# Biomass Resources: The Southeastern United States and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

> Briefs, arguments, decisions, and more.

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/crs%3AR40565

## Record

- **Collection:** Congressional research report
- **Document type:** CRS Report
- **Published:** May 4, 2009
- **Citation:** R40565

## Text

Biomass Resources: The Southeastern United
States and the Renewable Electricity Standard
Debate
-name redactedSpecialist in Energy Policy
May 4, 2009

Congressional Research Service
7-....
www.crs.gov
R40565

CRS Report for Congress
Prepared for Members and Committees of Congress

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

Summary
Congress has been debating establishment of a Renewable Electricity Standard (RES) to
encourage increased use of all forms of renewable energy including generating electricity from
biomass sources (H.R. 890, S. 433). Concerns over the potential impacts of a federal RES seem to
revolve largely around the issue of whether, nationwide, sufficient renewable energy resources
exist and are economically viable. States and electricity suppliers in the southeastern United
States have been most vocal in their concern that they may be unfairly burdened by an RES. They
contend there is a lack of wind or solar resources that can be delivered economically.
Today, biomass is the largest source of renewable energy in the United States. Approximately
53% of all renewable energy comes from biomass sources, represented by biofuels, landfill gas,
municipal solid waste, wood and wood-derived fuels, and other biomass feedstocks. All
renewable energy sources combined account for about 10% of the U.S. total energy production.
The definition of what constitutes biomass has varied over time with changes in law and
regulations, reflecting policy goals and evolution of potential uses.
A principal argument made by supporters of an RES is that it would provide benefits to the
environmental goals. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from biomass sources are considered
practically neutral, as biomass sources take in CO2 during their growing cycle and release it when
burned. Renewable energy is seen as a way to reduce fossil fuel use and, with growing awareness
of the potential impacts of climate change, the role of renewable energy in reducing CO2
emissions from energy production has garnered increasing public support.
Biomass has been characterized by advocates for an RES in the Southeast (i.e., Alabama,
Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia) as the
region’s main renewable resource which could be used to meet a standard. However, the region’s
major user of woody biomass and producer of wood wastes is the forest products industry. It is
concerned that competition for biomass resources from new power generation facilities and from
transportation fuel uses could drive up prices to the economic detriment of forest product
companies.
If biomass from forest residues and forest product industry wastes do not prove sufficient to meet
RES goals, new resources such as dedicated bioenergy crops or other biomass resources, such as
municipal solid waste, may need to be used. The definition of which types of biomass are eligible
under an RES would determine which resources, technologies and processes will be available to
meet a possible federal RES mandate. Goals for biofuels production to meet a Renewable Fuels
Standard (RFS) may also mean that increased amounts of biomass would be dedicated to that use.
Diversity of biomass resources seems likely to be key to the economic production of biomassfired power generation. Sustainable management of forest resources is likely to be both a basic
consideration and a possible constraint. The issue of whether there is enough biomass to meet
both an RES and RFS is beyond the scope of this report.
The terms RES and RPS (Renewable Portfolio Standard) are often used interchangeably as no
material difference exists in program goals.

Congressional Research Service

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

Contents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................... 1
Background ...................................................................................................................................... 2
Renewable Energy Resources in the Southeast ............................................................................... 3
Biomass Resources for Power Generation....................................................................................... 5
Forest-Based Resources: Wood Wastes and Black Liquor ........................................................ 5
Agricultural Sources .................................................................................................................. 6
Co-Firing with Biomass ............................................................................................................ 6
Other Potential Sources of Biomass Energy .............................................................................. 7
Livestock Wastes ................................................................................................................. 7
Landfill Gas and Municipal Solid Waste [Waste-to-Energy] .............................................. 7
Emerging Biomass Power Technologies ............................................................................. 8
Potential Biomass Use in the Southeast for RES Requirements...................................................... 8
Availability of Biomass ............................................................................................................. 8
Potential Impacts on Biomass Prices ....................................................................................... 10
Cost of Delivery of Biomass ................................................................................................... 11
Biomass Potential .................................................................................................................... 12
Summary of Barriers and Challenges to Greater Use of Biomass ................................................. 12
Potential Supply Constraints ................................................................................................... 12
Environmental Aspects ............................................................................................................ 13
Technological Challenges and Opportunities .......................................................................... 13

Figures
Figure 1. Biomass Resources Available per Square Kilometer in the United States ....................... 5

Contacts
Author Contact Information........................................................................................................... 13

Congressional Research Service

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

Introduction
Renewable energy currently accounts for about 10% of U.S. total energy production according to
the U.S. Department of Energy.1 Biomass is the largest source of renewable energy2 in the United
States. Approximately 53% of all domestic renewable energy comes from biomass sources3
represented by biofuels, landfill gas, biogenic4 municipal solid waste, wood and wood-derived
fuels, and other biomass such as switchgrass.
Much of the impetus for the contribution of biomass sources and technologies to the national
energy picture originated in a federal law5 originally viewed as a natural gas conservation
measure, the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 (PURPA). A market was created for
firms outside of the electric utility industry with a preference or opportunity for producing energy
from alternative fuels, especially for qualifying small power facilities that could use biomass,
waste, or other renewable resources (including wind, solar energy, and water).6 Investments and
advances in combustion turbine technology preceded the growth of cogeneration.7 Nowadays,
combined heat and power turbine-generator sets are a mainstay of several industries and
industrial applications. The pulp and paper industry dominates the cogeneration sector today
fueled largely by biomass from wood wastes.
State governments have generally led the way in deploying other renewable energy technologies.
Picking up where federal research and development dollars left off, states are using the concept of
a Renewable Portfolio Standard8 (RPS) to create a market for renewable energy via mandatory
goals. RPS requirements oblige electric utilities to provide electricity from renewable energy
sources in increasing amounts over a specified period of years. Through February 2009, RPS
requirements or goals have been established in 29 states plus the District of Columbia.9
A major argument that has been advanced for a national renewable energy (or electricity)
standard is that it would encourage increased use of renewable energy. Thus far, two bills have
been introduced in the 111th Congress that would amend PURPA. The American Renewable
Energy Act, H.R. 890, would establish a renewable electricity standard (RES).10 In the Senate, a

1

EIA, Monthly Energy Review, September 2008.
Renewable energy resources include biomass, hydro, geothermal, solar, wind, ocean thermal, wave action, and tidal
action. http://www.eia.doe.gov/glossary/glossary_r.htm.
3
Energy Information Administration (EIA). U.S. Energy Consumption by Energy Source. May 2008.
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/alternate/page/renew_energy_consump/table1.html.
4
Produced by biological processes of living organisms. http://www.eia.doe.gov/glossary/glossary_b.htm.
5
National Museum of American History, The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act - Government Involvement to
Remedy Energy Crisis: PURPA, http://americanhistory.si.edu/powering/past/history4.htm.
6
Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 at 16 U.S.C. §796 (17)(E)].
7
Cogeneration is the production of electrical energy and another form of useful energy (such as heat or steam) through
the sequential use of energy. Also called “combined heat and power.” http://www.eia.doe.gov/glossary/glossary_c.htm.
8
The terms RPS and RES (renewable electricity standard) are often used interchangeably, as no material difference
exists in program goals.
9
Renewable Portfolio Standards. http://www.ferc.gov/market-oversight/mkt-electric/overview/elec-ovr-rps.pdf.
10
The American Clean Energy & Security Act of 2009 “discussion draft” introduced by Representatives Waxman and
Markey draws upon H.R. 890 (111th Congress) § 101, the Federal Renewable Electricity Standard.
2

Congressional Research Service

1

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

renewable electricity standard was introduced in S. 433.11 Senator Bingaman had previously
released a draft bill to discuss a federal renewable portfolio standard on February 11, 2009.12
With biomass representing the most widely used (and ostensibly the least expensive) renewable
energy resource in the United States, its potential use in meeting RES requirements is key to the
success of any RES that may be enacted.

Background
Much of the debate over an RES revolves around whether there is a need for a federal
requirement for renewable energy use by electric providers and whether the momentum in the
states is truly moving the use of renewable energy forward. The Production Tax Credit13 and the
Investment Tax Credit14 have been used by the federal government to support renewable energy.15
Recent consideration has also been given to implementing a federal “Feed-in Tariff” (FIT) law.
Feed-in Tariffs are incentive structures for generating renewable electricity usually at abovemarket rates for a set number of years, reducing the payback period and adding certainty to the
return on the investment. The successful deployment of renewable energy in Europe is often
credited to FIT provisions.16
Arguments in favor of an RES usually involve impacts on the environment, and reducing
dependence on fossil fuels. Historically, most electric power has come from base-load generation
in large, central station plants using fossil fuels (principally coal) as the source of energy. When
burned, fossil fuels emit pollutants such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which are subject to
environmental controls to limit their release to the air. Combustion of fossil fuels also produces
the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. Generating electricity from renewable resources emits far less
of such pollutants. Many consider carbon dioxide emissions from biomass sources as practically
neutral, because biomass sources take in carbon dioxide during their growing cycle and release it
when burned.17 Renewable energy is seen as a way to reduce fossil fuel use, and with growing
awareness of the potential impacts of climate change, the role of renewable energy in reducing
carbon emissions has garnered increasing public support. But renewable energy technologies
(with the exception of basic biomass combustion) are relatively newly developed and costlier
than fossil fuels to produce electricity. Federal support for research and development is believed
by many policymakers to be crucial in making renewable energy technologies more costcompetitive. A federal RES mandate and consistent, long-term financial incentives are also seen
11

Introduced by Senators Udall and Udall on February 12, 2009.
Senator Bingaman discussion draft, Title VIII, Renewable Portfolio Standard, 111th Congress.
13
26 USC § 45. The production tax credit is an incentive to business developers of renewable energy projects
producing electricity whereby a developer can apply for a credit against taxes for each kilowatt-hour of renewable
energy produced.
14
26 USC § 48. The investment tax credit is an incentive for domestic investment in renewable energy plant and
equipment. For additional information, see the discussion of the investment tax credit and the production tax credit in
the federal incentives section of the Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy website at
http://www.dsireusa.org/.
15
For additional information, see the discussion of these tax credits in the federal incentives section of the Database of
State Incentives for Renewable Energy website at http://www.dsireusa.org/.
16
http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2007/jul/23/germany.greenbusiness.
17
CRS Report RL34059, The Carbon Cycle: Implications for Climate Change and Congress, by (name redacted).
12

Congressional Research Service

2

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

by supporters as necessary to increase renewable electricity generation to attain the goals of
cleaner energy and greater energy security.
Arguments against the need for a national RES have been made in the past that this is a matter for
state or regional self-determination. Some states have moved forward with their own RES
programs envisioning either an economic benefit or environmental imperative, or both.18 States
may argue that a federal mandate could override existing state programs which may have
involved years of negotiations among local interests to set goals and timetables. Grants,
guaranteed loans and tax incentives from the federal government may be viewed by such parties
as the best ways for the federal government to encourage renewable energy growth. In regions
where the quality or availability of renewable resources may be in question, as for example, in the
Southeast,19 some states are concerned that the current RES proposals would subject them to
federal penalties. A “Renewable Electricity Deployment Fund,” proposed in H.R. 890, would
return amounts collected from penalties for noncompliance or alternative compliance payments to
retail electricity suppliers that have submitted renewable energy credits20 (REC) for compliance.
Unless some balancing mechanism is in place, such as the Bingaman discussion draft proposal to
return federal penalties to those states with less renewable energy resources to specifically
develop such resources, southeastern states and electric utilities fear that they will become net
purchasers of RECs, which will result in a “transfer of wealth” to the sunny and wind-rich states
of the Southwest and Midwest, respectively.21 Given the identified concerns over biomass
supplies in the southeastern states and the pivotal role the region will likely have in a federal RES
debate, issues in this region will be used as the focus of this report.

Renewable Energy Resources in the Southeast
Investments in energy production in the southeastern United States have long favored base load
technologies due to increasing economies of scale from large generation units. The electricity
industry in the region is still largely subject to traditional rate regulation, and power generation
projects historically have been approved by state regulatory commissions which have endeavored
to maintain a favorable, low cost business climate. Relatively low electricity prices have thus
resulted in the region.22 New, renewable energy technologies have not been adopted to the extent
seen in other regions of the United States thus far, largely because of cost and operational
variability.23 When considered from a regional perspective, the southeastern United States does

18

Virginia and North Carolina are the only two southeastern states to have enacted RPS requirements, but at levels
below current federal RPS proposals. Virginia has a 12% RPS requirement by 2022. North Carolina has enacted a
12.5% requirement by 2021 for electric utilities and a 10% requirement for municipal and cooperative utilities. See
http://www.ferc.gov/market-oversight/mkt-electric/overview/2009/03-2009-elec-ovr-archive.pdf#xml=http://
search.atomz.com/search/pdfhelper.tk?sp_o=4,100000,0.
19
For the purposes of this discussion, southeastern states include Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia.
20
Under RES proposals, most producers of renewable electricity will receive renewable energy credits or certificates to
prove that a certain amount of renewable electricity was produced (usually 1 Megawatt-hour). http://www.dsireusa.org/
glossary/glossary.cfm?CurrentPageID=8&EE=1&RE=1#con.
21
Daniel Cusick, “Southern utilities led effort to squash Senate RPS proposal,” Earth News, June 26, 2007.
22
Energy Information Administration, How is my electricity generated, delivered, and priced?, July 10, 2008,
http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/energy_in_brief/electricity.cfm.
23
Discussion with Southern Company, March 31, 2009.

Congressional Research Service

3

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

not have the high quality wind and solar resources which exist in other regions of the country.24
Although offshore wind in the region may have promise for southeastern coastal states, there are
no commercially operating offshore wind farms anywhere in the United States.
However, renewable energy from biomass is the exception. The region is home to 44% of the
nation’s total energy from woody biomass and a significant portion of other biomass types.25 Not
all biomass is recognized as “eligible” to meet federal RES requirements due to differences in
federal legislation and tax provisions defining biomass. 26 These definitions have varied over time
with changes in the law and regulations, reflecting policy goals and technological change. The
definition of biomass would be critical to determining which technologies and processes would
be available to meet possible RES requirements. The next section discusses current and future
possible sources of biomass and technologies for renewable energy.

24

National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Renewable Resource Data Center, http://www.nrel.gov/rredc/.
Southeast Agriculture & Forestry Energy Alliance, Southern Bioenergy Roadmap, 2009, p. 5,
http://www.saferalliance.net/projects/bioenergy_roadmap.pdf.
26
CRS Report R40529, Biomass: Comparison of Definitions in Legislation, by Kelsi S. Bracmort and (name redacted).
25

Congressional Research Service

4

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

Biomass Resources for Power Generation
Figure 1 shows various types of biomass resources in the United States by annual tonnage per
square kilometer available in individual counties. The agricultural resources of the Midwest and
the forest-based resources of the Southeast feature prominently.
Figure 1. Biomass Resources Available per Square Kilometer in the United States

Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory. See http://www.nrel.gov/gis/images/map_biomass_sqkm.jpg

Forest-Based Resources: Wood Wastes and Black Liquor
Biomass is possibly mankind’s oldest source of energy. Since the time of the first nomadic
hunter-gatherer societies, wood has been collected for cooking fires and heating. The use of
cellulosic fiber from trees to make paper is a primary use of wood, rivaling other forest product
uses such as lumber for buildings and furniture products. Today, most wood used as fuel for
thermal processes or power generation actually is waste from the harvesting and processing of
trees by the forest products industry (i.e., tree bark, branches and stumps, wood chips, sawdust,

Congressional Research Service

5

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

and lignin). 27 Thus, wood waste may be burned in biomass boilers specifically for “hog fuel”
(basically wood waste other than lignin) to produce steam for process uses and electricity
generation.28
The pulp and paper industry has another wood waste fuel source in “black liquor,” a by-product
of the pulping process. 29 Inorganic chemicals are used to dissolve the lignin holding together
wood fibers, thus making the cellulosic fibers available for the manufacture of paper products.
The inorganic chemicals are recovered in a “recovery boiler” and reconstituted for reuse, while
the organic lignin is burned, generating heat for steam production. These recovery and biomass
boilers are responsible for most of the energy generated by the forest products (biomass) sector,
either as steam heat for process uses, or electricity generated for on-site use. Electricity not used
on-site to power equipment may be made available for sale on the grid.

Agricultural Sources
The harvest of food and other crops often leaves behind a mass of stover (i.e., stalks, leaves and
other plant remnants). In past years, much of this material was either plowed under to reconstitute
the soil, left for livestock forage, or was gathered to make straw. But nowadays, possibilities for
use include collection of a portion of this material for burning in a biomass boiler, producing
steam for electricity, or processing into biofuels (see below) such as cellulosic ethanol, as
technologies and new processes are developed.
Crops grown specifically for energy production are sometimes called “bioenergy crops” or
“biomass crops.” Biocrops are fast-growing (sometimes hybridized) species dedicated to
producing energy (electricity or liquid fuels) from all or part of the resulting plant.30 These are
mostly perennials such as switchgrass or mixed prairie perennials, or trees like willow or poplar,
but any other plant material could be used for biocrops. The need for agricultural chemicals is
often lower for perennial biocrops which can mean less pollution from runoff into rivers and
streams.

Co-Firing with Biomass
Today, coal is the most widely used fuel for electric power generation in the United States. By
blending suitable biomass into coal boilers for steam generation, “co-firing” with biomass can
reduce the amounts of coal used by as much as 20%. The efficiency of boilers at these levels of
biomass input is not affected and resulting overall air emissions are reduced.31 In the future, much
of the biomass co-fired in coal plants may come from biocrops. Biomass grown for energy is
commonly seen as carbon neutral and most biomass sources are low in sulfur content, so sulfur
27

Lignin is the “glue-like” substance which holds woody plant fibers together.
“Hog fuel” is a mixture of wood and bark, usually reduced to 50-75 millimeter-size chips and produced by a “wood
hog” (i.e., grinder), from which it derives its name. http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/pdfs/ornltm-2002199.pdf.
29
The alkaline spent liquor from the digesters in the production of sulfate or soda pulp during the manufacture of
paper. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w7407e/W7407e05.htm.
30
Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Bioenergy and Biomass Frequently Asked Questions. What are Energy Crops?
http://bioenergy.ornl.gov/faqs/index.html#overview4.
31
US Department of Energy, Biomass Cofiring in Coal-Fired Boilers, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/
fta_biomass_cofiring.pdf.
28

Congressional Research Service

6

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

dioxide emissions are reduced. Further, biomass combustion typically does not produce nitrogen
oxides.32

Other Potential Sources of Biomass Energy
Livestock Wastes
The intensive raising of livestock for food often results in significant amounts of manure and
other wastes from the animals.33 Some livestock wastes may be bound up with sawdust or wood
shavings used in animal stalls and thus (when prepared) can be used as fuel in a biomass power
boiler. In addition, methane34 can be captured from the livestock wastes and burned to produce
steam for electricity. 35

Landfill Gas and Municipal Solid Waste [Waste-to-Energy]
Landfill gas from decomposing organic matter in landfills can be collected and used to generate
electricity, if it is present in suitable quantities and is of a high enough quality in its energy
content.36 As such, landfill gas is usually a mixture of methane and carbon dioxide, and may
contain other contaminants requiring treatment or removal before the gas can be used as fuel to
produce steam for power generation.37
As an alternative to burying the volumes of trash collected by cities and towns, waste-to-energy
facilities can use municipal solid waste directly as a fuel source to generate electricity. After the
municipal solid waste is sorted and separated, much of the remaining material is biogenic and can
be prepared for burning in a steam boiler. Waste-to-energy facilities in operation today are
typically able to meet clean air standards and requirements.38

32

Environmental and Energy Study Institute, Biomass Cofiring: A Transition to a Low-Carbon Future, March 2009,
http://www.eesi.org/030409_cofiring.
33
In fact, estimates are that livestock production may be responsible for 18% of greenhouse gas emissions (as
measured in carbon dioxide equivalents) including 37% of all anthropogenic methane, and up to 64% of ammonia in
the environment which also contributes to acid rain and acidification of ecosystems. Henning Steinfeld, Pierre Gerber,
and Tom Wassenaar, et al., Livestock’s Long Shadow - Environmental Issues and Options, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, 2006, ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a0701e/a0701e03.pdf.
34
Methane is the primary component of natural gas which is used in cooking, heating, chemicals production, and
electric power generation. Methane is a more powerful greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide, being 21 times more potent
at trapping heat in the atmosphere over a 100 year period. See http://www.pnl.gov/aisu/pubs/14660.pdf.
35
Methane released from manure management systems can be captured and used as clean energy to produce electricity.
See http://methanetomarkets.org/ag/index.htm.
36
Municipal solid waste contains significant portions of organic materials that produce a variety of gaseous products
when dumped, compacted, and covered in landfills. Anaerobic bacteria thrive in the oxygen-free environment, resulting
in the decomposition of the organic materials and the production of primarily carbon dioxide and methane. See
http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/solar.renewables/page/landfillgas/landfillgas.html.
37
Mike Ewall, Primer on Landfill Gas as “Green” Energy, Energy Justice Network, July 29, 1999,
http://www.energyjustice.net/lfg/.
38
Danielle Jackson, EPA Report Applauds Waste-to-Energy Plants, Waste Age magazine, June 25, 2002,
http://wasteage.com/news/waste_epa_report_applauds/.

Congressional Research Service

7

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

Emerging Biomass Power Technologies
Gasification technology holds promise for increased efficiency and usefulness of biomass
combustion and waste-to-energy technologies. By converting biomass, waste materials, or other
carbon-containing materials into a synthesized gas (synthesis gas or syngas) comprised mostly of
carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide, the syngas can be burned directly to generate
electricity.39 Further processing via Fischer-Tropsch methods40 or other forms of catalysis can
convert the syngas into higher value chemicals or transportation biofuels such as ethanol,
methanol, or a form of biodiesel called di-methyl ether.
Plasma-arc gasification is an incineration technology which uses an oxygen-starved environment
to reduce the organic components in municipal solid waste (or other biomass) into its constituent
elements. The resultant gas is then used to provide heat for electric power generation. Inorganic
wastes are reduced to low volume, inert solids.41 The technology is being used commercially in
several installations around the world, with the first U.S. facility scheduled to be operational in
2011.42

Potential Biomass Use in the Southeast for RES
Requirements
A potential national renewable electricity standard would rely on biomass as one of the nation’s
most widely available resources that could be used to meet requirements.43 With many states
already moving forward on advancing renewable energy goals, the acceptability of an RES may
come down to regional views on the availability and suitability of renewable energy resources for
meeting RES requirements. Nowhere is the debate on biomass resources more pronounced than in
the southeastern United States where biomass has been described as the region’s best hope to
meet RES requirements.44
The key determinants of success related to fuel for a biomass power plant include the availability
of biomass resources, prices of the feedstock, and the cost of collection and delivery of these
resources. These factors will help determine whether further biomass development can help the
region economically meet projected requirements of an RES.

Availability of Biomass
Proponents of an RES assert that the Southeast has ample biomass resources to meet renewable
energy requirements of an RES. The Southern Alliance for Clean Energy (SACE) states:
39

Gasification. http://www.eia.doe.gov/glossary/glossary_g.htm.
For more on Fischer-Tropsch technologies, see CRS Report RL34133, Fischer-Tropsch Fuels from Coal, Natural
Gas, and Biomass: Background and Policy, by (name redacted) and (name redacted).
41
See Plasma Gasification at http://www.recoveredenergy.com/d_plasma.html.
42
Peter Fairley, Garbage In, Megawatts Out, July 2, 2008, http://www.technologyreview.com/Energy/21029/?a=f.
43
U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy , Overview of Biomass
Technologies, http://www1.eere.energy.gov/ba/pba/pdfs/bio_overview.pdf.
44
EIA. Analysis of RPS. June 2007.
40

Congressional Research Service

8

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

Biomass represents about two-thirds of the Southeast’s near-term potential for expanding
renewable energy…. Today, biomass [electric power] generation is mainly associated with
the use of mill and agricultural wastes. Tomorrow’s opportunities for using biomass to
generate electricity in the Southeast include a diverse assortment of options, particularly
energy crops and wood resources. 45

According to SACE’s analysis, biomass is potentially seen as meeting 60% of a near-term RES
goal of 15% of all generation in the Southeast (by the year 2015). The majority of that capacity is
expected to come from new energy crops.46
Opponents of an RES say goals for new renewable energy generation are unfair and cannot be
easily met in the timeframes under discussion. Southern Company, a major electric utility in the
Southeast, asserts it could not meet a 15% requirement by 2015, adding that it may be able to
raise only 800 megawatts (MW) of an estimated 6,000 MW of new renewable energy capacity
required for compliance.47 Southern Company doubts that currently discussed RES requirements
of 20% or 25% (by the year 2025) can be achieved using biomass or other renewable energy
sources, and the region may have to purchase renewable electricity credits48 (RECs) from other
states.49 In the meantime, Southern Company’s subsidiary, Georgia Power, has gained approval
from the Georgia Public Service Commission to convert Plant Mitchell, a small coal-fired facility
near Albany, Georgia, to woody biomass50 with work beginning in 2011 (and ending in 2012)
resulting in 96 megawatts of renewable electricity. Burning approximately one million tons of
biomass annually, Plant Mitchell would be one of the largest biomass power plants in the United
States.51
Collection of waste wood for biomass power plants may require a coordinated effort with forestry
companies. Wood wastes from saw mills is a primary source of energy used by the biopower
industry in its power plants, but if sufficient numbers of these mills go out of business, then the
economics of biopower operations could change.52 There is little doubt that logging operations
leave behind considerable waste wood in the forests, but going into the forest specifically to
collect wood wastes may not be cost effective for biopower companies.53

45
Southern Alliance for Clean Energy (SACE). Yes We Can: Southern Solutions for a National Renewable Energy
Standard. Presentation on behalf of CleanEnergy.org. February 23, 2009.
46
Ibid. Near-term potential for renewable energy resources: energy crops (22%); forest residues (18%); crop residues
(11%); urban wood residues (6%); biogas (landfills—2%; livestock manure—1%).
47
Capitol Hill Publishing Corp, Southern Co. takes aim at renewable-energy bill, May 8, 2007, http://thehill.com/
business--lobby/southern-co.-takes-aim-at-renewable-energy-bill-2007-05-08.html.
48
For more information on Tradable Credits, see CRS Report RL34116, Renewable Energy Portfolio Standard (RPS):
Background and Debate Over a National Requirement, by (name redacted).
49
E-mail from Southern Company, March 30, 2009.
50
Georgia Power Company, Georgia Power Seeks Approval for Coal Plant Conversion to Biomass, August 22, 2008,
http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/08-22-2008/0004871944&EDATE=
.
51
Tom Darin Liskey, Georgia Power seeks to convert coal plant to biomass, ReCharge News, February 3, 2009,
http://www.rechargenews.com/energy/biofuels/article171226.ece.
52
Approximately 16 mills have closed in the Southeast between 2004 and 2007. Pulp & Paperworkers Resource
Council, Mill Closures Chart, 2007, http://www.pprc.info/html/millclosures.htm.
53
Justine Hunter, Forestry decline threatens B.C.’s biomass plants, Globe and Mail, March 25, 2009,
http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20090325.wforestry0325/BNStory/National/.

Congressional Research Service

9

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

Potential Impacts on Biomass Prices
When examined from a regional perspective, a number of questions have been raised as to the
potential impacts on the supply and demand of biomass resources under a renewable energy
standard. The provisions of such a law—including definition of eligible biomass resources, price
incentives for renewable electricity, and tax treatment—would all affect the economic viability of
possible projects and could affect demand for biomass resources.
Much of the Southeast region’s biomass electricity capacity comes from existing forest products
cogeneration facilities which would not qualify for tradable RECs under the RPS proposal floated
by Senator Bingaman.54 The American Forest & Paper Association (AF&PA) is concerned that if
this option is followed, a financial advantage could be given to new biomass energy generators at
the expense of its member companies because of the added value of tradable RECs.55 Forest
products companies are the primary users of biomass for manufacturing purposes. AF&PA
contends that additional income from trading in RECs by biopower companies could lead to
increased demand and higher prices for biomass, thus forcing forest products companies
nationwide to pay more for its raw materials. Conversely, this situation could potentially benefit
landowners in the region who have seen prices for wood fall with the economic decline of the
forest products industry.
AF&PA points to a study of the effects of a 20% RPS by their counterparts in Europe, which
concluded that simple power generation from biomass (i.e., wood and recovered paper) should
only be considered when recycling is no longer feasible to maximize economic and
environmental benefits.56
In contrast, the Biomass Power Association says that its members cannot profitably compete with
the pulp and paper industry for supplies of woody biomass at existing prices of $60 per bone dry
ton (BDT), and must seek alternative supplies in the $40 per BDT range, or lower.57 Thus, other
sources of biomass are targeted. Considering fuel cost inputs in this range and continuation of the
Production Tax Credit58 and RECs producing power valued around $0.08 per kilowatt-hour,
biomass power plants could be built in the 25 megawatt size range and produce power
economically, according to the Biomass Power Association.59

54
Generators of existing renewable energy facilities (placed in service before January 1, 2006) would receive nontradable credits for the power they generate under the proposal in Senator Bingaman’s RPS discussion draft.
55
Press release, National Journal, February 12, 2009 at http://www.afandpa.org/Template.cfm?Section=
Press_Releases1&template=/PressRelease/PressReleaseDisplay.cfm&PressReleaseID=936&PressReleaseCategoryID=
10&ShowArchives=0.
56
Confederation of European Paper Industries, Bio-energy and the European Pulp and Paper Industry.
http://www.cepi.org/content/default.asp?pageid=10.
57
Biomass Power Association (BPA). Forest Biomass and its Role in a National Renewable Electricity Standard. See
page 4 of presentation at http://files.eesi.org/cleaves_030409.pdf.
58
Companies that generate wind, geothermal, and “closed-loop” bioenergy (which is powered by dedicated energy
crops) are eligible for the production tax credit, which provides a variable cent per kilowatt-hour benefit for the first
years of a renewable energy facility’s operation. Other technologies, such as “open-loop” biomass, incremental
hydropower, small irrigation systems, landfill gas, and municipal solid waste (MSW), receive a lesser value tax credit.
See http://www.house.gov/jct/x-39-08.pdf.
59
BPA. See note 59.

Congressional Research Service

10

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

Demand for woody biomass could also be affected by requirements for biofuels production under
the Renewable Fuel Standard60 specified by Congress in the Energy Policy Act of 2005,
especially as cellulosic methods for ethanol production are improved. Cellulosic ethanol can be
produced from the same types of biomass feedstock as could be used for biomass electric power
generation. Recent technological developments are improving yields from cellulosic production
and bringing down production costs61 which, when coupled with incentives for ethanol
production, may further increase demand and possibly prices for biomass.

Cost of Delivery of Biomass
Transportation costs associated with biomass will bear strongly on the decision to site a biomass
power facility. Access to the resource is critical to a facility’s economic feasibility. The total
delivered cost of woody biomass can be calculated as the sum of the costs of procurement (i.e.,
the amount paid to gain ownership of a biomass resource), collection or harvest costs, and
transportation costs. Different types of biomass have different procurement and collection costs,
and transportation cost varies as a function of haul time and distance.
In 1991, a study62of the availability of biomass in the Southeast identified 27 counties with high
potential to generate power from woody biomass. More recently, a study released in 2006
assessed the economic feasibility of bringing in biomass resources for bioenergy projects. The
latter study used geographic information system (GIS) techniques to examine the theoretical
effects of transportation infrastructure, distance, and biomass types on potential bioenergy
projects in the 27 counties. The locations selected were bounded by a 280-mile radius to allow for
a four-hour maximum one-way haul, and trucks offloading biomass every 15 minutes. 63 Based on
a demand of 2 to 4 trillion British Thermal Units (BTUs) for a biomass power facility generating
between 20 and 40 megawatts of electricity, the study concluded that sufficient biomass supplies
potentially existed in the 27 counties. The costs of delivered biomass fell into an estimated range
of $1.66 to $2.01 per thousand BTUs, which was seen as competitive with coal energy costs for
power generation. However, biomass would have to be utilized from a variety of sources, with
forestry residues and stumps within a 45-minute haul range, and urban wood residues within a
135-minute haul.64
In comparison, Georgia Power’s biomass conversion at the former Mitchell coal plant is expected
to draw upon waste wood from a 100-mile radius around the facility. Georgia Power estimates it
will require 160 to 180 truckload deliveries per day to supply the 1 million tons of biomass
needed for the 96 MW facility. 65

60

The Renewable Fuels Program requires increased use of renewable fuels every year through 2012. By 2012, at least
7.5 billion gallons of renewable fuel must be blended into motor-vehicle fuel sold in America. After 2012, renewable
fuel use is required to grow in volume as gasoline demand grows. See http://www.epa.gov/oms/renewablefuels/
420f07062.htm.
61
http://www.harvestcleanenergy.org/enews/enews_0505/enews_0505_Cellulosic_Ethanol.htm.
62
“The Economic Availability of Biomass in the Southeastern United States,” by T. Young, D. Ostermeier, J. Thomas,
R. Brooks. See http://wood.tennessee.edu/NR/rdonlyres/70B5D4FC-FAAB-4DF3-A291-45E39CA5C99A/1310/
EconomicAvailabilityofWoodyBiomass.pdf.
63
Measuring the Economics of Biofuel Availability. See http://www.esri.com/library/fliers/pdfs/measuringbiofuel.pdf.
64
The sensitivity of the estimates with regard to truck fuel prices is unknown.
65
http://www.biomassmagazine.com/article.jsp?article_id=1975.

Congressional Research Service

11

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

Biomass Potential
Increasing electricity generated from biomass sources may be a viable route for compliance with
RES requirements nationally, especially as biomass is already the largest source of renewable
energy in the United States today. In the southeast region especially, biomass may be the most
readily available opportunity for meeting RES goals, but compliance may still be a challenge. If a
15% RPS goal would require 6,000 MW of renewable energy in the Southeast, then developing
even 4 biomass plants of 100 MW capacity66 and all 27 GIS identified sites at 40 MW would
result in 1,480 MW of capacity, less than one-third of the needed total. Another option may be to
upgrade power production at some existing forest products industry mills solely for the purpose
of power sales. Alternatively, new or existing power generation facilities at closed pulp and paper
mills could be evaluated as options, and configured strictly for power generation.67 Existing
woody biomass stocks could be augmented by biocrops or other types of biomass to help fuel
new power generation facilities. Making up some of this gap from market sources using
procurement bids and new commercial solar or wind installations may be possible. The needs of
other, possibly competing, uses for biomass are considerations if biomass resources are to be
sustained while meeting projected uses.

Summary of Barriers and Challenges to Greater Use
of Biomass
DOE/EIA has stated that biomass has the potential to be a large part of the national solution
toward meeting a prospective RES.68 This is especially true for the southeastern region, at least in
the initial years of compliance.69 The definition for biomass could be chosen to expand the
resource beyond the supply of woody materials to include livestock wastes, municipal solid
wastes, and/or other non-traditional resources. Plans for increased use of waste wood from forests
may require new forms of cooperation and coordination between forest products companies and
biomass power generators to ensure access to the resource.

Potential Supply Constraints
Biomass power plants are tied to a “geo-economic zone” in which it is cost-effective to collect
and deliver the biomass feedstock to the boiler. This generally means that there could be only one
large “industrial” user of biomass (whether forest product manufacturer or biomass power
production) in a given geo-economic zone, and growth of renewable electricity from biomass to
meet RES requirements will be bound by such zones.
Having a financially viable forest products sector producing wood wastes is important to the
biomass power industry. New resources (such as dedicated biocrops) or other biomass sources
66
Southern Company is considering converting three additional small coal plants to biomass, similar to Plant Mitchell.
Personal communications with Southern Company. March 6, 2009.
67
Map of pulp and paper mill closures. Pulp & Paper Workers Resource Council. See http://www.pprc.info/html/
millclosures.htm.
68
See http://energycommerce.house.gov/Press_111/20090226/testimony_gruenspecht.pdf.
69
Ibid.

Congressional Research Service

12

Biomass Resources in the Southeast and the Renewable Electricity Standard Debate

(such as municipal solid waste) may need to be used if biomass from forest residues and forest
product industry wastes do not prove sufficient to meet RES goals.
Targets for biofuels production from a Renewable Fuels Standard may mean that increased
amounts of biomass would be dedicated to meet the needs of that program, if the trend away from
corn-based ethanol persists and gasoline demand increases. The effects of these new federal
requirements added to existing uses on the price of woody biomass is uncertain, but increased
demand without a commensurate increase in supply (or development of alternative supplies)
usually leads to higher prices for a finite resource. Sustainable management of forest resources is
a basic consideration.

Environmental Aspects
Despite being “green” resources, renewable energy installations are not without aesthetic or
environmental challenges of their own. Wind turbines have been called ugly and noisy, and the
cooling needs of solar thermal facilities in desert locations may require the use of scarce water
resources. Although biomass-fueled power plants are not immune to such challenges, they are
capable of offering base-load capacity, and a viable clean energy alternative for utilities in the
Southeast should climate change considerations officially become part of the rationale for a
Renewable Electricity Standard. Climate change mitigation goals may have additional impacts on
the value of renewable energy credits, and eventual impacts on biomass demand nationwide.

Technological Challenges and Opportunities
Research and development initiatives may well increase the efficiency of biomass power
generation, making it possible to increase power output from less biomass feedstock. Sustainable
management of southeastern woody biomass supplies could help to meet any RES target.
Diversity in biomass supplies will also be key if the resource is to meet competing demands.
Planning for biomass resources that fails to consider competing uses, may have unintended
economic, ecological and environmental consequences.

Author Contact Information
(name redacted)
Specialist in Energy Policy
[redacted]@crs.loc.gov, 7-....

Congressional Research Service

13

EveryCRSReport.com
The Congressional Research Service (CRS) is a federal legislative branch agency, housed inside the
Library of Congress, charged with providing the United States Congress non-partisan advice on
issues that may come before Congress.
EveryCRSReport.com republishes CRS reports that are available to all Congressional staff. The
reports are not classified, and Members of Congress routinely make individual reports available to
the public.
Prior to our republication, we redacted names, phone numbers and email addresses of analysts
who produced the reports. We also added this page to the report. We have not intentionally made
any other changes to any report published on EveryCRSReport.com.
CRS reports, as a work of the United States government, are not subject to copyright protection in
the United States. Any CRS report may be reproduced and distributed in its entirety without
permission from CRS. However, as a CRS report may include copyrighted images or material from a
third party, you may need to obtain permission of the copyright holder if you wish to copy or
otherwise use copyrighted material.
Information in a CRS report should not be relied upon for purposes other than public
understanding of information that has been provided by CRS to members of Congress in
connection with CRS' institutional role.
EveryCRSReport.com is not a government website and is not affiliated with CRS. We do not claim
copyright on any CRS report we have republished.

---

Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/documents/crs%3AR40565. Public record. Not legal advice.