# The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands: Background and Issues for Congress > Briefs, arguments, decisions, and more. URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/crs%3AR42077 ## Record - **Collection:** Congressional research report - **Document type:** CRS Report - **Published:** January 3, 2013 - **Citation:** R42077 ## Text The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands: Background and Issues for Congress (name redacted) Specialist in Military Ground Forces January 3, 2013 Congressional Research Service 7-.... www.crs.gov R42077 CRS Report for Congress Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Summary The Unified Command Plan (UCP) and associated Combatant Commands (COCOMs) provide operational instructions and command and control to the Armed Forces and have a significant impact on how they are organized, trained, and resourced—areas over which Congress has constitutional authority. The UCP is a classified executive branch document prepared by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) and reviewed and updated every two years that assigns missions; planning, training, and operational responsibilities; and geographic areas of responsibilities to COCOMs. Functional COCOMs operate worldwide across geographic boundaries and provide unique capabilities to geographic combatant commands and the services while Geographic COCOMs operate in clearly delineated areas of operation and have a distinctive regional military focus. There are currently nine COCOMs: • USSOCOM: U.S. Special Operations Command, MacDill Air Force Base, FL. • USSTRATCOM: U.S. Strategic Command, Offutt Air Force Base, NE. • USTRANSCOM: U.S. Transportation Command, Scott Air Force Base, IL. • USAFRICOM: U.S. Africa Command, Kelley Barracks, Stuttgart, Germany. • USCENTCOM: U.S. Central Command, MacDill Air Force Base, FL. • USEUCOM: U.S. European Command, Patch Barracks, Stuttgart, Germany. • USNORTHCOM: U.S. Northern Command, Peterson Air Force Base, CO. • USPACOM: U.S. Pacific Command, Camp H.M. Smith, HI. • USSOUTHCOM: U.S. Southern Command, Miami, FL. This report provides information on the history, mission, and operational considerations for each of these organizations as well as a brief discussion of current issues associated with the UCP and these commands. The origins of the UCP and COCOMs are rooted in World War II. After the war, U.S. leaders, taking advantage of the lessons learned in both theaters, initiated a series of legislative changes that resulted in the current UCP process and COCOM construct. The UCP and COCOMs are covered under Title 10 - Armed Forces; Subtitle A - General Military Law; Part I–Organization and General Military Powers; Chapter 6–Combatant Commands. These provisions detail the responsibilities and authorities of COCOMs as well as legal requirements related to the UCP. Potential issues for Congress include the implications of a strategic shift to the Asia-Pacific region. Another issue is whether there is a need for greater interagency involvement in the UCP development process. A possible area for congressional concern is if Geographical COCOMs have made U.S. foreign policy “too militarized.” Some have also suggested there might be a need for separate COCOMs apart from the current nine to better address emerging regional and ethnic alignments as well as emerging threats such as cyber warfare. Finally, if Congress believes the current COCOM construct does not meet contemporary or future security requirements, there are proposals for alternative organizational structures that might prove more effective. Congressional Research Service The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Contents What Are the Unified Command Plan (UCP) and Combatant Commands (COCOMs)? ................ 1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Unified Command Plan (UCP) .................................................................................................. 1 Combatant Command (COCOM).............................................................................................. 2 Functional Combatant Commands ...................................................................................... 2 Geographic Combatant Commands .................................................................................... 3 Origins of the UCP .................................................................................................................... 3 Outline Command Plan 1946—The First UCP ................................................................... 3 National Security Act of 1947 (P.L. 80-253) ....................................................................... 4 DOD Reorganization Act of 1958 (P.L. 85-599) ................................................................. 4 Goldwater-Nichols DOD Reorganization Act of 1986 (P.L. 99-433) ................................. 5 What Laws Govern the UCP? .......................................................................................................... 5 UCP Update Cycle ........................................................................................................................... 6 Other Agency Involvement .............................................................................................................. 7 Congressional Involvement ............................................................................................................. 7 The Current UCP ............................................................................................................................. 8 Change One to the 2011 UCP .................................................................................................... 9 Origins of the COCOMs .................................................................................................................. 9 What Laws Govern COCOMs? ..................................................................................................... 10 General Discussion of Provisions ............................................................................................ 10 Command Authority .......................................................................................................... 11 COCOM Commander’s Responsibilities .......................................................................... 11 COCOM Funding .......................................................................................................................... 12 COCOM Budgetary Provisions ............................................................................................... 12 Functional and Geographic Combatant Commands ...................................................................... 13 Basic Organizational Principles............................................................................................... 13 Interagency Representation in COCOMs ................................................................................ 14 Functional Combatant Commands................................................................................................. 15 U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) .................................................................. 15 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 15 History ..................................................................................................................................... 15 Subcomponents........................................................................................................................ 16 U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC) ..................................................... 16 Naval Special Warfare Command (NSWC) ...................................................................... 16 Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) .......................................................... 17 Marine Special Operations Command (MARSOC) .......................................................... 17 Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC) ..................................................................... 17 Other Components ................................................................................................................... 17 Joint Special Operations University (JSOU) ..................................................................... 17 Special Operations Command–Joint Capabilities (SOC-JC) ............................................ 18 Ongoing Operations................................................................................................................. 18 Selected Current Issues............................................................................................................ 18 SOF Support to Combatant Commanders ......................................................................... 18 Congressional Research Service The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Efforts to Address “Fraying” of the Forces ....................................................................... 18 Continued Efforts to Expand USSOCOM Authorities and Control of Deployed SOF ................................................................................................................................ 19 U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) ........................................................................... 19 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 19 History ..................................................................................................................................... 20 Subcomponents........................................................................................................................ 21 Service Subcomponents .................................................................................................... 21 Functional Components..................................................................................................... 22 Ongoing Operations................................................................................................................. 23 Selected Current Issues............................................................................................................ 23 Nuclear Weapons Sustainment .......................................................................................... 23 Possible Shortfalls in Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) Analysts.......................................................................................................................... 23 USCYBERCOM Workforce ............................................................................................. 24 U.S. Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM) ................................................................. 24 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 24 History ..................................................................................................................................... 24 Subcomponents........................................................................................................................ 26 Surface Deployment and Distribution Command (SDDC) ............................................... 26 Military Sealift Command (MSC)..................................................................................... 26 Air Mobility Command (AMC) ........................................................................................ 26 Ongoing Operations................................................................................................................. 26 Selected Current Issues............................................................................................................ 27 Ground Supply to Afghanistan .......................................................................................... 27 Guam and Building Toward USTRANSCOM’s Future .................................................... 27 Geographic Combatant Commands ............................................................................................... 28 U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM) .................................................................................. 28 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 28 A Different Kind of Combatant Command ....................................................................... 28 History ..................................................................................................................................... 28 Subcomponents........................................................................................................................ 30 U.S. Army Africa (USARAF) ........................................................................................... 30 U.S. Naval Forces, Africa (NAVAF) ................................................................................. 30 U.S. Air Forces, Africa (AFAFRICA) ............................................................................... 30 U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Africa (MARFORAF) ........................................................... 30 Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) ................................................ 31 Special Operations Command-Africa (SOCAFRICA) ..................................................... 31 Ongoing Operations................................................................................................................. 31 U.S. Deployment to Central Africa ................................................................................... 31 Operation Enduring Freedom-Trans Sahara (OEF-TS)..................................................... 32 Exercises ........................................................................................................................... 32 Selected Current Issues............................................................................................................ 32 Regional Threats ............................................................................................................... 32 Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) Challenges .................................... 32 Additional Forces Allocated to USAFRICOM ................................................................. 33 U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM) ............................................................................... 33 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 33 History ..................................................................................................................................... 33 Subcomponents........................................................................................................................ 35 Congressional Research Service The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands U.S. Army Central (ARCENT) ......................................................................................... 35 U.S. Naval Forces Central Command (NAVCENT) ......................................................... 35 U.S. Air Forces Central (AFCENT) .................................................................................. 35 U.S. Marine Corps Forces Central Command (MARCENT)............................................ 35 Special Operations Command Central (SOCCENT) ........................................................ 36 Ongoing Operations................................................................................................................. 36 Selected Current Issues............................................................................................................ 36 Middle East Unrest ............................................................................................................ 36 Iranian Interference ........................................................................................................... 37 U.S. European Command (USEUCOM) ................................................................................. 37 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 37 USEUCOM Commander and NATO ................................................................................ 37 History ..................................................................................................................................... 38 Subcomponents........................................................................................................................ 39 U.S. Army Europe (USAEUR) ......................................................................................... 39 U.S. Naval Forces Europe (NAVEUR) ............................................................................. 39 U.S. Air Forces in Europe (USAFE) ................................................................................. 39 U.S. Marine Corps Forces Europe (MARFOREUR) ........................................................ 40 Special Operations Command Europe (SOCEUR) ........................................................... 40 Ongoing Operations................................................................................................................. 40 Support to NATO’s International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan ................................................................................................................ 40 Multi-National Joint and Interagency Exercises ............................................................... 40 Exercises in the Baltics, Balkans, and Caucasus ............................................................... 40 Selected Current Issues............................................................................................................ 41 Afghanistan ....................................................................................................................... 41 The Balkans ....................................................................................................................... 41 Missile Defense ................................................................................................................. 41 U.S. Northern Command (USNORTHCOM).......................................................................... 42 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 42 North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) .............................................. 42 Missile Defense ................................................................................................................. 42 Unique Civil Support Mission........................................................................................... 42 History ..................................................................................................................................... 43 Subcomponents........................................................................................................................ 44 Joint Force Headquarters National Capital Region (JFHQ-NCR) .................................... 44 Joint Task Force Alaska (JTF-AK) .................................................................................... 44 Joint Task Force Civil Support (JTF-CS) .......................................................................... 44 Joint Task Force North (JTF North) .................................................................................. 45 Army North (ARNORTH) ................................................................................................ 45 Air Force North (AFNORTH) ........................................................................................... 45 U.S. Fleet Forces Command (USFF) ................................................................................ 45 Ongoing Operations................................................................................................................. 45 Selected Current Issues............................................................................................................ 46 Countering Transnational Criminal Organizations............................................................ 46 The Arctic .......................................................................................................................... 46 U.S. Pacific Command (USPACOM) ...................................................................................... 47 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 47 History ..................................................................................................................................... 47 Subcomponents........................................................................................................................ 48 Congressional Research Service The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands U.S. Army Pacific (USARPAC) ........................................................................................ 48 U.S. Forces Korea (USFK) ............................................................................................... 48 U.S. Eighth Army .............................................................................................................. 48 U.S. Pacific Fleet (PACFLT) ............................................................................................. 49 U.S. Pacific Air Force (PACAF) ....................................................................................... 49 U.S. Marine Forces Pacific (MARFORPAC).................................................................... 49 Special Operations Command Pacific (SOCPAC) ............................................................ 49 Other Major USPACOM Organizations .................................................................................. 49 Joint Intelligence Operations Center (JIOC) ..................................................................... 49 Asia-Pacific Center for Security Studies (APCSS) ........................................................... 50 Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command (JPAC) ............................................................... 50 Joint Interagency Task Force West (JIATF-West) ............................................................. 50 Ongoing Operations................................................................................................................. 50 Selected Current Issues............................................................................................................ 50 Regional Challenges.......................................................................................................... 50 U.S. Strategic Shift to the Pacific ...................................................................................... 51 Report to Congress on Resources Needed for U.S. Strategic Shift to the Pacific ............. 51 U.S. Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM) .......................................................................... 53 Mission .................................................................................................................................... 53 History ..................................................................................................................................... 53 Subcomponents........................................................................................................................ 54 U.S. Army South (ARSOUTH) ......................................................................................... 54 U.S. Naval Forces Southern Command/U.S. Fourth Fleet (COMUSNAVSO/COMFOURTHFLT) ......................................................................... 54 Air Forces Southern/Twelfth Air Force (AFSOUTH) ....................................................... 55 U.S. Marine Forces South (USMARFORSOUTH) .......................................................... 55 Special Operations Command South (USSOCSOUTH) ................................................... 55 USSOUTHCOM Task Forces and Direct Reporting Units ..................................................... 55 Joint Task Force Bravo (JTF-Bravo) ................................................................................. 55 Joint Task Force Guantanamo (JTF–Guantanamo) ........................................................... 55 Joint Interagency Task Force South (JIATF South) .......................................................... 55 Center for Hemispheric Defense Studies (CHDS) ............................................................ 56 Ongoing Operations................................................................................................................. 56 Exercises and Military-to-Military Activities.................................................................... 56 Task Force-Oriented Activities.......................................................................................... 56 Selected Current Issues............................................................................................................ 56 Counter-Trafficking ........................................................................................................... 56 Natural Disasters, Poverty, and Violence .......................................................................... 57 Extra-Regional Actors ....................................................................................................... 57 Potential Issues for Congress ......................................................................................................... 57 What Are the Implications of the Asia-Pacific Strategic Shift for the UCP and COCOMs? ............................................................................................................................ 57 Is Greater Interagency Involvement in the UCP Process Needed?.......................................... 58 Has U.S. Foreign Policy Become “Too Militarized” as a Result of the Geographic COCOMs? ............................................................................................................................ 59 Are There Other Regions or Functions That Merit a Separate COCOM? ............................... 61 Is There an Alternative to COCOMs? ..................................................................................... 63 Replacing Subcomponent Commands with Joint Task Forces (JTFs) .............................. 63 Replacing COCOMs with a Joint Interagency Organization ............................................ 63 Congressional Research Service The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Figures Figure 1. Combatant Command Chain of Command .................................................................... 11 Tables Table 1. FY2011–FY2013 Operations & Management (O&M) Budget ....................................... 12 Appendixes Appendix. 2011 UCP COCOM Areas of Responsibility ............................................................... 65 Contacts Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 65 Congressional Research Service The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands What Are the Unified Command Plan (UCP) and Combatant Commands (COCOMs)? Introduction The Unified Command Plan (UCP) and associated Combatant Commands (COCOMs) provide operational instructions and command and control to the Armed Forces and have a significant impact on how they are organized, trained, and resourced—areas over which Congress has constitutional authority. In a grand strategic sense, the UCP and the COCOMs are the embodiment of U.S. military policy both at home and abroad. The COCOMs not only execute military policy but also play an important role in foreign policy, and Congress, in both oversight and budgetary roles, has shown great concern in this regard. All Combatant Commanders testify to the Armed Services Committees on an annual basis about their posture and budgetary requirements and frequently host Members and staff during a variety of congressional delegation visits. Unified Command Plan (UCP) The Department of Defense (DOD) defines the Unified Command Plan (UCP) as The document, approved by the President, that sets forth basic guidance to all unified combatant commanders; establishes their missions, responsibilities, and force structure; delineates the general geographical area of responsibility (AOR) for geographic combatant commanders; and specifies functional responsibilities for functional combatant commanders.1 The UCP is a classified executive branch document prepared by the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) and reviewed and updated at a minimum every two years. While the UCP is normally on a two-year cycle, it can be updated anytime based on changing strategic, political, and budgetary requirements. As noted, the UCP assigns missions; planning, training, and operational responsibilities; and geographic areas of responsibilities to COCOMs. The UCP is assessed and modified, taking into consideration the following strategic documents:2 • The National Security Strategy of the United States of America; • The National Defense Strategy of the United States of America; • The National Military Strategy of the United States of America; and • The current UCP. The UCP process also takes into consideration the strategic context (such as the war in Afghanistan, the global economic situation, relationships with allies, etc.) and command guidance from the President and senior DOD civilian and military leadership. As part of the final review 1 Joint Publication 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, November 8, 2010 (as amended through May 15, 2011), p. 385. 2 Information in this section is from a briefing provided to CRS by the Joint Staff Plans Division on October 7, 2010. Congressional Research Service 1 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands process before the UCP is submitted to the President, the proposed UCP is reviewed by senior service leaders, the Secretary of Defense, and the National Security Council (NSC). Congress is not included in this review process but does have visibility into issues affecting UCP development. Combatant Command (COCOM) DOD defines Combatant Command (COCOM) as: A unified3 or specified4 command with a broad continuing mission under a single commander established and so designated by the President, through the Secretary of Defense and with the advice and assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Combatant commands typically have geographic or functional responsibilities.5 Dr. Cynthia Watson, a professor at the National War College and author of “Combatant Commands: Origins, Structure, and Engagements” describes combatant commands as being: Commands in charge of utilizing and integrating air, land, sea, and amphibious forces under their commands to achieve U.S. national security objectives while protecting national interests. Four [now three] of the unified commands handle functional concerns while there are six with geographic mandates. The specific configurations have shifted over the decades, but the idea that geography provides an organizing principle remains the same, allowing each combatant command to have its specific threats and opportunities. The combatant commanders work with the military forces in their theaters, and report to the commander in chief and secretary of defense. The combatant commanders do not serve on the Joint Chiefs of Staff nor are they the senior U.S. representatives in the theater.6 The number of combatant commands is not regulated by law or policy and their numbers and responsibilities have varied over the years. Today, there are nine active COCOMs, and one COCOM–U.S. Joint Forces Command (JFCOM) was disestablished in 2010 and all of its remaining functions were transferred to other COCOMs or organizations. Functional Combatant Commands Functional combatant commands operate worldwide across geographic boundaries and provide unique capabilities to geographic combatant commands and the services: • USSOCOM: U.S. Special Operations Command, MacDill Air Force Base, FL; 3 Joint Publication 1-02 defines a unified command as a “command with a broad continuing mission under a single commander and composed of significant assigned components of two or more Military Departments that is established and so designated by the President, through the Secretary of Defense with the advice and assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.” 4 Joint Publication 1-02 defines a specified command as “a command that has a broad, continuing mission, normally functional, and is established and so designated by the President through the Secretary of Defense with the advice and assistance of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. It normally is composed of forces from a single Military Department.” 5 Ibid., p. 60. 6 Cynthia A. Watson, “Combatant Commands: Origins, Structure, and Engagement,” Praeger Security International, 2011, p. 15 (hereinafter, Cynthia A. Watson). Congressional Research Service 2 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands • USSTRATCOM: U.S. Strategic Command, Offutt Air Force Base, NE; and • USTRANSCOM: U.S. Transportation Command, Scott Air Force Base, IL. Geographic Combatant Commands Geographic combatant commands operate in clearly delineated areas of operation and have a distinctive regional military focus. • USAFRICOM: U.S. Africa Command, Kelley Barracks, Stuttgart, Germany; • USCENTCOM: U.S. Central Command, MacDill Air Force Base, FL; • USEUCOM: U.S. European Command, Patch Barracks, Stuttgart, Germany; • USNORTHCOM: U.S. Northern Command, Peterson Air Force Base, CO; • USPACOM: U.S. Pacific Command, Camp H.M. Smith, HI; and • USSOUTHCOM: U.S. Southern Command, Miami, FL. Origins of the UCP The United States’ experience with global warfare in World War II provided countless lessons attesting to the importance of unity of military effort achieved through the unified command of U.S. forces.7 While the United States was able to achieve a degree of unified command in the European theater under General Dwight Eisenhower—Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force—attempts to establish unified command in the Pacific “proved impossible.”8 Differences between the Army and Navy precluded any sort of unified command arrangement and General Douglas MacArthur commanded U.S. Army Forces, Pacific while Admiral Chester Nimitz commanded the U.S. Pacific Fleet. Although both commanders were able to work together to defeat Japan, there was a considerable amount of friction between these two powerful, independent commands. After the war, President Truman noted: We must never fight another war the way that we fought the last two. I have the feeling that if the Army and Navy had fought our enemies as hard as they fought each other, the war would have ended much earlier.9 Outline Command Plan 1946—The First UCP10 In 1946, the Chief of Naval Operations characterized the Pacific command arrangement as “ambiguous and unsatisfactory” and proposed a single command over the Pacific (not including Japan, Korea, and China) to provide unity of command over all U.S. forces in the region. The 7 Unless otherwise noted, information in this section is taken from the Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Joint History Office, “The History of the Unified Command Plan 1946-1999,” Washington, DC, 2003. 8 Ibid., p. 11. 9 Charles A. Stevenson, “Underlying Assumptions of the National Security Act of 1947,” Joint Forces Quarterly, 1st Quarter 2008. 10 Office of the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Joint History Office, “The History of the Unified Command Plan 1946-1999,” Washington, DC, 2003, p 11. Congressional Research Service 3 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Army and the Army Air Forces rejected this proposal, favoring instead unified command based on assignment of mission and forces as opposed to geographic areas. After a great deal of discussion and compromise, a worldwide system of unified command was established. President Truman approved the “Outline Command Plan” in December 1946, establishing seven commands as an “interim measure for the immediate post war period.” The seven commands were: • Far East Command; • Pacific Command; • Alaskan Command; • Northeast Command; • Atlantic Fleet; • Caribbean Command; and • European Command. Some of these seven commands contained more than one service and were, in a sense, unified, while others, such as the Atlantic Fleet, were service-specific. Even though these commands were established to achieve a degree of unity, the services continued in many instances to plan and act independently. Since 1946, the UCP has continued to evolve—sometimes in a dramatic manner— to reflect ever changing strategic, organizational, and political requirements. While Congress has influenced the UCP over the years, three major legislative initiatives have had a lasting impact on the UCP. National Security Act of 1947 (P.L. 80-253) While the National Security Act of 1947 is best known for the creation of the U.S. Air Force, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), and establishing the office of the Secretary of Defense, it also created the Unified Combatant Command (UCC) system.11 The UCC system signified the recognition by the United States that it would continue to have a worldwide, continuous global military presence. The National Security Act of 1947 also gave the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) the responsibility to establish unified commands in “strategic areas” subject to the approval of the President and Secretary of Defense.12 DOD Reorganization Act of 1958 (P.L. 85-599)13 In 1958, President Eisenhower—the former Supreme Commander, Allied Expeditionary Force— decided a more unified and streamlined chain of command to employ combat forces was needed, essentially putting an end to separate land, sea, and air combat. President Eisenhower sought “a complete unification of all military planning and combat forces and commands” and proposed the DOD Reorganization Act of 1958 to Congress to amend the National Security Act of 1947. 11 Cynthia A. Watson, p. 13. “The History of the Unified Command Plan 1946-1999,” p. 15. 13 Ibid., p. 26. 12 Congressional Research Service 4 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands The DOD Reorganization Act of 1958 authorized the President, acting through the Secretary of Defense with the advice of the JCS, to establish unified or specified commands, assign missions, and determine their force structure. This act did not alter any of the authorities established by the National Security Act of 1947 but instead established a clear line of command from the President, through the Secretary of Defense, to the combatant commanders. Combatant commanders were delegated full operational control over forces assigned to them but once these forces were assigned, they could only be transferred with presidential approval. Responsibility for the administration of these assigned forces was to remain with their respective services. Goldwater-Nichols DOD Reorganization Act of 1986 (P.L. 99-433)14 In the aftermath of the failed 1980 multi-service mission to rescue U.S. hostages in Iran and the 1983 invasion of Grenada which featured numerous instances of poor inter-service planning and cooperation, there was renewed emphasis on “jointness” both in Congress and at the Pentagon. Goldwater-Nichols sought to “rebalance the relative power of the geographic commands versus the services.”15 Goldwater-Nichols called for the Chairman of the JCS (CJCS) to review the missions, responsibilities, and force structure and geographic boundaries for each COCOM not less than every two years and recommend changes to the Secretary of Defense and the President. In addition, the act expanded the CJCS’s and combatant commander’s powers and gave combatant commanders greater interaction with Congress and greater participation in the DOD budget process. What Laws Govern the UCP? The UCP and COCOMs are covered under Title 10 - Armed Forces; Subtitle A - General Military Law; Part I–Organization and General Military Powers; Chapter 6–Combatant Commands. As it relates to the UCP, Section 161, inter alia, stipulates: 14 15 • Unified COCOMs are established by the President, through the Secretary of Defense (SECDEF), with the advice and assistance of the CJCS. • The CJCS shall periodically review (at least every two years) missions, responsibilities (including geographic boundaries), and force structure of each combatant command. • Based on this review, the CJCS will recommend to the President, through the SECDEF, changes to missions, responsibilities, and force structure deemed necessary. • The President, except in times of hostilities or imminent danger, will notify Congress not less than 60 days after establishing a new combatant command or significantly revising the missions, responsibilities, or force structure of an existing combatant command. Cynthia A. Watson, pp. 14-15. Ibid. Congressional Research Service 5 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Also under Section 161, the CJCS is required to consider during each periodic UCP review: • Whether there was an adequate distribution of responsibilities among the regional unified combatant commands; • Whether fewer or differently configured commands would permit the United States to better execute war fighting plans; • Whether any assets or activities were redundant; • Whether war fighting requirements were adequate to justify current commands; • Whether exclusion of certain nations from the Areas of Responsibility presented difficulties with respect to national security objectives in those areas; and • Whether the boundary between the U.S. Central and European Commands could create command conflicts in the context of a major regional conflict in the Middle East. UCP Update Cycle16 Generally, the UCP update cycle runs from 12 to 18 months. The current UCP process consists of five iterative phases described below: 1. Guidance: DOD UCP planners review four central documents: The National Security Strategy of the United States of America; The National Defense Strategy of the United States of America; The National Military Strategy of the United States of America; and the current UCP. UCP participants also receive command guidance in various forms and in varying degrees, and are apprised of the strategic context under which the UCP will be evaluated. During the final part of this phase, stakeholders (Combatant Commanders, Service Chiefs, and the Joint Staff) identify issues they believe need to be addressed during the UCP update cycle. 2. Slate: During this phase, issues are slated for discussion. At the beginning of the phase an action officer planning conference is held to discuss UCP issues. After the conference, stakeholders submit Issue Development Papers (IDPs) to the Joint Staff where they are posted online on a secure operating system (SIPRNET)17 where stakeholders can view and comment on them. After a period of time, these IDPs and associated comments are sent to the Deputy Director for Strategy and Policy and the Director J-5 for validation. Those IDPs that make it through the validation process are then “slated” and placed online so stakeholders can develop positions for the next phase of the UCP process. 3. Assessment: This phase begins with a Planner’s Assessment Conference where courses of action (COA) are developed for each validated IDP. These COA provide decision makers with a range of choices to address the IDPs. Once the COA are agreed at the conference, they are again posted online for review and comment. After a period of time, the COA are finalized and “closed out.” 16 17 Information in this section is from a briefing provided to CRS by the Joint Staff Plans Division on October 7, 2010. SIPRNET stands for Secret Internet Protocol Router Network DOD’s classified computer network. Congressional Research Service 6 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands 4. Adjudication: The adjudication phase is a four part process whereby the issues and COA are sent to various levels of the Joint Staff for approval. The first level is the Deputy Director for Strategy and Policy and after review and approval, a draft UCP is published. Next comes the Director J-5 and another revised draft UCP is published. This draft UCP is then taken to a Service Chiefs’ “Tank”18 meeting and after that meeting, another UCP draft is prepared. Finally a Joint Chiefs of Staff Tank meeting is held and a final draft UCP is prepared, posted on the SIPRNET, and is then ready for final review. 5. Review: During this phase the UCP is reviewed and revised for the final time. The first review is held at the “four-star level” including Service Chiefs, Combatant Commanders, and other 4-star level general officers and DOD civilians. Next, the SECDEF reviews the draft UCP and suggests changes. The next step is the National Security Council (NSC) review where the UCP is commented on by other U.S. government agencies. Finally, after incorporating the views of the NSC principals, the UCP is taken to the President for approval and final publication. Other Agency Involvement19 There are other executive branch agencies (State Department, Department of Justice, Department of Homeland Security, and the Central Intelligence Agency, to name a few) that are collectively referred to as the Interagency and have a vested interest in the UCP because some of its associated military tasks intersect with the responsibilities of these agencies. While none of these agencies are formally part of the UCP development process, they do have access to it by means of agency liaison officers stationed at the COCOMs and on the Joint Staff. These liaison officers have visibility of the IDP and COA process as well as access to draft UCPs and are able to report their observations and concerns to their principals (i.e., Secretary of State, Attorney General, etc.). The NSC also receives periodic updates on UCP development or revisions during the UCP cycle. The principals may then choose to address their UCP concerns with senior DOD leadership. During the NSC UCP Review, other agencies can publicly voice concerns with the UCP but, unless an agency has not been actively following the UCP development, there should be no “surprises” when the UCP is reviewed by the NSC. Congressional Involvement20 Congress currently has no statutory role in the UCP development, revision, or review process other than those stipulated in Title 10, Chapter 6, Sections 161 and 166. Congress does, however, make its concerns known during hearings, private conversations between Members and staff and DOD leadership, and through lending support to UCP-related issues through legislation or by resolution. For example, prior to the 2007 decision to stand up AFRICOM, a number of Members called for the creation of a separate geographic combatant command for Africa. Congress also 18 Tank is the euphemism for the Joint Chiefs of Staff Conference Room in the Pentagon where sensitive important senior-level meetings are held. 19 Information in this section is from a briefing provided to CRS by the Joint Staff Plans Division on October 7, 2010. 20 Ibid. Congressional Research Service 7 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands periodically includes provisions in annual National Defense Authorization Acts calling for DOD studies and reports on certain aspects of COCOM structure and operations. These requirements, in addition to providing information to Congress, also serve the purpose of identifying areas of congressional concern which can influence DOD COCOM-related resourcing and policy decisions. The Current UCP The 2011 UCP is a classified document. On April 8, 2011, DOD released the 2011 UCP and the unclassified highlights were included in the following news release: DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 201121 The Department of Defense released today the updated Unified Command Plan (UCP), a key strategic document that establishes the missions, responsibilities, and geographic areas of responsibility for commanders of combatant commands. Unified Command Plan 2011, signed by the President on April 6, assigns several new missions to the combatant commanders. Every two years, the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff is required to review the missions, responsibilities, and geographical boundaries of each combatant command and recommend to the President, through the Secretary of Defense, any changes that may be necessary. As in past years, the 2011 review process included the combatant commanders, service chiefs and DOD leadership. Significant changes made by UCP 2011 include - Shifting areas of responsibilities boundaries in the Arctic region to leverage longstanding relationships and improve unity of effort. As a result of this realignment, responsibility for the Arctic region is now shared between USEUCOM and USNORTHCOM rather than USEUCOM, USNORTHCOM and USPACOM as directed in previous UCPs. - Giving USNORTHCOM responsibility to advocate for Arctic capabilities. - Codifying the President’s approval to disestablish U.S. Joint Forces Command. - Expanding U.S. Strategic Command’s responsibility for combating weapons of mass destruction and developing Global Missile Defense Concept of Operations. - Giving U.S. Transportation Command responsibility for synchronizing planning of global distribution operations. UCP 2011 continues to support U.S. defense security commitments around the world while improving military responsiveness to emerging crises. A map with the UCP COCOM Areas of Responsibility is included in the Appendix. 21 U.S. Department of Defense News Release, DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011, N. 288-11, April 8, 2011. Congressional Research Service 8 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Change One to the 2011 UCP22 On September 12, 2011, President Obama signed Change One to the 2011 UCP, which primarily captured the administrative changes reflecting the disestablishment of USJFCOM and a number of SECDEF-directed Efficiency Initiatives. These changes include • Removing any language referring to USJFCOM which was disestablished on August 31, 2011; • Removing language for geographic combatant command standing joint force headquarters,23 which are approved for disestablishment by the end of FY2012; • Adding the responsibility of global standing joint headquarters to USTRANSCOM; • Transferring the Joint Warfare Analysis Center missions from USJFCOM to USSTRATCOM; and • Removing language and responsibilities for Information Operations, Military Deception, and Operations Security from USSTRATCOM as these mission areas are to be transferred to the Joint Staff. Origins of the COCOMs The non-statutory origins of COCOMs are rooted in the U.S. experience in World War II. Prior to World War II, the services operated independently and, despite lessons learned from World War I suggesting the Army and Navy needed to better communicate and plan, no real concerted effort was made to coordinate the Armed Forces, largely attributed to “bureaucratic distrust and service rivalry.”24 During this period, Marine Corps fears the Army would lobby to eliminate the Marines on the grounds they were a “redundant service” as well as Army efforts to maintain control over the country’s air arm typified the climate among the services that made any meaningful reform virtually impossible.25 World War II presented unique challenges not faced during the 18-month U.S. involvement in the First World War. While World War I was fought in a variety of theaters, such as Europe, Africa, the Mediterranean, and the Middle East, U.S. involvement was primarily limited to Europe and was predominately land-centric. In terms of strategic planning and command relationships, the United States played a supporting role. The United States’ experience in World War II bore little resemblance to that of the Great War. The European and Pacific theaters of the Second World War varied significantly, with the European Theater being a land-centric conflict supported by naval operations whereas the Pacific 22 Taken from information provided to CRS by the Senate Armed Services Committee on September 13, 2011. From Joint Publication 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, as amended through September 15, 2011, a Standing Joint Force Headquarters or SJFHQ is a staff organization operating under a flag or general officer providing a combatant commander with a full-time, trained joint command and control element integrated into the combatant commander’s staff whose focus is on contingency and crisis action planning. 24 Cynthia A. Watson, p. 11. 25 Ibid. 23 Congressional Research Service 9 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Theater was naval-centric and supported by Marine and Army ground forces. Both theaters also featured extensive supporting air force operations, including long-range strategic bombing campaigns unprecedented in both size and scope. In terms of relationships with allies, the United States assumed the leadership role in both the Pacific and European theaters—largely due to its unmatched military and industrial resources—despite insistence that the U.S. was “co-equal partners” with Great Britain, France, and Russia. Unlike 1918, after the Japanese surrender in 1945, U.S. political and military leaders did not advocate a post war policy of isolationism, because of fears of a communist Russia and, to a lesser extent, China. U.S. global military presence was viewed as a guarantee against unfettered communist expansion, and this presence necessitated an effective, geographically focused, long-term, joint command arrangement. What Laws Govern COCOMs? As previously noted, COCOMs are governed by the provisions contained in Sections 161 through 168 of Title X, Armed Forces, U.S. Code.26 These sections address the following provisions; • Section 161: The establishment of COCOMs; • Section 162: Chain of command and assignment of forces for COCOMs; • Section 163: Role of the CJCS; • Section 164: Assignment and powers and duties of commanders of COCOMs; • Section 165: Administration and support of COCOMs; • Section 166: COCOM budget proposals; • Section 166a: Funding COCOMs through the CJCS; • Section 166b: Funding for combating terrorism readiness initiatives; • Section 167: Unified COCOMs for special operations forces; • Section 167a: Unified COCOMs for joint warfighting experimentation: acquisition authority; and • Section 168: Military-to-military and comparable activities. General Discussion of Provisions27 These provisions assign a number of responsibilities to the CJCS including a regular (at least every two years) review of the missions, responsibilities, areas of operation, and force structure of each combatant command. Upon completion of this review, the Chairman provides suggestions to the President—through the SECDEF—for changes in missions, force structure, and responsibilities for the COCOMs. These provisions also tie the services to the COCOMs as the Secretaries of the military departments are directed to assign their forces (unless assigned 26 Unless otherwise noted, information in this section is taken from Sections 161-168, Title 10–Armed Forces, pp. 144154, and Cynthia A. Watson, pp. 2-6. 27 Information in this section is taken from Cynthia A. Watson, pp. 2-6. Congressional Research Service 10 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands elsewhere such as a multi-national peacekeeping operation) to COCOMs. These forces can only be transferred from the commands by the SECDEF. Command Authority Forces assigned to COCOMs are under the command of that COCOM commander, with the chain of command starting with the President and running through the SECDEF as indicated in Figure 1. The CJCS serves as a link between the President and the SECDEF and the COCOM commanders. The President can send guidance to COCOM commanders through the CJCS, and the chairman can relay combatant commander’s needs and concerns to the SECDEF and the President. The CJCS may exercise oversight of the COCOMs, if desired by the SECDEF, but has no command authority over the COCOMs. In this regard, the CJCS is described as taking part in national security discussions but not in the formal decision-making process as it relates to COCOMs. Figure 1. Combatant Command Chain of Command Source: This figure is taken from the author’s National Defense University academic notes, 2010. Note: USJFCOM was disestablished in August 2011 and no longer functions as a COCOM. COCOM Commander’s Responsibilities COCOM commanders are responsible for the accomplishment of missions assigned to them as well as all aspects of joint training, logistics, and military operations. COCOM commanders are also responsible for establishing command relationships with subordinate commands as well as organizing subordinate units as deemed necessary. While Combatant Commanders exercise control over subordinate units from different services, the services retain administrative control of Congressional Research Service 11 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands their personnel to include assignment, promotion, schooling, and retirement. To facilitate administrative control, geographic combatant commands have service subcomponents for each service. COCOM Funding On an annual basis, COCOMs request Operations and Maintenance (O&M) funding. Funding for forces assigned to COCOMs are funded by the respective services and funding for operations are funded separately, such as operations in Afghanistan and counterterror operations that have primarily been funded through the Overseas Contingency Operations (OCO) account. Table 1 provides O&M funding figures for the COCOMs from FY2011 to FY2013. It should be noted that some amounts include operational and OCO costs (see corresponding notes). Table 1. FY2011–FY2013 Operations & Management (O&M) Budget ($ in thousands) COCOM FY2011 FY2012 FY2013 USAFRICOM 259,368 282,152 285,022 USEUCOM 134,377 120,278 119,267 USSOUTHCOM 198,930 193,257 206,342 USPACOM 301,919 268,014 300,097 USNORTHCOM 274,572 203,803 200,114 USSTRATCOM 648,459 507,382 689,821 USCENTCOMa 106,631 137,167 179,266 USSOCOMb 7,269,710 3,890,115 5,096,226 13,588 13,368 13,003 USTRANSCOMc Source: Information in this table was provided to CRS by the Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) Comptrollers Office. Note: COCOM amounts, unless noted, reflect headquarters and mission support O&M funding. a. Does not include figures for operations in Afghanistan. b. USSOCOM figures include both headquarters and operational funds. c. USTRANSCOM is funded predominately with customer orders. COCOM Budgetary Provisions The SECDEF is required to submit an annual budget proposal for the COCOMs and funding may be requested for joint exercises, force training, contingencies, and selected operations. Proposed funding for special operations forces (SOF) training with foreign forces may also be requested. COCOMs can also receive funds through the CJCS as part of the “Combatant Commander Initiative Fund.” Although not a COCOM, the U.S. element of the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) is also eligible for this fund. Authorized activities include • Force training; Congressional Research Service 12 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands • Contingencies; • Selected operations; • Command and control; • Joint exercises to include activities of participating foreign nations; • Humanitarian and civic assistance; • Military education and training to military and related civilian personnel of foreign countries; • Personnel expenses of defense personnel for bilateral or regional cooperation programs; • Force protection; and • Joint warfighting capabilities. COCOMs also have access to a DOD budget account known as the “Combating Terrorism Readiness Initiatives Fund.” Authorized activities under this fund include • Procurement and maintenance of physical security equipment; • Improvement of physical security sites; • Under extraordinary circumstances: • Physical security management planning; • Procurement and support of security forces and security technicians; • Security reviews, investigations, and vulnerability assessments; and • Any other activity relating to physical security. Functional and Geographic Combatant Commands Basic Organizational Principles28 COCOM commanders hold four-star flag rank and have risen through the ranks of their respective services, commanding at the highest levels. COCOM commanders have also met Joint Military Education Requirements as set forth in the Goldwater-Nichols Act. The President nominates combatant commanders based on the recommendations of the SECDEF. The Senate Armed Services Committee holds confirmation hearings for the nominees and the Senate then votes to confirm the candidates. While four-star officers from any service may serve as combatant commander for any given COCOM, some appointments (e.g., U.S. Pacific Command being commanded by a Navy admiral) traditionally have gone to specific services. 28 Ibid., pp 19-21. Congressional Research Service 13 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands The basic configurations of COCOM staffs are generally the same and mirrors the Joint Staff at the Pentagon. COCOM staffs are organized as follows, although there are variations based on unique COCOM mission areas: • J-1 Directorate of Manpower and Personnel; • J-2 Directorate of Intelligence; • J-3 Directorate of Operations; • J-4 Directorate of Logistics; • J-5 Directorate of Strategic Plans and Policy; • J-6 Directorate of Command, Control, Communication, and Computer; • J-7 Directorate of Operational Planning and Joint Force Development; • J-8 Directorate of Force Structure, Resources, and Assessment; and • J-9 Directorate of Interagency Partnering. Within the COCOM command and staff construct, Joint Task Forces (JTFs) are often created to address a single policy concern and allocate resources, such as anti-drug efforts or humanitarian assistance, on a short- to mid-term basis. JTFs can also be established in response to a crisis or for a long-term commitment. Some COCOMs also have a political advisor (POLAD) assigned to the commander to serve as an interface with the civilian portion of the national security establishment as well as the ambassadors and embassy staffs of countries that fall under the COCOM commander’s UCP mandate. Interagency Representation in COCOMs29 Both Functional and Geographic COCOMs have integrated assets and representatives of other agencies and departments of the U.S. government into the COCOM’s structure to enhance operations. Examples of this representation include • USAFRICOM: A State Department Deputy Commander for Civil-Military Activities, a senior U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) advisor, and two other senior U.S. diplomats who serve as a Foreign Policy Advisor and as the J-9, Director of Outreach; • USCENTCOM: An Interagency Action Group (IAG) established in the J-3 Directorate of Operations to integrate USCENTCOM and Interagency activities; • USEUCOM: Established a J-9 Directorate for Interagency Partnering; and 29 Information in this section is taken from Department of Defense Report to Congress Pursuant to Section 944 of the Ike Skelton National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2011 P.L. 111-383, Department of Defense Report on Organizational Structures of the Headquarters of the Geographic Combatant Commands, June 2011, p. 3. Congressional Research Service 14 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands • USNORTHCOM: A Joint Interagency Coordinating Group (JIACG) that integrates and synchronizes the activities of numerous civilian, State, Federal, and private sector organizations. Functional Combatant Commands U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM)30 Website: http://www.socom.mil Mission31 USSOCOM’s primary mission is to organize, train, and equip special operations forces (SOF) and provides those forces to the Geographic Combatant Commanders under whose operational control they serve. USSOCOM also develops special operations strategy, doctrine, and procedures for the use of SOF and also develops and procures specialized, SOF-unique equipment for its assigned forces. USSOCOM is also the lead COCOM for synchronizing DOD planning against terrorists and their networks on a global basis. USSOCOM also can execute global operations against terrorist networks when directed to do so by the President or Secretary of Defense. The diverse nature of USSOCOM’s counterterror mission requires working extensively with other non-DOD U.S. Government Agencies, sometimes referred to as the Interagency. History32 The 1980 Desert One tragedy and the 1983 loss of 237 Marines in Beirut, combined with the command and control problems experienced during Grenada in 1983 heightened apprehensions about DOD’s ability to manage the services, including special operations forces who were “owned” by their respective service. By 1983, there was a small but growing sense in Congress of the need for military reforms. In June, the Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC), under the chairmanship of Senator Barry Goldwater (R-AZ), began a two-year-long study of DOD which included an examination of SOF. With concern mounting on Capitol Hill, DOD created the Joint Special Operations Agency on January 1, 1984. This agency had neither operational nor command authority over any SOF units and did little to address SOF issues. Within Congress, there was a growing sense that a radical restructuring of SOF was needed. Proponents included Senators Sam Nunn (D-GA) and William Cohen (R-ME), both members of 30 For detailed information on USSOCOM, subcomponents, and assigned forces see CRS Report RS21048, U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress, by (name redacted). 31 Posture Statement of Admiral William H. McRaven, USN, Commander United States Special Operations Command before the 112th Congress House Armed Services Committee, March 7, 2012. 32 Information in this section is taken from author’s National War College course materials, USSOCOM History Book, “Founding and Evolution of USSOCOM,” pp. 5-11. Congressional Research Service 15 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands the SASC, and Representative Dan Daniel (D-VA), the chairman of the Readiness Subcommittee of the House Armed Services Committee (HASC). Congressman Daniel believed the U.S. military establishment had little interest in special operations and that U.S. SOF was second-rate when compared to countries such as Great Britain and Israel. Senators Nunn and Cohen also believed that DOD was not preparing adequately for future threats. Senator Nunn expressed a growing frustration with the Service’s practice of reallocating monies appropriated for SOF modernization to non-SOF programs and suggested the U.S. needed a more efficient organization and a more direct chain of command for special operations. In early 1986, SOF advocates introduced reform bills in the House and Senate. The Senate bill, co-sponsored by Senator Nunn and others, called for a joint military organization for SOF and the establishment of an office in DOD to ensure adequate funding and policy emphasis for lowintensity conflict and special operations. Representative Daniel’s proposal went even further—he wanted a national special operations agency headed by a civilian who would bypass the Joint Chiefs and report directly to the SECDEF, thereby keeping Joint Chiefs and services out of the SOF budget process. Congress held hearings on the two bills in the summer of 1986. CJCS Admiral William J. Crowe, led the Pentagon’s opposition to the bills and proposed instead a new special operations forces command led by a three-star general. This proposal was not well received by Congress, who wanted a four-star officer in charge so that he could deal on an equal footing with the four-star Service Chiefs. President Reagan approved the establishment of USSOCOM on April 13, 1987. DOD activated USSOCOM on April 16, 1987, and nominated Army General Lindsay to be USSOCOM’s first commander. Subcomponents33 U.S. Army Special Operations Command (USASOC) USASOC includes Army Special Forces, also known as Green Berets; Rangers; Civil Affairs, and Military Information Support Operations (MISO)—formerly known as psychological operations (PSYOPS)—units. In addition, the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment (SOAR) provides rotary wing support to all SOF units. Naval Special Warfare Command (NSWC) NSWC consists of Sea, Air, and Land (SEAL) teams that conduct operations in both maritime and ground environments. NSWC also has SEAL Delivery Vehicle (SDV) teams—specialized SEALs that pilot small submersible vehicles that can deliver SEALs to their area of operations. NSWC includes Special Boat Teams that can deliver SEALs from ship to shore as well as operate in the littorals and rivers. 33 Information from this section is taken from CRS Report RS21048, U.S. Special Operations Forces (SOF): Background and Issues for Congress, by (name redacted) and USSO COM website, http://www.socom.mil. Congressional Research Service 16 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Air Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC) AFSOC provides specialized fixed and rotary wing support to USSOCOM units. In addition to aircraft support, AFSOC also provides Combat Controllers, Pararescue Jumpers, Special Operations Weather Teams, and Tactical Air Control Parties (TACPs) to support special operations. AFSOC is currently establishing a capacity to train and advise partner nation aviation units as part of foreign internal defense initiatives. Marine Special Operations Command (MARSOC) Established in 2005, MARSOC is the newest USSOCOM subcomponent. It consists of three Marine Special Operations Battalions, a Marine Special Operations Support Group, a Marine Special Operations Intelligence Battalion, and the Marine Special Operations School. Joint Special Operations Command (JSOC)34 According to USSOCOM, JSOC is a sub unified command charged with studying special operations requirements and techniques to ensure interoperability and equipment standardization. JSOC also plans and conducts special operations exercises and training and develops joint special operations tactics. USOCOM also notes JSOC “is comprised of an impressive amalgamation of rigorously screened and accessed, Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen, Marines, and Civilians,” and “past and present members of JSOC have participated in all of our Nation’s wars and contingency operations since it was activated in 1980.” Press reports suggest JSOC is home to USSOCOM’s national mission forces which reportedly conduct highly sensitive combat and supporting operations against terrorists on a worldwide basis.35 Other Components Joint Special Operations University (JSOU)36 JSOU’s stated mission is to Educate Special Operations Forces executive, senior, and intermediate leaders and selected other national and international security decision-makers, both military and civilian, through teaching, research, and outreach in the science and art of Joint Special Operations. 34 Information in this section is taken from the JSOC web page, http://www.socom.mil/Pages/ JointSpecialOperationsCommand.aspx. 35 Jennifer D. Kibbe, “The Rise of the Shadow Warriors,” Foreign Affairs, Volume 83, Number 2, March/April 2004 and Sean D. Naylor, “JSOC to Become Three-Star Command,” Army Times, February 13, 2006; and U.S. Army Special Operations Command News Service, “Gates Nominates McRaven, Thurman for Senior Posts,” Release Number: 110303-02, March 3, 2011, http://www.soc.mil/UNS/Releases/2011/March/110303-02.html. 36 Information in this section is taken from the JSOU web page, https://jsou.socom.mil. Congressional Research Service 17 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Special Operations Command–Joint Capabilities (SOC-JC)37 With the August 2010 disestablishment of JFCOM, SOCJFCOM was transferred to USSOCOM, where it was renamed SOC-JC. SOC-JC’s mission is to train conventional and special operations force commanders and their staffs in the employment of Special Operations Forces focusing on the full integration of SOF and the conventional forces in both planning and execution to enhance warfighting readiness. Ongoing Operations USSOCOM operates on a global basis in both overt and classified modes. Missions range from foreign internal defense to counterterrorism, but the primary emphasis for U.S. SOF is attacking terrorists and terror cells worldwide. While USSOCOM’s primary focus of these activities is the USCENTCOM region, USSOCOM Commander Admiral William McRaven stated, “U.S. special operations forces are in 78 countries around the world, supporting U.S. policy objectives.”38 Selected Current Issues39 SOF Support to Combatant Commanders In testimony, Admiral McRaven noted that even when operations conclude in Afghanistan, historical data suggest that there will be a constant demand for a “steady state” SOF-deployed force of almost 12,000 SOF troops to support COCOM requirements. As SOF forces continue their Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR)-mandated growth, USSOCOM assesses they will have adequate capacity by FY2017 to meet the anticipated COCOM demand without placing undue risk to global counterterrorism (CT) operations. This FY2017 target is predicated on USSOCOM’s self-imposed growth rate of 3% to 5% annually, which is intended to maintain the overall quality of special operations forces. Efforts to Address “Fraying” of the Forces In March 2011, then USSOCOM Commander Admiral Eric Olson testified that the decade-long wars had resulted in some “fraying around the edges” for U.S. SOF.40 This almost constant state of deployment had resulted in significant time away from families and limited time for needed professional training and education and created a great deal of pressure on SOF and their families. As a result of a study initiated under Admiral Olson, a lack of predictability resulting from a demanding operational tempo and increased difficulties for SOF troops reconnecting and reintegrating into family activities after returning from deployments were identified as two 37 Information in this section is taken from Special Operations Command–Joint Capabilities website, http://www.sojc.socom.mil. 38 Senate Armed Services Committee Holds Hearing on the Proposed Fiscal 2013 Defense Authorization as it Relates to the U.S. Central Command and U.S. Special Operations Command March 8, 2012, p. 10. 39 Information in this section is taken from the Posture Statement of Admiral William H. McRaven, USN, Commander, United States Special Operations Command Before the 112th Congress, House Armed Services Committee, March 7, 2012. 40 Ibid., p. 5. Congressional Research Service 18 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands primary sources of ongoing stress.41 As a result, Admiral McRaven has established a task force that has been tasked with building and implementing innovative solutions across USSOCOM to address these stressors. Continued Efforts to Expand USSOCOM Authorities and Control of Deployed SOF Reports suggest USSOCOM will continue to push for more control over deployed special operations forces. At present, once U.S. SOF deploys into a region, they are controlled by a geographic combatant commander and USSOCOM can no longer control where they go or what mission they perform. According to USSOCOM officials, “Admiral McRaven is looking for the freedom to move forces where he needs them and when he needs them.” This requirement seemingly suggests USSOCOM is currently allocating its SOF units to combatant commands with little to no mission guidance, which, in itself, might be considered problematic. Given USSOCOM’s counterterrorism mandate, it would appear that USSOCOM could task these SOF units with missions at the national level, which would be mutually supportive of the combatant commander’s regional missions for the SOF unit. If USSOCOM gets expanded authorities, it would exert enhanced control primarily through TSOCs, which currently work exclusively for each combatant commander, but USSOCOM contends that TSOCs operate “without any greater centrality to recognizing how the actions of one TSOC in his regional area of responsibility can do things that influence another region.” If USSOCOM gets the additional authorities it has requested, it could give the USSOCOM Commander the ability to have a direct relationships with the TSOCs. While these enhanced authorities might benefit USSOCOM, they might also violate the principal of “unity of command” despite USSOCOM’s insistence that combatant commanders would have to approve any of USSOCOM’s moves of deployed SOF units. One report suggests that “turning SOCOM into a global combatant command would create constant friction with regional commands” and that efforts to gain additional authorities were perceived by some as a “power grab.” The potential for a dual chain of command could result in unnecessary friction between USSOCOM and geographic combatant commands and host countries, possibly having an unintended detrimental impact on the deployed SOF unit. Because there appears to be a number of contentious issues regarding enhanced USSOCOM authorities, Congress might choose to examine these issues in greater detail. U.S. Strategic Command (USSTRATCOM) Website: http://www.stratcom.mil Mission42 USSTRATCOM’s primary responsibility is the stewardship and employment of U.S. nuclear weapons and to detect, deter, and prevent attacks against the United States and our allies and to 41 Ibid., pp. 13-14. Information in this section is taken from USSTRATCOM’s web page, http://www.stratcom.mil, and Statement of General C. Robert Kehler, Commander, United States Strategic Command before the Senate Committee on Armed Services, March 29, 2011. 42 Congressional Research Service 19 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands join with the other combatant commands to defend the nation should deterrence fail. Specific responsibilities include planning, synchronizing, advocating, and employing capabilities to meet the United States’ strategic deterrence; space operations; cyberspace operations; global strike; missile defense; intelligence, surveillance, reconnaissance (ISR); and combating weapons of mass destruction (WMD). History43 USSTRATCOM was established October 1, 2002. USSTRATCOM has provided intelligence, planning, and cyber support to coalition forces in Afghanistan and Iraq. It monitors orbiting satellites and space debris, allowing spacecraft to avoid collision. USTRATCOM has also deployed systems to provide limited protection against ballistic missile attack. The missions most directly associated with USSTRATCOM and its predecessors are deterrence and global strike. These were the missions of Strategic Air Command (SAC) from 1946 to 1992 and of the first USSTRATCOM from 1992 to 2002. Though best known for its connection with the nuclear deterrent, SAC conducted conventional bombing operations during the Korean War and Vietnam War and the first Persian Gulf War, 1991. On June 1, 1992, SAC was replaced by a new unified command, USSTRATCOM. The new command’s primary mission was to deter attack, especially nuclear attack, on the United States and its allies and, if deterrence failed, employ nuclear forces in response. The U.S. military began operating in space in the late 1950s, with many of the early systems developed to meet SAC’s needs for surveillance, warning, meteorology, and communications. By 1985, space activities had grown to such a scale that DOD created a new unified command, USSPACECOM, to manage military space operations. Secretary Rumsfeld’s initiative to merge USSTRATCOM and USSPACECOM led to the creation of the current USSTRATCOM in 2002. Two other areas took on increasing importance beginning around 2000: missile defense and cyberspace operations. By September 2004, the United States had deployed a limited system that offered some protection to North America and had opened discussions about extending the system to cover allies. The U.S. military’s reliance on computer networks grew exponentially in the 1980s and 1990s. National leaders took steps to protect defense networks in 1998, creating a Joint Task Force for Computer Network Defense and assigning it to USSPACECOM. As computer attacks against DOD become more sophisticated and frequent there were calls to place greater emphasis and visibility on cyber operations. Defense Secretary Robert Gates favored a new sub-unified command under USSTRATCOM that would recombine offensive and defensive computer network operations. Established May 21, 2010, U.S. Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM) was fully operational on October 31, 2010. 43 http://www.stratcom.mil/history/. Congressional Research Service 20 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Subcomponents Service Subcomponents44 Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC) AFGSC is responsible for the Air Force’s three intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) wings, two B-52 Stratofortress wings, and the sole B-2 Spirit wing. AFGSC has two numbered air forces that are tasked with providing capabilities to combatant commands. The Eighth Air Force controls the long-range nuclear bomber assets (B-52s and B-2s) and the Twentieth Air Force controls the ICBM wings. Air Force Space Command (AFSPC) AFSPC provides space and cybersecurity forces for USSTRATCOM. It has two numbered air forces providing these capabilities. The Fourteenth Air Force controls and supports several satellite systems including the Global Positioning System (GPS); Defense Satellite Communications Systems Phase II and III; and the Defense Meteorological Support Program. In addition, the Fourteenth Air Force has Atlas, Delta, and Titan launch vehicles at its disposal to put payloads into orbit. The Twenty-Fourth Air Force plans and conducts cyberspace operations in support of combatant commands. U.S. Army Forces Strategic Command (ARSTRAT) ARSTRAT conducts space and missile defense operations and provides planning, integration, control, and coordination of Army forces and capabilities in support of USSTRATCOM missions. Fleet Forces Command Fleet Forces Command is responsible for the entire Atlantic Ocean, the Caribbean Sea, and the waters around Central and South America extending into the Pacific to the Galapagos Island. Marine Corps Forces U.S. Strategic Command (MARFORSTRAT) MARFORSTRAT serves as the Marine Corps service component to USSTRATCOM. 44 http://www.stratcom.mil/service_components/. Congressional Research Service 21 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Functional Components45 U.S. Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM) USCYBERCOM is a sub unified command that is subordinate to USSTRATCOM. USCYBERCOM plans, coordinates, integrates, synchronizes, and conducts activities to defend DOD information networks and also conducts cyber space activities to enable U.S. military activities. Joint Functional Component Command-Global Strike (JFCC-GS) JFCC-GS optimizes planning, integration, execution, and force management of assigned missions to deter attacks against the United States, its territories, possessions, and bases. Joint Functional Component Command– Integrated Missile Defense (JFCC-IMD) JFCC-IMD synchronizes operational-level global missile defense planning, operations support, and the development of missile defense effects for DOD. Joint Functional Component Command-Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (JFCC-ISR) JFCC-ISR plans, integrates, and coordinates intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance in support of strategic and global operations and strategic deterrence. Joint Functional Component Command- Space (JFCC-Space) JFCC-Space is responsible for executing continuous, integrated space operations to deliver theater and global effects in support of national and combatant commander objectives. Joint Information Operations Warfare Center (JIOWC) JIOWC provides joint information operations planning, execution, and operational-level integration of Electronic Warfare, Operations Security, and Military Deception across DOD to support USSTRATCOM, joint force commanders, and U.S. national objectives. On September 12, 2011, President Obama signed Change One to the 2011 UCP, which transfers the Information Operations, Military Deception, and Operations Security missions from USSTRATCOM to the Joint Staff so it is possible the structure and missions of JIOWC may change significantly in the near future. 45 http://www.stratcom.mil/functional_components/, and U.S. Strategic Command “Snap Shot,”–A Summary of USSTRATCOM Facts and Information, March 2011. Congressional Research Service 22 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands USSTRATCOM Center for Combating Weapons of Mass Destruction (SCC-WMD) SCC-WMD plans, advocates, and advises the USSTRATCOM commander on WMD-related matters. Ongoing Operations46 According to USSTRATCOM’s commander, USSTRATCOM’s major ongoing operation is to detect, deter, and prevent attacks against the United States and to join with the other combatant commands to defend the nation should deterrence fail. One aspect of this operation is the “around the clock” command and control of U.S. nuclear forces. USSTRATCOM is also involved in implementing the new START treaty and efforts to sustain and modernize the nuclear triad and the nuclear weapons complex. USSTRATCOM provides support to other combatant commanders in the areas of integrated missile defense and ISR operations. Not unlike its nuclear deterrence activities, USSTRATCOM and USCYBERCOM operate on a daily basis to improve their ability to operate and defend the DOD information network and make sure critical activities can continue, even in the face of adversary attempts to deny or disrupt them. USSTRATCOM is also responsible for U.S. military space operations on a day-to-day basis such as launching satellites and monitoring activities in space. Selected Current Issues47 Nuclear Weapons Sustainment48 In March 2012, the USSTRATCOM commander noted during a Senate Armed Services Committee (SASC) hearings his concerns over the sustainment of the nation’s nuclear weapons. In testimony, he noted that as U.S. nuclear weapons age, the United States faces continued erosion of the nuclear enterprise’s physical and intellectual capital, necessitating investment in stockpile certification, warhead life extension, and infrastructure recapitalization. Without these investments, USSTRATCOM will not be able to maintain the nation’s nuclear deterrent. Possible Shortfalls in Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (ISR) Analysts49 During congressional testimony, the USSTRATCOM commander noted that the command’s ability to process and analyze data from “increasingly capable ISR platforms is also a growing 46 Statement of General C. Robert Kehler, Commander, United States Strategic Command before the Senate Committee on Armed Services, March 27, 2012. 47 Ibid. 48 Ibid., p. 13. For additional information on U.S. nuclear weapons, see CRS Report RL30345, U.S. Nuclear Weapons: Policy, Force Structure, and Arms Control Issues, by (name redacted). 49 Statement of General C. Robert Kehler, Commander, United States Strategic Command before the Senate Committee on Armed Services, March 27, 2012, p. 16. Congressional Research Service 23 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands challenge.” It was suggested not only are analysts dealing with more data but also with an increased operational tempo, which imposes even greater demands on the timeliness of their analysis and reporting. Conservative USTRATCOM estimates suggest the command would need a 100% increase in analysts to meet COCOM requirements—which USTRATCOM believes is “an unrealistic level of growth in almost any environment, let alone a fiscally constrained one.” USCYBERCOM Workforce50 The USSTRATCOM commander expressed about USCYBERCOM’s technical capacity and workforce. Noting that USCYBERCOM needs the best trained and educated people in its cyberspace workforce, concerns were expressed that the U.S. education system might not be emphasizing the appropriate academic disciplines. A possible solution to this situation could be “encouraging and improving science, technology, engineering, and math education from an early age.” Another factor contributing to workforce concerns was the belief that “traditional military recruitment and retention programs may not be the best or fastest way to build a stable cyber cadre for the long term.” U.S. Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM) Website: http//:www.transcom.mil Mission51 Develop and direct the Joint Deployment and Distribution Enterprise to globally project strategic national security capabilities; accurately sense the operating environment; provide end-to-end distribution process visibility; and support joint, U.S. government, and Secretary of Defenseapproved multinational and nongovernmental logistical requirements. History52 World War II, the Berlin blockade, the Korean War, and the Vietnam War demonstrated the need for the United States to maintain a capable and ready transportation system for national security. A 1978 exercise exposed significant gaps in understanding between military and civilian participants: mobilization and deployment plans fell apart, and as a result, the United States and its NATO allies “lost the war.” Two major recommendations came out of the exercise. First, the Transportation Operating Agencies (later called the Transportation Component Commands) should have a direct reporting chain to the JCS. Second, the JCS should establish a single manager for deployment and execution. As a result, the JCS formed the Joint Deployment Agency (JDA) in 1979 at MacDill Air Force Base, FL. 50 Statement of General C. Robert Kehler, Commander, United States Strategic Command before the Senate Committee on Armed Services, March 27, 2012, p. 25. For additional information on USCYBERCOM, see CRS Report R40836, Cybersecurity: Current Legislation, Executive Branch Initiatives, and Options for Congress, by (name redacted) and John Rollins. 51 Information in this section is taken from http://www.transcom.mil/about/whatIs.cfm. 52 Taken directly from http://www.transcom.mil/about/briefHistory.cfm. Congressional Research Service 24 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Although the JDA had responsibility for integrating deployment procedures, it did not have authority to direct the Transportation Operating Agencies or Unified and Specified Commanders to take corrective actions, keep data bases current, or adhere to milestones. In April 1987 President Reagan ordered the SECDEF to establish a Unified Transportation Command (UTC), a directive made possible in part by the Goldwater-Nichols DOD Reorganization Act of 1986, which revoked the law prohibiting consolidation of military transportation functions. Designated the United States Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM), its mission was to provide global air, sea, and land transportation to meet national security needs. It had three transportation component commands—the Air Force’s Military Airlift Command (replaced by Air Mobility Command in 1992), the Navy’s Military Sealift Command, and the Army’s Military Traffic Management Command, (renamed Military Surface Deployment and Distribution Command in 2004). On June 22, 1987, the President nominated Air Force General Duane H. Cassidy as the first USTRANSCOM commander. The commander of USTRANSCOM received operational direction from the National Command Authority (NCA) through the CJCS. There were, however, some deficiencies in this new command arrangement. The services retained their single-manager charters for their respective transportation modes. Even more restrictive, USTRANSCOM’s authorities were limited primarily to wartime. As a result, during peacetime, USTRANSCOM’s component commands continued to operate day-to-day much as they had in the past. They controlled their industrial funds and maintained responsibility for service-unique missions, service-oriented procurement and maintenance scheduling, and DOD charters during peacetime single-manager transportation operations. They also continued to have operational control of forces. DOD learned much from the strategic deployment for Desert Shield/Desert Storm and foremost among those lessons was USTRANSCOM and its component commands needed to operate in peacetime as they would in wartime. Consequently, on February 14, 1992, the SECDEF gave USTRANSCOM a new charter. Stating the command’s mission to be “to provide air, land, and sea transportation for DOD, both in time of peace and time of war,” the charter greatly expanded the authorities of the USTRANSCOM commander. Under the new charter, the Service Secretaries assigned the components to the USTRANSCOM commander in peace and war. In addition, the military departments assigned to him, under his combatant command, all transportation assets except those that were service-unique or theater-assigned. The charter also made the USTRANSCOM commander DOD’s single-manager for transportation, other than service-unique and theater-assigned assets. On September 16, 2003, Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld designated the USTRANSCOM commander as the Distribution Process Owner (DPO) to serve “as the single entity to direct and supervise execution of the Strategic Distribution system” in order to “improve the overall efficiency and interoperability of distribution related activities - deployment, sustainment and redeployment support during peace and war.” As the DPO, USTRANSCOM partnered with other COCOMs, the services, defense agencies, Office of the Secretary of Defense, Joint Staff and industry to improve the Joint Deployment and Distribution Enterprise Since 2003, USTRANSCOM has gained additional responsibilities related to its role as the Distribution Process Owner. In 2004, USTRANSCOM became the portfolio manager for DOD logistics information technology systems, and received acquisition authority for procuring information technology systems, carrying out research projects and obtaining services needed to transform the DOD supply chain. Congressional Research Service 25 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Subcomponents53 Surface Deployment and Distribution Command (SDDC) “SDDC provides ocean terminal, commercial ocean liner service and traffic management services to deploy, sustain and redeploy U.S. forces on a global basis. The command is responsible for surface transportation and is the interface between DOD shippers and the commercial transportation carrier industry. This includes movement of servicemembers household goods and privately owned vehicles. SDDC is the nation’s largest customer to the moving industry with more than 500,000 household goods moves a year. The command also provides transportation for troops and materiel to ports of departure in the U.S. and overseas and manages 24 ports worldwide, including military terminals at Sunny Point, N.C., and Concord, Calif.” Military Sealift Command (MSC) “MSC provides sealift transportation services to deploy, sustain and redeploy U.S. forces around the globe. MSC provides sealift with a fleet of government-owned and chartered U.S.-flagged ships. MSC executes Voluntary Intermodal Sealift Agreement (VISA) contracts for chartered vessels. Sealift ships principally move unit equipment from the U.S. to theaters of operation all over the world. In addition to sealift ships, MSC operates a fleet of prepositioned ships strategically placed around the world and loaded with equipment and supplies to sustain Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force and Defense Logistics Agency operations. These ships remain at sea, ready to deploy on short notice, which significantly reduces the response time for the delivery of urgently needed equipment and supplies to a theater of operation.” Air Mobility Command (AMC) “AMC provides strategic and tactical airlift, air refueling, and aeromedical evacuation services for deploying, sustaining and redeploying U.S. forces wherever they are needed. Many special duty and operational support aircraft are also assigned to AMC (including Air Force One). In addition, AMC contracts with commercial air carriers through Civil Reserve Air Fleet (CRAF) and other programs for movement of DOD passengers and cargo. AMC’s air fleet provides swift response as an element of America’s global reach.” Ongoing Operations54 USTRANSCOM conducts military and commercial transportation, distribution process integration, terminal management, aerial refueling, and global patient movement on a daily basis. In 2011, the Air Mobility Command (AMC) deployed a rotational force of over 60 C-130 tactical airlift aircraft, plus 120 KC-135 and KC-10 aerial refueling aircraft. AMC also employed 21 C-17 transport aircraft in dedicated support of USCENTCOM and across all COCOMs, on a daily basis, at least one-third of AMC’s air mobility fleet was used to support global operations. The Military Sealift Command (MSC) and the Military Surface Deployment and Distribution 53 http://www.transcom.mil/about/cocom.cfm. Statement of General William Fraser, USAF, Commander, United States Transportation Command Before the House Armed Services Committee on the State of the Command, March 7, 2012. 54 Congressional Research Service 26 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Command (SDDC) moved over 19.9 million tons of cargo worldwide. USTRANSCOM noted MSC tankers delivered 1.6 billion gallons of fuel to support global operations and SDDC had moved over 3,500 pieces of mission essential cargo by commercial sealift and then used airlift to transport this cargo to Afghanistan. Selected Current Issues55 Ground Supply to Afghanistan The Pakistan Ground Lines of Communication (PAK GLOC), when open, remain the quickest and most cost-effective route for surface transportation into Afghanistan. Ground transportation through Pakistan had been curtailed since November 2011, and in early July 2012 the PAK GLOC was reopened after extensive negotiations. It should be noted there is no guarantee the Pakistani government will not close the PAK GLOC if there are future disputes with the U.S. government or NATO. USTRANSCOM continues efforts to expand surface networks that supply Afghanistan. Called the Northern Distribution Network (NDN), USTRANSCOM’s stated priority is to enhance and improve this network. In 2011, over 40% of all cargo supporting Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) moved through the NDN’s truck, water, rail, and air routes. In 2011, a total of 27,000 containers were delivered via NDN surface transportation—an increase of 15% from 2010. The importance of the NDN to USTRANSCOM’s operations will likely grow as U.S. forces begin leaving Afghanistan in preparation for handing over security responsibilities to the Afghan government by 2014. Guam and Building Toward USTRANSCOM’s Future56 As part of the Administration’s shift in strategic emphasis to the Asia-Pacific region, USTRANSCOM noted during testimony the importance of Guam as a key multimodal logistics node. USTRANSCOM expressed its support of infrastructure improvements to ensure successful distribution operations in the region. USTRANSCOM has partnered with the Defense Logistics Agency (DLA) and, with congressional approval, has invested $101.3 million in the recapitalization of the fuel hydrant infrastructure and $61 million in a JP-8 pipeline between Apra Harbor and Anderson Air Force Base. 55 56 Ibid. Ibid. Congressional Research Service 27 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Geographic Combatant Commands U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM)57 Website: http://www.africom.mil Mission “Africa Command protects and defends the national security interests of the United States by strengthening the defense capabilities of African states and regional organizations and, when directed, conducts military operations, in order to deter and defeat transnational threats and to provide a security environment conducive to good governance and development.”58 “USAFRICOM is responsible for U.S. military relations with 54 African countries including the islands of Cape Verde, Equatorial Guinea, and Sao Tome and Principe, along with the Indian Ocean islands of Comoros, Madagascar, Mauritius, and Seychelles. U.S. Central Command maintains its traditional relationship with Egypt, though USAFRICOM coordinates with Egypt on issues relating to Africa security.”59 A Different Kind of Combatant Command60 Dr. Cynthia Watson, a professor at the National War College and author of “Combatant Commands: Origins, Structure, and Engagements,” observes USAFRICOM has a different type of mission, noting USAFRICOM allows the U.S. government, particularly DOD, to work toward a more stable environment in which political and economic growth can take place with three former U.S. commands consolidated into a single new one to best work out the U.S. government efforts. Africa Command hopes to avoid that traditional combatant command goals of warfighting in favor of war prevention, making its orientation quite different from other parallel organizations. History61 Africa’s previous command arrangements (USEUCOM has had responsibility for most of Africa since the end of World War II)62 reflect the relatively low level of importance assigned to the African continent within the U.S. military structure. Before the creation of USAFRICOM, Africa 57 For additional information on USAFRICOM see CRS Report RL34003, Africa Command: U.S. Strategic Interests and the Role of the U.S. Military in Africa, by (name redacted). 58 Fact Sheet: United States Africa Command, http://www.africom.mil/getArticle.asp?art=1644. 59 AFRICOM FAQs, http://www.africom.mil/AfricomFAQ.asp. 60 Cynthia A. Watson, p. 174. 61 Information in this section is taken from Milady Ortiz, “U.S. Africa Command: A New Way of Thinking,” National Security Watch, Association of the U.S. Army Institute of Land Warfare,” March 13, 2008. 62 Cynthia A. Watson, p. 174. Congressional Research Service 28 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands generally received less attention than other regions under the three aforementioned military commands. USCENTCOM was focused on U.S. security priorities in Iraq and Afghanistan. USEUCOM was preoccupied with NATO, relations with European allies and Russia. USPACOM was primarily focused on regional powers such as China, India, and North Korea. There was a consensus that the previous command arrangements for Africa represented a “suboptimal organizational structure.” Secretary of Defense Robert Gates observed that previous command arrangements for the African continent were “an outdated arrangement left over from the Cold War.” U.S. foreign policy in the region, like its military involvement, was primarily concerned with Cold War geopolitics rather than African policy and development. Scholars have referred to this policy attitude as “benign neglect,” designating Africa as the “stepchild” of U.S. foreign policy. This attitude continued after the end of the Cold War, when the opportunity to articulate coherent policy was overlooked. While the transformation of the geopolitical landscape was significantly altered by the fall of the Soviet Union, America’s attention was focused on the newly freed Eurasian states. In 1995, in its U.S. Security Strategy for Sub-Saharan Africa, DOD noted that “ultimately we see very little traditional strategic interest in Africa.” Events in the late 1990s began to change U.S. perception of security interests in Africa. In 1998, two U.S. embassies in Africa were bombed. While many scholars believe these twin bombings marked a turning point in U.S. strategic policy toward the region, the domestic terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, forced a reassessment of U.S. policy vis-à-vis Africa and its role in the global war on terrorism. The growing strategic importance of Africa for the United States was subsequently articulated in government documents. In the 2002 National Security Strategy, the concept of weak states and their role in global instability was an important theme. The 2006 National Security Strategy solidified the newly important role of Africa, observing, “Africa holds growing geo-strategic importance and is a high priority of this administration.” The National Security Presidential Directive (NSPD 50) signed by President Bush in September 2006 provided the first update to overall U.S. strategy toward Africa since 1992. Africa’s abundance of natural energy resources has made it an attractive region for countries the United States, China, and India seeking additional resources. U.S. officials note three areas are of particular concern: (1) the number of soft targets (e.g., embassies and consulates); (2) the recruiting potential for young, angry, marginalized youth from Somalia to Morocco; and (3) the potential of sanctuary for international terrorists (particularly in large ungoverned spaces). Africa has also been a target terrorist activity: there were attacks on the U.S. embassies in Tanzania, and Kenya, in 1998; on targets in Mombasa, Kenya, in 2002; and in Algiers in 2007. In particular, the Horn of Africa is of concern to terrorism experts and military personnel.63 In addition to terrorism concern, the growth of international piracy in the region has become a serious problem for the international community.64 On February 6, 2007, the White House announced a presidential directive to create a new unified combatant command in Africa. U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM) commenced official operations on October 1, 2007, and remained a sub-unified command under U.S. European Command (USEUCOM) until October 2008. On October 1, 2008, USAFRICOM was declared fully mission capable and took over the role of geographic combatant command for Africa. While 63 For additional information on regional terrorism see CRS Report R41473, Countering Terrorism in East Africa: The U.S. Response, by (name redacted). 64 For additional information on piracy around the Horn of Africa see CRS Report R40528, Piracy off the Horn of Africa, by (name redacted) et al. Congressional Research Service 29 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands the USAFRICOM headquarters remains in Germany, there are aspirations to possibly move it to Africa sometime in the future but regional sensitivities and security concerns have made this a challenging proposition. Subcomponents U.S. Army Africa (USARAF)65 Headquartered in Vicenza, Italy, USARAF is the Army component to USAFRICOM. In concert with national and international partners, it conducts sustained security engagement with African land forces to promote peace, stability, and security in Africa. If required, USAFRICOM can deploy as a contingency headquarters in support of crisis response. USAFRICOM is staffed by the Southern European Task Force (SETAF), which prior to August 2008 was an airborne task force that supported NATO in both combat and humanitarian operations. U.S. Naval Forces, Africa (NAVAF)66 “NAVAF is part of a combined U.S. Naval Forces Europe (NAVEUR)/NAVAF headquarters and is tasked with the conduct of the full range of maritime operations and theater security cooperation in concert with coalition joint interagency and other partners in order to advance security and stability in Europe and Africa. Their combined areas of responsibility cover approximately half of the Atlantic Ocean, from the North Pole to Antarctica; as well as the Adriatic, Baltic, Barents, Black, Caspian, Mediterranean and North Seas. NAVEUR-NAVAF [headquartered in Naples, Italy] covers all of Russia, Europe and nearly the entire continent of Africa. It encompasses 105 countries with a combined population of more than one billion people and includes a landmass extending more than 14 million square miles.” The U.S. Sixth Fleet supports NAVAF operations in the AFRICOM AOR and is headquartered in Naples, Italy. U.S. Air Forces, Africa (AFAFRICA)67 “AFAFRICA, or 17th Air Forces, conducts sustained security engagement and operations to promote air safety, security, and development in Africa. AFAFRICA is located at Ramstein Air Base in Germany.” U.S. Marine Corps Forces, Africa (MARFORAF) MARFORAF, located Stuttgart, Germany, is the Marine’s service component headquarters for USAFRICOM. “MARFORAF conducts operations, exercises, training, and security cooperation activities throughout the African Continent.”68 65 http://www.usaraf.army.mil/. http://www.naveur-navaf.navy.mil/. 67 http://www.africom.mil/pdfFiles/AFRICOMfactsheet05AUG2011.pdf. 68 Ibid. 66 Congressional Research Service 30 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) “CJTF-HOA is USAFRICOM’s forward operating task force located at Camp Lemonnier in Djibouti. It is one of more than 23 tenant organizations. CJTF-HOA has approximately 2,000 people assigned on rotating tours. While the core staff works at Camp Lemonnier, most of the service members assigned to CJTF-HOA are “embedded” in partner nations performing a range of activities—building partner security capability, capacity, and infrastructure through regional cooperation; military-to-military programs; civil-military affairs projects; and professional military education programs. Through an indirect approach, the task force, along with coalition and other U.S. defense components, provides support to regional organizations to help foster cooperation, enhance collective peace-keeping, improve humanitarian assistance, and support civil-military operations.”69 Special Operations Command-Africa (SOCAFRICA) “On October 1, 2008, SOCAFRICA was established as USAFRICOM’s Theater Special Operations Command—a functional, sub-unified special operations command for Africa. SOCAFRICA contributes to USAFRICOM’s mission through the application of the full spectrum of special operations forces capabilities including civil affairs, information operations, theater security cooperation, crisis response, and campaign planning.”70 SOCAFRICA is headquartered in Stuttgart, Germany. Ongoing Operations U.S. Deployment to Central Africa71 On October 14, 2011, President Obama informed Congress that on October 12, 2011, a small team of U.S. military personnel began deploying to Uganda and that by November about 100 U.S. military personnel—primarily U.S. Special Forces—would be deployed to Central Africa to act as advisors to partner forces who are attempting to kill or capture the leadership of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA). The LRA is a nonreligious terror group that routinely kidnaps children and forces them to serve as soldiers which has committed multiple acts of terror in the region over the past two decades. U.S. forces are operating in Uganda, South Sudan, the Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the mission has been characterized as a mission of “months as opposed to years.” In the past, USAFRICOM has provided training and equipment to a variety of central African militaries. USAFRICOM’s involvement has been credited with helping central African forces attrite the LRA to about 200 core fighters and about 600 supporters. USAFRICOM notes that about 100 U.S. service members continue to operate in Uganda, South Sudan, the Central African Republic, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo as advisors. While not characterized as an 69 AFRICOM FAQs, http://www.africom.mil/AfricomFAQ.asp. USSOCOM 2011 Fact Book, http://www.socom.mil/News/Documents/USSOCOMFactBook2011.pdf. 71 Information in this section is taken from The White House Office of the Press Secretary to the speaker of the House of Representatives and the President Pro Tempore of the Senate, October 14, 2011; and Lisa Daniels, “Official: Troops in Central Africa for Months, Not Years,” American Forces Press Service, October 26, 2011, and USAFRICOM Information Paper, “U.S. Military Support to African Efforts to Counter the Lord’s Resistance Army,” February, 2012. 70 Congressional Research Service 31 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands “open-ended commitment” USAFRICOM regularly “reviews and assesses” the effectiveness of this effort to determine if continued involvement is warranted. Operation Enduring Freedom-Trans Sahara (OEF-TS) “OEF-TS is the US Military regional plan against terrorist and violent extremists. OEF-TS is the military component to Trans Sahara Counterterrorism Partnership (TSCTP), together with other USG organizations, OEF-TS will help enhance stability and deter terrorist activity on the African continent, with an emphasis on greater security in North Africa. USAFRICOM is working with international partners in a regional approach to common areas of concern such as commerce, education and economic development. OEF-TS works with the partner nations to expand military -to-military cooperation, ensure adequate resources are available to train, advise, assist regional units, and establish mechanisms to promote better regional cooperation, communications, and intelligence-sharing.”72 Exercises73 USAFRICOM uses exercises to encourage the development of partner nation’s security capabilities and instilling professionalism in Africa’s various military and security forces. These exercises range from traditional land combat operations, to logistics and medical operations, humanitarian aid and disaster response, to counterterrorism training. Selected Current Issues Regional Threats74 The USAFRICOM commander testified that Africa accounts for 14 of the world’s 20 weakest states and these fragile states lack the capacity or political will to confront demographic, political, social, and economic challenges. Threats in the region include activities of Al Qaeda and its affiliates in East Africa, the Maghreb, and the Sahel. Illicit trafficking and violent extremist organizations (VEOs) also pose threats to regional security and U.S. national interests. Of further concern, many man-portable air defense systems (MANPADS) disappeared from unsecured storage sites during the 2011 Libyan conflict and could potentially be trafficked to extremist groups. Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (ISR) Challenges The USAFRICOM commander testified that ISR continues to be a challenge.75 USAFRICOM is reportedly seeking an expansion of ISR activities in Africa and is seeking additional assets, particularly unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to adequately cover the continent.76 72 USAFRICOM, OEF Trans-Sahara, http://www.africom.mil/fetchBinary.asp?pdfID=20100526130828. Fact Sheet: USAFRICOM 2012 Exercises, February 2012. 74 Statement of General Carter F. Ham, USA, Commander United States Africa Command Before the House Armed Services Committee, February 29, 2012. 75 Ibid. 73 Congressional Research Service 32 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands Additional Forces Allocated to USAFRICOM77 Reports suggest that beginning in 2013, as U.S. military commitment to Afghanistan begins to decrease, more troops will be available for USAFRICOM. As early as March 2013, the Army reportedly plans to deploy around 1,200 troops to Africa, primarily to participate in partner building, engagement, and training activities, but these forces could also rapidly respond to sudden challenges or crises in the region. In addition, largely in response to the September 11, 2012, attacks in Benghazi that killed the U.S. Ambassador to Libya and three other Americans, a dedicated U.S. SOF Commander’s in-Extremis Force was established in early October 2012. Previously, USAFRICOM had shared this force with USEUCOM. While USAFRICOM reportedly stated their in-Extremist Force will be stationed in Ft. Carson, Colorado—home of the 10th Special Forces Group—some suggest that this force will spend most of its time forwarddeployed to Africa in order to be more responsive. The allocation of both general-purpose Army forces and U.S. SOF in-Extremis forces offers the commander of USAFRICOM more flexibility in conducting engagement and training operations and also affords an added element of security that can be deployed in the event of crisis. U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM) Website: http://www.centcom.mil Mission “With national and international partners, U.S. Central Command promotes cooperation among nations, responds to crises, and deters or defeats state and non-state aggression, and supports development and, when necessary, reconstruction in order to establish the conditions for regional security, stability, and prosperity.”78 History The Iranian hostage crisis that played out from 1979 to 1981 and the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan served to underscore the need to strengthen U.S. presence in the region; President Carter established the Rapid Deployment Joint Task Force (RDJTF) in March 1980 and President Reagan took steps to transform the RDJTF into a permanent unified command over a two-year period. USCENTCOM was formally established on January 1, 1983. By late 1988, the regional strategy largely focused on the potential threat of a Soviet invasion of Iran. The new USCENTCOM commander, General H. Norman Schwarzkopf, believed an invasion of Iran was unlikely and began to focus on the possible emergence of a new regional threat—Iraq. On August 2, 1990, these beliefs became a reality when Iraq invaded Kuwait. The (...continued) 76 Craig Whitlock, “Military Expands Spying in Africa,” New York Times, June 14, 2012. 77 Information in this section is taken from John Vandiver, “AFRICOM Announces New Rapid Reaction Forces,” Stars and Stripes, December 19, 2012, and Kristina Wong, “Army Plans to Shift Troops to U.S. Africa Command,” The Washington Times, December 24, 2012. 78 http://www.centcom.mil. Congressional Research Service 33 The Unified Command Plan and Combatant Commands United States and other nations responded quickly by forming a coalition and deploying forces to Saudi Arabia to deter further Iraqi aggression. On January 17, 1991, U.S. and coalition forces launched Operation Desert Storm with an air interdiction campaign, which prepared the theater for a coalition ground assault. The primary coalition objective, the liberation of Kuwait, was achieved on February 27, and the next morning a cease-fire was declared, just 100 hours after the commencement of the ground campaign. Even though formal hostilities ended after the hundred hour war, there were other security concerns. Operation Provide Comfort was implemented in April 1991 to provide humanitarian assistance to the Kurds and enforce a “no-fly” zone in Iraq. In August 1992, Operation Southern Watch began in response to Saddam’s noncompl [Text truncated at 120,000 characters. The full text is on the page linked above.] --- Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/crs%3AR42077. Public record. Not legal advice.