
Air emissions from outer continental shelf (OCS) operations are subject to different regulatory
programs, depending on the location of the operation. The Department of the Interior (DOI) has
jurisdiction over OCS sources in federal waters in the western Gulf of Mexico and most of the
central Gulf. In addition, the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012 (P.L. 112-74), transferred air
emission authority in the OCS off Alaska’s north coast from the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) to DOI. EPA has jurisdiction over sources in all other federal waters.
The primary difference between the EPA and DOI programs is rooted in the different statutory
authorities: the 1990 Clean Air Act (CAA) and the 1978 Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act
(OCSLA). The primary objectives of these statutes are different—air quality versus offshore
energy development. The two regulatory programs reflect these underlying differences. For much
of the past 30 years, these differences received little attention, primarily because most of the
federal oil and gas resources in EPA’s jurisdiction have been subject to moratoria. In 2008,
moratoria provisions expired, potentially opening many of the areas in EPA’s jurisdiction to oil
and gas leasing activity. If more OCS areas in EPA’s jurisdiction are open for oil and gas leasing,
policymakers’ interest in these differences will likely increase.
For OCS sources in EPA’s jurisdiction, requirements depend on whether the source is located
within 25 miles of a state’s seaward boundary (“inner OCS sources”) or beyond (“outer OCS
sources”). Inner OCS sources are subject to the same requirements as comparable onshore
emission sources, which vary by state and depend on the area’s air quality status; outer sources
are subject to various CAA provisions, including the Prevention of Significant Deterioration
(PSD) program. In contrast, OCS sources in DOI’s jurisdiction are subject to air emission
requirements only if emissions would “significantly affect” onshore air quality.
A key difference between the EPA and DOI programs is the federal emission threshold that would
subject a source to substantive requirements. For sources in EPA’s jurisdiction, this is the PSD
threshold of 250 tons per year (tpy) of regulated emissions. Sources that exceed this level would
likely be subject to Best Achievable Control Technology (BACT) and other provisions. States’
analogous thresholds that apply to inner OCS sources may be more stringent. By comparison, a
DOI OCS source applies an exemption formula, based on distance from shore (e.g., a source 30
miles from shore would have an emission threshold of 990 tpy). If a source remains subject after
this step, it must conduct air modeling to assess whether its emissions would have a significant
effect on onshore air quality. In effect, this two-step process constitutes a much less stringent
threshold than EPA’s 250 tpy threshold.
Another substantial difference is the time frame allotted to the agencies for reviewing a potential
source’s permit (EPA) or activity-specific plan (DOI). In addition, the EPA permit process allows
greater opportunity for input from the public. In particular, EPA’s Environmental Appeals Board
offers parties a powerful tool to compel agency review.
Therefore, two identical operations, located in separate jurisdictions, could face considerably
different requirements and procedural time frames. Some stakeholders would likely argue that the
additional opportunities for public involvement in EPA’s permit process help create a balance
between resource development and environmental concerns. Others would likely contend these
steps present unnecessary burdens and timing uncertainty in the process.

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Controlling Air Emissions from Outer Continental Shelf Sources

Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Overview.......................................................................................................................................... 4
History of OCS Air Emission Governance ................................................................................ 5
1953–1978 ........................................................................................................................... 5
1978–1990 ........................................................................................................................... 6
1990–Present ....................................................................................................................... 7
Role of OCS Moratoria ............................................................................................................. 8
EPA OCS Air Program ..................................................................................................................... 8
Outer OCS Source Requirements .............................................................................................. 9
Prevention of Significant Deterioration .............................................................................. 9
New Source Performance Standards ................................................................................. 12
National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants .............................................. 12
Title V/Part 71 Operating Permits ..................................................................................... 12
Inner OCS Source Requirements ............................................................................................. 13
Attainment vs. Nonattainment Areas ................................................................................ 13
Notice of Intent/Corresponding Onshore Area Designation ............................................. 15
OCS Vessel Emissions ............................................................................................................. 15
State Authority ......................................................................................................................... 16
Procedural Requirements......................................................................................................... 17
Public Participation ........................................................................................................... 18
Administrative Appeals Process ........................................................................................ 18
Judicial Review ................................................................................................................. 18
DOI OCS Air Program................................................................................................................... 19
Activity-Specific Plan Requirements ...................................................................................... 19
Exemption Determination ................................................................................................. 20
Significance Determination ............................................................................................... 20
Required Emission Controls.............................................................................................. 20
Emissions Monitoring and Reporting ............................................................................... 21
OCS Vessel Emissions ............................................................................................................. 22
Procedural Requirements......................................................................................................... 22
Coastal Zone Management Act Review ............................................................................ 23
Public Participation ........................................................................................................... 24
Judicial Review ................................................................................................................. 24
Comparison of DOI and EPA Air Programs .................................................................................. 24

Figures
Figure 1. EPA and DOI OCS Air Emission Jurisdictions in the Gulf of Mexico............................. 2
Figure 2. Map of Non-Attainment Areas for Ozone (8-Hour) ....................................................... 14

Tables
Table 1. Estimates of Oil and Gas Resources in U.S. OCS Regions ............................................... 3

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Table 2. Emission Ranges of Selected Air Pollutants from Outer Continental Shelf
Oil/Gas Drilling Operations in EPA’s Jurisdiction........................................................................ 5
Table 3. Selected Significant Emission Rates in PSD Program ..................................................... 10
Table 4. EPA Review of PSD and Title V Permits ......................................................................... 17
Table 5. BOEM Review of Exploration Plans and Development and Production Plans ............... 23
Table 6. EPA and DOI OCS Air Emission Programs ..................................................................... 26

Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 29

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Introduction
The same group of air pollutant emissions from outer continental shelf (OCS) operations are
subject to different regulatory programs, depending on the location of the operation. The
Department of the Interior (DOI) has jurisdiction over OCS sources in federal waters in the
western Gulf of Mexico and most of the central Gulf. The Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012
(P.L. 112-74), transferred air emission authority in the OCS off Alaska’s north coast from the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to DOI. EPA has jurisdiction over sources in all other
federal waters.
Reader’s Note: DOI Delegation
DOI created the Minerals Management Service (MMS) in 1982.1 On May 19, 2010, during the Deepwater Horizon oil
spill response, the Secretary of DOI replaced MMS with the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and
Enforcement (BOEMRE). On October 1, 2011, DOI divided BOEMRE into three separate entities: the Bureau of
Ocean Energy Management (BOEM), the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE), and Office of
Natural Resources Revenue (ONRR). Both BOEM and BSEE have responsibilities that related to air emissions from
OCS sources. A DOI October 2011 direct final rule explains how existing OCS regulations are now divided (or
shared in some cases) between the two new agencies.2
Although MMS and BOEMRE no longer exist, this report refers to activities performed by these agencies during their
existence. In addition, this report cites documents and websites that carry their names and are still valid.

Congress established the programs through different statutes, and the two agencies implement the
programs through separate regulations. Pursuant to the underlying statutes, the regulations have
different scopes, emission thresholds for eligibility, and compliance obligations.
Therefore, two identical operations, located in separate jurisdictions, could face considerably
different requirements and procedural time frames. Some may criticize this arrangement for its
inconsistent treatment of air emissions. Others may point out that the differences create
inconsistent opportunities for oil and gas development.
For much of the past 30 years, these differences received little attention, primarily because most
of the federal oil and gas resources in EPA’s jurisdiction have been subject to moratoria.
Moreover, the level of activities in the regions open to development has varied dramatically.
According to DOI data from 2010, there were 3,409 production wells in the Gulf of Mexico and
23 in the Pacific.3
Figure 1 illustrates the divided jurisdiction in the Gulf of Mexico. Although active leases are
located in EPA’s jurisdiction, none of the Gulf of Mexico platforms are in EPA’s jurisdiction.

1

CRS Report R41485, Reorganization of the Minerals Management Service in the Aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon
Oil Spill, by (name redacted).
2
See 76 Federal Register 64432 (October 18, 2011).
3
Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, “Installations and Removals - Offshore Production Facilities in Federal
Waters Offshore Production Facilities in Federal Waters,” at http://www.boem.gov/BOEM-Newsroom/Offshore-Statsand-Facts/Offshore-Stats-and-Facts.aspx.

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Figure 1. EPA and DOI OCS Air Emission Jurisdictions in the Gulf of Mexico
(red markers = active leases; green markers = platforms)

Mississippi
Texas

Alabama

Louisiana

Florida
Federal/State
water boundary

DOI Jurisdiction

EPA Jurisdiction

Source: Prepared by CRS; Active lease, platforms, and federal/state water boundary created Google Earth, using
BOEMRE GIS files, at http://www.gomr.boemre.gov/homepg/data_center/geographic_mapping.html. Accessed
data on October 3, 2011.
Notes: DOI has jurisdiction of OCS sources west of 87.5° longitude; EPA has jurisdiction east of this line. CRS
inserted this line manually (in PowerPoint), so its position may not be precise.

In 2008, moratoria provisions expired, allowing many of the areas in EPA’s jurisdiction to
potentially open for oil and gas leasing activity. In addition, estimates of oil and gas resources
have spurred interest in areas other than the Gulf (Table 1). For example, OCS areas off the
Atlantic coast have also received attention in recent years. In 2007, the Minerals Management
Service (MMS) proposed a lease sale in an area offshore of Virginia.4 The lease sale was set to
take place in 2011.5 In the aftermath of the 2010 Deepwater Horizon oil spill, the Obama
Administration canceled the sale (May 27, 2010).6 In addition, in DOI’s most recent five-year
plan for OCS leasing, DOI decided not to include the Mid- and South Atlantic planning areas.7
Many Members of the 112th Congress have sought to expand OCS oil and gas development. The
House has passed several bills8 that would direct DOI to hold lease sales in particular areas,
including the formerly proposed Virginia lease sale and areas of Southern California.
4

After the 2010 Deepwater Horizon incident the MMS was replaced by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management,
Regulation and Enforcement (BOEMRE), which was subsequently divided into three separate entities: the Bureau of
Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) and the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE), and Office of
Natural Resources Revenue (ONRR).
5
See CRS Report R41132, Outer Continental Shelf Moratoria on Oil and Gas Development, by (name redacted).
6
For more information, see http://www.gomr.boemre.gov/homepg/lsesale/220/matl220.html.
7
DOI, Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Proposed Final Outer Continental Shelf Oil & Gas Leasing Program
2012-2017, June 2012, at http://www.boem.gov.
8
For example, H.R. 1229, H.R. 1230, and H.R. 1231.

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In addition, areas of the U.S. Arctic region, which were not subject to the moratoria, have
generated recent congressional interest as industry has sought to establish a greater presence in
the area.9 A primary driver for the activity in this region is the shrinking Arctic ice cap, or
conversely, the growing amount of ice-free ocean in the summertime.10
Table 1. Estimates of Oil and Gas Resources in U.S. OCS Regions
2011 Estimates
OCS Region

Undiscovered Economically Recoverable Resources
(at a selected range of prices)
Oil (billion barrels)

Natural Gas (trillion cubic feet)

Alaska

1-22

1-85

Atlantic

1-2

8-18

33-45

130-198

4-8

6-11

Gulf of Mexico
Pacific

Source: Prepared by CRS; data from BOEM, Assessment of Undiscovered Technically Recoverable Oil and Gas
Resources of the Nation’s Outer Continental Shelf, 2011, Table 2 at
http://www.boem.gov/uploadedFiles/2011_National_Assessment_Factsheet.pdf
Notes: The oil estimate is based on a price range of $30/barrel to $160/barrel. The natural gas estimate is based
on a price range of $2.14/million cubic feet (Mcf) to $11.39/Mcf.

As interest in developing OCS resources in EPA’s jurisdiction has increased, the EPA OCS air
program has received increased scrutiny from some Members. In particular, Members have
focused on the permit activity of Shell in the Chukchi Sea, part of the federal waters off Alaska’s
north coast. This interest led to the enactment of the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2012 (P.L.
112-74) on December 23, 2011, which transferred air emission authority in the OCS off Alaska’s
north coast from the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to DOI.
This report will provide an overview and brief history of the separate regulatory programs,
examine and compare the requirements of the programs, and highlight potential implications of
the differences. Although OCS sources can involve other industry sectors (e.g., deepwater ports
or offshore wind projects), the focus of this report is air emissions from the OCS oil and gas
exploration, development, and production operations.

9

For example, H.R. 2021 and H.R. 2055.
For more information, see CRS Report R41153, Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress,
coordinated by (name redacted).
10

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Overview
OCS sources of air emissions can vary considerably, depending on the specifics of the operation.
Offshore oil and gas sector operations, in particular, may include evolving technologies and take
place in different settings, making it difficult to generalize air emission potentials. For example,
mobile offshore drilling units involved in deepwater drilling in the Gulf of Mexico may emit
considerably more emissions than a rig anchored to the sea floor in shallow water. Operations in
the Arctic region may involve icebreaker vessels, which may generate considerably more
emissions than other support vessels.
A Senate Report from the 1990 Clean Air Act (CAA) amendments stated: “The construction and
operation of OCS facilities emit a significant amount of air pollution which adversely impacts
coastal air quality in the United States. Operational emissions from an OCS platform and
associated marine vessels can routinely exceed 500 tons of nitrogen (NOx) and one hundred tons
of reactive hydrocarbons annually.”11
Based on a review of EPA OCS permit documents,12 the 1990 Senate Report estimate is still
valid, particularly for nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions. Table 2 identifies emission ranges of
selected air pollutants from seven OCS oil/gas operations seeking, or recently receiving, air
permits in EPA’s jurisdiction. In some cases, the ranges cover a wide spectrum. For each source,
NOx emissions account for the majority of the operations’ regulated pollutants.
Four of the pollutants in Table 2 are considered “criteria” pollutants and have a National Ambient
Air Quality Standard (NAAQS).13 Both NOx and volatile organic carbon (VOC) emissions lead to
ozone (O3) formation (sometimes described as smog), which is also a criteria pollutant.
According to congressional testimony from EPA Administrator Jackson, “a single exploratory
drilling operation could emit approximately as much air pollution on a daily basis as a large stateof-the-art oil refinery.”14

11

S. Rept. 101-228 (October 27, 1990).
See permit materials (e.g., EPA’s Statement of Basis documents) from EPA Region 4 and Region 10, at
http://www.epa.gov/region4/air/permits/OCSPermits/OCSpermits.html and http://yosemite.epa.gov/R10/
AIRPAGE.NSF/Permits/ocsap/. Accessed in September 2011.
13
The CAA defines criteria pollutants as those that “endanger public health or welfare,” and whose presence in
ambient air “results from numerous or diverse mobile or stationary sources.” Six pollutants are currently identified as
such: ozone, particulates, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and lead. See CRS Report R41563, Clean
Air Issues in the 112th Congress, by (name redacted).
14
Lisa P. Jackson (EPA Administrator), Testimony before the House Committee on Oversight and Government
Reform, May 24, 2011.
12

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Table 2. Emission Ranges of Selected Air Pollutants from Outer Continental Shelf
Oil/Gas Drilling Operations in EPA’s Jurisdiction
(emissions in tons per year)
Carbon
Monoxide
(CO)

Nitrogen
Oxides
(NOx)

Particulate
Matter
(PM10)

Sulfur
Dioxide
(SO2)

Volatile
Organic
Compound
(VOC)

60-855

443-2339

6-57

1-833

11-96

Source: Prepared by CRS; potentials to emit (PTE) from EPA Regions 4 and 10 permit documents, particularly
the “Statement of Basis” documents, provided with each draft permit. Data supplying the above ranges are from
nine OCS oil/gas drilling permits. See permit materials from EPA Regions 4 and 10, at
http://www.epa.gov/region4/air/permits/ and http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/airpage.nsf/permits/ocsap/. Accessed in
November 2012.
Notes: The ranges are based on the operations’ different potential to emit (PTE) values identified in the permit
documents. Per 40 C.F.R. §52.21, PTE “means the maximum capacity of a stationary source to emit a pollutant
under its physical and operational design. Any physical or operational limitation on the capacity of the source to
emit a pollutant, including air pollution control equipment and restrictions on hours of operation or on the type
or amount of material combusted, stored, or processed, shall be treated as part of its design if the limitation or
the effect it would have on emissions is federally enforceable.”
In several cases, EPA employed an air permit to require reductions from a pre-permitted PTE level, in order to
avoid certain requirements (namely the PSD program, discussed below). The above ranges include the prepermitted PTE values.

History of OCS Air Emission Governance
A brief history of federal OCS air emission governance may be instructive to policymakers. First,
its history may help explain the rationale for the current framework. Second, some of the
arguments made during its development may apply to current issues.

1953–1978
Passed as separate statutes in 1953, the Submerged Lands Act15 and the Outer Continental Shelf
Lands Act (OCSLA)16 established federal jurisdiction and governance, respectively, for oil and
gas resources on the OCS. The 1953 OCSLA did not specifically mention air emissions, but
provided the Secretary of the Department of the Interior with general authority, stating: “The
Secretary may at any time prescribe and amend such rules and regulations as he determines to be
necessary and proper in order to provide for the prevention of waste and conservation of the
natural resources of the outer Continental Shelf.”17
The Nixon Administration established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in 1970 under
an executive branch reorganization plan.18 Although federal legislation addressing air pollution
was first passed in 1955, the CAA Amendments of 1970 established the foundation of the federal
15

May 22, 1953, 67 Stat. 29.
August 7, 1953, 67 Stat. 464.
17
43 U.S.C. §1334 (from 1958 version).
18
For more information, see CRS Report RL30798, Environmental Laws: Summaries of Major Statutes Administered
by the Environmental Protection Agency, coordinated by (name redacted).
16

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air emissions program that exists today.19 For example, the 1970 law (among other provisions) set
national standards for air quality, created a program to require the best available control
technology at major new sources of air pollution, and established a program to regulate air toxics.
In 1977, Congress made further amendments to the CAA, establishing (among other provisions)
the prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) program.
Tension arose between the CAA provisions of the 1970s and the 1953 OCSLA. The 1953 OCSLA
did not specifically mention which federal agency would have jurisdiction over the air quality
effects of OCS development, resulting in uncertainty over what jurisdiction, if any, the newly
created Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) had for air quality control in the OCS.20 The
jurisdictional uncertainty led EPA to assert its authority to regulate air emissions from OCS
sources in April 1978.21

1978–1990
In September 1978, Congress passed the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act of 1978 (P.L. 95372),22 providing the Department of the Interior (DOI) with authority to regulate the national
offshore oil and gas program including the regulation of air emissions from offshore oil and gas
operations.23 A federal appeals court affirmed DOI’s authority (versus EPA authority) in 1979, in
a case brought by the State of California against DOI.24 DOI issued regulations in 1980.
Some stakeholders in California continued to voice concerns regarding the level of control for
OCS source air emissions. A 1992 report from the National Research Council stated:
Offshore air pollution is a problem in California that is not present in other oil-producing
regions in the country (with the possible exception of the West Coast of Florida).
Atmospheric conditions peculiar to coastal California involve a combination of the amount
of sunlight, the mixture of pollutants already present, the direction of prevailing winds, and
the presence of coastal mountain ranges—all of which work to trap smog along the coastal
strip. A major problem here has been that air quality standards for air above federal waters
were not as stringent as those for state waters.25

19

Congress made major amendments to the CAA in 1977 and 1990. See CRS Report RL30853, Clean Air Act: A
Summary of the Act and Its Major Requirements, by (name redacted) et al.
20
CRS Memorandum, Jurisdiction of OCS Air Quality Control in 1978 OCSLAA, September 23, 1988.
21
43 Federal Register 16393 (April 18, 1978).
22
43 U.S.C. §§1331-1356. The OCSLA was originally enacted in 1953, but has been amended several times.
23
DOI delegated most of this responsibility to the Minerals Management Service. After the 2010 Deepwater Horizon
incident the MMS was replaced by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement
(BOEMRE), which was subsequently divided into two separate entities: the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management
(BOEM) and the Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE).
24
California v. Kleppe, 604 F.2d 1187 (9th Cir., 1979). For a discussion of this case, see Leon Harmon, “Recent
Developments: California v. Kleppe” in Environmental Law, Vol. 10, No. 3, Spring 1980 (Northwestern School of Law
of Lewis and Clark College).
25
National Research Council, Assessment of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Studies Program: Social
and Economic Studies, 1992, p. 129.

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1990–Present
Congress made substantial amendments to the CAA in 1990.26 A newly added Section 328
authorized EPA to implement certain air quality provisions of the act at offshore facilities, except
for those west of 87.5 degrees longitude (i.e., Western and Central areas of the Gulf of Mexico).
Offshore facilities not under EPA jurisdiction remain under DOI jurisdiction. EPA promulgated
regulations for OCS sources in 1992.
In addition, Section 328(b) required the Secretary of the Interior to prepare a study assessing
impacts of OCS sources in nonattainment areas that fail to meet NAAQS for ozone or nitrogen
dioxide. Based on the results, the Secretary shall consult with the EPA Administrator to determine
if additional actions are necessary. MMS published this study in 1995, which concluded that “the
contribution of [OCS petroleum development] emission sources on onshore ozone concentrations
is small.”27 The MMS regulations remained largely unchanged (discussed below).
Federal and State OCS Jurisdiction
The United States shares jurisdiction over its coastal waters with the coastal states. The 1953 Submerged Lands Act
(SLA)28 gave coastal states jurisdiction over the submerged lands, waters, and natural resources (e.g., oil deposits)
located, in most cases, within 3 nautical miles off the coastline.29 Within their offshore boundaries, coastal states have
“(1) title to and ownership of the lands beneath navigable waters within the boundaries of the respective states, and
(2) the right and power to manage, administer, lease, develop and use the said lands and natural resources.”30
Accordingly, coastal states have the option of developing offshore oil and gas within their waters; if they choose to
develop, they may regulate that development.
The waters, seabed, and natural resources beyond the states’ waters are exclusively federal, and extend to the edge
of the exclusive economic zone (200 nautical miles from shore).31 However, the federal government maintains the
authority to regulate commerce, navigation, national defense, power production, and international affairs within state
waters.32

26

Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 (P.L. 101-549); 42 U.S.C. §7401 et seq.
Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico Air Quality Study, Final Report, Volume I, 1995, at
http://www.gomr.boemre.gov/PI/PDFImages/ESPIS/3/3424.pdf.
28
43 U.S.C. §§1301-1315.
29
Most state waters extend 3 nautical miles (1 nautical mile = 6,076 feet, or 1.15 miles) from shore. Louisiana waters
extend 3 imperial nautical miles (1 imperial nautical mile = 6,080 feet). Texas and Gulf Coast of Florida waters extend
3 marine leagues (equating to 9 nautical miles). See CRS Report RL33404, Offshore Oil and Gas Development: Legal
Framework, by (name redacted).
30
43 U.S.C. §1311.
31
The United States declared its EEZ in Presidential Proclamation No. 5030, 48 Federal Register 10605 (March 14,
1983). This declaration is consistent with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). UNCLOS
provides a comprehensive international legal framework intended for building consensus on actions related to the
world’s ocean spaces, uses, and resources. See United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, opened for signature
December 10, 1982, in force November 16, 1994, 1833 U.N.T.S. 396, reprinted in United Nations, the Law of the Sea:
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UN Pub. Sales No. E.83.V.5). For additional information, see CRS
Report RS21890, The U.N. Law of the Sea Convention and the United States: Developments Since October 2003, by
(name redacted).
32
43 U.S.C. §1314.
27

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Role of OCS Moratoria
Decades long moratoria of oil and gas development for much of the OCS have influenced the
level of interest regarding OCS air emission issues. As a result of public laws and executive
orders of the President, OCS moratoria along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, parts of Alaska, and
the Gulf of Mexico have been in place since 1982. On July 14, 2008, President Bush lifted the
executive moratoria, which included planning areas along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. On
September 30, 2008, moratoria provisions in annual appropriations laws expired, allowing these
areas to potentially open for oil and gas leasing activity.33
Thus, most of the OCS in EPA’s jurisdiction has been off limits to oil and gas development until
recently. Moreover, once a moratorium is removed, multiple legal and administrative processes
must be satisfied before actual drilling can occur in a particular area.34

EPA OCS Air Program
CAA Section 328 provides the underlying authority for EPA’s OCS program. Pursuant to this
section, EPA established two regulatory regimes: one for OCS sources located within 25 miles of
a state’s seaward boundary (“inner OCS sources”);35 another for OCS sources located beyond 25
miles of a state’s water boundary and extending to the boundary of the EEZ (“outer OCS
sources”).
EPA created the separate regimes based on the text of Section 328. This section directs EPA to
develop regulations requiring all OCS sources “to attain and maintain Federal and State ambient
air quality standards and to comply with the provisions of [the prevention of significant
deterioration (PSD) program].”36 In addition, Section 328 creates a more comprehensive program
for inner sources, stating: “Such requirements shall be the same as would be applicable if the
source were located in the corresponding onshore area, and shall include, but not be limited
to, State and local requirements for emission controls, emission limitations, offsets, permitting,
monitoring, testing, and reporting [emphasis added].”
EPA promulgated regulations—40 C.F.R. Part 55—in 1992 for OCS source air emissions.37
Selected elements of these regulations are discussed below. In several instances, Part 55 directs
OCS sources to air emission regulations in other CAA regulations, codified in separate parts of
the Code of Federal Regulations. In general, these cross-references include the most substantive
requirements for OCS sources.

33
For more information, see CRS Report R41132, Outer Continental Shelf Moratoria on Oil and Gas Development, by
(name redacted).
34
See CRS Report RL33404, Offshore Oil and Gas Development: Legal Framework, by (name redacted).
35
Most state waters extend 3 nautical miles (1 nautical mile = 6,076 feet, or 1.15 miles) from shore. Florida is the only
state within EPA’s jurisdiction with a different boundary: the Gulf Coast of Florida waters extend 3 marine leagues
(equating to 9 nautical miles). See also CRS Report RL33404, Offshore Oil and Gas Development: Legal Framework,
by (name redacted). See the BOEMRE OCS website ("Definitions and Information”) at http://boemre.gov/incidents/
def_info.htm.
36
42 U.S.C. §7627.
37
57 Federal Register 40792 (September 4, 1992).

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Outer OCS Source Requirements
Compared to inner OCS source requirements, outer OCS source requirements are fewer and
relatively less complex, because sources need only comply with federal regulations. EPA argued
in its rulemaking proposal that CAA Section 328 gave the agency “some latitude” to determine
the regulations for outer sources.38 In addition to PSD requirements (which Section 328
specifically identified), EPA chose to apply New Source Performance Standards (NSPS), National
Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPS), and CAA Title V permitting
provisions to outer OCS sources. These are discussed below.

Prevention of Significant Deterioration
Pursuant to CAA Section 328 (and 40 C.F.R. Part 55) OCS sources are potentially subject to the
CAA’s Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) program. Congress added the PSD program
to the CAA in 197739 to address new or modified emission sources that would affect areas
meeting National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS).40 The primary objective of the
program is to ensure that the air quality does not degrade in these areas with the addition of a new
(or modified) source.
An OCS source that qualifies as a “major stationary source”41 must comply with PSD provisions.
The primary determinant is an annual emissions threshold. For any stationary source, the
threshold is 250 tons per year (tpy) of a regulated pollutant.42 Some specific emission sources
have a lower threshold of 100 tpy. Oil and gas exploration, development, and production
activities are not among these specific sources.43 Regardless, many OCS sources from the oil/gas
industry are likely to approach or breach the 250 tpy threshold (Table 2).
In addition to the 250 tpy threshold, as of January 2, 2011, an OCS source must consider its
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.44 These emissions are subject to a different threshold. Per a
2010 rulemaking, EPA is phasing in GHG applicability for the PSD program.45 As of July 1, 2011
(the start of the second of four phases), new emission sources—not already subject to PSD for
other pollutants—would be subject to PSD, if GHG emissions equal or exceed 100,000 tpy of
38

56 Federal Register 63774 (December 5, 1991).
CAA §§160-169.
40
Such areas are termed “attainment areas.” For more information, see CRS Report RL30853, Clean Air Act: A
Summary of the Act and Its Major Requirements, by (name redacted) et al.
41
40 C.F.R. §52.21(b). In the CAA, the applicable term is “major emitting facility” (CAA §169).
42
The official term is “regulated NSR [New Source Review] pollutant,” which includes (among others) any pollutant
for which a national ambient air quality standard (NAAQS) has been promulgated—sulfur dioxide (SO2), particulate
matter (PM2.5 and PM10), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), ozone, and lead—and any pollutant
identified (in this citation) as a constituent or precursor for a regulated NSR pollutant (40 C.F.R. §52.21(b)(50)).
43
CAA §169(1) lists 28 categories of sources with the 100 tpy threshold (also in 40 C.F.R. §52.21(b)). These sources
include specific industries, such as cement plants and petroleum refineries, but not oil/gas exploration, development, or
production activities.
44
In the context of the PSD program, GHGs are the aggregate group of the following six gases: carbon dioxide (CO2)
nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) (40 C.F.R.
§52.21(b)(49)).
45
For more information, see CRS Report R41212, EPA Regulation of Greenhouse Gases: Congressional Responses
and Options, by (name redacted).
39

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carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e).46 If an OCS source is already subject to PSD for one or more
of the 250 tpy-threshold pollutants, the GHG emission threshold is 75,000 tpy of CO2e.47
If an OCS source meets the definition of a “major stationary source,” several PSD requirements
apply. Selected requirements are discussed below, followed by an exemption for certain OCS
sources.

Best Available Control Technology (BACT)
A source must apply BACT for each regulated pollutant that would be emitted in significant
amounts.48 This means that a source may qualify as a “major stationary source” based on only one
pollutant, but may need BACT for multiple pollutants.49 The significant amounts for selected
pollutants are listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Selected Significant Emission Rates in PSD Program
(tons per year)
CO

NOx

SO2

PM

PM10

PM2.5

Ozone

100

40

40

25

15

10a

40b

Source: 40 C.F.R. §52.21(b)(23).
a.

10 tpy of direct PM2.5 emissions; 40 tpy of SO2 emissions; 40 tpy of NOx emissions unless demonstrated not
to be a PM2.5 precursor.

b.

40 tpy of VOC compounds or NOx.

BACT is determined on a case-by-case basis, taking into account a proposed control measure’s
energy, environmental, and economic impacts.50 Most states have the authority to implement the
PSD program and set BACT for applicable sources, but as mentioned above, only a handful of
locales have Part 55 (OCS regulatory) authority. Therefore, the applicable EPA Region would
determine BACT for OCS sources in most locations.51 Due to the moratoria, EPA has made such
determinations in only a few instances.

46

GHG emissions are often presented in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2e), because GHGs vary by global warming
potential (GWP). GWP is an index of how much a GHG may contribute to global warming over a period of time,
typically 100 years. GWPs are used to compare gases to CO2, which has a GWP of 1. For example, methane’s GWP is
25, and thus a ton of methane is 25 times more potent a GHG than a ton of CO2.
47
For more information, see U.S. EPA, “Prevention of Significant Deterioration and Title V Greenhouse Gas Tailoring
Rule,” 75 Federal Register 31514. A six-page EPA Fact Sheet summarizing the rule is available at http://www.epa.gov/
nsr/documents/20100413fs.pdf.
48
40 C.F.R. §52.21(j).
49
The regulations list the “significant amounts” for each pollutant in 40 C.F.R. §52.21(b)(23).
50
40 C.F.R. §52.21(b)(12).
51
For more information, see EPA Region 4, Prevention of Significant Deterioration Permit Application Requirements,
(updated February 2010), which references EPA, New Source Review Workshop Manual-Prevention of Significant
Deterioration and Nonattainment Area Permitting, Draft Guidance, 1990.

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Air Quality Demonstration and Analyses
A source must demonstrate that its emissions would not cause or contribute significantly to a
violation of the NAAQS52 or any allowable maximum increase over the baseline concentration.53
To meet this demonstration, a source must provide an air quality analysis for each pollutant it
would emit in a significant amount.54 In general, the pollutant analysis must include at least one
year of continuous air quality monitoring data.55
A source must provide further analysis regarding impacts to visibility and soils and vegetation.56
If a source’s emissions may impact a Class I area—156 listed national memorials, monuments,
parks, and wilderness over certain sizes—57EPA must consult with the applicable Federal Land
Manager. The Manager has the opportunity to demonstrate that the source would yield adverse
impacts, such as reduced visibility. If EPA accepts this demonstration, the source would not
receive a permit. If EPA disagrees, the agency must provide a publicly available explanation.58

Emissions Monitoring and Reporting
Pursuant to PSD regulatory authority, EPA may require a source to continue to monitor ambient
air emissions during its operation to determine the effect of the emissions.59 EPA may exempt a
source from this requirement, if a source’s emission levels are below pollutant-specific
thresholds.60 Part 55 also contains provisions authorizing EPA to require emissions monitoring.61

Exemption for Temporary Sources
OCS exploratory drilling operations may qualify for an exemption from certain PSD program
requirements. The exemption has two conditions. First, regulated emissions from the major
stationary source must not impact a Class I area (discussed above). Second, the source’s
emissions must be “temporary.”62 EPA has not defined “temporary” in the PSD regulations, but in
a 1980 Federal Register preamble, EPA stated that it considered sources operating for less than
two years in a given location to be temporary sources.63
Sources meeting the conditions of the exemption are not subject to the air quality demonstration
and analyses discussed above. Several of OCS exploratory drilling operations that received EPA
air permits qualified as temporary sources.
52
For more information on NAAQS, see CRS Report RL30853, Clean Air Act: A Summary of the Act and Its Major
Requirements, by (name redacted) et al.
53
40 C.F.R. §52.21(k).
54
40 C.F.R. §52.21(m).
55
EPA has the discretion to shorten this time frame to a period not less than four months (40 C.F.R. §52.21(m)).
56
40 C.F.R. §52.21(o).
57
40 C.F.R. §52.21(e).
58
40 C.F.R. §52.21(p).
59
40 C.F.R. §52.21(m)(2).
60
40 C.F.R. §52.21(i)(5).
61
40 C.F.R. §55.8.
62
40 C.F.R. §52.21(i)(3).
63
45 Federal Register 52676 (August 7, 1980).

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New Source Performance Standards
Part 55 requires OCS sources to comply with applicable New Source Performance Standards
(NSPS) in 40 C.F.R. Part 60. NSPS are nationally uniform, technology-based standards for
specific categories of stationary emission sources.64 The format of the standard can vary from
source to source, and may entail a numerical emission limit, a design standard, an equipment
standard, or a work practice standard.
Offshore oil development operations may involve equipment that has a NSPS. For example,
several OCS draft permits prepared by EPA identify specific internal combustion engines with a
NSPS in 40 C.F.R. Part 60, Subpart IIII.65

National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
OCS sources may be subject to National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
(NESHAP). Part 55 requires compliance with any regulations promulgated pursuant to CAA
Section 112,66 if they are “rationally related to the attainment and maintenance of Federal or State
ambient air quality standards or the requirements of [the PSD program].”67
EPA has promulgated multiple regulations pursuant to CAA Section 112 (e.g., 40 C.F.R. Parts 61
and 63). In general, these regulations establish emissions standards for hazardous air pollutants
released from specific sources (e.g., industries or equipment). Whether these regulations apply
depends on the operating equipment of the specific OCS source.
Based on OCS permit documents from EPA Region 4 and Region 10, existing provisions in Part
61 are unlikely to apply to an OCS oil/gas drilling operation.68 Several of the permits identify
equipment that would be potentially subject to provisions in Part 63 (e.g., Subpart ZZZZ, which
regulates reciprocating internal combustion engines). However, in many cases the units satisfy
Subpart ZZZZ requirements by complying with the NSPS in 40 C.F.R. Part 60, Subpart IIII
(mentioned above).

Title V/Part 71 Operating Permits
A source may require a Title V permit, but not be subject to the provisions of other parts of the
CAA, such as BACT under the PSD program. The emissions threshold for a regulated pollutant is
lower for Title V than the PSD program. Instead of 250 tpy (as discussed above), the Title V
threshold is generally 100 tpy.69
64

As technology evolves, EPA adds new standards (per CAA §111). 40 C.F.R. Part 60 contains over 90 standards.
See e.g., EPA Region 4, Draft Permit to Shell Offshore Inc., at http://www.epa.gov/region4/air/permits/OCSPermits/
OCSpermits.html
66
For further discussion of CAA Section 112, see CRS Report RL30853, Clean Air Act: A Summary of the Act and Its
Major Requirements, by (name redacted) et al.
67
40 C.F.R. §55.13(e).
68
Although several permit documents identify Part 61, Subpart J (fugitive benzene emissions from specific equipment)
as potentially applicable, none of the operations were ultimately subject to Part 61. See “Statement of Basis”
documents from EPA Region 4 and Region 10, at http://www.epa.gov/region4/air/permits/OCSPermits/
OCSpermits.html and http://yosemite.epa.gov/R10/AIRPAGE.NSF/Permits/ocsap/. Accessed in September 2011.
69
CAA Title V, which references CAA Section 302 and the definition of “major stationary source.” This is codified in
(continued...)
65

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Part 55 directs outer OCS sources to 40 C.F.R. Part 71, which contains the regulations
promulgated to CAA Title V. The primary purpose of the Title V permit program is
administrative/enforcement efficiency. Title V permits collect all applicable requirements in a
single permit. Title V permits are not intended to change or alter the existing, underlying
requirements or add requirements.70
Although some may describe the Title V permit provisions as non-substantive, others may view
them as onerous. Title V permits are issued for five-year periods and must be renewed thereafter.
Permits generally require the following:
•

emissions limitations and standards to assure compliance with all applicable
requirements;

•

emissions monitoring, recordkeeping, and reporting;

•

fee payments to support administrative expenses; and

•

annual certification by a responsible official of the source.

Inner OCS Source Requirements
Inner OCS sources are subject to all of the requirements for outer OCS sources (described above)
and any applicable state and/or local air emissions requirements. In the event of conflict between
federal and state/local regulations, the more stringent provisions would apply.71

Attainment vs. Nonattainment Areas
Compared to outer OCS sources, the location of the inner OCS source plays a key role in
determining its applicable emission requirements. This is a function of the CAA and the potential
variety of regulations among states and locales. A fundamental element of the CAA, which is
generally implemented by states (at least for onshore sources), is its approach of setting more
stringent standards for areas not meeting certain air quality standards (“nonattainment areas”).72
For example, in a nonattainment area, an inner OCS source may be subject to the lowest
achievable emission rate (LAER), which is by definition more stringent than BACT.73 In addition,
emissions from new or modified sources must also be offset by reductions in emissions from
existing sources.
For the OCS air permits recently issued by EPA—in the eastern Gulf of Mexico and off the
northern Coast of Alaska (Beaufort and Chukchi Seas)—the nearby coastal areas are in
(...continued)
40 C.F.R. part 71. The threshold for hazardous air pollutants is even lower: 10 tpy of an individual hazardous pollutant
or more than 25 tpy of any combination.
70
For more information, see CRS Report RL33632, Clean Air Permitting: Implementation and Issues, by (name re
dacted).
71
C.F.R. §55.14.
72
For more information, see CRS Report RL30853, Clean Air Act: A Summary of the Act and Its Major Requirements,
by (name redacted) et al. See also,
73
As mentioned above, a BACT determination may consider a proposed control measure’s energy, environmental, and
economic impacts.

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attainment.74 In general, the coastal non-attainment areas for pollutants common to OCS oil/gas
operations (e.g., ozone) are located in California and the Mid-Atlantic (Figure 2).75 If OCS
operations expand, nonattainment areas may become more of a factor.76
Figure 2. Map of Non-Attainment Areas for Ozone (8-Hour)
Based on 1997 Standard

Source: Reproduced from EPA Office of Air and Radiation, at
http://www.epa.gov/airquality/greenbook/map/map8hrnm.pdf (accessed November 26, 2012).
Note: EPA’s nonattainment map for ozone is based on its 1997 ozone NAAQ, which was lowered from 0.08
parts per million (ppm) to 0.075 ppm in 2008. See CRS Report R41563, Clean Air Issues in the 112th Congress, by
(name redacted).

74

Although P.L. 112-74 (signed by President Obama December 23, 2011) transferred air emission authority in the OCS
off Alaska’s north coast to DOI, the act states the transfer “shall not invalidate or stay (1) any air quality permit
pending or existing as of the date of the enactment of this Act; or (2) any proceeding related thereto” (Section 432).
75
Of the recently EPA-issued OCS air permits, nitrogen oxide (NOx) emissions were the primary reason an OCS
source required a permit. Although the United States has no nitrogen dioxide (NO2) non-attainment areas (per EPA’s
Office of Air and Radiation website, at http://www.epa.gov/air), NOx emissions are precursors for ozone and PM2.5.
76
EPA’s nonattainment map for ozone (Error! Reference source not found.) is based on its 1997 ozone NAAQS.
EPA lowered this standard from 0.08 parts per million (ppm) to 0.075 ppm in 2008, but nonattainment areas for the
new standard have not yet been designated. In addition, EPA proposed a further reduced standard (in the range of 0.06
– 0.07 ppm) on January 19, 2010 (75 Federal Register 2938). EPA withdrew this proposal in September 2011.
According to EPA’s estimate, the proposed standard would have increased the number of non-attainment counties from
85 to 515. For more information, see CRS Report R41563, Clean Air Issues in the 112th Congress, by (name red
acted).

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Notice of Intent/Corresponding Onshore Area Designation
An owner/operator of an inner OCS source must submit a Notice of Intent (NOI) to the
appropriate EPA regional office and the appropriate state agency (or agencies) of the nearest
onshore area and adjacent areas. Among other elements, the NOI must include (1) an estimate of
the source’s potential emissions (in tons per year) of any air pollutant; and (2) information
allowing for an analysis of the source’s impact in onshore areas.77 As discussed below, the NOI
must include emission information from vessels associated with the operation.
The main purpose of the NOI is to allow the applicable state agency to decide if it wants to
submit a request as corresponding onshore area (COA).78 The CAA requires OCS sources to
comply with air emission provisions applicable to onshore sources in the COA. In general, the
onshore area closest to the OCS source is considered the COA. The act provides EPA with the
authority to designate another area as the COA, if that area has more stringent air emission
controls and that area will be impacted by emissions from the OCS source.79 For this to occur, the
state agency from the state seeking a COA redesignation must make a formal request to EPA.
EPA must make a COA designation determination—based on state agency documentation and
following a public comment period—within 240 days of receiving the NOI from the OCS source.
EPA regulations do not allow a COA redesignation for exploratory OCS sources (e.g., exploratory
drilling operations). The statute is silent on this issue, but EPA determined it was unreasonable to
require an exploratory source, which (according to EPA) may operate for 3-4 months, to undergo
an administrative procedure that can last for 8 months.80

OCS Vessel Emissions
Air emissions from vessels associated with OCS operations have generated some interest and
debate.81 In some offshore oil and gas operations, the emissions from vessels may represent a
substantial percentage of the operation’s overall air emissions. Section 328(a)(4)(C) states:
The terms ‘‘Outer Continental Shelf source’’ and ‘‘OCS source’’ include any equipment,
activity, or facility which—
(i) emits or has the potential to emit any air pollutant,
(ii) is regulated or authorized under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act [43 U.S.C. 1331
et seq.], and
(iii) is located on the Outer Continental Shelf or in or on waters above the Outer Continental
Shelf.

77

40 C.F.R. §55.4
40 C.F.R. §55.5.
79
CAA §328(a)(4)(B), 42 U.S.C. 7627(a)(4)(B).
80
57 Federal Register 40795 (September 4, 1992).
81
Some raised the issue again during Shell’s air permit process for drilling in the Chukchi Sea. See EPA Environmental
Appeals Board, Opinion Regarding Shell OCS Permit, Decided December 30, 2010.
78

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Such activities include, but are not limited to, platform and drill ship exploration,
construction, development, production, processing, and transportation. For purposes of this
subsection, emissions from any vessel servicing or associated with an OCS source, including
emissions while at the OCS source or en route to or from the OCS source within 25 miles of
the OCS source, shall be considered direct emissions from the OCS source.82

While crafting the regulations (40 C.F.R. Part 55) implementing CAA Section 328, EPA
interpreted the above provision to include vessels as OCS sources only when (1) they are
permanently or temporarily attached to the seabed for the purpose of exploring, producing, or
developing natural resource activities; or (2) they are physically attached to an OCS facility.83 If a
vessel qualifies as an OCS source, it may need to comply with other sections of the CAA, namely
the PSD program and BACT.
Emissions from support vessels (i.e., non-OCS source vessels) play a role in how the OCS source
the vessels support is regulated. All air emissions, including transit-related emissions within 25
miles of the OCS source, from support vessels must be accounted for in an OCS source’s
“potential to emit.” In some situations, the support vessel emissions may cause the OCS source’s
emissions to cross regulatory thresholds (i.e., 250 tpy of regulated pollutants in the case of
PSD).84

State Authority
Coastal states may seek authority to implement and enforce air emission requirements for OCS
sources in federal waters adjacent to state waters.85 This authority can include sources within the
25 mile seaward boundary and/or sources beyond this boundary.86 To obtain this authority, a
governor must submit his/her state regulations to the EPA Administrator, who determines if the
state provisions are adequate, based on specific criteria.87 If a state does not seek delegation, EPA
implements the program in waters adjacent to that state. In addition, if a neighboring state has
sought and received a COA redesignation (as discussed above), EPA may implement the more
stringent standards of this neighboring state.88

82

42 U.S.C. §7627(a)(4)(C).
57 Federal Register 40792 (September 4, 1992). EPA’s rationale for this interpretation relates to the second clause in
the OCS definition: “is regulated or authorized under the [OCSLA].” According to EPA, the OCSLA (43 U.S.C. 1333)
specifically excludes ships and vessels (unless permanently or temporarily attached to the seabed) from its regulatory
authority.
84
For example, see EPA permit (and associated documents) for Shell for oil exploration in the Chukchi Sea (issued
September 19, 2011), at http://yosemite.epa.gov/R10/airpage.nsf/Permits/chukchiap/.
85
CAA §328(a)(3).
86
40 C.F.R. §55.11(a). This latter authority was not included in the initial final rule, but added by a subsequent
rulemaking (62 Federal Register 46406, September 2, 1997).
87
40 C.F.R. §55.11(b).
88
Provided in 40 C.F.R. §55.11(j).
83

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According to a 2008 EPA Federal Register notice, only four local air pollution control agencies in
California89 have received authority to implement Part 55.90 This relatively small number is likely
related to the moratoria. EPA implements and enforces the regulations for all other sources within
EPA’s jurisdiction, including the state/local air emission regulations for inner OCS sources. If
policymakers open more OCS areas to oil/gas activities, this dynamic may change.

Procedural Requirements
Although Part 55 does not include specific administrative procedures and public participation
requirements, statutory provisions and requirements referenced in Part 55 would apply. Table 4
identifies procedural time frames for PSD and Title V permits that would apply to outer OCS
sources. Inner OCS sources would be subject to the same standards as onshore sources. These
standards vary by state and may be more stringent than the time frames identified below.
Table 4. EPA Review of PSD and Title V Permits
(outer OCS sources)
Time Frames

PSD Permit

Title V Permita

For EPA to review permit to
determine if application is
complete

30 daysb

Deemed complete within 60 days of
receipt, unless EPA determines
otherwise within that time framec

After deemed submitted, public
comment period

30 days (with extension at EPA’s
discretion)d

30 days (with extension at EPA’s
discretion)e

Final Decision

1 year after filing of completed permit
applicationf

18 months after receiving a completed
permit applicationg

Source: Prepared by CRS.
Note: Inner OCS sources would be subject to state/local air emission requirements, which may include more
stringent time frames than identified above.
a.

OCS sources can apply for a Title V permit within 12 months after first becoming a source (40 C.F.R.
§71.5).

b.

40 C.F.R. §124.3.

c.

40 C.F.R. §71.5

d.

40 C.F.R. §124.10

e.

40 C.F.R. §71.11.

f.

42 U.S.C. §7475(c).

g.

40 C.F.R. §71.7.

89

Santa Barbara County Air Pollution Control District (SBCAPCD); South Coast Air Quality Management District
(SCAQMD); Ventura County Air Pollution Control District (VCAPCD); and San Luis Obispo County Air Pollution
Control District (SLOAPCD).
90
73 Federal Register 66037 (November 8, 2008).

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Public Participation
In general, when EPA prepares a draft permit, the agency must provide 30 days for public
comment.91 Parties may request a public hearing,92 which EPA must hold if the Administrator
“finds, on the basis of requests, a significant degree of public interest in a draft permit.”93 In
addition, the agency has the discretion to extend the comment period beyond 30 days,94 and it
may reopen the comment period to expedite the decision process.95

Administrative Appeals Process
PSD and Title V permits are subject to an administrative appeals process. Any person who
submitted comments concerning the draft permit (or participated in a public hearing) may
petition—within 30 days of the final permit decision—EPA’s Environmental Appeals Board
(EAB) to review any condition of the permit.96 In addition, the EAB may decide on its own
initiative to review conditions in a permit. The EAB must issue its decision “within a reasonable
time” after receiving a petition.97

Judicial Review
In addition, parties may contest EPA’s permit decision in the court system. Judicial review of
permit decisions is typically governed by the particular environmental statute that is the subject of
the litigation.98 CAA Section 307 provides for judicial review of EPA actions. In addition, CAA
Section 502 includes judicial review provisions for Title V permit activity, providing an
opportunity for judicial review in state court of final permit actions by the applicant, persons who
participated in the public comment process, and any other person who could obtain judicial
review of such actions under state laws.99 However, parties must go through the EAB process
before seeking judicial review of agency action.100

91

40 C.F.R. §124.10; 40 C.F.R. §71.11.
40 C.F.R. §124.11; 40 C.F.R. §71.11.
93
40 C.F.R. §124.12; 40 C.F.R. §71.11.
94
40 C.F.R. §124.13; 40 C.F.R. §71.11.
95
40 C.F.R. §124.14; 40 C.F.R. §71.11.
96
40 C.F.R. §124.19; 40 C.F.R. §71.11.
97
Further information regarding the EAB is available at http://www.epa.gov/eab/.
98
If a specific statute is silent, the Administrative Procedures Act provides for judicial review. For more information,
see CRS Report R41546, A Brief Overview of Rulemaking and Judicial Review, by (name redacted) and (name redacted).
99
See CRS Report RL33632, Clean Air Permitting: Implementation and Issues, by (name redacted).
100
“A petition to the Environmental Appeals Board under paragraph (a) of this section is, under 5 U.S.C. 704, a
prerequisite to the seeking of judicial review of the final agency action” (40 C.F.R. 124.19(e)). For further information,
see EPA, The Environmental Appeals Board: Practice Manual, September 2010.
92

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DOI OCS Air Program
The DOI authority to address OCS air emissions comes from the 1978 OCSLA, which directs the
DOI Secretary to promulgate regulations “for compliance with the national ambient air quality
standards pursuant to the Clean Air Act (42 U.S.C. 7401 et seq.), to the extent that activities
authorized under this subchapter significantly affect the air quality of any State.”101
To satisfy this directive, DOI (acting through the U.S. Geological Survey) promulgated
regulations in 1980.102 The regulations were redesignated (i.e., renumbered) in 1998,103 but the
1980 provisions generally remain the same in 2011. The recent administrative changes (described
in the earlier “Reader’s Note”) have led to a further restructuring of the regulations. An October
2011 direct final rule separated BOEM and BSEE regulations, creating 30 C.F.R. Part 550 for
BOEM provisions (BSEE regulations were retained in their original location).104 The rule did not
add or remove OCS requirements, but makes organizational changes needed to accommodate the
DOI administrative changes.
In addition, DOI or its agencies (e.g., MMS, BOEM) have periodically issued Notices to Lessees
and Operators (NTLs), which “clarify, supplement, or provide more detail about certain
requirements.”105

Activity-Specific Plan Requirements
Before conducting operations on the OCS, leaseholders must (among other requirements) submit
and receive approval for activity-specific plans. For example, the OCSLA requires lessees to have
an approved Exploration Plan (EP) for exploration activities106 and a Development and
Production Plan (DPP) for development and production activities107 or a Development Operations
Coordination Document (DOCC) in areas, such as portions of the Western Gulf of Mexico, where
significant activities have already taken place.108 (Hereinafter in this report, references to DPPs
include DOCCs.) BOEM is charged with reviewing and approving these plans.109
These plans must include, among other provisions, a facility’s projected emissions (in tpy and
other measurements) of SO2, particulate matter (measured in PM2.5 and PM10 when applicable),
NOx, CO, and volatile organic compounds (VOC).110 The lessee will apply these projections, and
other related information (e.g., distance from shore), to determine whether certain requirements
apply (e.g., BACT).
101

43 U.S.C. §1334(a)(8).
45 Federal Register 15128 (March 7, 1980).
103
63 Federal Register 29487 (May 29, 1998).
104
76 Federal Register 64432 (October 18, 2011).
105
30 C.F.R. §250.103 (BSEE) and §550.103 (BOEM).
106
43 U.S.C. §1340.
107
43 U.S.C. §1351.
108
30 C.F.R. §250.201 (BSEE) and §550.201 (BOEM).
109
BSEE reviews Deepwater Operations Plans (DWOPs), but these are supplemental to other activity-specific plans
and do not have additional air emission provisions.
110
30 C.F.R. §550.218 (EP) or §550.249 (DPP or DOCC).
102

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A 2009 NTL stated that these requirements apply “regardless of whether the proposed activities
are in an area under [DOI] jurisdiction or EPA air quality jurisdiction.”111

Exemption Determination
A primary determination is whether the OCS source is exempt from further air emission
requirements. The DOI regulations contain an exemption formula, based on projected emissions
and distance from shore.112 For all of the pollutants listed above except CO emissions, the
exemption formula is:
E = 33.3D
Where:
E equals the exemption threshold (in tpy), and
D equals distance from shore (in miles).
For example, if an OCS source would be located 30 miles from shore, it would be exempt from
further air emission requirements as long as the projected emissions for each pollutant (SO2, PM,
NOx, and VOC) were below its exemption threshold of 990 tpy.113 Note the primary threshold for
EPA’s substantive requirements (e.g., PSD program) is 250 tpy, and states may have even lower
thresholds that would apply to inner OCS sources.

Significance Determination
For a non-exempt OCS source, the next determination is whether projected air emissions from
any pollutants would “significantly” affect onshore air quality (VOC emissions from non-exempt
sources are automatically deemed to significantly affect onshore air quality). These sources must
make the significance determination by using an approved air quality model.114 If the model
indicates that air pollutant concentrations—specified in 40 C.F.R. §550.303(e)—would be
exceeded, the facility’s emissions would significantly affect onshore air quality. The DOI
significance levels are the same required by EPA when determining whether a new major source
would significantly impact the air quality of a neighboring nonattainment area.115

Required Emission Controls
If air emissions from a non-exempt OCS source would significantly affect the air quality of an
onshore area (based on the modeling described above), further requirements apply. The
requirements depend on whether the impacted onshore location is an attainment (or

111

MMS NTL No. 2009-N11, “Air Quality Jurisdiction on the OCS,” effective December 4, 2009.
30 C.F.R. §550.303(d).
113
The CO emission exemption formula is E = 3400D2/3. Thus, a facility 50 miles from shore would be exempt if its
projected CO emissions were less than 46,750 tpy.
114
30 C.F.R. §550.303(e).
115
EPA levels are in 40 C.F.R. §51.165(b).
112

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unclassifiable) or nonattainment area. If more than one area would be impacted, the more
stringent requirements would apply.116

Emissions Monitoring and Reporting
According to the DOI regulations, lessees must monitor air emissions (“in a manner approved or
prescribed by the Regional Supervisor”) regardless of the source’s exempt status or whether the
OCS source’s emissions would significantly impact air quality.117 In addition, the regulations
require lessees to submit emission information to DOI on a monthly basis. However, it is
uncertain whether OCS sources are complying with this provision as written.

Nonattainment Areas
For nonattainment areas (e.g., Figure 2), the source must “fully reduce” emissions of any
pollutant that would significantly affect air quality. To achieve this objective, the lessee must
apply BACT, which, like EPA’s definition, allows for the consideration of energy, environmental,
and economic impacts. The lessee determines BACT, but a regional BOEM official verifies
BACT on a case-by-case basis.118
By comparison, EPA imposes LAER for new (inner OCS) sources in nonattainment areas, a
potentially more stringent control. However, if BACT alone would not address the applicable
emissions at an OCS source in DOI’s jurisdiction, the source must make additional reductions or
acquire emission offsets from another source.119

Attainment Areas
If attainment areas would be affected, an OCS source must apply BACT to emissions of any air
pollutant that would significantly affect air quality in the attainment area. In addition, the lessee
must determine whether—after applying BACT—emissions of total suspended particulates (TSP)
or SO2 would increase emission concentrations over specified thresholds (“maximum allowable
increases”) in the applicable area.120 The specified maximum allowable increases are similar to
those in EPA’s PSD regulations.121 However, the EPA regulations address PM10 instead of TSP
emissions, and also include NO2 emissions. The likely explanation for this difference is that the
DOI regulations reflect the EPA standards in place in 1980. Since that time, EPA has revised
standards and added new pollutants.122

116

30 C.F.R. §550.303(g)(4).
30 C.F.R. §550.303(k).
118
30 C.F.R. §550.302. See also the 1980 Federal Register preamble that states: “The Department also believes that it
is appropriate, particularly in the initial stages, for lessees to identify BACT.” 45 Federal Register 15135 (March 7,
1980).
119
30 C.F.R. §550.303(g).
120
30 C.F.R. §550.303(g).
121
40 C.F.R. §52.21(c).
122
For example, EPA replaced the TSP standard with the PM10 standard in 1987 (52 Federal Register 24634, July 1,
1987). See also http://www.epa.gov/pm/history.html.
117

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Temporary Facilities
OCS sources that are considered “temporary facilities” must apply BACT to address emissions of
any pollutant that would significantly affect the air quality of an onshore area.123 Temporary
facilities are defined as offshore operations in one location lasting less than three years.124 Note
that EPA’s time frame for temporary is two years.

OCS Vessel Emissions
OCS vessel emissions in DOI’s jurisdiction are counted the same as emissions in EPA’s
jurisdiction. CAA Section 328(a)(4) contains the definition for OCS source. This definition
applies to sources in both EPA and DOI jurisdictions.125 As discussed above, support vessel
emissions “servicing or associated with an OCS source, including emissions while at the OCS
source or en route to or from the OCS source within 25 miles of the OCS source, shall be
considered direct emissions from the OCS source.”
The DOI regulatory text addressing vessel emissions does not precisely match up with the CAA
text. Although the activity-specific plan regulations require lessees to document support vessel
emissions,126 the exemption formula provision (discussed above) specifically points to air
emissions documented under a different subsection,127 which does not include vessel emissions.
However, DOI guidance on emission calculations for plan submittals mirrors the statutory text.128

Procedural Requirements
The DOI regulations set specific time frames for agency review of Exploration Plans (EPs) and
Development and Production Plans (DPPs). In general, these time frames are considerably shorter
than those for EPA. These time frames are identified in Table 5. The maximum time frame for EP
review is much shorter than for DPP review.

123

30 C.F.R. §550.303(h).
30 C.F.R. §550.302.
125
As stated in the introductory text of §328(a)(4), the definitions apply to §328(a), which discusses EPA’s program,
and §328(b), which covers the OCS areas adjacent to Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.
126
30 C.F.R. §550.224 (EP) and §550.257 (DPP).
127
30 C.F.R. §550.218(a) for EPs; §550.249(a) for DPPs.
128
DOI, “Gulf of Mexico Air Emission Calculations Instructions,” accompanying Form BOEM-0138.
124

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Table 5. BOEM Review of Exploration Plans and Development and Production Plans
(time frames for different procedural steps)
Time Frames

Exploration Plan

Development and Production Plan

For BOEM to determine if a plan
is deemed submitted

15 working days

25 working days

After deemed submitted, for a
governor of an affected State to
submit comments

21 calendar days

60 calendar days

After deemed submitted, public
comment period

No public comment period

60 calendar days (concurrent with state
governor time frame)

Final Decisiona

30 calendar days after plan is deemed
submitted

60 calendar days after (1) comment period
closes; (2) BOEM releases its final
environmental impact statement (EIS);b or
(3) BOEM receives plan amendments

Source: 30 C.F.R. §§550.231-550.233 (EP) and §§550.266-550.270 (DPP).
a.

BOEM may (1) approve the plan; (2) require a plan modification; or (3) disapprove plan.

b.

The regulations do not require an EIS for every DPP. In general, DOI must prepare an EIS at least once in
every OCS planning area (30 C.F.R. §550.269).

Coastal Zone Management Act Review
Section 307(c)(3) of the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) requires lessees to certify the
“consistency” of an EP or DPP with an approved coastal zone management program of an
affected state (or states).129 Section 307(f) specifically requires coordination with CAA
requirements.
When a state determines that a lessee’s plan is inconsistent with its coastal zone management
program, the lessee must either reform its plan to accommodate those objections and resubmit it
for BOEM and state approval, or succeed in appealing the state’s determination to the Secretary
of Commerce.130
Some have questioned the impact of the CZMA consistency provision.131 Historically, states have
concurred with about 95% of the federal actions they have been asked to certify. As of 2009, 43
consistency decisions have been subjects of Commerce Secretary determinations. The subject of
18 of these appeals has been offshore energy activities. However, the most recent of these
decisions was rendered in 1999.132

129

16 U.S.C. §1456(c).
30 C.F.R. §550.235
131
See e.g., Sam Kalen, “The BP Macondo Well Exploration Plan: Wither the Coastal Zone Management Act?,”
Environmental Law Reporter, November 2010.
132
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Ocean and Coastal Resource Management, Appeals to the
Secretary of Commerce Under the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) - January 15, 2009,
http://www.coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/consistency/media/appealsdecisionlist011509.pdf.
130

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It is widely believed that the existence of the consistency requirement and the uncertainty of the
outcome of an appeal have led applicants to negotiate with states and to modify proposed actions
early on, thereby reducing the number of appeals. However, there are no data on the number of
proposed actions that have been altered because of the consistency process.133
In addition, the CZMA regulations—implemented by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)—indicate that some OCS activities may not require a review.134 As
activities occur farther offshore, a state’s CZMA review authority becomes less clear. According
to NOAA, a coastal state’s ability to review activity-specific plans stops at the point where coastal
effects are not “reasonably foreseeable.” Whether this threshold is met would be determined on a
case-by-case basis with the state, the lessee, and DOI.135

Public Participation
The DPP regulations require a 60-day comment period, in which any party may submit comments
or recommendations to the BOEM Regional Supervisor.136 The EP process does not include an
opportunity for public participation (Table 5).

Judicial Review
The OCSLA provides opportunity for judicial review of agency action alleged to be in violation
of federal law, including the OCSLA, its implementing regulations, and the terms of any permit
or lease.137

Comparison of DOI and EPA Air Programs
Table 6 compares selected elements of the EPA and DOI air emission programs. The table
examines the requirements applicable to outer OCS sources in EPA’s jurisdiction. Inner OCS
sources must follow the requirements that would apply to an onshore source in the corresponding
onshore area. As discussed above, these provisions vary by state and whether the area is an
attainment or nonattainment area. Regardless, inner OCS source requirements would be at least as
stringent as outer source requirements in all situations, and potentially more stringent in some
locations (e.g., California).
The primary difference between the EPA and DOI programs is rooted in the different statutory
authorities: the 1990 CAA and the 1978 OCSLA. The primary objectives of these statutes are
different—air quality versus offshore energy development. The two regulatory programs reflect
these underlying differences.
133
For more information, see CRS Report RL34339, Coastal Zone Management: Background and Reauthorization
Issues, by (name redacted); and CRS Report RL33404, Offshore Oil and Gas Development: Legal Framework, by
(name redacted).
134
15 C.F.R. Part 930.
135
See 71 Federal Register 790 (January 5, 2006). See also NOAA, CZMA Federal Consistency Overview, February
2009.
136
30 C.F.R. §550.267.
137
43 U.S.C. §1349.

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OCS sources in EPA’s jurisdiction must comply with the PSD program (e.g., BACT), among
other requirements. Sources subject to DOI’s regime must comply with similar standards (e.g.,
BACT), only if their emissions would “significantly affect” a state’s air quality. This key
difference translates into a considerably different scope of applicability between the two
programs. For example, DOI’s two-step significance determination is a potentially much less
stringent threshold than EPA’s 250 tpy threshold for its PSD program. Moreover, the federal
threshold for Title V permits is 100 tpy. For sources within 25 miles of a state’s shores, the PSD
and Title V thresholds may be even lower.
Another substantial difference is the time frame allotted to the agencies for reviewing a potential
source’s permit (EPA) or activity-specific plan (DOI). In addition, the EPA permit process allows
greater opportunity for input from the public. In particular, EPA’s EAB offers parties a powerful
tool to compel agency review.
Some stakeholders would likely argue that the additional opportunities for public involvement in
EPA’s permit process help create a balance between resource development and environmental
concerns. Others would likely contend these steps present unnecessary burdens and timing
uncertainty in the process. If more OCS areas in EPA’s jurisdiction are open for oil and gas
leasing, policymakers interest in these differences will likely increase.

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Table 6. EPA and DOI OCS Air Emission Programs
(comparison of selected elements)
Program Elements

EPA Outer OCS Sources Programa

DOI

Underlying statutory citation

1990 CAA §328 (42 U.S.C. §7627)

1978 OCSLA §5(a)(8) (43 U.S.C. §1334(a)(8))

Underlying statutory authority

Directs EPA to develop regulations requiring all OCS
sources “to attain and maintain Federal and State ambient
air quality standards and to comply with the provisions of
[the PSD program]”

Directs DOI to develop regulations for compliance with
CAA national ambient air quality standards, “to the extent
that activities authorized under this subchapter significantly
affect the air quality of any State”

Date of implementing regulations

September 4, 1992

March 7, 1980

Jurisdiction

All OCS sources in federal waters, except those west of
87.5 degrees longitude (the western and most of the
central Gulf of Mexico) and in the federal OCS off Alaska’s
north coastb

All OCS sources in Gulf of Mexico federal waters that are
west of 87.5 degrees longitude (the western and most of
the central Gulf of Mexico) and OCS sources in federal
waters off Alaska’s north coast

Framework of requirements

Air emissions permit: PSD and/or Title V

Activity-specific plans: Exploration Plan (EP) or
Development and Production Plan (DPP)

*OCS sources in EPA’s jurisdiction must also submit applicable
activity-specific plans per DOI regulations*c
Emission thresholds for substantive requirements
(e.g., BACT)

250 tpy

Two-step determination:
(1) are emissions exempt based on distance from shore?d
(2) if not exempt, would emissions “significantly” affect
onshore air quality (as determined by modeling)?

Emission monitoring and reporting

CRS-26

Required for Title V permits (100 tpy threshold) and PSD
permits (250 tpy threshold)

Monitoring and monthly reporting required regardless of
significance determination;e but it is uncertain whether this
is occurring

Program Elements
Pollutants subject to thresholds

Substantive requirements if thresholds met

EPA Outer OCS Sources Programa

DOI

Per PSD regulations, any “regulated pollutant,”f including
those with a national ambient air quality standard
(NAAQS):

Per DOI regulations:
•

SO2

•

Sulfur dioxide (SO2)

•

PM2.5 and PM10

•

Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10)

•

Nitrogen oxide (NOx)

•

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

•

CO

•

Carbon monoxide (CO)

•

VOCh

•

Ozone

•

Lead

•

Any pollutant identified as a constituent/precursor to
the above (e.g., volatile organic compounds (VOC))

•

Greenhouse gases (GHG)g

PSD permit requirements, including:

If affected onshore area is an attainment area: BACT

(1) BACT

If affected onshore area is a nonattainment area: BACT
and reduce all emissions with additional reductions or
offsets

(2) Air quality demonstration/analysis

If more than one area is impacted, the more stringent
requirements would apply
Temporary source exemption

If operating for less than two years in a given location,
sources are subject to BACT, but not the air quality
demonstration and analyses

If operating in one location less than three years, a source
must apply BACT to address emissions of any pollutant
that would significantly affect the air quality of an onshore
area

Other potentially applicable air emission
requirements

New Source Performance Standards

Activity-specific plans must include air emission
information, documenting exemption

National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
Title V permits
Coastal Zone Management Act Review per DOI regulations

CRS-27

Coastal Zone Management Act Review could potentially
lead to air emission modifications

Program Elements

EPA Outer OCS Sources Programa

DOI

Time frames for agency review

PSD permit determination within 1 year of complete
submittal; Title V permit within 18 months

Activity-specific plans have agency review deadlines (e.g.,
BOEM must provide an interim/final decision for an EP
within 30 days of it being submitted)

Other federal agency involvement

EPA must consult with the applicable Federal Land
Manager if a source’s emissions may impact a Class I area

No analogous authority

State implementation

Coastal states may seek authority to implement and
enforce EPA requirements for OCS sources in federal
waters adjacent to state waters

No analogous authority

Opportunities for public participation

EPA agency must provide a 30-day public comment period
when it issues a permit

BOEM must provide a 60-day public comment period for
parties to review a DPP

Opportunities for administrative appeal

Environmental Appeals Board: any person can appeal an
agency action

No analogous process

Opportunity for legal challenge

CAA provides opportunity for judicial review of agency
actions

OCSLA provides opportunity for judicial review of agency
actions

Source: Prepared by CRS.
a.

Pursuant to CAA Section 328, EPA established two regulatory regimes: one for OCS sources located within 25 miles of a state’s seaward boundary (“inner OCS
sources”); another for OCS sources located beyond 25 miles of a state’s water boundary and extending to the boundary of the EEZ (“outer OCS sources”).
Requirements for “inner sources” are the same as would be applicable if the source were located in the corresponding onshore area. These requirements will vary by
state and whether the corresponding onshore area is an attainment or nonattainment area for regulated pollutants.

b.

P.L. 112-74 (signed by President Obama December 23, 2011) transferred air emission authority from EPA to DOI for OCS sources off Alaska’s north coast.

c.

The DOI activity-specific plans entail multiple provisions, including potential air emission requirements. See Notice to Lessees and Operators 2009-N11, “Air Quality
Jurisdiction on the OCS,” December 4, 2009.

d.

For all but CO emissions, the exemption formula is: E = 33.3D. Thus, a source located 30 miles from shore would be exempt if its emissions were above 990 tpy.

e.

This appears to apply regardless of the source’s exempt status or whether the OCS source’s emissions would significantly impact air quality (30 C.F.R. §550.303(k)).

f.

The official term is “regulated NSR [New Source Review] pollutant,” which includes (among others) any pollutant for which a national ambient air quality standard
(NAAQS) has been promulgated and any pollutant identified as a constituent or precursor for a regulated NSR pollutant (40 C.F.R. §52.21(b)(50)).

g.

As of January 2, 2011, an OCS source must consider its GHG emissions. These emissions are subject to a different threshold. As of July 1, 2011, new emission
sources—not already subject to PSD for other pollutants—would be subject to PSD, if GHG emissions equal or exceed 100,000 tpy of carbon dioxide equivalents
(CO2e). If an OCS source is already subject to PSD for one or more of the 250 tpy-threshold pollutants, the GHG emission threshold is 75,000 tpy of CO2e.

h.

If VOC emissions breach the exemption threshold, they are automatically considered to “significantly” affect onshore air quality.

CRS-28

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Author Contact Information
(name redacted)
Specialist in Environmental Policy
[redacted]@crs.loc.gov, 7-....

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/crs%3AR42123. Public record. Not legal advice.