# United States v. Moore

> Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit · July 29, 2011 · 651 F.3d 30

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/9442051

## Case

- **Full name:** UNITED STATES of America, Appellee v. Rodney L. MOORE, Also Known as Rasoo, Appellant
- **Court:** Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit
- **Decided:** July 29, 2011
- **Citations:** 651 F.3d 30; 397 U.S. App. D.C. 148; 2011 U.S. App. LEXIS 15666; 2011 WL 3211511
- **Precedential status:** Published
- **Opinion:** Opinion of the court
- **Judges:** Sentelle, Rogers, Kavanaugh
- **Cited by:** 163 later opinions in the Frix Law Library

## Citator (automated)

- No negative treatment found by the automated citator. That is not the same as a confirmation that the case is good law; read the citing cases.
- Full citator and citing cases: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/9442051

## How later opinions describe it (automated extraction)

- holding that “the district court correctly instructed the jury that the defendant bore the burden of persuasion to show that he withdrew from the conspiracy” and noting that “[w]e previously have said unequivocally, albeit in the context of sentencing, that the defendant, not …
- concluding that Chief Medical Examiner's surrogate testimony on autopsy reports prepared by others violated the Confrontation Clause where law enforcement officers observed the autopsies and participated in the creation of the reports -- circumstances that "would have signaled…
- concluding that habeas petitioner "has made a 'colorable claim' that his counsel’s decision not to call” the shooting’s only eyewitness, who identified someone else as the assailant "was constitutionally deficient and that he was prejudiced by his counsel's conduct,” but reman…
- holding that autopsy reports were testimonial and thus inadmissible without appearance of medical examiners who performed the autopsies, where D.C. Office of the Medical Examiner is required by statute to investigate deaths at police request, where MPD homicide detectives and …
- concluding trial court did not abuse discretion by permitting use of stun belt, without making specific findings that use of belt affected appellants' ability to confer with counsel, where appellants "offered us no evidence stun belts in any way affected their communication wi…

## Opinion text

Opinion for the Court filed PER CURIAM.
Opinion concurring in part in Part I filed by Circuit Judge ROGERS.
PER CURIAM:
Table of Contents
I. Batson..................................................................40
A. Batson Framework...................................................40
B. Strike-by-Strike Analysis.............................................42
II. Stun Belts..............................................................44
III. Anonymous Juey.........................................................48
IV. Prosecutorial Misconduct ...............................................50
A. Opening and Closing Arguments........................................50
B. Overview Witness ....................................................54
C. Cumulative Error ....................................................61
V. Rule 404(b) Evidence....................................................63
VI. Brady...................................................................64
VII. Statute of Limitations...................................................65
VIII. Joinder.................................................................68
IX. Confrontation Clause...................................................69
X. Jencks Act..............................................................74
XI. Religious Conversion Testimony..........................................75
XII. Testimony Of Steve Graham..............................................76
XIII. Destruction Of Evidence................................................78
XIV. Multiple Conspiracies Instructions.......................................78
*39 XV. Moore’s Conviction for Continuing Criminal Enterprise ...................80
XVI. Merger Of Moore’s Murder Convictions ..................................81
XVII. Exclusion of Antoine Ward Confession...................................81
XVIII. Smith’s Conviction for Murder of Anthony Dent...........................83
XIX. Smith’s Ineffective Assistance of Counsel Claim..........................85
XX. Conspiracy Withdrawal Instruction ......................................89
XXI. Aiding and Abetting Instruction..........................................90
XXII. Severance..............................................................94
XXIII. Handy’s New Trial Motions ..............................................96
A. Sufficiency of Evidence............................. 97
B. Brady...............................................................98
XXIV. Conclusion.............................................................102
Six defendants appeal from judgments of conviction in the district court on multiple charges, including drug conspiracy, RICO conspiracy, continuing criminal enterprise, murder, and other related charges in violation of federal and District of Columbia laws. They assert a wide variety of alleged errors covering, among other things, evidentiary issues, both as to admission and sufficiency; conduct of the trial; prosecutorial misconduct; and jury instructions. Upon review, we conclude that most of the asserted errors either were not erroneous or were harmless. As to one category of issue involving alleged violations of the Confrontation Clause of the Constitution, a Supreme Court decision intervening between the trial and our consideration of the ease compels us to remand convictions of some drug charges (Counts 126-138) for further consideration by the district court in light of the Supreme Court’s opinion. We also remand for further proceedings a claim of ineffective assistance of counsel raised by appellant Smith (Counts 4 and 5). We vacate one murder conviction as to appellant Moore that, as the parties agree, merges with another conviction (Count 32).
According to the indictment in the district court and the evidence of the United States at trial, during the late 1980s and 1990s, appellants Rodney Moore, Kevin Gray, John Raynor, Calvin Smith, Timothy Handy, and Lionel Nunn, along with others, some of whom were also indicted but tried separately, conspired to conduct and did conduct an ongoing drug distribution business in Washington, D.C. In the course of conducting that business, various of the co-conspirators committed a wide-ranging course of violence including 31 murders. The United States obtained a 158-count superseding indictment upon which the defendants were tried by a jury. After a trial lasting over ten months, the jury returned verdicts of guilty on several of the charges, including the drug conspiracy, 21 U.S.C. § 846 , the RICO conspiracy, 18 U.S.C. § 1962 (d), continuing criminal enterprise (Moore and Gray), 21 U.S.C. § 848 (a)-(b), murder, D.C.Code § 22-2401, -3202; D.C.Code § 22-2101; 18 U.S.C. § 1959 (a)(1); 21 U.S.C. § 848 (e)(1)(A); 18 U.S.C. § 1512 , assault with intent to murder (Moore and Gray), D.C.Code § 22-503, -3202, illegal use of a *40 firearm (Moore, Gray, Raynor, Handy, and Nunn), 18 U.S.C. § 924 (c), distribution of cocaine base and heroin (Gray), 21 U.S.C. § 841 (a)(1), possession with intent to distribute heroin (Raynor), id., and tampering with a witness (Handy), 18 U.S.C. § 1512 (b). The trial court entered judgment imposing substantial criminal sentences generally amounting to terms in excess of life imprisonment from which the defendants now appeal.
Further details of the facts, evidence, and proceedings will be set forth as necessary for the discussion of the issues raised by appellants.
L 3
The Constitution’s equal protection guarantee bars prosecutors from using peremptory challenges to strike prospective jurors on the basis of race. See Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79 , 106 S.Ct. 1712 , 90 L.Ed.2d 69 (1986). In this case, although 9 of the 12 jurors were African-American, appellants argue that the prosecution unconstitutionally used its peremptory challenges to remove prospective jurors who were African-American. The district court rejected appellants’ challenge. We affirm the district court’s decision.
A Batson challenge proceeds in three steps: First, the defendant must establish “a prima facie case of discriminatory jury selection by the totality of the relevant facts about a prosecutor’s conduct during the defendant’s own trial.” Second, “the State [must] come forward with a neutral explanation for challenging jurors within an arguably targeted class.” Third, the “trial court then will have the duty to determine if the defendant has established purposeful discrimination.” Miller-El v. Dretke, 545 U.S. 231, 239 , 125 S.Ct. 2317 , 162 L.Ed.2d 196 (2005) (alterations and internal quotation marks omitted). In the district court, appellants argued that the prosecution’s use of 34 peremptory strikes to remove African-Americans from the venire for regular jurors established a prima facie case of discrimination. Accepting that the prima facie hurdle was cleared, the district court required the prosecution to explain each of its peremptory challenges of African-Americans. After the prosecution provided those explanations, the district court required further argument from both sides as part of Batson’s final stage. The court allowed the defense counsel to dispute the validity of each government explanation and required the prosecution to individually respond to the defense’s argument on each disputed strike. The court actively engaged in the entire process, consulting its notes and correcting and questioning counsel. At the conclusion of the multi-hour hearing, the district court ruled that appellants had not “established purposeful discrimination.” Miller-El, 545 U.S. at 239 , 125 S.Ct. 2317 ; see also Purkett v. Elem, 514 U.S. 765, 768 , 115 S.Ct. 1769 , 131 L.Ed.2d 834 (1995) (“[T]he ultimate burden of persuasion regarding racial motivation rests with, and never shifts from, the opponent of the strike.”).
In this court, appellants dispute the district court’s conclusion that there was no Batson violation.
A.
Appellants’ challenge to the district court’s Batson decision faces a demanding standard. “On appeal, a trial court’s ruling on the issue of discriminatory intent must be sustained unless it is clearly erroneous.” Snyder v. Louisiana, 552 U.S. 472, 477 , 128 S.Ct. 1203 , 170 L.Ed.2d 175 *41 (2008). The Supreme Court has emphasized that the “trial court has a pivotal role in evaluating Batson claims.” Id. The Court has explained that the demeanor of the prosecutor exercising a challenged strike is often “the best evidence of discriminatory intent.” Id. (alterations omitted). The district court, unlike this court, observed the prosecutor’s demeanor firsthand. Further, when the asserted basis for a strike is a prospective juror’s behavior in court, the trial court will have observed and evaluated that juror’s demean- or as well. See id. For those reasons, the Supreme Court has stated that “in the absence of exceptional circumstances, we would defer to the trial court” in resolving a Batson claim. Id. (alterations omitted); see also Hernandez v. New York, 500 U.S. 352, 365-66 , 111 S.Ct. 1859 , 114 L.Ed.2d 395 (1991) (plurality opinion).
Appellants argue that we should reject the district court’s findings because the court itself did not individually discuss each challenged strike on the record. Batson’s third step requires trial courts to closely analyze the prosecutor’s proffered reason for each disputed strike in light of all the relevant circumstances. See Miller-El, 545 U.S. at 241-42, 251-52 , 125 S.Ct. 2317 . The record here demonstrates that the district court appropriately exercised its Batson responsibilities. The district court required three rounds of argument on each strike of an African-American juror: a prosecution opening in which the government individually justified each strike; a defense response disputing those government explanations; and a prosecution reply to every defense argument. Throughout the hearing, the district court questioned counsel, reviewed its own notes, and corrected mistakes by counsel. The district court then concluded, based on the arguments and its personal observation of the prosecutors and of the prospective jurors’ demeanor, that the government’s race-neutral explanations were genuine. Appellants cite no controlling precedent requiring a trial court to render its decision in a strike-by-strike format. Given the obvious thoroughness of the district court’s application of Batson’s third step, we cannot conclude that the lack of strike-specific findings creates the sort of “exceptional circumstances” that would overcome our deference to the trial court. Snyder, 552 U.S. at 477 , 128 S.Ct. 1203 .
Moreover, the circumstances of this case seriously undermine appellants’ claim. Nine of the 12 jurors seated in this ease were African-American. That jury composition mirrored the make-up of the venire, which contained 68 African-Americans out of 90 persons in the pool from which regular jurors were selected. Thus, while the prosecution used many strikes to remove prospective African-American jurors, that is largely explained by the fact that the jury pool was predominately African-American. In addition, the prosecutor’s strikes did not skew the racial composition of the resulting jury. The circumstances here are a far cry from the facts of cases in which the Supreme Court has found a Batson violation. Cf. Snyder, 552 U.S. at 476 , 128 S.Ct. 1203 (all African-Americans in jury pool struck by prosecution); Miller-El, 545 U.S. at 240-41 , 125 S.Ct. 2317 (10 of 11 African-Americans in jury pool after dismissals for cause or by agreement struck by prosecution); Batson, 476 U.S. at 100 , 106 S.Ct. 1712 (all African-Americans in jury pool struck by prosecution).
Finally, in this case there are no extrinsic indicators of racial discrimination of the kind found in successful Batson challenges. For example, in Miller-El , a case in which the trial occurred before the 1986 Batson decision, the Court relied in part on the *42 “widely known evidence of the general policy of the Dallas County District Attorney’s Office to exclude black venire members from juries.” Miller-El, 545 U.S. at 253 , 125 S.Ct. 2317 . In contrast, the Supreme Court has explained that cases where the stricken jurors are the same race as the majority of victims and prosecution witnesses are unlikely candidates for a finding of racial discrimination. See Hernandez, 500 U.S. at 369-70 , 111 S.Ct. 1859 (plurality opinion). The overall facts and circumstances of this case thus do not support appellants’ claim of intentional discrimination. See Snyder, 552 U.S. at 478 , 128 S.Ct. 1203 (“[I]n reviewing a ruling claimed to be Batson error, all of the circumstances that bear upon the issue of racial animosity must be consulted.”).
B.
Although the circumstances of this case strongly suggest that the prosecution did not use its peremptory strikes to discriminate on the basis of race, those facts alone are not dispositive. The dismissal of even a single prospective juror on the basis of race violates equal protection principles. See Snyder, 552 U.S. at 478 , 128 S.Ct. 1203 . We therefore review each of the 11 strikes challenged by appellants. Cf. Bond v. Beard, 539 F.3d 256, 270 (3d Cir.2008) (finding overall circumstances suggest no Batson violation, but nonetheless conducting analysis of each strike to resolve Batson claim).
Of the 11 strikes challenged on appeal, appellants objected to the following seven strikes in the district court. We review the district court’s findings on those seven strikes for clear error. Snyder, 552 U.S. at 477 , 128 S.Ct. 1203 . Because the district court empanelled an anonymous jury in this case, we identify each prospective juror using the numbers assigned by the district court.
2932: Among its concerns about this prospective juror, the prosecution noted 2932’s statement that long delays in bringing criminal cases to trial impaired witnesses’ memories. The prosecution worried that 2932 would be suspicious of the government’s case because this case involved long delay and the government was relying on witnesses’ memories of long-past events. Appellants do not rebut the plausibility of that specific, race-neutral objection or show that any other seated juror worried about the effect of delay on witnesses’ memories.
3559: The prosecution explained that it struck 3559 on the basis of his youth. The government’s statement that it struck every juror age 22 or younger, regardless of race, remains unrebutted.
3872: The prosecution stated that it struck 3872 for appearing disrespectful in court. Appellants cite trial transcripts in an attempt to demonstrate that seated white jurors might have behaved just as inappropriately. This is an instance in which “[ajppellate judges cannot on the basis of a cold record easily second-guess a trial judge’s decision.” Rice v. Collins, 546 U.S. 333, 343 , 126 S.Ct. 969 , 163 L.Ed.2d 824 (2006) (Breyer, J., concurring); see Snyder, 552 U.S. at 483 , 128 S.Ct. 1203 . We cannot tell from the record whether there was anything inappropriate about those seated jurors’ demeanors. And contrary to appellants’ assertion, Snyder does not establish a rule that trial courts must make specific findings about demeanor. Cf. Thaler v. Haynes, — U.S.-, 130 S.Ct. 1171 , 175 L.Ed.2d 1003 (2010). Because appellants have not demonstrated any “exceptional circumstances” that require otherwise, we defer to the district court’s finding on an issue that is “peculiarly within a trial judge’s province.” Snyder, 552 U.S. at 477 , 128 S.Ct. 1203 .
*43 4463: The prosecutor explained that 4463 appeared unstable in court and that “his voir dire indicated numerous answers that would make clear why the government opposes this juror.” May 7, 2002 PM Tr. at 75. A quick review of 4463’s rambling statements, in which he detailed how his brother had been unfairly framed for distribution of crack cocaine, makes clear why a prosecutor would want to strike 4463, regardless of race. Appellants’ citation to a seated white juror whose family also had drug problems is not comparable. That juror calmly related the long-past problems of his relatives, and expressly stated that his brother had been dealt with fairly.
4730: The government claims to have struck 4730 in part because 4730 was suspicious of law enforcement and unsure that the death penalty should apply in Washington, D.C. Appellants question the strength of 4730’s views on this subject, but they point to no seated juror who expressed reservations about law enforcement similar to 4730’s concern about “rogue police officers,” and a “bad experience” with law enforcement that “[l]eft a bad taste.” Apr. 5, 2002 PM Tr. at 23-24. 4730’s views on law enforcement provided a race-neutral explanation for the prosecution’s decision to strike her.
5698: This prospective juror was a former special police officer whom the prosecutor claimed to have struck for being “quiet,” “submissive,” and possibly not “strong enough” to be an effective juror. May 7, 2002 PM Tr. at 42. To the extent we can discern demeanor from a written transcript, 5698’s colloquy with the district court suggests a passive, uncertain, and quiet person. And passivity can be a plausible, race-neutral reason to exclude a juror. See United States v. Changco, 1 F.3d 837, 840 (9th Cir.1993). Appellants may be correct that former law enforcement officers are often desirable jurors from the prosecution’s perspective. But that does not bar the prosecution from dismissing any particular juror because the government believes her personality would make her a less than desirable juror from the prosecution’s perspective.
5773: The prosecution claimed to have struck 5773 due to 5773’s concerns about imposing the death penalty. Appellants respond that seated white jurors appeared equally hostile to the death penalty. We disagree. As to the seated white juror whose views come closest to matching 5773’s, he repeatedly followed questions about his ability to impose the death penalty with notations such as “I would try to abide by the Court’s instruction, not my personal belief.” By contrast, 5773’s doubts about the death penalty were sufficiently salient that he used his questionnaire to indicate that he had concerns about his ability to be a fair juror. The prosecution thus had legitimate grounds to suspect that 5773 would be significantly more hesitant to impose the death penalty than the seated white juror.
In the district court the defense did not object to the prosecution’s strike of the following four prospective jurors. The district court’s rulings on these strikes are therefore reviewed only for plain error. See, e.g., United States v. Charlton, 600 F.3d 43, 50 (1st Cir.2010).
866: The prosecution explained that it struck 866 because 866 “had a relative who had been convicted of murder.” May 7, 2002 PM Tr. at 35. The record shows that 866’s nephew, with whom she was personally close, murdered his wife and was then imprisoned, where 866 believes he was abused by his guards. Appellants’ attempts to minimize the potential effect of 866’s experiences with murder convictions and to draw comparisons to seated jurors *44 who had relatives convicted of much less serious crimes are not convincing.
2486: The prosecution struck 2486 “based on things she said about her prior jury service ... as well as other statements in her questionnaire.” May 7, 2002 PM Tr. at 39. 2486’s questionnaire and the transcript of what she said during voir dire refer to her participation in an acquittal during her prior jury service, which she attributed to the prosecution’s lack of direct evidence. The record also demonstrates 2486’s reticence to impose the death penalty and suspicion of law enforcement competence. Appellants now contend that the prosecutor’s mere reference to 2486’s statements and questionnaire responses is too vague to qualify as a credible, race-neutral explanation. But the prosecution had no reason to give a more detailed explanation, because appellants did not question this strike in the district court. Given that the record referenced by the prosecutor does in fact reflect an objective basis for the prosecutor’s proffered explanation, we cannot say that the district court plainly erred in finding no racial motivation for this strike.
3143: The prosecution claims that it struck 3143 because 3143 demanded a higher standard of proof to impose the death penalty and was generally hostile to the death penalty. On appeal, appellants offer a lengthy comparison of 3143’s views to those of seated white jurors. The government attempts — with considerable success — to distinguish the seated jurors’ views from 3143’s, but the government also has a more telling point: It is difficult to say that the district court plainly erred in not noticing similarities between those seated jurors and 3143, given that none of the six defendants’ lawyers noticed those similarities during jury selection. We reject appellants’ challenge to the prosecution strike of 3143.
3505: The prosecution explained its strike of 3505 based on 3505’s statements in her questionnaire and during voir dire that the death penalty is “never justified.” Appellants do not argue either that the prosecution’s explanation is false or that other seated jurors had the same views. Appellants argue only that 3505 also claimed to be able to set her personal views aside. That in no way implies that the prosecutor considered race in striking 3505. This challenge could not succeed under any standard of review, much less under plain error review.
In short, appellants have failed to sufficiently undermine the government’s race-neutral explanations for its peremptory strikes of prospective African-American jurors. Moreover, the circumstances of this case strongly suggest that the prosecution did not discriminate on the basis of race. Especially given the deferential standard under which we review challenges to the district court’s decisions on this issue, we reject appellants’ Batson claims.
II.
A week before trial began, the government filed a motion requesting that the district court order appellants to wear stun belts during trial. Gray filed written opposition to the motion and, at a pretrial hearing five days later, all appellants opposed the motion orally. Feb. 27, 2002 PM Tr. at 36-52. The court granted the government’s motion, id. at 57, and issued a memorandum opinion in support of its order, see United States v. Gray, 254 F.Supp.2d 1 (D.D.C.2002). Appellants contend that the district court violated their due process rights when it ordered them to wear stun belts at trial.
The right to a fair trial is a fundamental liberty secured by the due process guaran *45 tee of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments. Estelle v. Williams, 425 U.S. 501, 503 , 96 S.Ct. 1691 , 48 L.Ed.2d 126 (1976); In re Murchison, 349 U.S. 133, 136 , 75 S.Ct. 623 , 99 L.Ed. 942 (1955). Invoking this fair trial right, the Supreme Court has stated that certain government practices during criminal trials prejudice defendants because they offend three “fundamental legal principles,” Deck v. Missouri, 544 U.S. 622, 630 , 125 S.Ct. 2007 , 161 L.Ed.2d 953 (2005): (1) that “the criminal process presumes that the defendant is innocent until proved guilty,” id.; (2) that “the Constitution, in order to help the accused secure a meaningful defense, provides him with a right to counsel,” id. at 631 , 125 S.Ct. 2007 ; and (3) that “judges must seek to maintain a judicial process that is a dignified process,” id. When a government practice is prejudicial because it either inherently or in a particular defendant’s case offends these principles, the Court has forbidden district courts from utilizing the practice unless it is justified by an essential state interest, such as courtroom security or escape prevention, specific to the defendant on trial. See, e.g., Deck, 544 U.S. 622 , 125 S.Ct. 2007 ; Holbrook v. Flynn, 475 U.S. 560 , 106 S.Ct. 1340 , 89 L.Ed.2d 525 (1986); Estelle, 425 U.S. 501 , 96 S.Ct. 1691 .
Accordingly, the Supreme Court has held it is inherently prejudicial to require a criminal defendant to wear jail garb during trial and therefore, because no state interest is ever served by the practice, it violates his fair trial right. See Estelle, 425 U.S. at 505, 512-13 , 96 S.Ct. 1691 . Similarly, the Court has held that visibly restraining a criminal defendant during either a criminal trial or the penalty phase of a capital prosecution is inherently prejudicial and thus is permissible only when justified by an essential state interest specific to the defendant. See Deck, 544 U.S. at 629 , 125 S.Ct. 2007 . In contrast, the Court has held that deployment of security personnel in a courtroom is not inherently prejudicial, and is thus permissible, regardless of the state interest served, as long as it is not actually prejudicial in a particular case. See Holbrook, 475 U.S. at 568-69, 572 , 106 S.Ct. 1340 .
Applying these lessons to the case before us, if the use of stun belts to restrain criminal defendants at trial either is inherently prejudicial or in this case was actually prejudicial to the defendants, the district court had the obligation to determine whether the belts were justified by an essential governmental interest specific to the defendants on trial. Appellants, who argue that stun belts are inherently prejudicial, contend that the district court failed to meet this obligation for three reasons. First, they assert that the district court failed to make an individualized determination of whether a stun belt was needed to restrain each defendant. Second, they argue that the district court was required but refused to hold an evidentiary hearing to resolve factual disputes they raised concerning the visibility of, necessity for, and alternatives to the stun belts. Finally, appellants maintain that the district court erroneously failed to consider how the stun belts would affect appellants’ right to communicate with counsel and assist in their own defense. On review, we hold that, even assuming that stun belts are inherently or were actually prejudicial, the district court did all that was required of it.
In review of a district court’s authorization of an inherently or actually prejudicial governmental practice, we find error only when the district court has abused its discretion. See Deck, 544 U.S. at 629 , 125 S.Ct. 2007 (“[T]he Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments prohibit the use of physical restraints visible to the jury absent a trial *46 court determination, in the exercise of its discretion, that they are justified by a state interest specific to a particular trial.”); United States v. Wardell, 591 F.3d 1279, 1293 (10th Cir.2009); United States v. Durham, 287 F.3d 1297, 1304 (11th Cir.2002).
It is true, as appellants say, that prior to authorizing the use of an inherently or actually prejudicial government practice, the district court must consider each defendant before him and determine whether the practice serves an essential interest in the particular trial at hand. Deck, 544 U.S. at 624, 633 , 125 S.Ct. 2007 ; Holbrook, 475 U.S. at 568-69 , 106 S.Ct. 1340 . However, the district court did just this. In a memorandum opinion, the court carefully analyzed the following factors in its decision to require stun belts:
I) the seriousness of the crimes charged and the severity of the potential sentences; 2) the numerous allegations of threats of violence made by the defendants against witnesses; 3) previous guilty pleas or convictions of a substantial number of the defendants to prior gun charges and/or violent crimes; 4) allegations of gang activity, and the likelihood that associates or rivals of the alleged gang may be present at the trial; 5) the opinion of the U.S. Marshal for this District, particularly as it relates to knowledge of security in this courthouse and of cases of this nature; 6) potential prejudice to the defendants from the use of the stun belts; 7) likelihood of accidental activation of the stun belts; 8) potential danger to the defendants if the belts are activated; 9) the availability and viability of other means to ensure courtroom security; 10) the potential danger for the defendants and others present in the courtroom if other means are used to secure the courtroom; and II) the existence of a clear written policy governing the activation of stun belts worn by defendants.
Gray, 254 F.Supp.2d at 4 . Finding that “[e]ach of the eleven factors” militated in favor of imposing stun belts, the district court concluded that the use of stun belts would “best preserve ... the security of the courtroom.” Id. at 4-6 .
The district court’s memorandum opinion demonstrates that it considered the security concerns presented by the particular defendants at trial before making the determination that stun belts were appropriate. It thoroughly examined factors relevant to each defendant and, in the exercise of its broad discretion, made a determination based on those factors. That appellants shared many of the same characteristics (e.g., they were charged in the same conspiracy, they all faced either the death penalty or life sentences) does not mean the district court failed to consider them individually. And that the district court reached a result with which the defendants disagree does not mean it abused its discretion.
We also reject appellants’ contention that the district court was obligated to hold an evidentiary hearing. When making the discretionary decision whether to authorize an inherently or actually prejudicial government practice at trial, “[a] formal evidentiary hearing may not be required, but if the factual basis for the extraordinary security is controverted, the taking of evidence and finding of facts may be necessary.” United States v. Theriault, 531 F.2d 281, 285 (5th Cir.1976); cf. United States v. Law, 528 F.3d 888, 903-04 (D.C.Cir.2008); United States v. Microsoft Corp., 253 F.3d 34, 101 (D.C.Cir.2001) (holding that district courts are not required to conduct evidentiary hearings pri- or to issuing relief in civil cases when “there are no disputed factual issues regarding the matter of relief’). Although *47 the defense pointed out that due to the short notice of the hearing the evidence before the district court about how stun belts functioned was provided entirely by the government and there had “to be another side of the story with respect to the proffers that [the government has] made,” appellants did not allege any specific inaccuracy or misrepresentation. Feb. 27, 2002 PM Tr. at 44-46. While appellants disputed the government’s contention that other measures would be inadequate to secure the courtroom, id. at 49 , this dispute is, in essence, the ultimate question the district court must answer. See Durham, 287 F.3d at 1304 (“[A] decision to apply leg shackles to the defendant ‘must be subjected to close judicial scrutiny to determine if there was an essential state interest furthered by compelling a defendant to wear shackles and whether less restrictive, less prejudicial methods of restraint were considered or could have been employed.’ ” (quoting Elledge v. Dugger, 823 F.2d 1439, 1451 (11th Cir.1987) (per curiam))). Appellants must make a more specific factual challenge.
The only specific factual matter relevant to the district court’s determination about which the government and appellants meaningfully disagreed was whether the stun belts would be visible. Feb. 27, 2002 PM Tr. at 38, 44, 56-57. However, in its memorandum opinion, the court accepted appellants’ contention that there was some risk the stun belts would be visible. The court then specifically ordered precautions to reduce the visibility of the belts. The opinion states: “Although the Court does not believe that it is likely that any juror will see the stun belts, the Court will take precautions to minimize prejudice to the defendants. The defendants will be brought into the courtroom before the jury is brought in, and will be escorted from the courtroom after the jury has left.” Gray, 254 F.Supp.2d at 4 . Under these circumstances, we hold that the district court acted within its discretion when it declined to hold an evidentiary hearing.
Turning to appellants’ claim that the district court erred by not considering the effect of stun belts on appellants’ ability to confer with their counsel and participate in their defense, we again find no error. As discussed above, whether wearing a stun belt affects a criminal defendant’s ability to confer with counsel and participate in his defense is one of the three questions relevant to the determination of whether, before authorizing such a restraint, a district court must first determine whether it is justified by an essential governmental interest specific to the defendant on trial. When the district court made the appropriate findings to determine that the use of stun belts was so justified in appellants’ case, the court implicitly assumed that the belts did risk negatively affecting appellants’ abilities in this way. It was not required to revisit this question in its substantive decisionmaking process. We also note that while appellants direct us to case law that warns abstractly of the potential harm of stun belts, see, e.g., Durham, 287 F.3d at 1305-06 , they have offered us no evidence stun belts in any way affected their communication with their counsel or their participation in their defense.
Moore also repackages appellants’ arguments that the district court abused its discretion by authorizing stun belts into an objection to the court’s refusal to grant his post-trial motion for a new trial. Before the district court Moore argued that he was entitled to a new trial because “a sufficient factual predicate did not exist” to justify the district court’s authorization of stun belts. Def. Moore’s Mot. for New Trial at 2 (June 8, 2003). He also maintained that a new trial was warranted because his stun belt was activated, outside the presence of the jury. On appeal, *48 Moore argues that he was physically and psychologically injured by the activation of the stun belt and that these injuries interfered with his ability to communicate with his attorney and assist in his own defense.
Moore’s stun belt was activated on November 12, 2002, while trial was ongoing but before trial had started on that day. Nov. 12, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 8. Defense counsel reported the incident to the court and asked the court to consider taking a break. Id. at 97. The court did so and, after reconvening, announced that it had asked a nurse to examine Moore and that the nurse had reported that Moore “fe[lt] that the use of the device was unjustified,” but that he was “physically ... all right” and “was willing to go forward today.” Id. at 98. Moore’s counsel did not challenge these representations or otherwise object further. Id.
We reject Moore’s claims. That Moore’s stun belt was activated does not undermine the district court’s reasoned decision, which we have upheld, to require him to wear a stun belt. Insofar as Moore now claims that the district court violated his constitutional rights not by requiring him to wear the belt but by continuing the trial after the belt’s activation, we again find no error. As noted, the district court acceded to the request for a break by Moore’s counsel, who never disputed the representation by the nurse, who had examined Moore, that Moore was ready to proceed with the trial.
III.
Appellants contend that the district court erred in empaneling an anonymous jury insofar as the prospective jurors’ names, addresses, and places of employment were withheld. Our review is for abuse of discretion, despite appellants’ contention that the de novo standard applies because “constitutional principles are involved.” Appellants’ Br. at 73. The court rejected this view in United States v. Childress, 58 F.3d 693 (D.C.Cir.1995), a case concerning (in part) whether “the use of anonymous juries violates the Constitution,” id. at 702 (emphasis added), because “[djecisions on ... anonymity require a trial court to make a sensitive appraisal of the climate surrounding a trial and a prediction as to the potential security or publicity problems that may arise during the proceedings,” id.
In United States v. Edmond, 52 F.3d 1080 (D.C.Cir.1995), the court advised that “[i]n general, the [district] court should not order the empaneling of an anonymous jury without (a) concluding that there is a strong reason to believe the jury needs protection, and (b) taking reasonable precautions to minimize any prejudicial effects on the defendant and to ensure that his fundamental rights are protected.” Id. at 1090 (first alteration in original) (citation and quotation marks omitted). In determining whether such protection is warranted, the court has found its analysis aided by five factors identified by the Eleventh Circuit:
(1) the defendant's involvement in organized crime, (2) the defendant’s participation in a group with the capacity to harm jurors, (3) the defendant’s past attempts to interfere with the judicial process, (4) the potential that, if convicted, the defendant will suffer a lengthy incarceration and substantial monetary penalties, and (5) extensive publicity that could enhance the possibility that jurors’ names would become public and expose them to intimidation or harassment.
Id. at 1091 (quoting United States v. Ross, 33 F.3d 1507, 1520 (11th Cir.1994)). Finding that all five factors were satisfied here, the district court granted the govern *49 ment’s motion for an anonymous jury. As justification, the district court noted that appellants were charged in the superseding indictment with participating in a drug and RICO conspiracy that involved multiple acts of violence using firearms, in addition to threatening potential witnesses and preventing individuals from cooperating with law enforcement, and that if convicted appellants faced the maximum penalty of death or life imprisonment. Pointing to two Washington Post articles, the district court noted that this case had garnered media attention capable of increasing the potential danger to jurors. See United States v. Gray, No. 00-cr-157, at 12-13 (D.D.C. Feb. 7, 2002) (resolving pretrial motions).
Appellants challenge the district court’s decision to empanel an anonymous jury on three grounds. None is persuasive. First, appellants maintain that the district court’s decision was unfounded because the superseding indictment did not allege any history of juror intimidation. This argument misunderstands and too narrowly construes the requirements set forth in Edmond . As the court explained, “we do not believe such evidence [of jury tampering] is necessary in every case. Rather, we think the District Court ... reasonably could have ascertained a threat to jurors from the charges in the indictment.” Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1091 . Here, the particular allegations of “multiple acts of violence to prevent individuals from contacting law enforcement,” Gray , No. 00-er-157, at 13 (Feb. 7, 2002), were sufficient, viewed in context, for the district court to be concerned about appellants’ capacity to harm jurors and interfere with the judicial process. See Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1091-92 . As support, the district court cited the factual findings set forth in its November 15, 2001 memorandum regarding appellants’ history of interfering with the judicial process, in resolving various discovery and evidentiary disclosure requests. See United States v. Gray, No. 00-cr-157, at 5-12 (D.D.C. Nov. 15, 2001).
Second, appellants maintain that media interest in this criminal prosecution would not endanger jurors’ safety. The district court identified two Washington Post articles covering appellants’ case as a prosecution brought against “Murder, Inc.” Both articles appeared on the front page of the Metro section and described the number of alleged murders as historic and unprecedented. Such evidence of “initial media interest,” United States v. Wilson, 160 F.3d 732, 746 (D.C.Cir.1998), in a high-profile prosecution of a major drug conspiracy involving multiple defendants over a substantial period of time and alleged purposeful and random acts of murder supports the district court’s decision.
Third, appellants suggest that the district court failed to take reasonable precautions to minimize any potential prejudice to them as a consequence of juror anonymity. In granting the motion for an anonymous jury, the district court advised that it would “use a questionnaire and extensive voir dire to examine the jurors’ backgrounds” and, in addition to instructing jurors that appellants were presumed innocent until proven guilty, “provide a neutral explanation to the jurors regarding their anonymity.” Gray , No. 00-er-157, at 13 (Feb. 7, 2002). These precautions were, in fact, taken. A combination of instructions downplaying the significance of jurors’ anonymity and a lengthy voir dire questionnaire can adequately safeguard a defendant’s fundamental rights. See, e.g., Childress, 58 F.3d at 701-02 ; Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1092-93 . Here the neutral instruction, set forth in the jury question *50 naire, 4 informed jurors that they would meet at specific locations to be escorted to and from the courthouse “for [their] convenience as well as to assure both the government and the defense that no one has attempted to contact, communicate, or influence the jury.” For voir dire, the 46-page jury questionnaire — at least double the length of the jury questionnaires that passed muster in Childress and Edmond— provided appellants with “a broad variety of personal information, including the quadrant of the city in which jurors resided, their educational history, marital status, military service, employment status and work description, their spouse’s and children’s employment, and their experience with crime, drugs, and law enforcement.” Edmond, 52 F.3d at 1092 . This sufficed “to compensate for the information denied by juror anonymity” because “[i]t elicited information ... far more extensive and detailed than the generalizations appellants might have drawn from jurors’ mere names and addresses.” Id. Appellants have pointed to no particular example of prejudice.
Accordingly, we hold that the district court, having made the necessary findings under the Edmond factors, did not abuse its discretion in granting the government’s motion for an anonymous jury.
IV.
Appellants raise numerous claims of prosecutorial misconduct, including inflaming the passions and prejudices of the jury, vouching for and bolstering the credibility of witnesses, soliciting testimony to that effect, denying appellants a presumption of innocence through elicitation of improper opinion testimony, and violating appellants’ Sixth Amendment right by introducing evidence that they associated with and often sought the advice of legal counsel. 5 We have reviewed these claims and limit our discussion to those having arguable merit, and concluded that even when appellants’ claims are viewed cumulatively, they fail to show a violation of their due process rights as would entitle them to a new trial.
A. 6
Opening and Closing Arguments. Appellants contend that the prosecutor’s opening argument to the jury was improper and substantially prejudiced the trial proceedings by interfering with the jury’s ability to properly assess the evidence. Our review of allegedly improper prosecutorial arguments is for substantial prejudice where the defendants lodged an objection, but we apply the plain error standard where they failed to object. See United States v. Small, 74 F.3d 1276, 1281 (D.C.Cir.1996); see also United States v. Catlett, 97 F.3d 565, 573 (D.C.Cir.1996). When, as here, the alleged prosecutorial misconduct forms the basis for an unsuccessful motion for a mistrial, our review of the district court’s denial of that motion is for abuse of discretion. See Small, 74 F.3d at 1284 . This court has identified *51 three factors that guide the determination whether improper remarks in closing and opening statements prejudiced a defendant so as to warrant reversal, under either the substantial prejudice or plain error standard: “(1) the closeness of the case; (2) the centrality of the issue affected by the error; and (3) the steps taken to mitigate the error’s effects.” United States v. Beaton, 601 F.3d 588, 598 (D.C.Cir.2010); see also United States v. Gartmon, 146 F.3d 1015, 1026 (D.C.Cir.1998). In addition, this court will presume “that a jury acts with common sense and discrimination when confronted with an improper remark from a prosecutor and owes deference to the district court’s assessment of such a statement’s prejudicial impact on the jury.” United States v. Childress, 58 F.3d 693, 716 (D.C.Cir.1995) (citation and internal quotation marks omitted).
The Supreme Court has described the federal prosecutor as occupying a position of public trust:
The United States Attorney is the representative not of an ordinary party to a controversy, but of a sovereignty whose obligation to govern impartially is as compelling as its obligation to govern at all; and whose interest, therefore, in a criminal prosecution is not that it shall win a case, but that justice shall be done. As such, he is in a peculiar and very definite sense the servant of the law, the twofold aim of which is that guilt shall not escape or innocence suffer. He may prosecute with earnestness and vigor — indeed, he should do so. But, while he may strike hard blows, he is not at liberty to strike foul ones. It is as much his duty to refrain from improper methods calculated to produce a wrongful conviction as it is to use every legitimate means to bring about a just one.
Berger v. United States, 295 U.S. 78, 88 , 55 S.Ct. 629 , 79 L.Ed. 1314 (1935); accord Taylor v. United States, 413 F.2d 1095 (D.C.Cir.1969). It follows from this rigorous standard that, in making opening and closing arguments, a prosecutor has an obligation “to avoid making statements of fact to the jury not supported by proper evidence introduced during trial,” even when the misstatements are made in good faith. Gaither v. United States, 413 F.2d 1061, 1079 (D.C.Cir.1969). Equally well settled, “[a] prosecutor may not make comments designed to inflame the passions or prejudices of the jury.” United States v. Johnson, 231 F.3d 43, 47 (D.C.Cir.2000); see Childress, 58 F.3d at 715 . These general principles apply to, and inform the particular function of, the government’s opening and closing arguments in a criminal trial.
1. “The purpose of an opening statement is to provid[e] background on objective facts while avoiding prejudicial references,” and hence “[t]he prosecutor’s opening statement should be an objective summary of the evidence reasonably expected to be produced, and the prosecutor should not use the opening statement as an opportunity to poison the jury’s mind against the defendant or to recite items of highly questionable evidence.” United States v. Thomas, 114 F.3d 228, 247 (D.C.Cir.1997) (alterations in original) (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). So understood, prosecutorial misconduct exists where the government’s argument touches upon facts prejudicial to the defendant that the government fails to support by admissible evidence at trial. See Small, 74 F.3d at 1283 . On the other hand, a prosecutor’s reference in opening argument to the defendants as “two armed gunmen driving through the streets of D.C., armed to the teeth, dressed for action, carrying a load of dope,” although strong and vivid, was not *52 prosecutorial misconduct because the statement was supported by ample evidence introduced at trial. United States v. Moore, 104 F.3d 377, 390 (D.C.Cir. 1997).
The prosecutor’s opening argument appears to have improperly departed from the standard in Berger and applied to opening arguments by this court. As in Small, 74 F.3d at 1283 , it appears “the prosecutor came close to the line ... in several instances and crossed it in others.” For example, appellants were charged with committing 31 murders, and the prosecutor’s repeated use of the word “execute” at the start of the trial seems to run afoul of the concern expressed by the court in United States v. Jones, 482 F.2d 747, 753 (D.C.Cir.1973), in stating the court could “not condone” the prosecutor’s reference during closing argument to the defendant as an “executioner.” More generally, the opening argument includes a number of instances where the prosecutor went beyond merely providing an “objective summary of the evidence.” Thomas, 114 F.3d at 248 (citation and quotation marks omitted). Such statements referring to the murdered victims as “[wjhere there once was face and life, now there is nothing but empty black space.... Where there once was life, now there’s death,” May 9, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 113, are neither based on evidence nor free from innuendo. Rather, they attempt to appeal to the jury’s emotions by dramatic effect. See Childress, 58 F.3d at 715 . Although other statements listing the 31 murder victims by names and dates on which they were killed are grounded in admissible evidence that the government intended to introduce at trial, this evidentiary nexus became tenuous once the prosecutor began discussing the victims’ first days of school, favorite songs, families, mothers, fathers, coffins, and funerals. Cf. United States v. Dominguez, 835 F.2d 694, 700 (7th Cir.1987). Indeed, the district court recognized that although the prosecutor’s opening argument “was fairly factually stated” it contained “some hyperbole,” May 9, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 127, a disfavored technique, see United States v. North, 910 F.2d 843, 895 (D.C.Cir.1990); United States v. Bouck, 877 F.2d 828, 831 (10th Cir.1989); Dominguez, 835 F.2d at 701 . 7 Although the government is not required to make its opening argument in a rote manner, the court has admonished that “an opening statement to the jury should be carefully phrased to avoid overstatement.” Thomas, 114 F.3d at 248 . It is the government’s opportunity to present the jury with argument based “on objective facts while avoiding prejudicial references.” Id. at 247 (emphases added) (citation and quotation marks omitted).
2. “The sole purpose of closing argument is to assist the jury in analyzing the evidence,” and hence courts have recognized that the prosecutor (as well as defense counsel) is afforded some leeway in “stat[ing] conclusions drawn from the *53 evidence,” United States v. Bailey, 123 F.3d 1381, 1400 (11th Cir.1997) (citation and quotation marks omitted); see also Herring v. New York, 422 U.S. 853, 862 , 95 S.Ct. 2550 , 45 L.Ed.2d 593 (1975); 6 Wayne R. LaFave et al„ Criminal Procedure § 24.7(b) (3d ed.2007). “[I]n closing argument counsel may not refer to, or rely upon, evidence unless the trial court has admitted it.” United States v. Maddox, 156 F.3d 1280, 1282 (D.C.Cir.1998); see also Small, 74 F.3d at 1280 . But the prosecutor may, for instance, draw inferences from evidence that support the government’s theory of the case so long as the prosecutor does not intentionally misrepresent the evidence. See United States v. Deloach, 530 F.2d 990, 1000 (D.C.Cir.1975). Indeed, the prosecutor “may strike hard blows,” but not “foul ones.” Berger, 295 U.S. at 88 , 55 S.Ct. 629 . Because the line between permissible and impermissible arguments will not always be clear, the inquiry is necessarily contextual. See Catlett, 97 F.3d at 572 ; Deloach, 530 F.2d at 999-1000 .
Some statements by the prosecutor during closing argument appear problematic. Illustrative is the prosecutor’s invitation for the jurors to “imagine Scott Downing,” one of the murder victims, in “the last few minutes of [his] life.” The prosecutor told the jury:
Scott Downing is bound with duct tape. It’s pitch black in the back of that U-haul. He does not know what’s going to happen to him. He must — he must wonder if he’s going to live through this night.... He’s taken out of that U-haul. He tries to talk but he can’t. All he can do is mumble. He feels the grass under his body. He feels the gravel of the road.... And then a gun is placed to the back of his head and two bullets.
Nov. 21, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 112-13. On appeal, the government responds, in a footnote, that this narrative “had sympathetic overtones” only “[a]t a superficial level” because the jury heard evidence that Downing had been kidnapped, bound and gagged, and shot by the side of the road. Appellee’s Br. at 96 n. 68. This response, however, misses the fundamental distinction between permissible and impermissible closing arguments. In summarizing evidence supporting conviction, a prosecutor may not take artistic license with the trial evidence, construct a more dramatic version of the events, provide conjecture about a victim’s state of mind, and then defend against a prosecutorial misconduct claim by maintaining the statements are “fact — based.” Sensationalization, loosely drawn from facts presented during the trial, is still a “statement ] of fact to the jury not supported by proper evidence introduced during trial,” Gaither, 413 F.2d at 1079 , clearly “designed to inflame the passions or prejudices of the jury,” Johnson, 231 F.3d at 47 . Although not as egregious as comparing appellants to Hitler, as occurred in North, 910 F.2d at 895 , there are, as every prosecutor knows, limits to striking “hard blows,” Berger, 295 U.S. at 88 , 55 S.Ct. 629 .
3. Nonetheless, assuming, as appellants contend, that prosecutorial misconduct occurred during the arguments to the jury, it did not substantially prejudice appellants. Although the specific arguments to which appellants object appeared at times to address central issues in the case, there was overwhelming evidence of appellants’ guilt of the crimes implicated by the prosecutor’s purported misconduct, and the district court gave general limiting instructions on the arguments of counsel to the jury at the beginning of the trial, after the prosecutor’s opening argument, and during the final instructions to the jury *54 before it began deliberating. See Thomas, 114 F.3d at 249 ; Gaither, 413 F.2d at 1079 .
Appellants’ reliance on United States v. Moore, 375 F.3d 259 (3d Cir.2004), is misplaced. In that case the prosecutor’s closing argument compared the defendant to a 9/11 “terrorist” on the eve of the first anniversary of those events and referenced irrelevant evidence that the defendant was forcing children to sell drugs. Reversal of the convictions, however, was based on the fact that “[i]nadmissible evidence and highly inflammatory statements came rolling in unimpeded” throughout the trial in such a pervasive manner as to undermine the soundness of the jury verdict. Id. at 263-65 . This court applies a similar standard to the prejudice inquiry: “[Ajbsent ‘consistent and repeated misrepresentation’ to influence a jury, ‘[ijsolated passages of a prosecutor’s argument, billed in advance to the jury as a matter of opinion not of evidence, do not reach the same proportions’ ” of severe misconduct; by contrast, “tainted closing arguments that follow on the heels of improper and indecorous prosecutorial conduct during trial are more likely to amount to the type of severe misconduct that justifies reversing a conviction.” North, 910 F.2d at 897 (second alteration in original) (quoting Donnelly v. DeChristoforo, 416 U.S. 637, 646 , 94 S.Ct. 1868 , 40 L.Ed.2d 431 (1974)). But unlike in the Third Circuit case, that standard is not met in the instant case.
Here, the severity of what appellants have identified on appeal as misconduct was limited to relatively small portions of lengthy opening and closing arguments. See United States v. Monaghan, 741 F.2d 1434, 1443 (D.C.Cir.1984). As this court has observed on occasion, “the length of time between the prosecutor’s opening statement and jury deliberations” — seven months in the instant case — “makes it unlikely that specific allegations in the opening profoundly influenced those deliberations.” United States v. Williams-Davis, 90 F.3d 490, 508 (D.C.Cir.1996). Moreover, the district court repeated its general limiting instruction that the statements of counsel are not evidence at the outset of the trial and following the prosecutor’s opening argument, May 9, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 114, and again after closing arguments in giving final instructions to the jury, see Dec. 9, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 72. This is usually a strong ameliorative consideration for prosecutorial misconduct during opening, see Thomas, 114 F.3d at 249 , and closing argument, Childress, 58 F.3d at 716 ; North, 910 F.2d at 897 ; United States v. Hawkins, 595 F.2d 751, 754-55 (D.C.Cir.1978). Although the type of general instruction given here is not a guarantee for the government as necessarily mitigating the prejudicial effects of prosecutorial misconduct in arguments, see North, 910 F.2d at 897 n. 33, this is not a “particularly egregious case[ ]” that would require additional cautionary and limiting instructions, and the defense did not request them, Thomas, 114 F.3d at 249 (citation and quotation marks omitted). Under the circumstances, we conclude, assuming prosecutorial misconduct during opening and closing arguments to the jury, that the misconduct did not impermissibly and prejudicially interfere with the jury’s ability to assess the evidence.
B.
Overview Witness. More problematic is the government’s use of a Federal Bureau of Investigation (“FBI”) agent as an overview witness. FBI Agent Daniel Sparks testified as the first witness in the government’s case-in-chief. His testimony provided an overview of the government’s case, setting forth for the jury the script of the testimony and evidence the jury could expect the government to present in its *55 case-in-chief. Further, he expressed his opinion, based on his training and experience, about the nature of the investigation conducted in this case.
Appellants contend that the use of an overview witness as the government’s first witness improperly permitted the government, over defense objections, to elicit FBI Agent Sparks’s opinions about the charged crimes, the reasons for appellants’ actions in various circumstances, the nature of the charged conspiracy and the relationships between co-conspirators, including the cooperating co-conspirators who testified as government witnesses, and the strength of the evidence — all before the government had presented any such evidence. Appellants suggest that FBI Agent Sparks’s testimony left the impression for the jury that it should accept that the co-conspirator cooperating witnesses would fully and truthfully recount the events and impressions that he outlined in his testimony. Hence, the question is whether such overview testimony is permissible, and even if permissible with respect to the FBI agent’s description of aspects of the preindictment investigation of which he had personal knowledge, whether the overview witness’s testimony here caused substantial prejudice to appellants. Our conclusions are not affected by whether appellants’ challenge is viewed as a question of prosecutorial misconduct, as appellants contend, or a claim of abuse of discretion by the district court in admitting inadmissible evidence, United States v. Watson, 409 F.3d 458, 462 (D.C.Cir.2005); United States v. Microsoft Corp., 253 F.3d 34, 101 (D.C.Cir.2001).
Until recently this court had not addressed the appropriateness of a government overview witness at the outset of its case, but had identified the “obvious dangers posed by summarization of evidence” by a non-expert witness called by the government during its case-in-chief in United States v. Lemire, 720 F.2d 1327, 1348 (D.C.Cir.1983). The analysis in Lemire is instructive. In that case, the government called toward the end of its case-in-chief an FBI agent, who was also a certified public accountant, “to summarize the evidence about the complex cash flow through offshore companies” in a prosecution for wire fraud, interstate transportation of proceeds of fraud, and conspiracy. Id. at 1346 . The FBI agent “used four summary charts to re-examine th[e] evidence” already presented by the government “in a more organized fashion,” and “prefaced each piece of his testimony by identifying the document in evidence from which he obtained the information.” Id. Upon defense objection that the FBI agent was an improper witness under Federal Rule of Evidence 602, 8 the district court conducted a “full voir dire examination” before allowing the FBI agent to testify, “subject to limiting instructions that his testimony was explanatory and was not itself substantive evidence.” Id. at 1346^47.
On appeal, this court held that the district court did not abuse its discretion in permitting the government to use a non-expert summary witness because
neither Rule 602’s literal language nor its overriding purpose was violated. [The FBI agent] did not testify about any of the events underlying the trial: he only summarized evidence about cash flows that several prior witnesses had *56 already offered. As to that evidence, he testified from his personal knowledge of the transcripts and exhibits.
Id. at 1347 . The court also noted that other courts had “permitted such summaries under Rule 1006, allowing for admission into evidence of summaries of documents too voluminous to be conveniently examined in court” even if the documents were already in evidence. Id. 9 That rule aside, the court observed that “[t]here is an established tradition that permits a summary of evidence to be put before the jury with proper limiting instructions.” Id. (citations and quotation marks omitted). Nonetheless, this court concluded that the claim of unfair prejudice “raises more troubling concerns.” Id. at 1347-48 . Initially the court noted that the non-expert summary evidence was cumulative and subject to challenge under Rule 403 as more unfairly prejudicial than probative. Id. at 1348 . It also acknowledged that a non-expert summary witness “can help the jury organize and evaluate evidence which is factually complex and fragmentally revealed in the testimony of a multitude of witnesses throughout the trial.” Id. But the court pointed to three “obvious dangers posed by summarization of evidence.” Id.
First, the jury might treat the summary evidence as additional or corroborative evidence that unfairly strengthens the government’s case. The court was satisfied that for a summary witness there were adequate safeguards, including cross-examination and limiting instructions, that could be fashioned by the district court to prevent the jury from treating the summary evidence as substantive proof. The court emphasized that the defendant’s challenge to the personal knowledge of the summary witness was not an issue because the witness “had carefully reviewed the charts and ensured that they reflected information contained in documents already in evidence.” Id. at 1349 (emphasis added); see also United States v. Kayode, 254 F.3d 204, 212 (D.C.Cir.2001).
Second, summary witness testimony posed the risk that otherwise inadmissible evidence might be introduced. This concern was ameliorated, the court concluded, because “the judge, prosecutor and defense counsel all heard the evidence upon which [the witness] based his summary” and hence “he was unlikely to stray from that evidentiary base without quickly being stopped.” Lemire, 720 F.2d at 1349 n. 33. Indeed, the court noted, “at one point the witness inadvertently started to discuss material not in evidence, and the prosecutor prevented him from doing so.” Id.
Third, a summary witness might permit the government to have an extra closing argument. The court noted, however, that the summary witness had made no “controversial inferences or pronounced judgment” and thus the district court had no need to interfere with the examination on this ground. See id. at 1349-50 .
Other circuits to address the use of overview witnesses have reached uniformly negative conclusions in view of the serious dangers of prejudice to a fair trial. The Court of Appeals for the First, Second, and Fifth Circuits have held that the use of overview testimony by the government is a “troubling development” for this very *57 reason. United States v. Casas, 356 F.3d 104, 120 (1st Cir.2004); see also United States v. Garcia, 413 F.3d 201 (2d Cir.2005); United States v. Griffin, 324 F.3d 330 (5th Cir.2003). As the First Circuit explained in describing the practice as “inherently problematic”:
[S]uch testimony raises the very real specter that the jury verdict could be influenced by statements of fact or credibility assessments in the overview but not in evidence. There is also the possibility that later testimony might be different than what the overview witness assumed; objections could be sustained or the witness could change his or her story. Overview testimony by government agents is especially problematic because juries may place greater weight on evidence perceived to have the imprimatur of the government.
Casas, 356 F.3d at 119-20 (internal citation omitted).
Approaching the question from a different perspective, the Second Circuit prohibited overview witnesses from giving lay opinions about anticipated evidence without satisfying the three requirements of Federal Rule of Evidence 701 — that the witness’s testimony (1) be based on his personal perception, (2) be helpful to the jury, and (3) not be based on scientific, technical, or other specialized knowledge. See Garcia, 413 F.3d at 211-17 . As regards the second factor, the Second Circuit dismissed the notion that an overview witness aided the jury by framing how the government’s case-in-chief will unfold, observing that “[t]he law already provides an adequate vehicle for the government to ‘help’ the jury gain an overview of anticipated evidence as well as a preview of its theory of each defendant’s culpability: the opening statement.” Id. at 214 . To the extent the summary witness testified to the ultimate question of fact, the Second Circuit noted that “courts should be wary of opinion testimony whose ‘sole function is to answer the same question that the trier of fact is to consider in its deliberations,’ ” id. at 210 (quoting 4 Weinstein’s Federal Evidence § 701.05 (2d ed.2004), and citing Fed. R. Evid. 704 advisory committee’s notes to 1972 proposed rules), observing that it had previously held in two other cases that it was “error to allow law enforcement witnesses to express opinions as to [the] defendants’ culpability based on the totality of information gathered in the course of their investigations,” id. at 211 (citing United States v. Grinage, 390 F.3d 746, 749-51 (2d Cir.2004); United States v. Dukagjini, 326 F.3d 45, 54 (2d Cir.2003)). The court held that “the foundation requirements of Rule 701 do not permit a law enforcement agent to testify to an opinion ... based [on investigative work] and formed if the agent’s reasoning process depended, in whole or in part, on his specialized training and experience.” Id. at 216.
This court recently observed that the First, Second, and Fifth Circuits “have viewed agents’ hearsay-laden or hearsay-based overview testimony at the onset of trial as a rather blatant prosecutorial attempt to circumvent hearsay rules.” United States v. Smith, 640 F.3d 358, 367 (D.C.Cir.2011) (citations omitted). In Smith , the defendant was charged with drug and firearm offenses. An FBI agent testified at the start of the trial that Smith and a co-conspirator “were working together putting their money together and going to New York to buy heroin.” Id. at 366 . On appeal, Smith contended that the overview testimony — the single sentence— was based on inadmissible hearsay and thus violated Federal Rules of Evidence (“FRE”) 701 and 802. Assuming the same prohibition against- inadmissible hearsay testimony by an overview witness applied as in the other circuits, the court conclud *58 ed that the FBI agent’s objected-to single-sentence testimony was not based on otherwise inadmissible hearsay because the underlying statements were either admissions of a party-opponent or co-conspirator statements under FRE 801(d)(2), see id. at 367-68 , and if error, was harmless, see id. at 368 . The court reached the same ultimate conclusion with respect to the agent’s lay opinion testimony about the meaning of slang used by Smith and his co-conspirators during recorded conversations; although the lay opinion testimony was inadmissible under FRE 701 because it was based on specialized knowledge gained from working on other drug investigations, id. at 365 (citing United States v. Wilson, 605 F.3d 985, 1026 (D.C.Cir.2010)), the error was harmless because the agent would have qualified as an expert under FRE 702 and offered the same testimony, id. at 366.
The district court is ordinarily afforded broad discretion to determine the manner in which evidence will be received. See Huddleston v. United States, 485 U.S. 681, 690 , 108 S.Ct. 1496 , 99 L.Ed.2d 771 (1988). But in Lemire , this court concluded that “the pervasiveness of the[ ] dangers [it had identified with summarization of evidence] requires that we review the use of a summary witness closely.” 720 F.2d at 1348 . Indeed, it was only “under appropriate circumstances with appropriate instructions” that this court “in the past approved the use of summary witnesses ... in jury trials.” Microsoft Corp., 253 F.3d at 101 . We accordingly review FBI Agent Sparks’s overview testimony closely, aware that there was no voir dire before his testimony and a limiting instruction was given to the jury only after he completed his testimony, and then only with regard to opinions, not otherwise described, that he may have offered while testifying.
All three dangers identified by this court in Lemire are evident from the record in this case: FBI Agent Sparks testified about evidence not yet presented while opining that the cooperating witnesses would present truthful evidence because they were insiders and were guilty themselves, strengthening the government’s yet-to-be presented case and offering inadmissible evidence while providing the government with a second opening argument. For example, upon being shown a map of the District of Columbia, FBI Agent Sparks confirmed that the 31 circles located on the map accurately reflected the locations of the 31 charged murders, and that murders clustered in certain locations occurred toward the beginning of the charged conspiracy. See May 15, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 68-69. But no such evidence was before the jury and FBI Agent Sparks did not purport to testify from personal knowledge of each murder. At other points, FBI Agent Sparks referred to witness testimony that was never presented to the jury during the course of the trial. In one exemplary circumstance, FBI Agent Sparks testified on redirect examination that co-conspirator Erskine Hart-well had described his role in the conspiracy as supplying drugs and introducing Moore and Gray to Oscar Veal. See May 16, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 56. When asked by the district court whether this information was “based on what [Hartwell] told [him],” FBI Agent Sparks agreed, prompting the district court to state: “The jury is going to hear his testimony.” Id. at 57. Yet when asked only moments later by the prosecutor “if Erskine Hartwell will be a witness in this case or not,” FBI Agent Sparks replied that he “d[idn’t] know for sure if [Hartwell] will.” Id. at 59. From portions of the transcript submitted by the parties to this court, there is no indication that Hartwell testified at trial and hence “later testimony ... differe[d] [from] what *59 the overview witness assumed.” Casas, 356 F.3d at 119-20 . The prosecutor thus impermissibly invited the jury to “rely upon the alleged facts in the [overview] as if [those] facts had already been proved.” Griffin, 324 F.3d at 349 (alterations in original) (citation and internal quotation marks omitted). 10
Likewise, FBI Agent Sparks impermissibly commented on the strength of the government’s yet-to-be introduced evidence, vouched for the credibility of witnesses the government intended to call at trial, and gave his personal opinion as to guilt or innocence. Weighing trial evidence and making “[determinations of credibility are for the jury,” United States v. Boyd, 54 F.3d 868, 871 (D.C.Cir.1995) (citation and quotation marks omitted); see also Jackson v. Virginia, 443 U.S. 307, 319 , 99 S.Ct. 2781 , 61 L.Ed.2d 560 (1979), as is “drawing] the ultimate conclusion of guilt or innocence,” United States v. Gaudin, 515 U.S. 506, 514 , 115 S.Ct. 2310 , 132 L.Ed.2d 444 (1995); see also Garcia, 413 F.3d at 210-11 ; United States v. Peterson, 483 F.2d 1222, 1238 (D.C.Cir.1973). FBI Agent Sparks’s testimony crossed the line in a number of instances. For example, he testified that it was important, in his view, to use cooperating witnesses in this case because it was “the only way” to gain “access to the inside information.” May 15, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 25. Acknowledging that cooperating witnesses were “themselves ... criminals[,] unfortunately,” he further testified that the cooperating co-conspirator witnesses nonetheless
know what’s going on, they have the information, they’re the eyewitnesses, ear-witnesses, they hear what these guys are talking about after they commit a murder, they witness a murder, they know where the stash locations are fer drugs---- [T]hey are present when drug deals are done. They have been with these people day in and day out, and you need that kind of testimony. That’s the only way to put these kind[s] of cases together.
Id. He also testified that the goal in a debriefing session was to “[g]et[ ] complete and truthful information” and that it was important to “try and verify” the information “[j]ust to make sure the person is truthful, that they are complete.” Id. at 15, 16. On redirect examination, FBI Agent Sparks reinforced the notion that the cooperating witnesses were guilty of committing crimes in their capacity as the defendants’ co-conspirators:
Q: You were asked a lot of questions on cross-examination about cooperating witnesses, and you continually referred to them as criminals.
A: Yes.
Q: Any doubt in your mind about that?
A: None whatsoever.
May 16, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 59.
All of this was opinion testimony that went far beyond “constructing the sequence of events in the investigation ... to provide background information and to explain how and why the agents even came to be involved with [a] particular defendant.” United States v. Flores-de-Jesús, 569 F.3d 8, 19 (1st Cir.2009) (citations and internal quotation marks omitted). Instead, these statements suggested both directly and indirectly to the jury that an experienced and highly trained FBI agent had determined that the cooperating co-conspirators who would testify at trial were to be treated as credible witnesses and that appellants were guilty of the charged crimes. The clear implication was that the government had selected only *60 truthful co-conspirator witnesses for the pre-indictment investigation, from whom the jury would hear during the trial.
In sum, FBI Agent Sparks’s testimony was improper in offering his non-expert opinions about the charged conspiracy and appellants, vouching for the reliability of the investigation and of the cooperating co-conspirator witnesses the government planned to have testify at trial, and discussing evidence that had yet to be introduced. Given the dearth of taped conversations and videotaped evidence — none as to Moore — and almost exclusive reliance on co-conspirator cooperators’ testimony, the government understandably might seek at the outset to enhance its case in the jury’s mind with the imprimatur of an FBI agent. But the prosecutor went too far in questioning, allowing FBI Agent Sparks to act as an expert witness with respect to gang investigations and to refer to evidence that would never be introduced at trial. The district court, in turn, failed to sustain appropriate defense objections to FBI Agent Sparks’s testimony that purported to offer opinion testimony and to confirm government evidence that had yet to be introduced.
Because a witness presenting an overview of the government’s case-in-chief runs the serious risk of permitting the government to impermissibly “paint a picture of guilt before the evidence has been introduced,” Griffin, 324 F.3d at 349 , and may never be introduced, see Flores-de-Jesús, 569 F.3d at 17 , we join the circuits that have addressed the issue in condemning the practice. Casas, 356 F.3d at 119 (1st Cir.2004); Garcia, 413 F.3d at 214 (2d Cir.); Griffin, 324 F.3d at 349 (5th Cir.2003). See generally 6 Weinstein’s Federal Evidence §§ 1006.04[3], 1006.08[4]. The use of overview witnesses exacerbates the “obvious dangers” this court identified in Lemire in the use of non-expert summarization evidence. Overview testimony offers an opportunity to “poison the jury’s mind against the defendant or to recite items of highly questionable evidence.” Thomas, 114 F.3d at 248 (citation and internal quotation marks omitted). Avoidance of those dangers is largely beyond the ability of the district court, much less the defense, to prevent. As the record here demonstrates, a trained law enforcement officer is likely to go as far as the questions allow, presenting a picture for the jury of a solid prosecution case based on his opinion of the strength and credibility of the witnesses the government plans to call to testify at trial for reasons made persuasive in view of the officer’s training and experience. See, e.g., May 15, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 15-16 (prosecutor asking FBI Agent Sparks why truthful information is important). After-the-fact limiting instructions can, at best, mitigate prejudice, rather than invariably eliminate its effects completely. See United States v. Curley, 639 F.3d 50, 57 (2d Cir.2011); Woodcock v. Amaral, 511 F.2d 985, 994 (1st Cir.1974). The view of the government’s case has been implanted in the mind of the jury by an agent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation who worked on the case — he should know!
The government remains free to call as its first witness a law enforcement officer who is familiar with the pre-indictment investigation or was otherwise personally involved, where permissible under the Rules of Evidence and consistent with constitutional guarantees. See Old Chief v. United States, 519 U.S. 172, 186-88 , 117 S.Ct. 644 , 136 L.Ed.2d 574 (1997); United States v. Curtis, 481 F.3d 836, 838 (D.C.Cir.2007). Such a witness may, for example, be able to provide relevant background information as to the investigation’s duration and scope or the methods of surveillance, based on personal knowledge. *61 See Flores-de-Jesús, 569 F.3d at 19 . Put another way, a law enforcement officer may “describe a complicated government program in terms that do not address witness credibility,” but he may not offer “tendentious testimony.” Griffin, 324 F.3d at 349 . Thus, FBI Agent Sparks could properly describe, based on his personal knowledge, how the gang investigation in this case was initiated, what law enforcement entities were involved, and what investigative techniques were used. See, e.g., May 13, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 50-51. What he could not do was present lay opinion testimony about investigative techniques in general and opine on what generally works and what does not, as illustrated by informants who pled guilty. Neither could he anticipate evidence that the government would hope to introduce at trial about the charged offenses or express an opinion, directly or indirectly, about the strength of that evidence or the credibility of any of the government’s potential witnesses, including the cooperating co-conspirators.
Although the question is close, we conclude for the following reasons that the prejudice resulting from the admission of FBI Agent Sparks’s overview testimony, to the extent it was inappropriate, was ameliorated: (1) Each instance of FBI Agent Sparks’s improper testimony identified by appellants was later confirmed by admissible evidence at trial, see Appellee’s Br. at 105-07; supra note 10; see also Griffin, 324 F.3d at 350 . (2) Appellants’ defense was limited to cross-examining testifying cooperating co-conspirators and other government witnesses (such as Margarita Simmons, an eyewitness to the murder of her son, Richard Simmons, see infra Part XXIII.B), see United States v. Garcia-Morales, 382 F.3d 12, 18 (1st Cir.2004). (3) The district court instructed at the conclusion of FBI Agent Sparks’s testimony in the government’s case-in-chief that the jury was to disregard any opinion testimony he offered, see May 16, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 90. (4) There was overwhelming evidence of appellants’ guilt, see, e.g., infra Parts VII, XVIII, XXIII.B. And as to some of his impermissible opinion testimony, FBI Agent Sparks might have qualified as an expert, see Smith, 640 F.3d at 366 . Accordingly, the error did not “affect!] the outcome of the district court proceeding!],” United States v. Sumlin, 271 F.3d 274, 281 (D.C.Cir.2001) (citation and quotation marks omitted), and hence appellants are not entitled to reversal of their convictions because of improper overview testimony by FBI Agent Sparks.
The inauspicious beginning of the government’s case-in-chief is easily avoided in the future. No less than the court, the Department of Justice recognizes the high standard set for the prosecution by the Supreme Court in Berger, 295 U.S. at 88 , 55 S.Ct. 629 . Similarly, this court’s long-held view of the purpose of the opening statement to the jury, namely to allow the prosecutor the opportunity to provide the jury with an objective overview of the evidence that the government intends to introduce at trial, see Thomas, 114 F.3d at 247-48 , has long afforded the prosecutor the opportunity to do that for which the prosecutor improperly used FBI Agent Sparks, see Garcia, 413 F.3d at 214 . This court now having made clear the exacerbated “obvious dangers” of the overview witness testifying about evidence yet to be admitted before the jury affords all parties clear direction to avoid unnecessary risks — for the prosecutor of an overturned conviction, for the defense of an unfair trial, and for the district court of having to retry a case.
C.
Much for the reasons stated in the government’s brief, appellants’ litany of prose *62 cutorial misconduct claims do not, in their cumulative effect, warrant reversal. In this regard, we have considered the probable aggregate effect of any impermissible prosecutorial conduct that may have occurred on the jury’s ability to judge the evidence fairly. See United States v. Celis, 608 F.3d 818, 847 (D.C.Cir.2010) (citing Egan v. United States, 287 F. 958, 971 (D.C.Cir.1923)); see also Thomas, 114 F.3d at 246 . In addressing only two of appellants’ claims of prosecutorial misconduct, we implicitly have indicated that any other prosecutorial misconduct that may have occurred was minor in itself and had no prejudicial effect in view of limiting instructions. For example, appellants maintain that the prosecutor impermissibly vouched for the credibility of the government’s witnesses, particularly co-conspirator cooperating witnesses, during closing rebuttal argument. Although statements such as “[tjhey’re telling the truth about their experiences,” Dec. 4, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 86, impermissibly express the personal opinion of the prosecutor, they were responses, based on evidence introduced at trial, to appellants’ attacks on the credibility of the government’s witnesses during closing argument. See United States v. Young, 470 U.S. 1, 17-19 , 105 S.Ct. 1038 , 84 L.Ed.2d 1 (1985); United States v. Brown, 508 F.3d 1066, 1075-76 (D.C.Cir.2007); United States v. Robinson, 59 F.3d 1318, 1323 (D.C.Cir.1995). The prosecutor emphasized to the jurors, however, that it was their province to weigh the credibility of witnesses regardless of the arguments of counsel. See Dec. 4, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 69; cf. United States v. Nnanyererugo, 39 F.3d 1205, 1209 (D.C.Cir.1994). Importantly, the district court instructed the jury that it alone determined “the weight, the effect and the value of the evidence and the credibility of the witnesses,” which evidence did not include counsels’ opening and closing arguments. See Dec. 9, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 70, 72; see also Childress, 58 F.3d at 716; North, 910 F.2d at 897 ; United States v. Hawkins, 595 F.2d 751, 754-55 (D.C.Cir.1978).
Other claims of prosecutorial misconduct, including appellants’ arguments relating to Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 , 83 S.Ct. 1194 , 10 L.Ed.2d 215 (1963), and the federal bribery statute, 18 U.S.C. § 201 (c)(2), see infra Parts VI and XII, are without merit. Similarly, appellants’ claim that the prosecutor, by eliciting testimony that appellants had sought the advice of a certain named attorney to defend against criminal charges not at issue in this case, inappropriately implied that appellants were guilty because they took steps to retain this counsel, thus penalizing appellants for exercising their constitutional right to counsel under the Sixth Amendment, is without merit. See United States ex rel. Macon v. Yeager, 476 F.2d 613 (3d Cir.1973). Although some testimony might impermissibly have revealed privileged attorney-client conversations, an argument appellants do not make, there was not a direct statement by the prosecutor, as in Yeager , that appellants retained counsel in the instant case because they were guilty. Cf. United States v. Biddy, 509 F.2d 428, 442-45 (D.C.Cir.1974) (en banc). Rather, the evidence demonstrated that the attorney linked several members of the conspiracy, including Moore and Gray.
Having considered all of appellants’ claims of prosecutorial misconduct, we conclude, in light of the district court’s limiting instructions regarding statements of counsel and regarding particular arguments or evidence, and the overwhelming evidence of appellants’ guilt insofar as any prosecutorial misconduct is concerned, that the cumulative effect of any prosecutorial misconduct of which appellants complain did not affect the outcome of the trial, and *63 therefore, was harmless. See Kotteakos v. United States, 328 U.S. 750, 776 , 66 S.Ct. 1239 , 90 L.Ed. 1557 (1946); see also Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 24 , 87 S.Ct. 824 , 17 L.Ed.2d 705 (1967).
V.
At trial, the government introduced evidence about Moore’s role in an uncharged drug-trafficking conspiracy run by Rayful Edmond; Nunn’s role in an uncharged conspiracy with Phyllis Webster; the apprehension of Rodman Lee, who was not a charged co-conspirator, while he was with Gray, and the contemporaneous discovery in Lee’s car of cocaine and cocaine base, none of which the government claims pertained to the charged conspiracy; several uncharged murders and shootings; and Gray’s uncharged conduct as a juvenile and others’ perceptions of Gray as a leader while he was detained at the Oak Hill Juvenile Facility. Appellants argue that this evidence was irrelevant and highly prejudicial, admitted in violation of Rules 404(b) and 403 of the Federal Rules of Evidence. The cumulative effect of these evidentiary errors, appellants claim, deprived them of due process of law.
Rule 404(b) declares inadmissible evidence of “other crimes, wrongs, or acts ... to prove the character of a person in order to show action in conformity therewith.” Fed.R.Evid. 404(b). But not all evidence of uncharged crimes, wrongs, or acts is barred by this rule. When evidence of such acts is “intrinsic” to the charged crime, it is not evidence of “other” acts and is thus wholly unregulated by Rule 404(b). See United States v. Alexander, 331 F.3d 116, 124-27 (D.C.Cir.2003); United States v. Bowie, 232 F.3d 923, 927-28 (D.C.Cir.2000); United States v. Badru, 97 F.3d 1471, 1473-75 (D.C.Cir.1996). “Intrihsic” evidence encompasses evidence that is either “of an act that is part of the charged offense” or is of “acts performed contemporaneously with the charged crime ... if they facilitate the commission of the charged crime.” Bonne, 232 F.3d at 929 .
Rule 403 provides that even evidence otherwise admissible “may be excluded if its probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues, or misleading the jury, or by considerations of undue delay, waste of time, or needless presentation of cumulative evidence.” Fed.R.Evid. 403. Rule 403 requires the district court to engage in “on-the-spot balancing of probative value and prejudice” and to exclude even factually relevant evidence when it fails the balancing test. Sprint/United Mgmt. Co. v. Mendelsohn, 552 U.S. 379, 384 , 128 S.Ct. 1140 , 170 L.Ed.2d 1 (2008) (quoting 1 S. Childress & M. Davis, Federal Standards of Review § 4.02, at 4-16 (3d ed.1999)) (internal quotation marks omitted).
Appellants claim that the district court should have barred the government from introducing the evidence of uncharged conduct in question because it was not “intrinsic” to the charged conduct and was therefore evidence of “other crimes, wrongs, or acts” barred by Rule 404(b). Appellants also contend that such evidence was erroneously admitted under Rule 403 because its risk of prejudice to the defendants substantially outweighed its probative value. Although appellants are likely correct that the district erred by permitting the government to introduce the evidence of uncharged conduct at issue, particularly of Moore’s role in the Rayful Edmond conspiracy, Nunn’s role in the Phyllis Webster conspiracy, and Gray’s unlawful conduct as a juvenile, we *64 hold that any error was not reversible. 11 Even assuming constitutional error, we will not reverse a conviction if the error was “harmless beyond a reasonable doubt.” Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 24 , 87 S.Ct. 824 , 17 L.Ed.2d 705 (1967). In light of the amount and strength of the evidence the government presented of the charged crimes, we find that any potential error was harmless.
VI.
In 1996, Gray murdered Ricardo Bailey. Gray did so at the request of Rodman Lee. Gray and Lee were arrested while fleeing the scene of the murder, and a search of Lee’s van revealed approximately five kilograms of cocaine hidden in a secret compartment. Lee pled guilty to the ensuing drug charges. Documents related to that plea show that Lee was a major drug dealer, that Lee was senior to Gray in status as a drug dealer, and that Lee was transporting most of the cocaine in his van to a distributor who was not implicated in the Moore and Gray conspiracy.
Appellants claim that the government’s failure to disclose the information in Lee’s plea documents to the defense violated the government’s obligations under Brady v. Maryland, 373 U.S. 83 , 83 S.Ct. 1194 , 10 L.Ed.2d 215 (1963).
“There are three components of a true Brady violation: The evidence at issue must be favorable to the accused, either because it is exculpatory, or because it is impeaching; that evidence must have been suppressed by the State, either willfully or inadvertently; and prejudice must have ensued.” Strickler v. Greene, 527 U.S. 263, 281-82 , 119 S.Ct. 1936 , 144 L.Ed.2d 286 (1999). Appellants’ Brady claim fails because some of this information was not favorable to appellants, and because the government’s failure to disclose the remainder did not cause prejudice.
The evidence showing that Lee was a higher-level drug dealer than Gray would not have aided appellants. The government itself contended that Lee was “at a higher level in terms of drugs than Kevin Gray.” May 9, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 69. According to the government, it was Lee’s status as a major cocaine supplier that motivated Gray to murder Bailey on Lee’s behalf.
With respect to the evidence that the drugs in Lee’s van were destined for *65 someone outside the Moore and Gray conspiracy, appellants’ Brady claim fails because they cannot show prejudice. To show prejudice, appellants must demonstrate “a reasonable probability that, had the evidence been disclosed to the defense, the result of the proceeding would have been different.” United States v. Pettiford, 627 F.3d 1223, 1227 (D.C.Cir.2010) (quoting Strickler, 527 U.S. at 280 , 119 S.Ct. 1936 ). “The defendant bears the burden of showing a reasonable probability of a different outcome.” United States v. Johnson, 519 F.3d 478, 488 (D.C.Cir.2008) (citing Strickler, 527 U.S. at 291 , 119 S.Ct. 1936 ).
The evidence that the drugs in Lee’s van were not destined for the Moore and Gray organization would have been of minimal value to the defense. In its opening statement, the government mentioned the drugs’ destination only in passing, during a lengthy description of Gray murdering Bailey. See May 9, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 71. The government made no other claims about those particular drugs’ intended recipient, and the drugs’ destination was not material to the government’s ease. Rather, the drugs were significant simply because their presence corroborated the government’s claim that Lee was a major drug dealer for whom Gray would be willing to kill others.
Moreover, the evidence that Lee had distributors outside the Moore and Gray organization would not have materially aided appellants. The defense had already shown that members of the Moore and Gray conspiracy were also involved in other drug rings. Corroboration of that fact would have had little importance, because the government did not deny that Lee, Gray, or others had illegal business not directly related to Moore and Gray’s conspiracy. Criminals may of course participate in more than one conspiracy. See, e.g., United States v. Marino, 277 F.3d 11, 25 (1st Cir.2002); see also United States v. Childress, 58 F.3d 693 , 711 n. 3 (D.C.Cir.1995) (“[T]he fact that certain conspirators engage in independent drug transactions does not on its own negate the existence of a single conspiracy.”). The fact that some appellants did so does not contradict the overwhelming evidence that Moore and Gray continued to collaborate on crimes long after the defense claimed they had parted ways. See Pettiford, 627 F.3d at 1227 (“The court ... has a responsibility to evaluate the impact of the undisclosed evidence not in isolation, but in light of the rest of the trial record.” (citation and quotation marks omitted)).
The government did not violate Brady with respect to the Lee evidence.
VII.
In a superseding indictment filed on November 17, 2000, appellants and other indicted and unindicted co-conspirators were charged with participating in a drug and RICO conspiracy jointly led by Moore and Gray for over 12 years, from approximately 1988 through March 2000. Under the five-year statute of limitations applicable to these charges, see 18 U.S.C. § 3282 , the government had to prove that Moore and Gray’s joint leadership continued into the limitations period, beginning November 17,1995. 12 See United States v. Seher, 562 F.3d 1344, 1364 (11th Cir.2009). Applying well-settled law that the court must accept the jury’s guilty verdict if “any rational trier of fact could have found the essential elements of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt,” we affirm the judgment *66 of conviction on these charges. United States v. Dykes, 406 F.3d 717, 721 (D.C.Cir.2005) (citation and quotation marks omitted).
Appellants contend that there was insufficient evidence for the jury to find beyond a reasonable doubt that Moore and Gray jointly led a unified conspiracy through November 17, 1995. They maintain that the evidence showed there were multiple conspiracies — essentially that Moore and Gray split up their drug operations in the 1993-1994 time frame and thereafter operated separate conspiracies in different sectors of the city that came into contact with each other only casually. See generally United States v. Tarantino, 846 F.2d 1384, 1391-93 (D.C.Cir.1988). Rather than maintain that the government failed to prove the traditional elements for a single conspiracy — common goal, interdependence, and, to a lesser extent, overlap of participants, see id. at 1393 — appellants identify the “crux of this issue” to be whether the government presented sufficient evidence that “Moore and Gray jointly led the charged conspiracies and [the continuing criminal enterprise] within the statute of limitations periods,” Reply Br. at 88, as charged.
As support for their position, appellants point to the evidence describing Moore’s relocation from the Southeast to Northeast quadrant of Washington, D.C., prior to November 17, 1995, leaving Gray to operate separately in Southeast. An examination of this evidence shows that it falls short of undermining the jury’s verdict that Moore and Gray’s joint leadership of a single conspiracy continued after Moore’s move. For instance, appellants emphasize Raymond Sanders’s testimony that Moore “dropped out of Southeast” in 1993 or 1994 and was not seen in Southeast thereafter. See May 20, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 126-27. The jury, however, could reasonably have credited other testimony that Moore continued to have dealings in Southeast. See United States v. Eppolito, 543 F.3d 25, 54 (2d Cir.2008); see also Dykes, 406 F.3d at 721 . Moreover, “shifting emphases in the location of operations do[es] not necessarily require a finding of more than one conspiracy.” United States v. Jones, 482 F.3d 60, 72 (2d Cir.2006). As in United States v. Carson, we reject the argument that multiple conspiracies can be shown through “attempts artificially to split one conspiracy into two based simply on geographic lines.” 455 F.3d 336, 376 (D.C.Cir.2006) (citation and internal quotation marks omitted).
The central issue is whether Moore’s and Gray’s actions following Moore’s relocation to Northeast are inconsistent with the jury’s finding that they continued to jointly lead the charged conspiracy past November 17, 1995. On this point, appellants maintain that Moore’s relationship with Gray changed, as shown by evidence that, according to Sanders, after the move Moore supplied Gray with cocaine only “a few times.” May 20, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 138. This mischaracterizes Sanders’s testimony. On the previous page of the transcript of his testimony Sanders admits that he had no knowledge of who was regularly supplying cocaine to Gray, and that Gray told him of “a few times” that Moore had supplied cocaine. Id. at 137-38. This is not the same as evidence that Moore supplied Gray’s operations in Southeast only a few times. Further, Maurice Andrews testified that Moore was Gray’s primary supplier of large quantities of cocaine starting in 1995 and continuing at least into 1996. See July 9, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 54-56; see also Dykes, 406 F.3d at 721 . There was also evidence that Gray may have initially obtained cocaine from Ronald Alfred, and Frank Howard confirmed a separate con *67 spiraey between himself, Alfred, and Rod-man Lee, see July 17, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 135. Such evidence is neither factually nor legally inconsistent with a finding that Moore and Gray continued to lead the charged conspiracy together. Here, much as in United States v. Maynard, 615 F.3d 544, 554 (D.C.Cir.2010), as regards “[t]he two purportedly separate conspiracies ..., each comprises the core conspiracy charged.” And “the fact that certain conspirators engage in independent drug transactions does not on its own negate the existence of a single conspiracy.” United States v. Childress, 58 F.3d 693 , 711 n. 3 (D.C.Cir.1995).
The government offered ample evidence of a jointly led conspiracy through November 17, 1995. This evidence extends to both the conspiracy’s geographic scope and its twin principal aims: to unlawfully distribute drugs and commit murders. See Superseding Indict, at 4-5. The key testimony as regards the drug operation in Northeast came from Andrews, who accompanied Gray on a daily basis in 1996. July 9, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 88. Andrews testified that Gray “had a lot of guys over [in Northeast],” including Moore’s cousins, uncles, and brother. Id. at 82-84. Each of these family members participated in Gray’s Northeast drug business, which involved Moore as well. See id. at 85, 86. Indeed, Andrews testified that Moore was the person “in particular responsible for overseeing the drug operation in that area of 7th and H, Northeast.” Id. at 88. Moore and Gray’s joint stewardship in Northeast after November 17, 1995, is established most clearly by Andrews’s answers on the government’s direct examination:
Q: How often, when you were hanging out with Kevin Gray every day, Mr. Andrews, how often would you go over to Northeast, Washington?
A: Every day.
Q: And why would you go over to Northeast every day?
A: [Gray] had money over there to pick up and basically we’ll go to see [Moore] and then meet [Moore] and them.
Q: And did that occur right on up through at least 1995 and 1996 and into 1997?
A: Correct.
Id. at 88-89.
There was also sufficient evidence that Moore and Gray’s joint leadership of the conspiracy continued after November 17, 1995, at a Southeast apartment complex located on Halley Terrace. Gray oversaw the drug operation in which Andrews, David Arnold, and Jermaine Vick participated. Although Arnold testified that “Moore never had any dealings with us down on Halley Terrace,” Aug. 22, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 16, Vick and Andrews testified that Moore supplied the Southeast operation with drugs. See Sept. 10, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 11 (Vick); Oct. 16, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 56 (Andrews); see also Dykes, 406 F.3d at 721 . Moreover, Andrews’s testimony makes clear that this relationship at Halley Terrace continued for six to eight months until a temporary two-month fallout between Moore and Gray around the time of the February 1998 NBA All-Star Game in New York. See Oct. 16, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 56-60. Contrary to appellants’ contention that Moore’s actions hardly reflected that of a “leader,” Appellants’ Br. at 161, Vick recalled that Moore came to see Gray “[w]hen he need[ed] to see [Gray] or, you know, he need[ed] to deliver some important information or something like that, or he needed somebody to carry out a task.” Sept. 10, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 12 (emphasis added). Likewise, Oscar Veal testified that he met Moore at Halley Terrace to *68 discuss murders of targets in Northeast through 1997. See Aug. 27, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 13. From this evidence, the jury could reasonably infer that Moore’s absence from time to time did not necessarily point toward a non-leadership role; instead it might suggest that Moore was a principal acting in a supervisory role, while Gray coordinated the day-to-day operations.
Finally, the jury could have reasonably relied on evidence concerning Veal’s 1998 murder of Roy Cobb, a rival drug dealer, well into the statutory limitations period. As Veal recounts, Gray drove both of them from Southeast to meet Moore at a location in Northeast. Once there, and in the presence of other members of the conspiracy, Moore and Gray discussed killing Cobb. Having already devised a plan for the murder, Moore and Gray walked Veal to a specific location where it was known that Cobb would stop at an intersection, and instructed Veal on how to go about killing Cobb. Although Moore and Gray continued to refine and change the plan, Gray provided Veal with the gun used to murder Cobb and afterward Moore compensated Veal with cash and cocaine. See id. at 50-55, 90; see also Oct. 16, 2002 AM Trial Tr. at 108-11,116-20.
In sum, the evidence on which appellants rely in attempting to demonstrate that Moore and Gray ceased to serve as joint leaders of the charged conspiracy in 1993 or 1994 does not support the weight they place upon it, could reasonably have been rejected by the jury in light of other witnesses’ contrary testimony, or is irrelevant to the existence of joint leadership. Mindful that “ ‘the prosecution’s evidence is to be viewed in the light most favorable to the government, drawing no distinction between direct and circumstantial evidence, and giving full play to the right of the jury to determine credibility, weigh the evidence and draw justifiable inferences of fact,’ ” Dykes, 406 F.3d at 721 (quoting United States v. Foster, 783 F.2d 1087, 1088 (D.C.Cir.1986)), we hold that sufficient evidence supported the jury’s finding that Moore and Gray jointly led the charged conspiracy within the limitations period.
VIII.
Appellants argue that all charges under the District of Columbia Code were improperly joined to their federal indictment under Rule 8(b) of the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure. Because joinder was improper, appellants maintain, the district court lacked jurisdiction to hear those charges under § 11-502(3) of the District of Columbia Code, which provides that “the United States District Court for the District of Columbia has jurisdiction of ... [a]ny offense under any law applicable exclusively to the District of Columbia which offense is joined in the same information or indictment with any Federal offense.”
We have interpreted the term “joined” in § 11-502(3) to mean “properly joined under [Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure] 8.” United States v. Jackson, 562 F.2d 789, 793 (D.C.Cir.1977). Under Rule 8(b), joinder of the local charges was proper here only if all the offenses charged were part of the same “series of acts or transactions.” See id. at 794 (holding that “the propriety of joinder in cases where there are multiple defendants must be tested by Rule 8(b) alone and that Rule 8(a) has no application”); Fed.R.CrimP. 8(b) (“The indictment or information may charge 2 or more defendants if they are alleged to have participated in the same act or transaction, or in the same series of acts or transactions, constituting an offense or offenses.”). Appellants’ contention is that the superseding indictment and the evidence adduced at trial demonstrate *69 that the local charges were not properly joined under Rule 8(b), and that the district court therefore lacked jurisdiction. We disagree.
We have held that “a ‘series of acts or transactions’ is ‘two or more acts or transactions connected together or constituting parts of a common scheme or plan.’ ” United States v. Brown, 823 F.2d 591, 598 , (D.C.Cir.1987) (quoting United States v. Perry, 731 F.2d 985, 990 (D.C.Cir.1984)). Construing the facts of the superseding indictment as true, as we must, United States v. Zicree, 605 F.2d 1381, 1387 (5th Cir.1979); see United States v. Carson, 455 F.3d 336, 372-73 (D.C.Cir.2006); United States v. Spriggs, 102 F.3d 1245, 1255-56 (D.C.Cir.1996), the local offenses charged were committed as acts in furtherance of the charged conspiracy and/or as predicate acts in the charged RICO conspiracy. All of the charged offenses, local and federal, were thus part of a common scheme or plan, which means that, for purposes of Rule 8(b), they were part of the same series of acts or transactions. See Carson, 455 F.3d at 373-74 . Because we conclude that the superseding indictment establishes that joinder of the local offenses was proper, we hold the district court had jurisdiction under § 11-502(3).
Even if the evidence adduced at trial had demonstrated that all of the offenses were not part of the same series of acts or transactions — a proposition we reject — this would not strip jurisdiction from the district court. If the indictment establishes proper joinder under Rule 8(b), trial evidence cannot render joinder impermissible and is thus irrelevant to our inquiry. Spriggs, 102 F.3d at 1255 (“Rule 8(b) can be satisfied ... by the indictment alone----”); Perry, 731 F.2d at 990 (explaining that “[q]uite obviously, the indictment might satisfy th[e] requirement” for Rule 8(b) joinder).
IX.
Appellants contend that the introduction into evidence of autopsy reports authored by the Office of the Chief Medical Examiner of the District of Columbia and reports of drug analyses performed by the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration (“DEA”) violates the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment to the Constitution because the reports’ authors were not available for cross-examination. Our review of the district court’s legal conclusions regarding the Confrontation Clause is de novo, United States v. Carson, 455 F.3d 336, 362 (D.C.Cir.2006), and subject to constitutional harmless error analysis pursuant to Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 23-24 , 87 S.Ct. 824 , 17 L.Ed.2d 705 (1967), see United States v. Smith, 640 F.3d 358, 364 (D.C.Cir.2011); United States v. Wilson, 605 F.3d 985, 1014 (D.C.Cir.2010).
The landscape of the Supreme Court’s jurisprudence on the Confrontation Clause has changed since appellants’ trial concluded in 2003. The governing rule at the time, set forth in Ohio v. Roberts, 448 U.S. 56, 65-66 , 100 S.Ct. 2531 , 65 L.Ed.2d 597 (1980), was that out-of-court statements admitted against a criminal defendant avoided the requirements of the Confrontation Clause if they came within traditional hearsay exceptions or were otherwise reliable. In 2004, however, the Supreme Court relied on the Confrontation Clause’s historical underpinnings to hold that “testimonial” out-of-court statements of a declarant not testifying at trial were inadmissible under the Confrontation Clause unless the declarant was unavailable and previously subject to cross-examination. Crawford v. Washington, 541 U.S. 36, 53-54, 59 , 124 S.Ct. 1354 , 158 L.Ed.2d 177 *70 (2004). Statements qualifying as “testimonial” included “ex parte in-court testimony or its functional equivalent — that is, material such as affidavits, custodial examinations, prior testimony that the defendant was unable to cross-examine, or similar pretrial statements that declarants would reasonably expect to be used prosecutorially,” other “formalized” materials such as “affidavits, depositions, prior testimony, or confessions,” and “statements that were made under circumstances which would lead an objective witness reasonably to believe that the statement would be available for use at a later trial.” Id. at 51-52 (citations and quotation marks omitted). The Court applied Crawford in Melendez-Diaz v. Massachusetts, — U.S. -, 129 S.Ct. 2527, 2531-32 , 174 L.Ed.2d 314 (2009), to hold that the state’s use of a forensic laboratory report to prove that seized cocaine was of a certain quality and quantity violated the Confrontation Clause because no live witness competent to testify to the truth of the statements made in the report was available for cross-examination.
The Supreme Court’s most recent decision on the Confrontation Clause is Bull-coming v. New Mexico, — U.S.-, 131 S.Ct. 2705 , 180 L.Ed.2d 610 (2011). After failing field sobriety tests and refusing a breath test, Bullcoming was arrested and required to give a blood sample for the purpose of determining his blood-alcohol concentration (“BAC”). Bullcoming’s blood sample was sent to the New Mexico Department of Health, Scientific Laboratory Division, where a forensic analyst signed a “certificate of analyst,” part of a standard form titled “Report of Blood Alcohol Analysis,” recording Bullcoming’s BAC as 0.21 grams per hundred milliliters. New Mexico charged Bullcoming with aggravated driving under the influence of intoxicating liquor, which requires proof of a BAC of 0.16 grams per hundred milliliters. At trial the prosecutor introduced the report and certificate of analyst into evidence as a business record. The forensic analyst who authored the report did not testify at trial and was not otherwise subject to cross-examination by Bullcoming. Instead, the prosecutor called as a witness a scientist from the same laboratory who had not signed the Report of Blood Alcohol Analysis, and neither participated in nor observed the test on Bullcoming’s blood sample. The testifying scientist was, however, familiar with blood-alcohol analysis and the laboratory’s testing protocols. Bullcoming, 131 S.Ct. at 2706-12 . Defense counsel objected on Confrontation Clause grounds, and noted that “her opening, indeed, her entire defense ‘may very well have been dramatically different’ ” had the prosecution disclosed prior to the day of the trial that it would not be calling the certifying analyst as a witness. Id. at 2712 (citation omitted).
The Supreme Court held that the Report of Blood Alcohol Analysis was “testimonial” and therefore within the ambit of the Confrontation Clause, a resulted dictated by Melendez-Diaz. Id. at 2716-17. It further clarified that the “surrogate testimony” of the substitute witness “does not meet the constitutional requirement [of cross-examination]. The accused’s right is to be confronted with the analyst who made the certification, unless that analyst is unavailable at trial, and the accused had an opportunity, pretrial, to cross-examine that particular [analyst].” Id. at 2710 . Three aspects of the Court’s reasoning are noteworthy here: First, the Court framed the question presented as whether “the Confrontation Clause permit[s] the prosecution to introduce a forensic laboratory report containing a testimonial certification ... through the in-court testimony of an analyst who did not sign the certification or personally perform or observe the *71 performance of the test reported in the certification.” Id. at 2713 ; see also id. at 2711-12 (Sotomayor, J., concurring in part). Second, the Court rejected the argument that Bullcoming’s “true accuser” was the gas chromatagraph machine that generated the BAC figure and that the analyst’s role was that of a “mere scrivener.” Id. at 2714 (majority opinion). Third, the Court explained that a surrogate witness knowledgeable as to the equipment and protocol used in administering the test was ill-equipped to “convey what [the certifying analyst] knew or observed about the events his certification concerned, i.e., the particular test and testing process he employed. Nor could such surrogate testimony expose any lapses or lies on the certifying analyst’s part.” Id. at 2715 .
The facts of the instant case resemble in part those of Bullcoming. The government called as witnesses Dr. Jonathan Arden, then-Chief D.C. Medical Examiner, and Jerry Walker, a DEA senior forensic chemist. Dr. Arden testified as to the contents of approximately 30 autopsy reports authored by other medical examiners in his office, but, as in Bullcoming, insofar as the record provided by the parties shows, he neither performed nor observed the autopsies and his signature does not appear on any of the reports. 13 Similarly, Walker’s testimony concerned 24 drug analyses, 20 of which were performed by other DEA forensic chemists on drugs seized in the course of the investigation of the charged conspiracy, the results of which were memorialized in DEA reports. The autopsy and DEA reports were admitted into evidence over appellants’ objection that “there is no way to ... confront under the Sixth Amendment” unless the government calls the reports’ authors as witnesses. Oct. 23, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 90.
This case differs from Bullcoming in three relevant respects. First, because Walker testified that he authored four DEA reports, see Oct. 23, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 68, and he was available for cross-examination at trial, these four DEA reports present no Confrontation Clause problem under Bullcoming. 14 The other 20 DEA reports, however, remain at issue.
Second, Walker personally reviewed, but did not author, one DEA report shortly after its creation, testifying that “[he] look[ed] at what the results [were] ... and ma[d]e sure that [the analyst] used proper scientific-based knowledge to come up with [the] results.” Id. at 80. Although the analysis in Bullcoming indicates that the degree of participation by the surrogate witness can alter the Confrontation Clause analysis, see Bullcoming, 131 S.Ct. at 2715-16 ; id. at 2711-12 (Sotomayor, J., concurring in part), Walker’s role appears to be much like that of the surrogate witness in Bullcoming because he was unable to “convey what [the authoring forensic chemist] knew or observed about the events his certification concerned, i.e., the particular test and testing process he employed,” or “expose any lapses or lies on the [authoring forensic chemist’s] part,” id. at 2715 (majority opinion). Walker did not observe the test being performed and did not sign the DEA report as the approving official. Rather, Walker testified that, in *72 performing his review, he was “making an assumption that the chemist used the sample and did the analysis.... Pm making the assumption that they did do each of the tests that they wrote down on their worksheet.” Oct. 23, 2002 PM Trial Tr. at 81. In holding there was constitutional error in Bullcoming, the Supreme Court relied on a similar statement by the testifying surrogate witness: “you don’t know unless you actually observe the analysis that someone else conducts, whether they followed th[e] protocol in every instance.” Bullcoming, 131 S.Ct. at 2715 n. 8 (alteration in original) (citation and quotation marks omitted).
Third, Dr. Arden testified as the Chief D.C. Medical Examiner, and prior to trial he may well have had either a “supervisor[y]” role with regard to the reports from his Office or even “a personal, albeit limited, connection to the [autopsies] at issue.” Id. at 2722 (Sotomayor, J., concurring in part). Whether such reports would be inadmissible under the Confrontation Clause despite his testimony is a question left open in Bullcoming, where the Court was confronted only with a testifying lab technician who had “no involvement whatsoever in the relevant test and report.” Id. at 2722 .
The government’s attempts to avoid the Confrontation Clause, on the grounds that the autopsy reports rank as non-testimonial and that the DEA reports contain “raw data,” rather than “statements,” Appellee’s Br. at 185-87, 189, are foreclosed by Bullcoming. 15
First, “solemn declaration^] or affirmation[s] made for the purpose of establishing or proving some fact” are testimonial statements. Melendez-Diaz, 129 S.Ct. at 2532 (citation and quotation marks omitted). Put another way, “[a] document created solely for an ‘evidentiary purpose,’ ... made in aid of a police investigation, ranks as testimonial.” Bullcoming, 131 S.Ct. at 2717 (quoting Melendez-Diaz, 129 *73 S.Ct. at 2532 ). The Supreme Court concluded the certifications in the laboratory report analyzing Bullcoming’s BAC were testimonial because “a law-enforcement officer provided seized evidence to a state laboratory required by law to assist in police investigations,” the certifying forensic analyst “tested the evidence and prepared a certificate concerning the result of his analysis,” the certificate was formalized in a signed document and headed a “report,” and the document referenced court rules relating to the admissibility of certified blood-alcohol analyses. Id. at 2717.
Analogous circumstances make the autopsy reports here testimonial. 16 The Office of the Medical Examiner is required by D.C.Code § 5-1405(b)(ll) to investigate “[d]eaths for which the Metropolitan Police Department [“MPD”], or other law enforcement agency, or the United States Attorney’s Office requests, or a court orders investigation.” The autopsy reports do not indicate whether such requests were made in the instant case but the record shows that MPD homicide detectives and officers from the Mobile Crimes Unit were present at several autopsies. Another autopsy report was supplemented with diagrams containing the notation: “Mobile crime diagram (not [Medical Examiner] — use for info only).” Still another report included a “Supervisor’s Review Record” from the MPD Criminal Investigations Division commenting: “Should have indictment re John Raynor for this murder.” Law enforcement officers thus not only obser

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/9442051. Public record. Not legal advice.