# Stilp v. Commonwealth

> Supreme Court of Pennsylvania · September 14, 2006 · 588 Pa. 539

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/9734637

## Case

- **Full name:** Gene STILP, Appellant v. COMMONWEALTH of Pennsylvania, Robert P. Casey, Jr., Treasurer of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Robert C. Jubelirer, President Pro Tempore of the Pennsylvania Senate, John M. Perzel, Speaker of the House of Representatives, Appellees; The Honorable John W. Herron, Appellant v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Robert C. Jubelirer, President Pro Tempore of the Senate of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, John M. Perzel, Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Tom Corbett, Attorney General of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Robert P. Casey, Jr., State Treasurer of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Appellees; The Honorable Charles C. Brown, Jr., the Honorable Frank T. Hazel, the Honorable Robert K. Kunselman, the Honorable Benjamin Lerner, the Honorable William A. Meehan, the Honorable Timothy Patrick O’Reilly, and the Honorable Joseph A. Smyth, Appellants v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Robert P. Casey, Jr., State Treasurer of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Appellees Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Thomas W. Corbett, Jr., Attorney General, Intervenor
- **Court:** Supreme Court of Pennsylvania
- **Decided:** September 14, 2006
- **Citations:** 588 Pa. 539; 905 A.2d 918; 2006 Pa. LEXIS 1736
- **Precedential status:** Published
- **Opinion:** Opinion of the court by Castille
- **Judges:** Castille, Newman, Saylor, Eakin, Baer, Baldwin, Cappy
- **Cited by:** 138 later opinions in the Frix Law Library

## Citator (automated)

- No negative treatment found by the automated citator. That is not the same as a confirmation that the case is good law; read the citing cases.
- Full citator and citing cases: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/9734637

## How later opinions describe it (automated extraction)

- holding that sentences for aggravated assault and attempted murder merged because “one cannot kill without inflicting serious bodily injury”
- holding that "a bill does not have to be considered on three separate days, as otherwise required by Article III, Section 4, if the amendments to the bill added during the legislative process are germane to and do not change the general subject of the bill" - the same requirem…
- holding that “a bill does not have to be considered on three separate days, as otherwise required by Article llll Section 4, if the amendments to the bill added during the legislative process are germane to and do not change the general subject of the bill” - the same requirem…
- holding that nearly identical nonseverability provision was “ineffective and cannot be permitted to dictate [the Court’s] analysis” and that “enforcement of the clause would intrude upon the independence of the Judiciary and impair the judicial function”
- explaining we have “not treated legislative declarations that a statute is severable, or nonseverable, as ‘inexorable commands,’ but rather have viewed such statements as providing a rule of construction”

## Opinion text

OPINION
Justice CASTILLE.
I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY
- A -
These matters are before this Court, upon exercise of plenary jurisdiction, 1 based upon the important constitutional *551 questions posed by the parties. The absence of a developed record is no impediment to review of these questions because the cases pose purely legal challenges to two pieces of legislation: Act 44 of 2005, 2 which tied salaries provided to the Judiciary, the General Assembly, and certain high-ranking executive branch officials to the salaries provided to federal officials by means of specific formulas, resulting in increased salaries; and Act 72 of 2005, 3 which repealed Act 44 in its entirety. The factual circumstances giving rise to the litigation are undisputed by the parties. Indeed, the parties assume the Court’s familiarity with, and acceptance of, certain foundational facts concerning the interplay between the two Acts and the occasion for Act 72. Thus, in the discussion that follows, and for purposes of background, we will take judicial notice of some of the relevant factual circumstances concerning the legislative process and the legislation itself.
Act 44 was passed by the General Assembly without floor debate at approximately 2:00 a.m. on July 7, 2005. Act 44 was signed into law by Governor Edward G. Rendell on that same date. In its final form, Act 44 was twenty-two pages in length, and it, inter alia, removed the issue of official compensation from the political arena by adopting specific formulas for determining compensation for the Judiciary, the General Assembly, and certain high-ranking executive officials, which were based on the federal governmental salary structure. Application of the formulas resulted in compensation increases for all three branches.
There was a negative public response to the legislation, focusing particularly upon its timing and method of passage and upon a provision providing for an increase in unvouchered expenses, which applied exclusively to the legislative branch. 4 *552 Governor Rendell defended the legislation, and specifically-defended the unvouchered expense provision, noting: “It’s legal — and that’s all I’m going to say about it.” 5 Mr. Chief Justice Cappy, acting in his role as the leader of the Pennsylvania Judiciary, 6 later authored two editorials for legal periodicals that defended Act 44. See Ralph J. Cappy, Three Branches, Working Together: A collaborative effort has led to a compensation system that is right for Pennsylvania, Pa. Law Weekly, July 25, 2005; Ralph J. Cappy, Legislature Has Found a Compensation Plan That’s Right for Pa., The Legal Intelligencer, July 27, 2005. In these editorials, the Chief Justice posited that Act 44 established a salary structure which was beneficial for good government by attracting and retaining qualified public servants. Moreover, the Chief Justice noted that, by linking the salaries paid to state officials to the federal governmental salary structure, Act 44 addressed the problem of political distraction generally associated with the mere consideration of pay raise legislation. The Chief Justice did not address the unvouchered expense provision applicable to the members of the General Assembly. 7
The year 2005 was a municipal election year. 8 Thus, in the November 8, 2005 general election, no statewide offices were contested in either the legislative or the executive branch. However, pursuant to Article V, Section 13(a) of the Pennsylvania Constitution, which requires that all judges be elected at *553 municipal elections, two of this Court’s Justices, Mr. Justice Russell M. Nigro and Madame Justice Sandra Schultz Newman, stood for retention election. 9 Mr. Justice Nigro was narrowly defeated for retention in the general election, while Madame Justice Newman was retained by an unusually narrow margin.
In the meantime, as the general election neared, the General Assembly began considering a repeal of Act 44 in apparent reaction to the public outcry. Thus, competing bills that would eventually become Act 72 were introduced in both the Senate and the House of Representatives. A dispute between the two chambers stymied passage of the legislation before the general election took place. Following the November 8, 2005 election, however, the House of Representatives approved Act 72 on November 14, 2005; the Senate followed suit on November 16, 2005; and the Governor signed Act 72 into law on that same date. Act 72 on its face repealed Act 44 in its entirety.
- B -
Currently before the Court are three separate matters. The first matter in order of time, Stilp v. Commonwealth, arose on August 1, 2005, when appellant Gene Stilp, acting pro se, filed a Complaint in Mandamus and Bill of Equity in the Commonwealth Court’s original jurisdiction, challenging the constitutionality of Act 44. The respondents 10 filed preliminary objections; Stilp filed an amended Complaint; and respondents renewed their preliminary objections. While those preliminary objections were pending, Act 72 was adopted as *554 law. On November 17, 2005, the Commonwealth Court stayed briefing on the preliminary objections and directed the parties to file memoranda of law on the issue of whether the case had been rendered moot by Act 72’s repeal of Act 44. On November 23, 2005, simultaneously with his Commonwealth Court submissions addressing mootness and a motion to stay the proceedings, Stilp filed an Application for Extraordinary Relief in this Court under Pa.R.A.P. 3309 requesting, inter alia, that we assume jurisdiction over the matter. Stilp also requested a stay of the Commonwealth Court proceedings. On November 30, 2005, the Commonwealth Court, in an unpublished, single-judge opinion by the Honorable James R. Kelley, dismissed Stilp’s challenge below on the basis of mootness and denied his request for a stay, noting that Stilp could appeal the dismissal to this Court as a matter of right. On December 22, 2005, this Court granted Stilp’s Application in part, assumed plenary jurisdiction over this matter, directed that the case be listed for oral argument at the same session with Herron v. Commonwealth, directed that the parties brief five issues that will be discussed later in this Opinion, and denied Stilp’s motion to stay the Commonwealth Court proceedings as moot. See Stilp v. Commonwealth, 585 Pa. 543 , 889 A.2d 499 (2005) (per curiam).
Stilp and appellees thereafter timely filed legal briefs addressing the relevant issues. 11 Each appellee submitted a separate brief but, with the exception of Treasurer Casey, presented similar arguments for each issue. Treasurer Casey, *555 instead, aligned his arguments with Stilp and argued that Act 44 was unconstitutional. Several interested parties filed amicus curiae briefs in this matter. In support of Stilp, a single amicus curiae brief was filed by Timothy Potts; Russ Diamond, on behalf of PA Clean Sweep, Inc.; and Eric Epstein, Coordinator of RocktheCapital.org. In support of appellees, amicus curiae briefs were filed by Judge Herron, the appellant in Herron v. Commonwealth, and the judges/appellants in Brown v. Commonwealth. Additionally, an amicus curiae brief was submitted by the law firm of Thomas, Thomas & Hafer, LLP, which did not support either party but addressed one of the issues presented.
The second matter in order of time, Herron v. Commonwealth, was instituted on December 6, 2005 when the Honorable John W. Herron, Judge of the Court of Common Pleas of Philadelphia County, filed a Petition for Review in the Commonwealth Court challenging the constitutionality of Act 72 insofar as it decreased the compensation of Pennsylvania judicial officials. On that same date, Judge Herron filed an Application for Extraordinary Relief, in accordance with Pa. R.A.P. 3309, requesting, inter alia, that this Court assume extraordinary jurisdiction, pursuant to 42 Pa.C.S. § 726, over the Commonwealth Court matter. On December 22, 2005, this Court granted Judge Herron’s Application in part, assumed plenary jurisdiction, directed that the case be listed for oral argument at the same session with Stilp , and directed that the parties brief two issues that will be fully discussed later in this Opinion. 12 , 13
*556 Judge Herron and appellees timely submitted briefs. As in Stilp , éach appellee submitted an individual brief, and each appellee defends Act 72’s constitutionality. An amicus curiae brief was submitted by the County Commissioners Association of Pennsylvania (“CCAP”) supporting neither party. CCAP takes no position with respect to the constitutionality of Act 72; rather, CCAP’s concern relates to Judge Herron’s challenge and Act 44’s effect on the salary structure for full-time county district attorneys. 14
The third matter in order of time, Brown, v. Commonwealth, was initiated on December 13, 2005 when appellants, who are commissioned judges in either the Court of Common Pleas in various counties in the Commonwealth or in the Philadelphia Municipal Court, 15 filed a Petition for Review in the Commonwealth Court also challenging the constitutionality of Act 72. On that same date, the Brown appellants filed an Application for Extraordinary Relief, in accordance with Pa.R.A.P. 3309, requesting, inter alia, that this Court assume extraordinary jurisdiction over the Commonwealth Court matter pursuant to 42 Pa.C.S. § 726. On January 11, 2006, this Court granted the Application in part, assumed plenary jurisdiction, consolidated the case with Herron, directed that the case be listed for oral argument at the same session with Stilp and Herron, and further directed that the parties brief the same two issues posed in Herron.
*557 The Brown appellants and appellees timely submitted briefs. 16 Both Attorney General Corbett and Treasurer Casey posit arguments that are materially identical to those they presented in Heiron. The Pennsylvania Bar Association and the Philadelphia Bar Association filed separate amicus curiae briefs arguing in support of the Brown appellants and against Act 72’s constitutionality insofar as it reduced judicial compensation. Senator Jubelirer submitted an amicus curiae brief in support of appellees, arguing that Act 72 was constitutional.
The matters were argued before the Court on April 4, 2006, with able and respectful presentations forwarded by all involved, and they are ripe for decision. Because of the interplay of the challenges to the two Acts in question, we have determined that a single opinion would be the most efficient and sensible manner of deciding the entirety of the issues. Part II of this Opinion addresses the challenges to the constitutionality of Act 72 raised by Judge Herron and the Brown appellants, while Part III addresses Stilp’s challenges to the constitutionality of Act 44.
- C -
Preliminarily, we note that none of the parties has questioned the propriety of this Court’s consideration of these matters. The six participating members of this Court are not parties to these actions. However, the Justices, and indeed every member of the Judiciary in Pennsylvania, have a pecuniary interest in the outcome of these proceedings. The pecuniary interest implicated here would ordinarily require a judge to disqualify himself or herself from, the matter. That option, however, is not available here as recusals en masse would prevent any judicial review whatsoever of these important matters. Thus, under the present circumstance, the long-recognized common law “rule of necessity” requires this Court to proceed to discharge its constitutional duty notwithstanding any interest in the outcome. See United States v. Will, 449 *558 U.S. 200, 213-16 , 101 S.Ct. 471, 480-81 , 66 L.Ed.2d 392 (1980); City of Philadelphia v. Fox, 64 Pa. 169, 185 (1870) (“The true rule unquestionably is that wherever it becomes necessary for a judge to sit even where he has an interest — where no provision is made for calling another in, or where no one else can take his place — it is his duty to hear and decide, however disagreeable it may be.”). Indeed, this Court previously has considered constitutional challenges to legislation affecting judicial compensation. See, e.g., Consumer Party of Pennsylvania v. Commonwealth, 510 Pa. 158 , 507 A.2d 323 (1986). Since there is no provision or procedure in existence for an entity clothed with proper jurisdiction to consider this matter other than this Court, we shall proceed to consider the claims.
II. CONSTITUTIONALITY OF ACT 72 INSOFAR AS IT REDUCES JUDICIAL COMPENSATION: THE HERRON AND BROWN APPEALS
A. Introduction
The title of Act 72 plainly states that this Act was passed for the purpose of repealing Act 44 in its entirety and reenacting the previous compensation provisions contained in Act 39 of 1983, 17 and making editorial changes. 18 Judge Herron and the Brown appellants (collectively, “the Judges”) challenge Act *559 72 insofar as it repeals the formula in Act 44 which led to an increase in the compensation provided to the Judiciary. The Judges’ challenge focuses on Article V, Section 16(a) of the Pennsylvania Constitution, which provides in full:
Justices, judges and justices of the peace [now magisterial district judges] shall be compensated by the Commonwealth as provided by law. Their compensation shall not be diminished during their terms of office, unless by law applying generally to all salaried officers of the Commonwealth.
Pa. Const, art. V, § 16(a). The General Assembly obviously realized that its repeal of Act 44 presented a serious constitutional question to the extent that it reduced judicial compensation. Thus, the very first section of Act 72, entitled “Declaration of policy,” provides in full, as follows:
(a) The General Assembly declares that the reenactment of the superseded provisions of the act of September 30, 1983 (P.L. 160, No. 39), known as the Public Official Compensation Law, is necessary to effectuate the repeal of the act of July 7, 2005 (P.L. 201, No. 44), entitled “An act amending Titles 42 (Judiciary and Judicial Procedure)!,] 46 (Legislature) and 71 (State Government) of the Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes, providing for compensation; and making an inconsistent repeal,” and to adopt salaries in effect on July 6, 2005.
(b) The exercise of the authority of the General Assembly to establish salary of the justices, judges and justices of the peace pursuant to section 1 of Article II and section 16(a) of Article V of the Constitution of Pennsylvania is not intended to diminish or infringe on, or otherwise interfere with, the independence of the judicial system or the Executive Department.
(c) For purposes of implementing this act and restoring salaries in effect on July 6, 2005, the General Assembly finds and declares that the officials referred to in this act shall constitute the “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” *560 for purposes of section 16(a) of Article V of the Constitution of Pennsylvania.
Act 72, § 1.
In light of the Judges’ challenge, this Court directed the parties to address the following two issues:
(1) Whether Act 72 violates Article V, Section 16(a) of the Pennsylvania Constitution?
(2) What is the significance of Sections 1(b) and (c) of Act 72 to the question of the constitutionality of Act 72 in the face of a challenge under Article V, Section 16(a) of the Pennsylvania Constitution?
Because this Court assumed plenary jurisdiction over this matter, there is no lower court decision or order under review. The questions involved are purely legal, and thus, our scope of review is plenary and our standard of review is de novo.
B. Arguments in Support of Act 72’s Unconstitutionality
Though not identical, the arguments forwarded by the Judges are similar and overlapping; accordingly, for ease of exposition, we shall summarize them as one. The Judges argue that Act 72’s repeal of the Act 44 formula, a formula which led to an immediate increase in the compensation provided to the Judiciary, diminished judicial compensation during their terms of office, and that the single exceptional circumstance recognized by the Constitution which would allow for such reduction — i.e., where the compensation for “all salaried officers of the Commonwealth” is also diminished — is not implicated here. The Judges argue that the constitutional exception was intended only for a circumstance where governmental solvency is threatened in “a period of economic stress.” See Preparatory Committee’s Reference Manual No. 5, The •Judiciary, at 67. 19 Thus, the Judges contend, the Pennsylva *561 nia Constitution sets a high bar before judicial compensation may be reduced, limited to a specific, extraordinary circumstance. If that circumstance is not implicated, the unambiguous prohibition against reducing judicial compensation is necessary to ensure the independence of the Judiciary, one of the three coordinate and equal branches of government. See, e.g., Firing v. Kephart, 466 Pa. 560 , 353 A.2d 833, 837 (1976) (“[T]he well-established purpose of the prohibition against diminishing the compensation of the Judiciary during their terms of office, contained in Section 16(a) but explicitly or implicitly present in the Pennsylvania Constitution since the Constitution of 1790, is to maintain the independence of the Judiciary from encroachment by the other branches of government .”) (footnote omitted).
The Judges’ argument that Act 72 diminished judicial compensation is straightforward. Act 44’s formula operated to immediately increase the compensation paid all Pennsylvania judges; Pennsylvania judges actually began receiving the new salaries as of July 8, 2005; the General Assembly reduced those salaries during the judges’ terms of office four months later with the November 16, 2005 enactment of Act 72; and, after November 16, 2005, Pennsylvania judges’ salaries in fact were rolled back to their previous levels.
Turning to the question of the applicability of the Section 16(a) exception, the Judges first note that Act 72 was not passed in order to address any particular economic crisis in the Commonwealth, which might have warranted a reduction in the compensation of “all salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” The Judges note that the period between July 2005 and November 2005 was not marred by severe economic stress threatening the Commonwealth. Instead, they assert that Act 72 was motivated by a political crisis facing the *562 General Assembly in the wake of their constituents’ reactions to certain aspects of Act 44. Leaving aside whether the purpose of the legislation implicates the Section 16(a) exception, the Judges then posit three independent reasons why Act 72 does not fall within the narrow exception provided in Section 16(a).
First, the Judges argue that Act 72 does not diminish, or even address, the compensation of many other “salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” The Judges concede that the specific constitutional phrase “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” has not been addressed or defined by any court in this Commonwealth, but the Judges cite to other precedent from this Court in support of their assertion that a reliable definition is easily discernible. See Werner v. Zazyczny, 545 Pa. 570 , 681 A.2d 1331, 1337 (1996) (determining that Special Investigator III in Inspector General’s Office was not an “officer” under Article VI, Section 7 of Pennsylvania Constitution, and explaining that “[a] person will be deemed a public officer if the person is appointed or elected to perform duties of a grave and important character, and which involve some of the functions of government, for a definite term.”); Vega v. Borough of Burgettstown, 394 Pa. 406 , 147 A.2d 620, 623 (1958) (concluding that police chief was not “public officer” but merely a “public employee” under a statute outlining the procedure for the removal of borough police officers, and noting that “the test to be applied in determining a public officer is ... [whether] the officer is chosen by the electorate, or appointed, for a definite and certain tenure in the manner provided by law to an office whose duties are of a grave and important character, involving some of the functions of government, and are to be exercised for the benefit of the public for a fixed compensation paid out of the public treasury ....”) (quoting Alworth v. County of Lackawanna, 85 Pa.Super. 349, 352 (1925)); Richie v. City of Philadelphia, 225 Pa. 511 , 74 A. 430, 431 (1909) (determining that term “public officer” in Article III, Section 13 of then-applicable Pennsylvania Constitution encompassed appointed real estate assessor; factors to be examined are “the nature of the service to be performed by *563 the incumbent,” the “duties imposed upon him,” whether “those duties are of a grave and important character, involving in the proper performance of them some of the functions of government,” and “a fixed term.”). 20 The Judges further argue that other provisions of the Pennsylvania Constitution containing the term “officer” make clear that the term is intended to be broad and inclusive; for that reason, the Judges submit, the Constitution contemplates “officers” beyond those explicitly named. See, e.g., Pa. Const, art. VI, § 1 (entitled “Selection of Officers Not Otherwise Provided for in Constitution,” and providing, “All officers, whose selection is not provided for in this Constitution, shall be elected or appointed as may be directed by law”).
The Judges additionally note that Section 16(a) adds two important qualifications that must be accounted for when discerning a proper definition for the term “officer.” First, the “officers” must be “salaried;” and second, they must be officers “of the Commonwealth.” Therefore, the Judges cogently reason that the term “officer” in Article V, Section 16(a) “refers to all salaried holders of state offices, whether elected or appointed to those posts, whose offices impose grave and important duties and involve performance of some functions of government.” Brown Brief at 13; Herron Brief at 7.
Applying this logical definition, the Judges argue that no less than seven cabinet positions in the executive branch did not suffer a reduction in compensation by operation of Act 72, *564 including: the General Counsel, see 71 P.S. § 732-301; the Secretary of Planning and Policy; the Secretary of Legislative Affairs; the Director of Health Care Reform; the Director of the Pennsylvania Emergency Management Agency, see 35 Pa.C.S. § 7312(e); the Secretary of the Budget, see 71 P.S. § 229; and the Inspector General, see 4 Pa.Code § 1.291. The Judges contend that cabinet-level officers certainly must qualify as “salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” In this regard, and as an example, Judge Herron notes that “the General Counsel is an officer established by statute to undertake the grave and important role of serving as the legal advisor to the Governor and ‘[r'Jender such legal advice, and such representation prior to initiation of any action, as are required concerning every matter and issue arising in connection with the exercise of the official powers and duties’ of each executive and independent agency.” Herron Brief at 8 (quoting 71 P.S. § 732-301(3)).
. Additionally, the Judges contend that Act 72 did not reduce the salaries of the following officers, all of whom are appointed by the Governor, by and with the consent of the Pennsylvania Senate: the members of the Turnpike Commission, see 36 P.S. § 651.5; the members of the Unemployment Compensation Board, see 43 P.S. § 763; the members of the Pennsylvania Public Utility Commission, see 66 P.S. § 301; the members of the Pennsylvania Securities Commission, see 70 P.S. § 1-601; the members of the State Civil Service Commission, see 71 P.S. § 741.201; the Physician General, see 71 P.S. § 1401; the members of the Environmental Hearing Board, see 35 P.S. §§ 7511-16; the Commissioner of the Bureau of Professional and Occupational Affairs, see 63 P.S. § 1401-305; and the Consumer Advocate, see 1976 Pa. Legis. Serv. 423 (West). Other “officers” who did not have their salaries reduced by Act 72, the Judges note, include: the State Fire Commissioner; the Deputy Secretaries of Community Affairs and Development, Information Technology, and Human Resources and Management; and the Executive Directors of the Game Commission, the Philadelphia Regional Port Authority, the Penn *565 sylvania Historical and Museum Commission, and the Fish and Boat Commission.
The Judges conclude their first point by emphasizing that the list of “officers” they have identified above is not exhaustive of all such unaffected “salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” But the list alone, the Judges assert, proves that Act 72 did not diminish or even address the compensation of “all” salaried officers of the Commonwealth in the same manner that it directly diminished judicial compensation. The Judges assert that, for this reason alone, the exception in Section 16(a) does not apply, and Act 72 therefore violates Article V, Section 16(a).
The second independent reason for concluding that the exception does not apply, according to the Judges, is that Act 72 does not diminish the current salaries of the executive officers who were specifically enumerated in Act 44. The elected executive officers identified in Act 44, whose increased compensation was specifically addressed in Act 44, include the Governor, the Lieutenant Governor, the State Treasurer, the Auditor General, and the Attorney General. Act 44, § 3 (amending 71 Pa.C.S. §§ 1102-03). The appointed Cabinet members identified and affected by Act 44 were the Adjutant General, the Secretary of Aging, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Banking, the Secretary of the Commonwealth, the Secretary of Community and Economic Development, the Secretary of Conservation and Natural Resources, the Secretary of Correction, the Secretary of Education, the Secretary of Environmental Protection, the Secretary of General Services, the Secretary of Health, the Insurance Commissioner of the Commonwealth, the Secretary of Labor and Industry, the Secretary of Public Welfare, the Secretary of Revenue, the Pennsylvania State Police Commissioner, and the Secretary of Transportation. Id. (amending 71 Pa.C.S. § 1102(c)).
Under Act 44, the Judges note, the salary increases applicable to the named elected executive positions were only available to those individuals elected to these positions after the July 7, 2005 effective date of the Act. See Act 44, § 4(4). *566 Similarly, the salary increases provided for the named appointed Cabinet positions were to apply only to individuals appointed to these positions after December 31, 2006. See Act 44, § 4(3). Unlike the compensation increases that the Act 44 formulas provided to the legislators (in the form of unvouchered expenses) and the Judiciary, the increases in salaries provided to these named executive officers never took effect because Act 44 was repealed by Act 72 before any of these officers were either elected or appointed. Because no executive officers — including the ones specifically identified in Act 44 — had their compensation actually increased by Act 44, by definition, none saw their salaries decreased when Act 72 was adopted. For this separate and independent reason, the Judges argue, the Section 16(a) “all salaried officers” exception does not apply, and Act 72 must be deemed unconstitutional insofar as it reduced judicial compensation.
Third, the Judges argue that the exception is inapplicable because the Act 72 salary reduction does not apply “generally.” This is so, the Judges note, because the salary reductions in Act 72 do not apply evenly — i.e., by the same amount or proportion — to the various officers affected, as some officers’ salaries are reduced by one amount, others by a different amount, etc. The Judges dismiss appellees’ argument that Act 72 merely reduces salaries by the same amount that they were increased by Act 44 as unavailing, reiterating that the constitutional provision addresses reductions alone and it makes clear that, once salaries have been established at a certain amount, a law reducing those salaries does not apply “generally” unless it reduces them evenly across-the-board, either directly or proportionately.
Turning to the second issue in this Court’s briefing order, the Judges argue that the General Assembly’s policy declarations contained in Sections 1(b) and (c) of Act 72 may reflect a legislative awareness of the obvious Section 16(a) dilemma, but the declarations themselves do not dissipate the direct and patently unconstitutional effect that the Act has on reducing judicial compensation. Regarding Section l(b)’s declaration that Act 72 “was not intended to diminish or infringe on, or *567 otherwise interfere with, the independence of the judicial system,” the Judges assert that this is not the relevant constitutional test. To the contrary, the Judges note, the test is specifically set forth in Section 16(a) itself, and it looks to whether judicial compensation has been diminished by a law that does not apply generally to “all salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” That test does not include an exception for instances where the reduction in judicial compensation ordered by the General Assembly was accompanied by a legislative declaration that it did not intend the reduction to interfere with the independence of the Judiciary; and this Court has never held that a statute diminishing judicial compensation survives constitutional scrutiny where the General Assembly claims that it did not thereby intend to interfere with the independence of the Judiciary. See, e.g., Catania v. Commonwealth, State Employees’ Ret. Bd., 498 Pa. 684 , 450 A.2d 1342 (1982) (plurality opinion).
As for the General Assembly’s policy declaration in Section 1(c) of Act 72, which purports to define the constitutional term “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” solely for purposes of this Act and rolling back compensation levels, the Judges argue that this declaration likewise does not bind the Court. In the Judges’ view, the Constitution does not afford the General Assembly the authority to attempt to define away a violation of Section 16(a). To grant the General Assembly the ability to do so, the Judges contend, would eliminate the Constitution’s authority to impose limitations or prohibitions on the legislative branch, in clear contravention of fundamental separation of powers principles. Further, the Judges note that the General Assembly’s declaration as to which officers constitute the “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” is inconsistent with: prior decisions of this Court interpreting the term “officer,” see, e.g., Werner, supra; the Constitution’s considerable guidance in determining who is an “officer,” see, e.g., Pa. Const, art. IV, § 1, art. VT, § 1; and the General Assembly’s own prior positions on this issue — most tellingly, the revived Act 39 itself, the title of which plainly acknowledged that it did not establish new salaries for every Com *568 monwealth officer, as it employed the terms “certain public officials” and “certain other State officers.” Thus, the Judges argue, this Court is not bound by the General Assembly’s attempted pre-emptive definition.
The amicus briefs filed by the Pennsylvania Bar Association and the Philadelphia Bar Association emphasize, as the Judges do, that Act 72 violates Section 16(a) because it does not apply to “all salaried officers of the Commonwealth” as that phrase was intended, and because many executive branch officers specifically mentioned in Act 44 itself did not have their existing salaries at all diminished by Act 72. The amici also assert that the General. Assembly’s declarations in Sections 1(b) and (c) of Act 72 fail to save the Act from its patently unconstitutional effect upon judicial salaries. Indeed, the Philadelphia Bar' Association argues that the General Assembly, in seeking to bind the courts to a one-time definition of the term “salaried officers of the Commonwealth,” a definition which was obviously designed only in the. hope of insulating Act 72 against a constitutional challenge, sought to usurp the function of the Judiciary as the ultimate interpreter of the Constitution. In the view of the Philadelphia Bar Association, this legislative declaration of policy “highlightfs] the danger of an overreaching legislature against which the Compensation Clause was designed to protect.” Philadelphia Bar Association’s Brief at 9.
The Pennsylvania Bar Association adds that the very occasion for the enactment of Act 72 negates any suggestion in its declaration of policy, or in appellees’ arguments, that the Act passes constitutional muster. The Pennsylvania Bar Association posits that the sole reason the General Assembly passed Act 72 was in response to the public scorn and discontent which followed upon adoption of Act 44. However, the Pennsylvania Bar Association contends, that political reason for rolling back compensation is the very type of retributive action that Section 16(a) expressly prohibits when judicial compensation is involved. The Pennsylvania Bar Association perceptively notes that, “the General Assembly [is] free to reduce [its] own compensation in response to the electorate’s percep *569 tion of impolitic legislative action, but [it] may not reduce judicial remuneration by reason of" public criticism, or as a reaction to public dissatisfaction with their legislative action.” Pennsylvania Bar Association Brief at 7. In the view of the Pennsylvania Bar Association, the General Assembly’s misuse of its control over appropriations, by virtue of Act 72’s repeal of Act 44, represents a direct encroachment on the integrity and independence of the Judiciary as a co-equal branch of government.
C. Arguments in Support of Act 72’s Constitutionality
All appellees maintain that Act 72’s repeal of Act 44’s adoption of the formula governing judicial compensation did not violate Article V, Section 16(a). In addition, appellees are in basic agreement that Section 1(b) of Act 72 merely reflects the General Assembly’s express intention not to contravene Section 16(a)’s primary purpose of preserving the independence of the Judiciary; and that the definition of “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” found in Section 1(c) is proper and controlling. Each appellee, however, offers slightly divergent reasons in support of these general arguments.
Attorney General Corbett contends that the Judges have not overcome the strong presumption of constitutionality that is accorded legislative enactments. The Attorney General does not dispute that Act 72 reduced judicial compensation, but, he argues, it did so in a fashion that comported with the exception delineated in Section 16(a). Addressing the exception, the Attorney General argues that neither the Constitution, nor the cases cited by the Judges for the definition of “officer” or “public officer,” specifically define “salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” Therefore, the Attorney General posits, the General Assembly properly filled that void and adopted what he views as a rational and legitimate definition of that constitutional term for purposes of Act 72. The Attorney General also contends that even if other Commonwealth employees not explicitly mentioned by either Act 44 or Act 72 may be considered “salaried officers of the Commonwealth,” there still is no violation of Section 16(a) because Act *570 72 applies generally, if only in the sense that it uniformly repeals all the salary increases that resulted from the Act 44 formulas.
Treasurer Casey’s primary argument focuses on Act 44, rather than Act 72. The Treasurer argues that Act 44 was unconstitutional in its entirety at its inception; the salary increases it provided therefore were unlawful ab initio; and Act 72 cannot be deemed to have impermissibly reduced judicial compensation where that compensation was never “legally” increased. 21 Alternatively, Treasurer Casey argues that even if Act 44 was constitutionally enacted, Act 72 did not violate Section 16(a) because the repeal applies to all of the officers who possess the characteristics attributed to “public officers” as found in this Court’s jurisprudence interpreting that term. See, e.g., Richie, supra. Moreover, the Treasurer maintains that Act 72 is egalitarian and applies generally as each affected officer’s salary is reduced by the very same amount as it was increased by operation of the Act 44 formulas. Concerning the policy declarations, the Treasurer argues that Sections 1(b) and (c) of Act 72 do not establish the constitutionality of Act 72; rather, these Sections merely acknowledge that the General Assembly understood its constitutional limitations under Section 16(a).
In his Herron brief, Speaker Perzel initially and briefly indicates his agreement with Treasurer Casey that, if Act 44 were deemed to be unconstitutional, it would be void ab initio and, thus, Act 72 would have to be deemed to have had no unconstitutional effect upon judicial compensation. Unlike the Treasurer, however, the Speaker insists that Act 44 in fact was constitutional and, therefore, the Judges’ challenge to Act 72 must be resolved. The Speaker asserts that the values that the Section 16(a) prohibition protects are: (1) preventing the retributive act of singling out judicial compensation for reduction; and (2) preserving the Judiciary as a coequal branch of government. The Speaker asserts that neither of *571 these two values must be deemed to have been implicated by Act 72’s general repeal of all salary increases established by Act 44, because the General Assembly’s policy declaration in Section 1(b) said as much. The Speaker further maintains that the General Assembly’s definition of “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” in Section 1(c) is proper because, “where a position or officership is constitutionally-created but not constitutionally-defined, the General Assembly has historically defined that constitutional provision by statute.” Speaker Perzel’s Brief at 37. For example, the Speaker asserts, the General Assembly has previously defined the duties of the constitutional offices of State Treasurer and Auditor General. See Pa. Const, art. IV, § 1; Commonwealth ex rel. Woodruff v. Lewis, 282 Pa. 306 , 127 A. 828, 829 (1925) (noting that although the offices of State Treasurer and Auditor General are named in the Pennsylvania Constitution, their duties were defined by the Legislature).
Speaker Perzel also argues that the scope of the Judges’ challenge is overbroad. He contends that, even if mid-term compensation increases for the Judiciary may not be reduced under Section 16(a), Act 72 was constitutional to the extent it operated to eliminate future judicial salary increases which have not yet “vested.” Thus, the Speaker maintains, if this Court were to find Act 72 unconstitutional as to judicial salaries, we may only reinstate the higher salaries initially provided by Act 44 and not those provisions in Act 44 which might lead to future increases in judicial compensation. Cf. Will, 449 U.S. at 229 , 101 S.Ct. at 487 (“[A] salary increase ‘vests’ for purposes of the [Federal] Compensation Clause only when it takes effect as part of the compensation due and payable to Article III judges.”).
In addition, the Speaker asserts that, even if Act 72 were deemed unconstitutional to the extent it reduced the compensation judges were receiving in November 2005, the Judiciary should be deemed entitled to that Act 44 salary only until their current terms of office expire, at which point Act 72 would lawfully take effect and operate to reduce new-term judicial compensation to pre-Act 44 levels. Thus, in the Speaker’s view, any new judge who began a term of office after Novem *572 ber 2005, or any sitting judge retained for a new term of office after November 2005, lawfully would be subject to the Act 72 repeal and would receive only the compensation contemplated by Act 39.
We note that this particular argument was not suggested in this Court’s briefing order. But, in any event, we will summarily reject it. For one thing, Section 16(a) speaks of “terms” of office. Moreover, the Speaker’s argument would require this Court to re-write Act 44 to include the distinction he would draw, even though the legislation itself does not so provide. This we decline to do. Since the legislation does not include the Speaker’s distinction, we do not pass upon the Speaker’s rather remarkable assertion that Section 16(a) permits the General Assembly to enact legislation that would directly reduce judicial compensation, so long as the reduction is made effective at the beginning of new elective terms of office.
Senator Jubelirer, as President pro tempore of the Senate, initially argues that Act 72 did not in fact reduce the compensation of any judge during his or her term of office. 22 The Senator notes that, on January 1, July 6, November 17, and December 31, 2005, the annual salaries for judges were the same, and that none of the judges challenging Act 72 assumed office between July 7, 2005 and November 16, 2005.
In the alternative, Senator Jubelirer argues that, assuming that Act 72 reduced judicial compensation, the reduction does not violate Section 16(a) for several reasons. First, the Senator maintains that the Act did not single out the Judiciary exclusively for salary diminution, but rather treated all officials whose salary was affected by the Act 44 formulas the same. Second, the Senator argues that the Judges’ contention that the exception in Section 16(a) requires that the compensation of every “salaried officer of the Commonwealth” be reduced at the same time is in direct conflict with Article III, Section 27 of the Pennsylvania Constitution, which prohibits the reduction of the salary of a public officer after his election *573 or appointment. 23 The Senator maintains that, under the Judges’ interpretation, the limited exception provided in Section 16(a) could never be exercised without conflicting with Article III, Section 27. Third, the Senator disputes the Judges’ contention that case law provides a clear definition of “officer” or “public officer” which can be utilized to define “salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” In the Senator’s view, the definitions of “officer” or “public officer” in the cases relied upon by the Judges varied widely, depending upon the specific constitutional provision at issue.
Concerning the policy declarations provided in Act 72, Senator Jubelirer contends that Section 1(b) merely reflects that the intention of the General Assembly in enacting Act 72 was not to violate Section 16(a). As for the definition of “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” found in Section 1(c), the Senator maintains that such a definition was necessary because of the absence of any decision by this Court interpreting that phrase, and the previously stated need not to create a conflict with Article III, Section 27. The Senator notes that it is not uncommon for the executive or legislative branch to interpret constitutional provisions in exercising their constitutional duties, albeit he concedes that it is ultimately the responsibility of the Judiciary to determine the proper interpretation. The Senator further argues that the General Assembly’s Act 72-specific definition of “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” is reasonable and provides certainty and predictability as it encompasses all members of the Legislature and Judiciary, and identifies some of the highest executive officers as the class to which any diminution of compensation must be applied in order to satisfy Section 16(a).
D. Analysis
- 1 -
When faced with any constitutional challenge to legislation, we proceed to our task by presuming constitution *574 ality in part because there exists a judicial presumption that our sister branches take seriously their constitutional oaths. See 1 Pa.C.S. § 1922(3) (“In ascertaining the intention of the General Assembly in the enactment of a statute the ... presumption [is] [t]hat the General Assembly does not intend to violate the Constitution of the United States or of this Commonwealth.”); Pennsylvanians Against Gambling Expansion Fund, Inc. v. Commonwealth, 583 Pa. 275 , 877 A.2d 383, 393 (2005) (hereinafter, “PAGE”). Indeed, a legislative enactment will not be deemed unconstitutional unless it clearly, palpably, and plainly violates the Constitution. PAGE, 877 A.2d at 393 . “Any doubts are to be resolved in favor of a finding of constitutionality.” Payne v. Dept. of Corrections, 582 Pa. 375 , 871 A.2d 795, 800 (2005). Accordingly, a party challenging the constitutionality of a statute bears a very heavy burden of persuasion. See Commonwealth v. Barud, 545 Pa. 297 , 681 A.2d 162, 165 (1996). In cases where this Court is asked to construe provisions of the Pennsylvania Constitution, “the fundamental rule of construction which guides [the Court] is that the Constitution’s language controls and must be interpreted in its popular sense, as understood by the people when they voted on its adoption.” Ieropoli v. AC&S Corp., 577 Pa. 138 , 842 A.2d 919, 925 (2004). Our ultimate touchstone is the actual language of the Constitution itself. See Firing, 353 A.2d at 835-36 .
For purposes of deciding the Judges’ challenge to Act 72, we will assume that Act 44 was constitutionally enacted; we will then separately consider the challenges to Act 44, and the consequences those challenges would have for the Judges’ appeals, in our discussion of Stilp, infra. Assuming, then, that the compensation provisions in Act 44 were constitutional, the controlling questions are: (1) whether Act 72 acted to diminish judicial compensation; and (2), if it did, whether the reduction was constitutional in light of Article V, Section 16(a). For the reasons that follow, we hold that Act 72 did diminish judicial compensation; and that the circumstances do not implicate the exception to the constitutional prohibition on *575 such action. Act 72 is clearly, palpably, and plainly unconstitutional to the extent that it diminishes judicial compensation.
- 2 -
The question of whether Act 72 operates to diminish judicial compensation need not detain us long. Act 44 adopted a formula that operated to directly increase judicial salaries beginning on July 7, 2005. Approximately four months later, with the enactment of Act 72 on November 16, 2005, the General Assembly reduced those salaries during the judges’ terms of office. Since that date, judicial salaries have been restored to their pre-Act 44 levels, ie., to the level set forth in Act 39. Indeed, most appellees do not dispute that Act 72 reduced judicial compensation. Only Senator Jubelirer suggests that Act 72 did not diminish the compensation of any judge during his or her term of office, by arguing that on January 1, July 6, November 17, and December 31, 2005, the annual salaries for judges were the same, and that none of the Judges challenging Act 72 assumed office between July 7 and November 16, 2005. This argument does violence to the plain meaning of the word “during” in Section 16(a). The increased compensation paid to the Judiciary from July through November 2005 occurred during their terms of office, and that compensation was reduced during their terms of office. Moreover, if the Senator’s argument were plausible, Act 72’s “policy” declarations, which refer specifically to Article V, Section 16(a), are inexplicable. Thus, we hold that Act 72 reduced judicial compensation during judges’ terms of office.
- 3 -
a. Turning to the more vigorously contested question of whether the exception to Section 16(a) is applicable, we begin with the history and experience of the constitutional protection for judicial compensation. This provision was not new to the 1968 version of the Pennsylvania Constitution. Indeed, similar provisions prohibiting the reduction of judicial compensation were also included in the Pennsylvania Constitutions of 1776, 1790, 1834, and 1870. What was new to the 1968 *576 Constitution was the limited exception to this express prohibition. That exception was proposed by the Pennsylvania Bar Association during the 1967-1968 Constitutional Convention, which suggested allowing for the prospect of reducing judges’ salaries, along with the salaries of “all salaried officers of the Commonwealth,” if dire financial circumstances arose. See Preparatory Committee’s Reference Manual No. 5, The Judiciary at 67. '
Article V, Section 16(a)’s prohibition against the reduction of judges’ compensation during their terms of office is modeled after Article III, Section 1 of the Federal Constitution, familiarly known as the Compensation Clause, which provides:
The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Behavior, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Compensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office.
U.S. Const, art. Ill, § 1. In reviewing the Compensation Clause, the United States Supreme Court has noted that it is rooted in the historic Anglo-American tradition of an independent Judiciary. See Will, 449 U.S. at 217 , 101 S.Ct. at 482 . “A Judiciary free from control by the Executive and the Legislature is essential if there is a right to have claims decided by judges who are free from potential domination by other branches of government.” Id. at 217-18 , 101 S.Ct. at 482 . Alexander Hamilton wrote in The Federalist No. 79 of the primacy of maintaining judicial independence and protecting judicial compensation to achieve that salutary end:
Next to permanency in office, nothing can contribute more to the independence of the judges than a fixed provision for their support.... In the general course of human nature, a power over a man’s subsistence amounts to a power over his will. And we can never hope to see realized in practice the complete separation of the judicial from the legislative power, in any system which leaves the former dependent for pecuniary resource on the occasional grants of the latter.
*577 The Federalist No. 79, at 472 (Alexander Hamilton) (Clinton Rossiter ed., 1961).
Article V, Section 16(a)’s protection of judicial compensation is but a part of a more global protection of the fundamental, coequal role of the Judiciary, as provided by the doctrine of separation of powers. The government of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, like the federal government, is divided into three equal branches, the legislative, see Pa. Const, art. II, § 1 (“The legislative power of this Commonwealth shall be vested in a General Assembly .... ”); the executive, see Pa. Const. art. IV, § 2 (“The supreme executive power shall be vested in the Governor .... ”); and the judicial, see Pa. Const, art. V, § 1 (“The judicial power of the Commonwealth shall be vested in a unified judicial system.... ”). As noted by the United States Supreme Court:
[The doctrine of separation of powers] is not merely a matter of convenience or of governmental mechanism. Its object is basic and vital ... namely, to preclude a commingling of these essentially different powers of government in the same hands.
O’Donoghue v. United States, 289 U.S. 516 , 530, 53 S.Ct. 740, 743 , 77 L.Ed. 1356 (1933).
Recently, the Supreme Court of Illinois addressed the vulnerability of the Judiciary, and the concomitant importance of the doctrine of separation of powers. See Jorgensen v. Blagojevich, 211 Ill.2d 286 , 285 Ill.Dec. 165 , 811 N.E.2d 652 (2004). The dispute in Jorgensen centered on the suspension of the Illinois Judiciary’s cost-of-living adjustments (“COLAs”) for the 2003 and 2004 fiscal years by the Illinois General Assembly and the Governor. Under Illinois law, judicial salaries, along with the salaries for other government officials, were determined by a Compensation Review Board (“Board”), which in turn was created by a Compensation Review Act. The Board was required to undertake periodic reevaluations of officials’ salaries, adjust them based on a variety of factors, and then submit a report to the Illinois General Assembly. After the Board filed its report, the General Assembly was *578 permitted to disapprove of it in whole or reduce it proportionately.
In 1990, the Board issued a report setting specific salaries for each of the offices and positions covered under the Compensation Review Act, and also determined that the salaries were to include automatic annual COLAs. These COLAs were deemed a component of salary fully vested if and when the Board’s report became law. The 1990 report was submitted to the General Assembly pursuant to the Compensation Review Act. The General Assembly then adopted a resolution that proportionally reduced the amount of compensation set by the Board for the various offices, but it expressly approved the portions of the Board’s report establishing automatic annual COLAs for the affected offices, including the Illinois Judiciary.
Thereafter, however, in 2002, the Illinois General Assembly suspended the COLAs for the state’s 2003 fiscal year. In light of this legislative action, the Illinois Judiciary was not paid the COLA component of their salaries for the 2003 fiscal year. For the 2004 fiscal year, however, the General Assembly targeted funds, in an appropriation bill which was passed in the spring of 2003, to implement the COLAs for the Judiciary. The portion of the bill appropriating funds for the judicial COLAs, however, was removed via a reduction veto signed by the Governor of Illinois.
Two Illinois trial court judges then filed a class action lawsuit on behalf of all Illinois judges. The complaint sought a declaration that the Governor’s veto of the 2004 fiscal year COLA was unconstitutional, and that the act passed by the General Assembly suspending the 2003 fiscal year COLA violated a provision of the Illinois Constitution which, like its Pennsylvania and Federal counterparts, prohibited the reduction of judges’ salaries during their terms of office. The Illinois Supreme Court held that the actions by the coordinate branches of government violated the Illinois Constitution. In so holding, the court determined that the COLAs for the 2003 and 2004 fiscal years had been fully vested as a component of *579 judicial salaries since the 1990 report issued by the Compensation Review Board.
In undertaking its analysis, the Jorgensen court addressed the importance of the separation of powers in detail. The court’s analysis is cogent, and is relevant to the matters at issue, so it bears acknowledgement at length:
Avoiding the concentration of governmental powers in the same person or political body was seen by the founding fathers as essential to freedom and liberty. Preventing the excessive concentration of authority by one branch is why the system of mutual checks and balances by and among the thyee branches of government was incorporated into the structure of our government. 3 C. Antieau, Modern Constitutional Law 376-77 (2d ed. 1997). For checks and balances to work properly in protecting individual liberty, each of the three branches of government must be kept free from the control or coercive influence of the other branches. Insuring the independence of the respective branches of government is the real thrust of the separation of powers doctrine.
While the three branches of government enjoy equal status under the constitution, their ability to withstand incursions from their coordinate branches differs significantly. The judicial branch is the most vulnerable. It has no treasury. It possesses no power to impose or collect taxes. It commands no militia. To sustain itself financially and to implement its decisions, it is dependent on the legislative and executive branches.
This presents a profound problem. As arbiters of the law and guardians of individual liberties, members of the judiciary often find themselves at odds with these other branches of government. In fulfilling their duties, judges must frequently challenge the actions of the very governmental bodies who provide the financial and other resources they need to operate. Such challenges are unavoidable. They are an inherent part of the adjudicatory process. That their constitutional duty requires this of judges does not mean their decisions will be well received by the other branches of *580 government. Retribution against the courts for unpopular decisions is an ongoing threat.
The vulnerability of the judicial branch is exacerbated because, unlike the executive and legislative branches, the judiciary has no true electoral constituency. Although judges in Illinois are elected, they do not represent the voters in the same way executive officers or legislators do. Citizens in a community typically refer to “their alderman,” “their representative,” “their senator,” or “their mayor,” but no member of the public can rightly claim a particular member of the judiciary as “their judge.” Lacking an electoral constituency, judges command no popular' allegiance. That, in turn, renders them easy targets for those who would condemn unpopular judicial rulings.
In the Federalist, No. 78, Alexander Hamilton touched on some of these issues. He wrote:
“The executive not only dispenses the honors, but holds the sword of the community. The Legislature not only commands the purse, but prescribes the rules by which the duties and rights of every citizen are to be regulated. The judiciary, on the contrary, has no influence over either the sword or the purse; no direction either of the strength or of the wealth of the society; and can take no active resolution whatever. It may truly be said to have neither force nor will, but merely judgment. This simple view of the. matter suggests several important consequences. It proves incontestably that the judiciary is beyond comparison the weakest of the three departments of power; that it can never attack with success either of the other two; and that all possible care is requisite to enable it to defend itself against their attacks.”
Id. at 660-61 (citation omitted).
In rendering its decision, the Jorgensen court noted its sensitivity to the fact that “substantial budgetary challenges currently confront the Governor and the General Assembly,” and that, despite their best efforts, budget shortfalls persisted. Id. at 669. The court stressed that it did “not mean to dimmish the seriousness of the situation or appear insensitive *581 to the difficulties faced by our coordinate branches of government.” Id. Those factors, however, could not deter the court from enforcing a plain constitutional restriction which was so vital to the separation of powers:
Those difficulties are undeniable, and we are highly cognizant of the need for austerity and restraint in our spending. As administrators of the judiciary, we make every effort to economize whenever and however we can. One thing we cannot do, however, is ignore the Constitution of Illinois.
This court did not set the salaries judges receive, nor did we make COLAs a component of those salaries. The salaries, including their COLA component, were provided by law. in the manner described earlier in this opinion. Now that those salaries have been implemented, the constitution commands that they be paid. No principle of law permits us to suspend constitutional requirements for economic reasons, no matter how compelling those reasons may seem.
Id. at 669-670. Accordingly, the Jorgensen court ordered the Illinois Comptroller, upon receipt of vouchers prepared by the Administrative Office of the Illinois Courts, to issue warrants drawn on the state treasury to pay the Illinois Judiciary the COLAs which had vested for the 2003 and 2004 fiscal years.
As the Jorgensen court recognized, the vulnerability of the judicial branch cannot be allowed to impair its duty and power to decide cases and effectuate its judgment. Thus, for example, this Court has previously addressed the primacy of the Judiciary’s power to compel the executive and legislative branches to furnish resources essential to the operation of the courts.
It is a basic precept of our Constitutional form of Republican Government that the Judiciary is an independent and co-equal Branch of Government, along with the Executive and the Legislative Branches....
Because of the basic functions and inherent powers of the three co-equal Branches of Government, the co-equal independent Judiciary must possess rights and powers co-equal *582 with its functions and duties, including the right and power to protect itself against any impairment thereof....
Expressed in other words, the Judiciary must possess the inherent power to determine and compel payment of those sums of money which are reasonable and necessary to carry out its mandated responsibilities, and its powers and duties to administer Justice, if it is to be in reality a co-equal, independent Branch of our Government. This principle has long been recognized, not only in this Commonwealth but also throughout our Nation....
The very genius of our tripartite Government is based upon the proper exercise of their respective powers together with harmonious cooperation between the three independent Branches. However, if this cooperation breaks down, the Judiciary must exercise its inherent power to preserve the efficient and expeditious administration of Justice and protect it from being impaired or destroyed....
Commonwealth ex rel. Carroll v. Tate, 442 Pa. 45 , 274 A.2d 193, 196-97 (1971) (citations and footnote omitted).
We do not reproduce these settled precepts as mere platitudes. Our exploration of the fundamental reasons underlying the constitutional protection against diminishing judicial compensation is essential to understanding why it is that the legislative reasoning for reducing judicial compensation is generally irrelevant to the constitutional inquiry, unless the Section 16(a) exception applies. The deference that this Court typically applies to legislative enactments is diminished when the issue involves judicial branch compensation, because of the very same constitutional edict.
Thus, even if the effect of the reduction in judicial compensation resulting from Act 72 appeared to be warranted in the good faith judgment of the Legislature, the legislative motivation is not of primary importance. Rather, “[w]hat is at stake is the very independence of the judiciary and the preservation of separation of powers.” Jorgensen, 285 Ill.Dec. 165 , 811 N.E.2d at 668 . If the General Assembly possessed the authority to reduce judicial compensation in response to a politi *583 cal backlash against the content or manner of adoption of a legislative provision, and in violation of Article V, Section 16(a), there would be no barrier preventing it from pursuing other means of attacking the independence of the Judiciary, and the concern expressed by this Court in Tate concerning the destruction of the independent Judiciary could very well come to fruition.
This Court has previously discussed Article Y, Section 16(a), but not in terms of the specific issues posed in the matters sub judice. In Firing, 466 Pa. 560 , 353 A.2d 833 , this Court addressed the issue of whether the State Court Administrator and State Treasurer wrongfully diminished the salary of a justice of the peace (now magisterial district judge) during his term of office in violation of Section 16(a). The justice of the peace was mandatorily retired upon his seventieth birthday, pursuant to Article V, Section 16(b), with three years remaining on his six-year term of office. The justice of the peace filed a petition for review in the nature of mandamus in the Commonwealth Court alleging that the reduction of his salary resulting from his retirement violated Section 16(a). On appeal, this Court held that the term of the justice of the peace expired upon his retirement at age seventy, and thus, he was not entitled to his salary, in retirement, for the balance of his elected term. In support of this holding, we noted the following concerning Section 16(a):
[T]he well-established purpose of the prohibition against diminishing the compensation of the judiciary during their terms of office, contained in Section 16(a) ... is to maintain the independence of the judiciary from encroachment by the other branches of government.
Id. at 837.
This Court next addressed Section 16(a) in Flack v. Barbieri, 488 Pa. 46 , 410 A.2d 1216 (1980). In Flack , we rejected a Section 16(a) challenge from a district justice of the peace who alleged that his compensation was unconstitutionally diminished by the correction of a clerical error concerning new salaries based on a recertification of the population of all magisterial districts using the 1970 United States census. This Court *584 determined that no diminution of salary occurred because an administrative oversight or clerical error resulted in the justice of the peace receiving a salary higher than that to which he was entitled. We then added that the purpose of Section 16(a) is to preserve the Judiciary’s independence, and that this purpose was not impeded in this case. See id. at 1219.
. Numerous other decisions by this Court have addressed Section 16(a) in the context of judges’ pension benefits, and have held that pension benefits are part of the adequate compensation mandated by Section 16(a), which the General Assembly may not arbitrarily reduce. See, e.g., Klein v. Commonwealth, State Employees’ Ret. System, 521 Pa. 330 , 555 A.2d 1216 (1989) (plurality opinion); Goodheart v. Casey, 521 Pa. 316 , 555 A.2d 1210 (1989) (plurality opinion); Catania, 498 Pa. 684 , 450 A.2d 1342 ; McKenna v. State Employees’ Ret. Bd., 495 Pa. 324 , 433 A.2d 871 (1981) (plurality opinion); Wright v. Retirement Bd. of Allegheny County, 390 Pa. 75 , 134 A.2d 231 (1957).
b. Given that our cases have recognized the purpose of the protective provision, it is foreseeable that Act 72 would be defended by appellees on grounds of its supposedly benign purpose. But, merely because the General Assembly salutarily claimed it did not intend to interfere with the independence of the Judiciary, that does not mean that the legislation must be deemed constitutional. As correctly noted by the Judges, the constitutional test set forth in Section 16(a) is not whether the General Assembly intended to interfere with the independence of the Judiciary, but rather the simpler, straightforward question of whether judicial compensation was diminished by a law that does not apply generally to “all salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” Because the policy declaration announced by the General Assembly in Section 1(b) of Act 72 is not probative of the question posed by the plain language of Section 16(a), it cannot control our inquiry. Indeed, for this Court to accept the notion that legislative pronouncements of benign intent can control a constitutional inquiry concerning diminishing judicial compensation would be tantamount to *585 ceding our constitutional duty, and our independence, to the legislative branch.
c. The primary argument forwarded by the Judges as to why Act 72 does not fit within the single exception provided in Section 16(a) is that the Act did not diminish the compensation of all “salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” We agree. As previously noted, there is no case law interpreting or defining this phrase. However, similar terms, such as “officer” and “public officer,” which are found in other constitutional provisions have been addressed in numerous appellate court decisions in this Commonwealth. See Werner, 681 A.2d at 1337 (determining that Special Investigator III in Inspector General’s Office was not an “officer” under Article VI, Section 7 of Pennsylvania Constitution, and explaining that “[a] person will be deemed a public officer if the person is appointed or elected to perform duties of a grave and important character, and which involve some of the functions of government, for a definite term.”); Vega, 147 A.2d at 623 (concluding that police chief was not a “public officer” but merely a “public employee” under a statute outlining the procedure for the removal of borough police officers, and noting that “the test to be applied in determining a public officer is ... [whether] the officer is chosen by the electorate, or appointed, for a definite and certain tenure in the manner provided by law to an office whose duties are of a grave and important character, involving some of the functions of government, and are to be exercised for the benefit of the public for a fixed compensation paid out of the public treasury ....”) (quoting Alworth, 85 Pa.Super. at 352 ); Commonwealth ex rel. Foreman v. Hampson, 393 Pa. 467 , 143 A.2d 369 , 372-73 (1958) (determining that county solicitor was not a “county officer” under Article XIV, Section 1 of the Pennsylvania Constitution pursuant to the tests announced in Alworth and Richie); Commonwealth ex rel. Goshorn v. Moore, 266 Pa. 100 , 109 A. 611, 612 (1920) (per curiam; adopting opinion of Superior Court) (finding that registration commissioners were “public officers” within the meaning of Article III, Section 13 of the Pennsylvania Constitution, and citing Richie for the *586 following factors for determining a “public officer”: “the duties of the officer are to be exercised for the benefit of the public for a stipulated compensation paid by the public”; “the term is definite and the tenure certain”; and “the powers, duties, and emoluments become vested in a successor when the office becomes vacant.”); Commonwealth ex rel. Wolfe v. Moffitt, 238 Pa. 255 , 86 A. 75 (1913) (concluding that directors of the poor for Washington County were “public officers” under Article III, Section 13 of the Pennsylvania Constitution, and noting that “wherever an officer exercises important duties and has delegated to him some of the functions of government, and his office is for a fixed term, and the power, duties, and emoluments become vested in a successor when the office becomes vacant, such official may properly be called a public officer.”); Richie, 74 A. at 431 (determining that term “public officer” in Article III, Section 13 of the Pennsylvania Constitution encompassed appointed real estate assessor; factors to be examined are “the nature of the service to be performed by the incumbent,” the “duties imposed upon him,” whether “those duties are of a grave and important character, involving in the proper performance of some of the functions of government,” and “a fixed term.”); Houseman v. Commonwealth ex rel. Tener, 100 Pa. 222 (1882) (finding that a receiver of delinquent taxes was a “public officer” under Article VI, Section 4 of the Pennsylvania Constitution); Alworth, 85 Pa.Super. at 352 (determining the legal counsel for the Board of Registration Commissioners for the City of Scranton was not a “public officer” within the meaning of Article III, Section 13 of the Pennsylvania Constitution, and stating the following test: “If the officer is chosen by the electorate, or appointed, for a definite and certain tenure in the manner provided by law to an office whose duties are of a grave and important character, involving some of the functions of government, and are to be exercised for the benefit of the public for a fixed compensation paid out of the public treasury, it is safe to say that the incumbent is a public officer....”).
For purposes of decision here, it is not necessary to pronounce a precise or comprehensive definition for the term *587 “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” as provided in Section 16(a). What can be distilled from the cases above is that certain factors are important in determining whether a person can be said to be an “officer” or “public officer,” including: (1) whether the person is appointed or elected to the position; (2) whether the person performs duties of a grave and important character; (3) whether the duties performed involve some of the functions of government; (4) whether the duties performed are for the benefit of the public; (5) whether the person receives a fixed salary paid out of the public treasury; (6) whether the person’s term is definite or fixed; and (7) whether the powers, duties, and emoluments become vested in a successor when the office becomes vacant. An evaluation of the above listed factors, as applied to the numerous officers cited by the Judges, leads to the unavoidable conclusion that Act 72 did not diminish the pay of “all salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” For example, the executive officers (including cabinet members) named by the Judges are obviously salaried public officers. Therefore, Act 72’s reduction of judicial compensation does not fit within the single exception provided in Article V, Section 16(a); thus, Act 72 is unconstitutional to the extent it decreased judicial compensation. 24
Act 72 does not qualify for the Section 16(a) “all salaried officers” exception for a second, independent reason. As noted by the Judges, Act 72 did not diminish the current salaries of the executive officers whose salary structure was specifically addressed in Act 44. As previously noted, the elected executive officers specifically identified and affected by Act 44 include the Governor, the Lieutenant Governor, the State Treasurer, the Auditor General, and the Attorney General. Act 44, § 3 (amending 71 Pa.C.S. §§ 1102-03). The appointed Cabinet members specifically identified and affected by Act 44 were the Adjutant General, the Secretary of Aging, *588 the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Banking, the Secretary of the Commonwealth, the Secretary of Community and Economic Development, the Secretary of Conservation and Natural Resources, the Secretary of Correction, the Secretary of Education, the Secretary of Environmental Protection, the Secretary of General Services, the Secretary of Health, the Insurance Commissioner of the Commonwealth, the Secretary of Labor and Industry, the Secretary of Public Welfare, the Secretary of Revenue, the Pennsylvania State Police Commissioner, and the Secretary of Transportation. Id. (amending 71 Pa.C.S. § 1102(c)).
The salary increases provided for the named elected executive officers, pursuant to Act 44’s formulas, were applicable only to individuals elected to these offices after the July 7, 2005 effective date of the Act, see Act 44, § 4(4); correspondingly, the salary increases applicable to the named Cabinet officers, under the Act 44 formulas, were not available to individuals appointed to these offices until after December 31, 2006, see Act 44, § 4(3). Thus, the formula-based salary increases provided to these named executive officers, unlike the increases in compensation provided to the Judiciary and the Legislature (through the guise of unvouchered expenses), never became effective because Act 72 repealed Act 44 before any of these executive officers were either elected or appointed. Therefore, because none of the named executive officers, and in fact no executive officers at all, had their salaries increased by Act 44, none had their salaries decreased by Act 72. Accordingly, Section 16(a)’s exception does not apply, and Act 72’s reduction of judicial compensation cannot withstand constitutional scrutiny for this independent reason. 25
*589 We find further support for our conclusion by considering the purpose of the limited exception provided in Section 16(a). As previously noted, the exception was intended as a failsafe during a state-wide economic crisis, thus aiding the Commonwealth in maintaining solvency during such a crisis. As noted by the Judges, the period between July and November 2005 was not marred by economic disruption. In fact, Act 72 was passed in an effort to assuage lingering public outrage over certain provisions of Act 44, which seemed to be expressed when the electorate narrowly rejected former Justice Nigro’s bid for retention.
Turning to the second issue, concerning the impact of the General Assembly’s policy declarations in Sections 1(b) and (c) of Act 72, we agree with the Judges that those declarations cannot alter the constitutional analysis we have engaged in above. As we have previously noted, the General Assembly’s declaration in Section 1(b) is contrary to the plain language of Article V, Section 16(a). The test set forth in the constitutional provision is not whether the General Assembly intended to interfere with the independence of the Judiciary, but rather is whether judicial compensation was reduced by a law that does not apply generally to “all salaried officers of the Commonwealth.” The stated intention of the General Assembly does not and cannot supplant the mandate of the constitutional provision.
Turning to Section l(c)’s definition of “salaried officers of the Commonwealth,” Senator Jubelirer is correct that it is not uncommon for the Legislature or Executive to interpret constitutional provisions during the exercise of their respective constitutional duties. However, as the Senator *590 recognizes, the ultimate power and authority to interpret the Pennsylvania Constitution rests with the Judiciary, and in particular with this Court. See Pa. Const, art. V, § 2. 26 As we have already noted, the legislative definition is contrary to the plain meaning of Section 16(a), as well as substantial case law examining the definition of a public officer. Moreover, we recognize that the General Assembly obviously crafted its definition of the constitutional term in the hope of controlling this Court’s construction of Article V, Section 16(a)’s limited exception. The inclusion of the definition reflects the General Assembly’s palpable awareness that Act 72 was constitutionally suspect, to the extent that it decreased judicial compensation. Therefore, we respectfully decline to accept as controlling Section l(c)’s definition of “salaried officers of the Commonwealth” for purposes of Article V, Section 16(a).
The issue that remains is whether the unconstitutional aspects of Act 72 may be severed from the remaining provisions of the Act. First, we note that Act 72, unlike Act 44, does not contain a nonseverability provision. Second, the parties do not argue that, if this Court were to find Act 72 unconstitutional as applied to the reduction in judicial compensation, the relevant provisions would not be severable. Accordingly, our decision is guided by the presumption of sever-ability provided in Section 1925 of the Statutory Construction Act, 1 Pa.C.S. § 1501 et seq.:
The provisions of every statute shall be severable. If any provision of any statute or the application thereof to any person or circumstance is held invalid, the remainder of the statute, and the application of such provision to other persons or circumstances, shall not be affected thereby, unless the court finds that the valid provisions of the statute are so essentially and inseparably connected with, and so depend *591 upon, the void provision or application, that it cannot be presumed the General Assembly would have enacted the remaining valid provisions without the void one; or unless the court finds that the remaining valid provisions, standing alone, are incomplete and are incapable of being executed in accordance with the legislative intent.
1 Pa.C.S. § 1925. The two exceptions to the presumption of severability noted in Section 1925 are not applicable here because: Act 72’s provisions repealing the increase in judicial compensation are not essentially and inseparably connected with the other provisions of Act 72; and, the remaining valid provisions are unquestionably capable of being executed in accordance with the legislative intent. See PAGE, 877 A.2d at 403 ; Commonwealth v. Mockaitis, 575 Pa. 5 , 834 A.2d 488, 502-03 (2003).
In sum, we hold that Act 72 is clearly, palpably, and plainly unconstitutional to the extent that it diminished judicial compensation; Act 72 directly diminished judicial compensation, and it did so in a fashion which does not implicate the narrow exception provided in Article V, Section 16(a). However, under Section 1925 of the Statutory Construction Act, our finding of this unconstitutional effect does not taint the remainder of Act 72. Thus, we find that the remainder of Act 72’s repeal of Act 44 is valid.
III. CONSTITUTIONALITY OF ACT 44: THE STILP APPEAL
A. Introduction
Act 44, entitled “A[n] A[ct] [ajmending Titles 42 (Judiciary and Judicial Procedure), 46 (Legislature) and 71 (State Government) of the Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes, providing for compensation; and making an inconsistent repeal,” established a comprehensive plan which adopted formulas tying compensation and future increases in compensation for the Pennsylvania Judiciary, the General Assembly, and top executive officials to the salaries of federal judges, members of Congress, and top federal executive officials. For example, Act 44 provided that the salaries paid to Justices of this Court *592 would be the same as the base salaries paid to circuit judges of the Courts of Appeals, see Act 44, § 1 (amending 42 Pa.C.S. § 1802(a)); salaries paid to members of the General Assembly were to be equal to 50% of the base salary paid to members of the United States House of Representatives, see Act 44, § 2 (amending 46 Pa.C.S. § 1102); and the salary paid to the Governor was to be equal to 85% of the base salary paid to the Vice President of the United States, see Act 44, § 3 (amending 71 Pa.C.S. § 1102(a)).
In addition to the provisions adopting new compensation formulas, Act 44 contained several constitutionally problematic provisions. One such provision was the unvouchered expense provision, which applied exclusively to the Legislature. As previously noted, this provision permitted current legislators to receive the dollar-for-dollar equivalent of their future salary increase immediately through the mechanism of unvouchered expenses, with the payments ending upon each individual legislator’s next election. See Act 44, § 2 (amending 46 Pa.C.S. § 1107). Another problematic provision was a nonseverability clause, • apparently adopted in anticipation of litigation, which provided that if any provision of the Act were deemed unconstitutional, the entire Act would be void. See Act 44, § 6.
Stilp raised several constitutional challenges to Act 44. In light of these challenges, we directed the parties to address the following five issues:
(1) Whether Stilp has standing to bring an action challenging the constitutionality of Act 44?
(2) Whether the General Assembly’s adoption of Act 44 violated:
a) Article III, Section 1 of the Pennsylvania- Constitution;
b) Article III, Section, 2 of the Pennsylvania Constitution;
c) Article III, Section 3 of the Pennsylvania Constitution; and/or
d) Article III, Section 4 of the Pennsylvania Constitution?
(3) Whether the system of unvouchered expenses established by Act 44 violated the Pennsylvania Constitution, and *593 whether this Court should reconsider and/or overrule the decision in Consumer Party of Pennsylvania v. Commonwealth, 510 Pa. 158 , 507 A.2d 323 (1986)?
(4) In the event any portion of Act 44 is deemed unconstitutional, whether enforcement of the nonseverability provision in the statute would violate Article V, Section 16(a) of the Pennsylvania Constitution?
(5) Whether Stilp’s constitutional challenges are moot?
Stilp, 889 A.2d 499 .
Again, because this Court assumed plenary jurisdiction over this matter, there is no lower court decision or order under review. The questions involved are purely legal; thus, our scope of review is plenary and our standard of review is de novo. We will address the first and fifth questions first because a finding either of no standing or of mootness would obviate the necessity for addressing the constitutional challenges. See Ballou v. State Ethics Commission, 496 Pa. 127 , 436 A.2d 186, 187 (1981) (“[Wjhen a case raises both constitutional and non-constitutional issues, a court should not reach the constitutional issue if the case can properly be decided on non-constitutional grounds.”).
B. Standing
As a preliminary matter, and for- purposes of this appeal, we accept that Stilp has standing to challenge the constitutionality of Act 44. Specifically, we find that Stilp has satisfied the requirements necessary for taxpayer standing consistent with the recognition of this exception to traditional standing requirements announced in Application of Biester, 487 Pa. 438 , 409 A.2d 848 (1979). Under Biester, a taxpayer has standing to challenge an act if: (1) the governmental action would otherwise go unchallenged; (2) those directly and immediately affected by the complained-of matter are beneficially affected and not inclined to challenge the action; (3) judicial relief is appropriate; (4) redress through other channels is unavailable; and (5) no other persons are better situated to assert the claim. Pittsburgh Palisades Park, LLC v. Commonwealth, 585 Pa. 196 , 888 A.2d 655, 662 (2005) (citing *594 Consumer Party, 507 A.2d at 329 ). If not for Stilp’s challenge, Act 44 would go unchallenged because the very individuals who enacted the legislation — ie., the members of the General Assembly — were directly and beneficially affected by the legislation and thus would not be inclined to challenge its constitutionality. Therefore, the first two requirements are satisfied. Judicial relief is appropriate because it is the court’s role to determine the constitutionality of a piece of legislation. Furthermore, redress through other channels is unavailable since there are no agencies or tribunals with jurisdiction to grant the redress sought by Stilp. Lastly, there are no other persons better situated to assert the claim because all those directly and immediately affected by Act 44 are beneficially affected by the Act and have not brought, and are not likely to bring, a cause of action in state court. 27 This is especially so because Act 72 has now repealed Act 44. Accordingly, Stilp has taxpayer standing to maintain this action.
C. Mootness
Additionally, we find that, notwithstanding Act 72’s repeal of Act 44, Stilp’s constitutional challenges are not moot. See Commonwealth, Dep’t of Envtl. Res. v. Jubelirer, 531 Pa. 472 , 614 A.2d 204, 211-12 (1992) (where challenged statute is later repealed, judicial consideration of its constitutionality is moot). Because of our above determination that the provisions of Act 72 repealing the Act 44 formula which resulted in compensation increases for the Judiciary are unconstitutional, part of Act 44, at least presumptively, is still operative. Stilp’s challenges regarding Article III procedural flaws therefore are not moot. Moreover, Stilp’s constitutional challenge to Act 44’s unvouchered expense provision and his related challenge to this Court’s precedent in Consumer Party are *595 renewable because Act 44’s nonseverability provision purports to require declaring all of Act 44 void if any individual provision were deemed unconstitutional.
D. Article III Procedural Challenges
Stilp maintains that the General Assembly violated the procedural protections provided in Article III, Sections 1-4 of the Pennsylvania Constitution. Our recent decision in PAGE, supra, is controlling on this subject. In PAGE, a group of petitioners challenged the procedure by which the Pennsylvania Race Horse Development and Gaming Act (“Gaming Act”) was enacted, arguing that the General Assembly violated Article III, Sections 1, 3, 4, 6, and 10. Prior to this Court’s analysis of each" discrete constitutional challenge, we discussed the reasoning behind the adoption of Article III:
Article III can be viewed as a constellation of constitutional requirements that govern various aspects of the legislative enactment procedure. Each of these provisions was born in a time in which Pennsylvanians were experiencing rapid growth economically and “ ‘wrenching’ social change.... ” An enormous growth in the corporate form of business organization led to significant concentrations of wealth and the corruption of numerous legislators. Corruption took the form of special laws legislation, logrolling, and arbitrary favoritism and was met with a demand for reform. The Constitutional Convention of 1872-73 was convened to reform corrupt legislative behavior, and to this end, the result was the constitutional strictures contained in Article III. Thus, while these changes to the Constitution originated during a unique time of fear of tyrannical corporate power and legislative corruption, these mandates retain their value even today by placing certain constitutional limitations on the legislative process.
PAGE, 877 A.2d at 394 (citations and footnote omitted). Generally, Article Ill’s purpose is “to place restraints on the legislative process and encourage an open, deliberative and accountable government.” City of Philadelphia, 838 A.2d at *596 585 (quoting Pennsylvania AFL-CIO ex rel. George v. Commonwealth, 563 Pa. 108 , 757 A.2d 917, 923 (2000)).
Following preliminary determinations regarding jurisdiction and standing, the PAGE court comprehensively surveyed and summarized guiding principles in the area of Article III, ultimately holding that the majority of the Gaming Act passed constitutional muster; however, we did strike certain portions of the Gaming Act as violative of Article III, Section 3 and pursuant to the Act’s severability provision. 28 PAGE, 877 A.2d at 419 . Specifically, with regard to the single subject requirement of Article III, Section 3, we found that the single unifying subject of the Gaming Act was the regulation of gaming, and that a majority of the Act’s provisions, except for certain disbursement provisions,.were germane to this single subject. Id. at 404 . We also determined that the title of the Gaming Act put a reasonable person on notice of the general subject matter of the Act, therefore satisfying the clear expression of title requirement provided in Article III, Section 3. Id. at 406 . Concerning the Article III, Section 1 challenge, we concluded that the process by which the Gaming Act was enacted did not violate the constitutionál provision’s prohibition on alteration or amendment so as to change the original purpose of the Act. Id. at 409-10 . Finally, with regard to the challenge raised under Article III, Section 4, we concluded that because the petitioners had failed to establish a violation under Article III, Section 1 or 3, and because the record demonstrated that the bill which ultimately became the Gaming Act was read on three separate occasions in each House, the petitioners failed to prove a Section 4 violation. Id. at 410 .
When a challenge is forwarded concerning the process by which legislation is enacted, rather than the substance of the legislation, concerns of comity and separation of *597 powers between the branches necessarily arise. Cases such as PAGE demonstrate that this Court takes seriously its responsibility as.a coordinate and equal branch of government, while showing a measure of appropriate deference to the legislative branch when it comes to matters affecting the mechanics of bills and the legislative process. 29 It is worth noting that, in our system of government, although this Court decidedly has the final word on constitutionality, the obligation to abide by the mandates of the Pennsylvania Constitution, including those procedural restraints governing the General Assembly found in Article III, applies to all three branches, and we do not proceed upon a cynical assumption that our sister branches do not take their constitutional obligations seriously. It is within the power, and arguably it is the duty, of each individual legislator, and the Governor, to consult his or her own conscience about the constitutionality of proposed legislation in deciding whether to support it or endorse it.
We also note that, in our democratic form of government, there are other methods, besides lawsuits, which may serve as a corrective tool for legislative excesses, the primary method being the political process itself. This case has borne out the effectiveness of that process. The legislative appellees themselves have emphasized this very point in several respects. We cannot overstate, however, that we would not approve patently unconstitutional legislation merely because the political process could correct it.
The strong presumption of constitutionality afforded legislative enactments includes the procedure by which legislation is enacted. PAGE, 877 A.2d at 393 . Thus, Act 44 cannot be deemed unconstitutional unless we find that it clearly, palpably, and plainly violates the Constitution. See id.
*598 A logical beginning for a discussion of Article III procedural challenges is the sequence of events surrounding the passage of Act 44. The relevant facts are matters of public record and are not in dispute. On May 3, 2005, House Bill 1521 (“HB 1521”), printer’s no. 1865, a one page document, was introduced in the House of Representatives as “An A[ct] [Relating to compensation for executive branch officials.” HB 1521 contained a provision declaring its short title to be the “Executive Branch Official Compensation Act.” Aside from a definitional section, HB 1521 contained a single provision which directed that no executive official could receive an annual salary exceeding the annual salary paid to the Governor. On the same date that it was introduced in the House, HB 1521 was referred to the House State Government Committee and, thereafter, it was reported as committed on May 11, 2005. It had its first consideration by the House on May 11, 2005, but was then tabled. It was given second consideration on June 6, 2005. HB 1521 was then re-referred to the House Appropriations Committee on June 6, 2005, and re-reported as committed on that date. It was given third consideration on June 8, 2005, and received final passage in the House on June 8, 2005 by a vote of 157-40.
On June 13, 2005, HB 1521 was referred to the Senate State Government Committee, and was reported as committed on June 30, 2005. HB 1521 was first considered on June 30, 2005 and received second consideration on July 1, 2005. It was then re-referred to the Senate Appropriations Committee on July 1, 2005. On July 6, 2005, HB 1521 was slightly amended and given a new printer’s number (No. 2561). It remained a one-page document, and the amendment merely added a section providing that the act applied only to executive officials who took office after November 1, 2006. This amended version of HB 1521 was then re-reported to the Senate and received third consideration and final passage on July 6, 2005 by a vote of 28-22.
On July 6, 2005, the new version of HB 1521 was referred to the House Rules Committee, and reported as committed on that date. The House non-concurred in the Senate amend *599 ment, and the Senate non-concurred in response, insisting on its amendment. A conference committee consisting of three members from each chamber was duly organized. On July 7, 2005, HB 1521 was altered and amended by the conference committee. The conference committee’s new version of HB 1521 was now twenty-two pages long, had a new printer’s number (No. 2570), and was given a new title: “A[n] A[ct] [ajmending Titles 42 (Judiciary and Judicial Procedure), 46 (Legislature) and 71 (State Government) of the Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes, providing for compensation; and making an inconsistent repeal.” This version of HB 1521 was passed by the House by a vote of 119-79, and passed by the Senate by a vote of 27-23. It was then signed into law by Governor Rendell as Act 44 in the early morning hours of July 7, 2005.
Before beginning our analysis, it is necessary to align the parties and amici into two camps based on their stated positions regarding the alleged Article III violations. The first group includes (1) Stilp, (2) Treasurer Casey, and (3) amicus Timothy Potts; Russ Diamond, on behalf of PA Clean Sweep, Inc.; and Eric Epstein, Coordinator of RocktheCapital.org (hereinafter, “Potts”). Collectively, this group alleges that the General Assembly violated Article III, Sections 1-4 during the passage of Act 44. 30 , 31 Both Stilp and Treasurer *600 Casey offer slightly divergent reasons in support of this position; therefore, their arguments will be summarized separately. The second group includes (1) the remainder of the appellees, i.e., Attorney General Corbett on behalf of the Commonwealth, Senator Jubelirer, and Speaker Perzel, (2) amicus Judge Herron, and (3) amici the Brown appellants. Because this group offers similar arguments defending Act 44’s constitutionality in the face of the Article III challenges, we shall summarize them as one. Additionally, for ease ..and clarity of discussion, we will discuss the Article III, Section 3 challenge first.
1. Article III, Section 3 challenge
Article III, Section 3 of the Pennsylvania Constitution, entitled “Form of Bills,” provides in full:
No bill shall be passed containing more than one subject, which shall be clearly expressed in its title, except'a general appropriation bill or a bill codifying or compiling the law or a part thereof.
Pa. Const, art. Ill, § 3. This constitutional provision “sets forth dual mandates for the General Assembly which prohibits the passing of a bill that contains more than one subject and requires that the subject be clearly expressed in its title.” PAGE, 877 A.2d at 394 .
Stilp merges his arguments for the single-subject and clearly expressed title requirements. Regarding the single-subject directive, Stilp argues that the subject of the original version of HB 1521 was to ensure that no executive official *601 receive a higher salary than the Governor does. Stilp maintains that the amendments to HB 1521, which addressed compensation for all three branches of government, are not germane to this original subject. With respect to the clearly expressed title requirement, Stilp argues that the original title of HB 1521 — “A[n] A[ct] [Relating to compensation for executive branch officials” — did not place anyone on notice that Act 44 as ultimately enacted involved substantial changes to the compensation system governing all three branches of government.
Appellees counter that the General Assembly did not violate Article III, Section 3 in enacting Act 44. Appellees contend that all versions of HB 1521 maintained a single unifying subject — i.e., compensation for government officials. Appellees contend that all provisions added during the legislative process were germane to this single subject. Appellees also argue that Act 44’s title — “A[n] A[ct] [ajmending Titles 42 (Judiciary and Judicial Procedure), 46 (Legislature) and 71 (State Government) of the Pennsylvania Consolidated Statutes, providing for compensation; and making an inconsistent repeal” — is clear because a reasonable person could read it and discover that it amends the provisions affecting compensation provided to the Judiciary, Legislature, and state government.
In PAGE, this Court reaffirmed the standard for reviewing a single-subject challenge: “where the provisions added during the legislative process assist in carrying out a bill’s main objective or are otherwise ‘germane’ to the bill’s subject as reflected in its title,” the single-subject stricture is satisfied. PAGE, 877 A.2d at 395 (quoting City of Philadelphia, 838 A.2d at 587). In conducting such a review, a court must not define the main objective of a bill too narrowly, and thus must afford the General Assembly considerable deference, as Article III must not become a license for the Judiciary to “exercise a pedantic tyranny” over the Legislature’s efforts. City of Philadelphia, 838 A.2d at 588 (citing Estate of Rochez, 511 Pa. 620 , 515 A.2d 899 , 902 (1986)); see Payne v. School Dist. of Coudersport Borough, 168 Pa. 386 , 31 A. 1072, *602 1074 (1895) (“Few bills are so elementary in character that they may not be subdivided under several heads.... ”). Conversely, there must also be limits on how broadly a main objective is defined as well as on germaneness, or else the strictures announced in Section 3 “would be rendered impotent to guard against the evils that it was designed to curtail.” City of Philadelphia, 838 A.2d at 588 (“There must be limits ... as otherwise virtually all legislation, no matter how diverse in substance, would meet the single-subject requirement.”); see PAGE, 877 A.2d at 395 (“Article III, Section 3 must have, however, some limits on germaneness, for otherwise virtually all legislation — no matter how diverse in substance — would meet the single-subject requirement, rendering the strictures of Section 3 nugatory.”); Payne, 31 A. at 1074 (“[N]o two subjects are so wide apart that they may not be brought into a common focus, if the point of view be carried back far enough.”). '
Here, we conclude that HB 1521 maintains a single unifying subject — regulating compensation for government officials. Specifically, the version of HB 1521 as passed adopts formulas which resulted in increased compensation for the Judiciary, the Legislature, and high-ranking executive officials, and provides a mechanism tying future compensation for state officials to the compensation provided to designated federal officials. All of the provisions contained in Act 44 are germane to the subject of regulating compensation for government officials. Accordingly, we hold that Act 44 does not clearly, palpably, and plainly violate Article III, Section 3’s single-subject requirement.
Turning to the clearly expressed title challenge, this Court set forth in PAGE the burden that a party must overcome to sustain such a challenge: “[0]ne who seeks to declare a title unconstitutional under this provision must demonstrate either (1) that the legislators and the public were actually deceived as to the act’s contents at the time of passage, or (2) that the title on its face is such that no reasonable person would have been on notice as to the act’s contents.” PAGE, 877 A.2d at 406 (quoting Estate of Rochez, *603 515 A.2d at 902). In other words, a title is constitutional “if it puts a reasonable person on notice of the general subject matter of the act.” Id. (citing Ewalt v. Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission, 382 Pa. 529 , 115 A.2d 729 (1955)).
Based on a simple comparison of Act 44’s title with its contents, we conclude that Stilp has failed to establish an Article III, Section 3 clear expression of title violation. The title clearly indicates that Act 44 amends the provisions governing compensation paid to the members of the three branches of government. Indeed, Stilp erroneously cites the title of the unamended version of HB 1521 as the title of the Act voted on by the legislators. Furthermore, Stilp does not allege that any legislator was actually deceived as to Act 44’s contents at the time of passage nor do any legislators aver being deceived by the title. Finally, the title clearly puts a reasonable person on notice of the general subject matter of the Act. Accordingly, recognizing the strong presumption of constitutionality, as we must, we hold that Act 44 passes constitutional muster under Section 3’s clear expression of title requirement.
2. Article III, Section 1 challenge
Next, Stilp contends that Act 44 violated Article III, Section 1 of the Pennsylvania Constitution. This provision, entitled “Passage of Bills,” provides:
No law shall be passed except by bill, and no bill shall be so altered or amended, on its passage through either House, as to change its original purpose.
Pa. Const, art. Ill, § 1. All parties agree that PAGE sets forth the relevant inquiry for a challenge to legislation under Article III, Section 1. Notably, the PAGE Court set forth a new test under this constitutional provision. First, a reviewing court must consider the original purpose of the legislation “in reasonably broad terms,” compare it to the final purpose, and then decide whether there has been an alteration or amendment that changed the original purpose. Second, the court must consider whether the title and contents of the bill in its final form are deceptive. “If the legislation passes both the *604 purpose comparison and deception inquiries, it will pass constitutional muster.” PAGE, 877 A.2d at 409 .
Stilp maintains that the original purpose of HB 1521 was to ensure that the Governor was the highest paid executive official and that purpose was drastically altered during the amendment process. The result, he argues, was uneonstitutional legislation providing large raises in compensation for the Judiciary, the General Assembly, and high-ranking executive officials. Regarding the second prong, Stilp argues that the original title of HB 1521 — “A[n] A[et] [relating to compensation for executive branch officials” — was deceptive as it failed to provide notice, of the substantial overhaul of the compensation paid to officials in all three branches of government.
Treasurer Casey addresses only the first prong of the PAGE test, arguing that the original version of HB 1521 and the enacted version of the bill share the common purpose of “compensation.” The Treasurer maintains that such a purpose is too broad and general to be constitutional under Section l’s stricture, particularly in light of this Court’s statement that the aim of Section 1 is “some degree of continuity in object or intention.” Id. at 408 .
In response, appellees contend that the original purpose of HB 1521, viewed in reasonably broad terms, was to provide compensation for government officials. Appellees argue that the amendments made to HB 1521 were consistent with this purpose. Moreover, appellees maintain that the title and contents of HB 1521 in its final form were not deceptive, and the record does not reflect that any legislators who voted against the bill did so - because they were unclear of its contents.
Applying PAGE, we first note that the original version of HB 1521, as introduced in the House on May 3, 2005, directed that the Governor be the highest paid official in the Executive branch. Considering the original purpose in reasonably broad terms, and consistently with our discussion above concerning the single subject challenge, we find that the original purpose *605 of the bill was to regulate compensation for government officials. We acknowledge that HB 1521 in final form significantly amended and expanded the original version. We find, however, that the principal object of the bill throughout the legislative process from inception to passage was regulating compensation for government officials. Accordingly, we conclude that the bill was not altered or amended to change the original purpose in passage through the Legislature.
As for the second prong of the construct announced in PAGE, we must consider whether the title and contents of the bill in its final form were deceptive. In accordance with our determination above concerning Stilp’s clear expression of title challenge under Article III, Section 3, we find that the title of HB 1521 in final form was not deceptive as it placed a reasonable person on notice of the general subject matter of the bill. See PAGE, 877 A.2d at 406 . Moreover, concerning the final contents, although we acknowledge that the amendments to HB 1521 were included at the end of the legislative process and were substantive, we find that the amendments were not deceptive.
Accordingly, and once again being mindful of the presumption of constitutionality, we conclude that HB 1521 was not altered or amended in passage through both legislative houses so as to change the original purpose of the bill.
3. Article III, Section 2 challenge
Stilp asserts that Act 44 also violated Article III, Section 2 of the Pennsylvania Constitution. This provision, entitled “Reference to Committee; Printing,” states that:
No bill shall be considered unless referred to a committee, printed for the use of the members and returned therefrom.
Pa. Const, art. Ill, § 2.
Stilp argues that because HB 1521 was substantially altered by the amendments, the final version was required to be re-referred to committee. Stilp further asserts that the legislative history clearly indicates that the final version of HB 1521 could not have been printed and distributed to all legisla *606 tors with enough time to fully review and comprehend the legislation prior to the vote on July 7, 2005.
Treasurer Casey contends that proper procedure under Section 2 requires that a bill be reported out of a standing committee in each House before the first of its three considerations in each House. The Treasurer maintains that the General Assembly violated this procedure because the final version of HB 1521 was reported out of a conference committee and then given its first and only consideration the same day that it was passed. The Treasurer’s argument, like Stilp’s, is based on the premise that the version of HB 1521 as passed was significantly different from the version of the bill that was referred to committee during the legislative process.
Appellees cogently respond that a constitutional challenge under Section 2 can only be sustained if an Article III, Section 1 or 3 violation is established. PAGE, 877 A.2d at 410 (“[A]n amended bill need not be referred to committee and considered on those separate days if the amendments are germane to, and do not wholly change, the general subject of the bill.”) (quoting Pennsylvania AFL-CIO v. Commonwealth, 691 A.2d 1023, 1037 (Pa.Cmwlth.1997), aff'd, 563 Pa. 108 , 757 A.2d 917 (2000)). Appellees argue that, because the General Assembly did not violate Section 1 or 3 in enacting Act 44, there can be no violation under Section 2. Moreover, appellees maintain that it is clear from the record that HB 1521 was referred to committee during the legislative process and that it was printed and distributed to all legislators prior to the vote.
It is settled that an amended bill does not need to be referred to committee, as required by Article III, Section 2, if the amendments to the bill added during the legislative process are germane to and do not change the general subject of the bill. DeWeese v. Weaver, 824 A.2d 364 , 368 n. 7 (Pa.Cmwlth.2003); Pennsylvania AFL-CIO, 691 A.2d at 1037 . Stilp and Treasurer Casey claim that Section 2 was violated because the subject and purpose of the original version of HB 1521 were significantly altered during the legislative process. As noted above, however, we have concluded that they failed to demonstrate a violation of Article III, Section 1 or 3. In *607 addition, a review of the record reveals that HB 1521 was referred to the House State Government Committee on May 3, 2005, to the House Appropriations Committee on June 6, 2005, to the Senate State Government Committee on June 13, 2005, to the Senate Appropriations Committee on July 1, 2005, to the House Rules Committee on July 6, 2005, and to a joint conference committee on July 7, 2005. Accordingly, because Stilp and Treasurer Casey have failed to establish a violation of Article III, Section 1 or 3, and because the record clearly demonstrates that the bill was referred to committee and printed for the General Assembly members, Stilp and Treasurer Casey have failed to establish an Article III, Section 2 violation.
4. Article III, Section 4 challenge
Stilp’s final procedural challenge pertains to Article III, Section 4 of the Pennsylvania Constitution. This provision, entitled “Consideration of Bills,” provides in full:
Every bill shall be considered on three different days in each House. All amendments made thereto shall be printed for the use of the members before the final vote is taken on the bill and before the final vote is taken, upon written request addressed to the presiding officer of either House by at least 25% of the members elected to that House, any bill shall be read at length in that House. No bill shall become a law, unless on its final passage the vote is taken by yeas and nays, the names of the persons voting for and against it are entered on the journal, and a majority of the members elected to each House is recorded thereon as voting in its favor.
Pa. Const, art. Ill, § 4.
Stilp maintains that the amended and final version of HB 1521 was not created, nor considered by both Houses, until July 7, 2005, the same date that it was passed and signed into law as Act 44. Therefore, according to Stilp, because the substance of HB 1521 had been altered by the amendments, the final version of HB 1521 was required to be considered on three different days in each House.
*608 Treasurer Casey concedes that under PAGE, a violation of Section 4 cannot be established unless either Article III, Section 1 or 3 has also been violated. PAGE, 877 A.2d at 410 . Consistent with his assertion that Section 1 was violated, however, the Treasurer maintains that the final version of HB 1521 changed the purpose of the original version, and therefore the consideration of the original bill became a nullity. Thus, the Treasurer argues, the General Assembly was required to consider the final version on three different days in each House in accordance with Section 4. The Treasurer argues that because each house of the General Assembly considered and voted on the final version of HB 1521 on only one day, Section 4 was violated.
Appellees’ response is similar to their answer concerning the Article III, Section 2 challenge. Specifically, appellees contend that in order to establish an Article III, Section 4 violation, an Article III, Section 1 or 3 violation must first be demonstrated by the challenger. Id. Appellees argue that because Stilp and Treasurer Casey have failed to establish a Section 1 or 3 violation, their challenge under Section 4 must also fail. Moreover, appellees maintain that the record clearly demonstrates that HB 1521 was considered on three separate days in each House during the legislative process.
Similar to an Article III, Section 2 challenge, it is settled that a bill does not have to be considered on three separate days, as otherwise required by Article III, Section 4, if the amendments to the bill added during the legislative process are germane to and do not change the general subject of the bill. Id.; DeWeese, 824 A.2d at 368 n. 7; Pennsylvania AFL-CIO, 691 A.2d at 1037 . Our analysis for this claim, therefore, is identical to our analysis of the Section 2 claim. Thus, because Stilp and Treasurer Casey claim that Section 2 was violated because HB 1521 was significantly altered during the legislative process, they must first establish a violation of Article III, Section 1 or 3, which they have failed to do. In .addition, a review of the record reveals that HB 1521 was considered on three separate days in the House (May 11, June 6, and June 8, 2005), and three separate days in the Senate *609 (June 30, July 1, and July 6, 2005). Accordingly, because Stilp and Treasurer Casey have failed to establish a violation of Article III, Section 1 or 3, and because the bill was read on three different occasions, Stilp and Treasurer Casey have failed to establish an Article III, Section 4 violation.
E. Legislative Unvouchered Expense Allowances and Consumer Party
Stilp’s last constitutional challenge concerns, not the entirety of Act 44, but the legislative unvouchered expense allowance provision. See Act 44, § 2 (amending 46 Pa.C.S. § 1107). This provision reads as follows:
§ 1107. Additional expenses
(a) Senate.—
(1) Beginning on the effective date of this subsection and ending November 30, 2008, a member of the Senate shall receive monthly, in addition to any allocation lor clerical assistance and other actual expenses, an unvouchered expense allocation in the amount of 1/12 of the difference between:
(i) the amount specified for a member in:
(A) section 1102(a) (relating to members of the General Assembly) plus section 1104 (relating to cost of living) as appropriate; or
(B) section 1103(a) (relating to legislative officers and leaders) plus section 1104 as appropriate; and
(ii) the amount calculated for that member as of the effective date of this subparagraph pursuant to the act of September 30, 1983 (P.L. 160, No. 39), known as the Public Official Compensation Law.
(2) This subsection shall expire November 30, 2008.
(b) House of Representatives.—
(1) Beginning on the effective date of this subsection, a member of the House of Representatives may receive each month, in addition to any allocation for clerical assistance and other actual expenses, an unvouchered expense allocation in the amount of 1/12 of the difference between:
*610 (i) the amount specified for a member in:
(A) section 1102(b); or
(B) section 1103(b) as appropriate; and
(ii) the amount calculated for that member as of the effective date of this subparagraph pursuant to the Public Official Compensation Law.
(2) The Rules Committee of the House of Representatives shall determine the procedure by which a member of the House of Representatives may receive an allocation under this subsection.
(3) This subsection shall expire November 30, 2006.
Act 44, § 2 (amending 46 Pa.C.S. § 1107) (footnote omitted).
Specifically, Stilp contends that the unvouchered expense allowances provided in Act 44 violate Article II, Section 8 of the Pennsylvania Constitution. This provision, entitled “Compensation,” reads as follows:
The members of the General Assembly shall receive such salary and mileage for regular and special sessions as shall be fixed by law, and no other compensation whatever, whether for service upon committee or otherwise. No member of either House shall during the term for which he may have been elected, receive any increase of salary, or mileage, under any law passed during such term.
Pa. Const, art. II, § 8.
Stilp maintains that Act'44’s unvouchered expense allowances are an unconstitutional attempt to circumvent Article II, Section 8’s express proscription against a mid-term increase in legislative salary by allowing incumbent legislators to secure pay raises immediately without waiting for the next election. Stilp highlights two mechanical aspects of the allowances that, in his view, unquestionably prove that the allowances are a de facto salary increase. First, he notes that the unvouchered expenses authorized in Act 44 equaled the exact dollar-for-dollar amount of the increase in legislative salaries provided under the formula adopted by Act 44 and which were to take effect after the next election for each individual legislator. Indeed, the amount of the unvouchered expense allowance was *611 not expressed in dollar terms, but only with reference to the equivalent percentage of the future salary increase. Second, Stilp notes that the unvouchered expenses expired at different times, depending upon the election cycle. Thus, the expenses were available from July 7, 2005 (the effective date of Act 44) until November 30, 2006 for members of the House, all of whose seats would be up for election in the 2006 general election. For Senators, however, the expenses were made available until November 30, 2006 or November 30, 2008, depending on the term of office for each Senator. Concisely, Section 2 of Act 44, amending 46 Pa.C.S. § 1107, permitted legislators to immediately receive, as unvouchered expenses, the precise amount of their future salary increase until their actual salary increases took effect following each legislator’s next election. Furthermore, Stilp argues that the unvouchered expense allowances were not intended as compensation for actual expenses incurred by legislators; in this regard, he asserts

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/9734637. Public record. Not legal advice.