# In re Porsche Cars North America, Inc.

> District Court, S.D. Ohio · July 19, 2012 · 880 F. Supp. 2d 801

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/8700870

## Case

- **Full name:** In re PORSCHE CARS NORTH AMERICA, INC. Plastic Coolant Tubes Products Liability Litigation. This document relates to: All Cases
- **Court:** District Court, S.D. Ohio
- **Decided:** July 19, 2012
- **Citations:** 880 F. Supp. 2d 801; 2012 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 100180; 2012 WL 2953651
- **Precedential status:** Published
- **Opinion:** Opinion of the court by Frost
- **Judges:** Frost
- **Cited by:** 86 later opinions in the Frix Law Library

## Citator (automated)

- No negative treatment found by the automated citator. That is not the same as a confirmation that the case is good law; read the citing cases.
- Full citator and citing cases: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/8700870

## How later opinions describe it (automated extraction)

- concluding decision in which the defendant placed a vehicle in the stream of commerce that was afflicted with a “multitude of different problems” that “required [the plaintiff] to have the car in for repairs twenty times over a two-year period” was unlike conduct at issue in w…
- finding it plausible that duration limitations on express warranty were unconscionable but also finding it plausible that manufacturer “had knowledge of the alleged coolant tube defect at all times relevant”

## Opinion text

OPINION AND ORDER
GREGORY L. FROST, District Judge.
This matter is before the Court for consideration of Porsche Cars North America, Inc.’s Motion to Dismiss the Master Consolidated Amended Class Action Complaint Pursuant to Fed.R.Civ.P. 12(b)(6) (ECF No. 62), Plaintiffs’ Memorandum of Law in Opposition to Defendant Porsche Cars North America, Inc.’s Motion to Dismiss the Master Consolidated Amended Class Action Complaint Pursuant to Fed. R.Civ.P. 12(b)(6) (ECF No. 77), and Porsche Cars North America, Inc.’s Reply Brief in Support of Its Motion to Dismiss the Master Consolidated Amendment Class Action Complaint Pursuant to Fed. R.Civ.P. 12(b)(6) (ECF No. 91). For the reasons that follow, the Court GRANTS IN PART and DENIES IN PART the motion to dismiss.
I. Background
The plaintiffs in this products liability action are purchasers of Porsche Cayenne, Cayenne GTS, Cayenne S, Cayenne Turbo, or Cayenne Turbo S sport utility vehicles of the model years 2003-2010 (“Cayenne”). Defendants are Porsche Cars North America, Inc. (“PCNA”) and the German company Dr. Ing. h.c. F. Porsche Aktiengellschaft (“Porsche AG”) (collectively, “Defendants”). Porsche AG manufactured the Cayenne and PCNA is the exclusive importer of Cayenne vehicles in the United States.
On May 24, 2011, the United States Judicial Panel on Multidistrict Litigation (“the Panel”) consolidated four related product liability actions involving the Cayenne (arising from California, New Jersey, New York, and Ohio) in this Court pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1407 . (ECF No. 1.) The Panel subsequently transferred four related actions from Florida, Georgia, California, and Texas to this Court. (ECF Nos. 3, 4, 11.) On August 25, 2011, the plaintiffs in these eight actions, along with several new individual plaintiffs (collectively, “Plaintiffs”), filed a Consolidated Amended Complaint (“Complaint”) with this Court alleging defects in the Cayenne’s cooling system. (ECF No. 35.) Plaintiffs brought the Complaint on behalf of a proposed nationwide class of similarly situated Cayenne owners and lessees and proposed sub-classes of similarly situated Cayenne owners and lessees in California, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Michigan, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Texas, and Washington.
Each individual plaintiff asserts that he or she purchased a Cayenne that came equipped with plastic coolant tubes. 1 Plaintiffs assert that such tubes cracked, leaked, or otherwise failed and that, in *813 some cases, the tubes leaked and caused damage to other parts of the engine. When Plaintiffs attempted to repair or replace the coolant tubes, they allegedly learned that Porsche did not offer replacement plastic tubes but instead offered an “OEM update kit” that contained aluminum coolant pipes and cost “at least $1,500 to $8,600 per vehicle” to purchase and install. (Id. ¶ 69.) .
Plaintiffs allege that Defendants defectively designed the Cayenne by equipping it with plastic coolant tubes instead of aluminum pipes. Plaintiffs argue that the Cayenne’s coolant system is defective because coolant tubes are exposed to extreme heat and that, as a result of such exposure, coolant tubes made of plastic will crack and degrade. Plaintiffs add that “most high-end performance vehicles with powerful engines use aluminum pipes to transport the coolant” and that the “extent of wear and tear on the Cayenne’s plastic valley coolant tubes is entirely disproportionate to the age of these vehicles.” (Id. ¶ 68(b).) Plaintiffs also allege that the use of plastic coolant tubes “implicates serious safety concerns.” (Id. ¶ 70.)
Plaintiffs assert that Defendants knew, reasonably should have known, or were reckless in not knowing about the coolant tube defect but failed to disclose the defect to consumers. Defendants allegedly had or should have had this knowledge “based on, among other things, widespread customer complaints of prematurely cracking coolant tubes, dealer inquiries, repair shop inquiries, dealer-provided repair data, the high volume of replacement parts being ordered, and [National Highway Traffic Safety Administration] complaints.” (Id. ¶ 63.) Plaintiffs assert that, despite this alleged knowledge, Defendants promoted the Cayenne’s cooling system and made misrepresentations such as “ ‘[t]he entire cooling system is specifically designed for prolonged heavy-duty operation.’ ” (Id. ¶ 62(c).)
Plaintiffs also attach to their Complaint a technical bulletin that PCNA issued in February 2008 stating that “[o]n [Model Year] 2003 to [Model Year] 2006 vehicles there is a chance that the coolant pipes made from plastic may start to leak.... Both coolant pipes (lower and heater) must be replaced at the same times with new coolant pipes made from aluminum” as evidence that Defendants acknowledged the defect. (ECF No. 35-1.) Plaintiffs note that, despite acknowledging the defect, Defendants have not reimbursed Cayenne owners for the cost of replacement parts or issued any type of recall.
Plaintiffs plead a total of thirty-two claims for relief against Defendants, including one federal statutory claim and thirty-one state statutory and common law claims. Plaintiffs seek economic damages, an order enjoining Defendants from “continuing the unfair business practices alleged in this Complaint,” and injunctive relief “in the form of a recall or free replacement program.” (ECF No. 35, at 79.) Plaintiffs do not claim any damages for bodily injury that the alleged coolant tube defect may have caused.
PCNA filed a motion to dismiss the Complaint pursuant to Rule 12(b)(6) on January 6, 2012. (ECF No. 62.) That same day, Porsche AG filed a motion to dismiss pursuant to Rule 12(b)(2) (ECF No. 63) and a second motion to dismiss adopting PCNA’s Rule 12(b)(6) arguments (ECF No. 64). The Court is holding Porsche AG’s Rule 12(b)(6) motion in abeyance until it decides the personal jurisdiction issue regarding Porsche AG. (ECF No. 67.) Thus, the Court now considers only PCNA’s motion to dismiss.
II. Rule 12(b)(6) Standard
Dismissal under Rule 12(b)(6) is proper if a complaint fails to state a claim upon *814 which a court can grant relief. Fed. R.Civ.P. 12(b)(6). To survive a motion to dismiss, a complaint must provide fair notice of what the claim is and the grounds upon which it rests, and it must set forth sufficient factual allegations suggesting that the plaintiff is entitled to relief under those claims. Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 555, 570, 127 S.Ct. 1955 , 167 L.Ed.2d 929 (2007) (citing Conley v. Gibson, 355 U.S. 41, 47 , 78 S.Ct. 99 , 2 L.Ed.2d 80 (1957)). A court, in ruling on a Rule 12(b)(6) motion, must construe the complaint in the light most favorable to the plaintiff and treat all well-pleaded allegations contained therein as true. Id. at 555-56, 127 S.Ct. 1955 . The defendant bears the burden of demonstrating that the plaintiff has failed to state a claim for relief. Directv, Inc. v. Treesh, 487 F.3d 471, 476 (6th Cir.2007).
Rule 8(a)(2) governs pleading standards and requires that a complaint contain a “short and plain statement of the claim showing that the pleader is entitled to relief.” Fed.R.Civ.P. 8(a)(2). Although Rule 8 does not require “detailed factual allegations,” “it does not unlock the doors of discovery for a plaintiff armed with nothing more than conclusions.” Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678-79 , 129 S.Ct. 1937 , 173 L.Ed.2d 868 (2009). Thus, a court need not “accept as true a legal conclusion couched as a factual allegation.” Twombly, 550 U.S. at 555 , 127 S.Ct. 1955 (citing Papasan v. Allain, 478 U.S. 265, 286 , 106 S.Ct. 2932 , 92 L.Ed.2d 209 (1986)). A pleading that offers “labels and conclusions” or “a formulaic recitation of the elements of a cause of action” will not suffice to defeat a Rule 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss. Id. In fact, “a court considering a motion to dismiss can choose to begin by identifying pleadings that, because they are no more than conclusions, are not entitled to the assumption of truth.” Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 679 , 129 S.Ct. 1937 . Once the court has identified the well-pleaded-allegations, it should view each allegation in the context of the entire complaint to determine whether a plaintiff has alleged sufficient facts to support his or her claim. See In re Polyurethane Foam Antitrust Litig., 799 F.Supp.2d 777, 782 (N.D.Ohio 2011).
Considering only those well-pleaded facts, a complaint must “state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.” Twombly, 550 U.S. at 570 , 127 S.Ct. 1955 . “A claim has facial plausibility when the plaintiff pleads factual content that allows the court to draw the reasonable inference that the defendant is hable for the misconduct alleged.” Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 678 , 129 S.Ct. 1937 (citing Twombly, 550 U.S. at 556 , 127 S.Ct. 1955 ). A plaintiffs factual allegations must be enough to raise the claimed right to relief above the speculative level and to create a reasonable expectation that discovery will reveal evidence to support the claim. Twombly, 550 U.S. at 556 , 127 S.Ct. 1955 . If the “well-pleaded facts do not permit the court to infer more than the mere possibility of misconduct,” the court should dismiss the complaint. Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 679 , 129 S.Ct. 1937 .
Claims of fraud are subject to heightened pleading requirements. Fed. R.Civ.P. 9(b) (“In alleging fraud or mistake, a party must state with particularity the circumstances constituting fraud or mistake. Malice, intent, knowledge, or other conditions of a person’s mind may be alleged generally.”). To satisfy Rule 9(b), a plaintiff must “allege the time, place, and content of the alleged misrepresentation on which he or she relied; the fraudulent scheme; the fraudulent intent of the defendants; and the injury resulting from the fraud.” Bennett v. MIS Corp., 607 F.3d 1076, 1100 (6th Cir.2010). The rule requires that the circumstances of the fraud, and not the evidence of the case, be *815 pleaded with particularity. Michaels Bldg. Co. v. Ameritrust Co., N.A., 848 F.2d 674 , 680 n. 9 (6th Cir.1988). Rule 9(b) may be relaxed when there has been a lack of discovery and the information needed for a plaintiff to achieve particularity is held exclusively by the opposing party — in other words, Rule 9(b) does not require a plaintiff to be omniscient. Id. The main purpose behind Rule 9(b) is to provide the defendant with notice of the plaintiffs claim so that the defendant may prepare an informed responsive pleading. Id. at 679; Coffey v. Foamex, L.P., 2 F.3d 157, 162 (6th Cir.1993).
In interpreting federal law, a transferee court in a multidistrict case should look to the law of its own circuit rather than the law of the transferor courts’ circuits. In re Nat’l Century Fin. Enters., Inc., Inv. Litig., 323 F.Supp.2d 861, 876-77 (S.D.Ohio 2004) (citing In re Korean Air Lines Disaster of Sept. 1, 1983, 829 F.2d 1171, 1176 (D.C.Cir.1987)); In re: Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (“MTBE”) Prods. Liab. Litig., No. 00-1898, 2005 WL 106936 , at *5 (S.D.N.Y. Jan. 18, 2005). Thus, although the parties have cited cases from various circuits discussing Rule 9(b)’s heightened pleading requirements, the Court will analyze federal procedural law in accordance with Sixth Circuit precedent.
The Court must decide substantive questions of state law “in accordance with the controlling decisions of the highest court of the state.” Meridian Mut. Ins. Co. v. Kellman, 197 F.3d 1178, 1181 (6th Cir.1999) (citing Erie R.R. Co. v. Tompkins, 304 U.S. 64 , 58 S.Ct. 817 , 82 L.Ed. 1188 (1938)). If the state’s highest court has not decided the issue, the Court must predict how that court would resolve it by considering decisions of the state’s lower courts, other federal courts construing state law, secondary sources, and applicable dicta of the state’s highest court. Id.; see also Welsh v. Wachovia Corp., 191 Fed.Appx. 345, 355-56 (6th Cir.2006). A court should not disregard the decisions of intermediate appellate state courts unless it is convinced by other persuasive data that the highest court of the state would decide otherwise. West v. Am. Tel. & Tel. Co., 311 U.S. 223, 237 , 61 S.Ct. 179 , 85 L.Ed. 139 (1940) (stating that, when an intermediate appellate state court “rests its considered judgment upon the rule of law which it announces,” such a rule is “datum for ascertaining state law which is not to be disregarded by a federal court unless it is convinced by other persuasive data that the highest court of the state would decide otherwise”); Meridian Mut. Ins. Co., 197 F.3d at 1181 .
III. Facts
A. Four-Year/50,000 Mile Warranty
PCNA attached to its motion to dismiss four written “Warranty and Customer Information” packets from the years 2003-2006 (“Warranties”) that Plaintiffs did not attach to their Complaint. Each Warranty provides the following coverage:
[PCNA] will repair or replace with a new or remanufactured part distributed by [PCNA], at its sole option, any factory-installed part that is defective in material or workmanship under normal use. (Normal vehicle use is described in this Booklet.) Warranty repairs will be made free of charge for parts and labor at an authorized Porsche automobile dealer ....
(ECF No. 62-1, at 7; 62-3, at 7; 62-5, at 6; 62-7, at 7.)
Warranty coverage lasts for “four years, or 50,000 miles, whichever comes first” (“Warranty Period”). (Id.) The Warranties also state that “[a]ny implied warranties, including the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose, are limited to the duration of the written warranty.” (Id.)
*816 The Court will consider the Warranties as part of the Complaint without converting PCNA’s motion to a summary judgement motion. The Sixth Circuit has stated that in ruling on a Rule 12(b)(6) motion, a court may consider exhibits attached to the defendant’s motion to dismiss if they are referenced in the complaint and are central to the claims contained therein. Bassett v. Nat’l Collegiate Athletic Ass’n, 528 F.3d 426, 430 (6th Cir.2008); see also Greenberg v. Life Ins. Co. of Va., 177 F.3d 507, 514 (6th Cir.1999) (allowing a defendant to submit and the court to consider a document that was not attached to the complaint but that was “central to the plaintiffs claim”). The Complaint references the 2003 Warranty and later states that “[Defendants] made written and implied warranties regarding its Porsche Cayennes.” (ECF No. 35 ¶¶ 218, 247.) Plaintiffs argue that they sufficiently identified the Warranties in their Complaint. (ECF No. 77, at 28.) Because Plaintiffs refer to the Warranties and because the Warranties are undoubtedly central to this products liability action, the Court will consider the Warranties as part of the Complaint. See, e.g., Perko v. Ford Motor Co., No 10-514, 2011 WL 1769098 , at *2 (NJD.Ohio May 9, 2011) (in a product liability action, considering a warranty that the defendants attached to their motion to dismiss as part of the complaint).
B. Claims
The Court begins by identifying those well-pleaded facts that are common to all twenty Plaintiffs. Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 679 , 129 S.Ct. 1937 . Many of the thirty-two claims turn on what PCNA allegedly knew — and what it allegedly represented — and when. The Court will therefore examine the factual support surrounding these allegations and isolate the well-pleaded facts on which the Court may rely in analyzing Plaintiffs’ claims.
One of Plaintiffs’ overarching allegations is that PCNA knew or was reckless in not knowing of the alleged defect and that it concealed this knowledge from consumers. To support this allegation, Plaintiffs allege that PCNA received “many complaints from Cayenne owners and lessees concerning failure of the tubes since the U.S. commercial launch of the Cayenne in 2003,” “had access to aggregate data from [their] dealers regarding the coolant tubes,” “had access to pre- and post-release testing data,” and “had access to complaints made to [them and their] dealers regarding the coolant tubes.” (ECF No. 35 ¶¶ 59, 61.) Plaintiffs also allege that “most high-end performance vehicles with powerful engines use aluminum pipes to transport the coolant,” that “[a]luminum pipes have been proven to withstand the extreme temperatures of the cooling system,” and that the “combination of (a) the tube placement relative to the engine and (b) use of plastic composite material to carry the coolant[] virtually guarantees that the plastic coolant tubes [PCNA] used in [its] Cayennes will prematurely fracture and fail.” (Id. ¶¶ 46, 53).
The Court finds that these factual allegations are sufficient to assume that PCNA had knowledge of the alleged coolant tube defect at all times relevant. PCNA argues that Plaintiffs fail to allege “which defendant knew of the supposed defect, when each learned of it, or how each responded” and “when the decision to conceal the defect was made, who made it, where it occurred, and where it was implemented.” (ECF No. 62, at 31; No. 91, at 51.) But Rule 9(b) provides that “knowledge[ ] and other conditions of a person’s mind may be alleged generally.” Fed. R.Civ.P. 9(b). Furthermore, Plaintiffs allege that both PCNA and Porsche AG *817 played a role in manufacturing, marketing, and selling the vehicles and that, at the time the vehicles were manufactured and warranted, both PCNA and Porsche AG knew or should have known of the defect due to the mechanics of the design and pre-release testing data. (ECF No. 35 ¶¶ 33-34.) Plaintiffs allege that PCNA received complaints, dealer inquiries, and post-release testing data that would have further informed them of the defect. In 2008, PCNA allegedly issued a technical bulletin confirming this knowledge. The Court finds that these facts are sufficient to provide PCNA fair notice of the allegation that it knew of the alleged defect at all times relevant. See Michaels Bldg. Co., 848 F.2d at 680. The specific “when the decision to conceal the defect was made, who made it, where it occurred, and where it was implemented” are facts that, if they exist, are likely within PCNA’s control and are best addressed after the close of discovery. See id. The Court will therefore assume, for purposes of this analysis, that PCNA knew of the alleged defect at the time it sold the vehicles. Whether this knowledge is actionable will depend on the law underlying the thirty-two claims for relief.
The Court next examines Plaintiffs’ allegations regarding affirmative misrepresentations. Plaintiffs provide seven specific statements that Defendants allegedly made “in [their] brochures and other marketing material” regarding the Cayenne’s cooling system. (ECF No. 35 ¶ 62.) 2 The Court will assume for purposes of this motion that Defendants made these statements; however, Plaintiffs’ claim that these specific representations “had the likely effect of misleading the public, including Plaintiffs and the other members of the Class” is a conclusory statement that is not entitled to a presumption of truth. See Twombly, 550 U.S. at 555 , 127 S.Ct. 1955 . Plaintiffs do not identify which Defendant made the alleged statements or the time or place at which the statements were made. Nor do Plaintiffs allege the time or place at which the marketing materials containing said statements were distributed or made available. Without more, Plaintiffs fail to plead the circumstances surrounding PCNA’s affirmative misrepresentations with the particularity that Rule 9(b) requires. See Bennett, 607 F.3d at 1100 ; see also Cataldo v. U.S. Steel Corp., 676 F.3d 542, 551 (6th Cir.2012) (finding that the plaintiff failed to satisfy Rule 9(b) where his allegation “omit[ted] entirely the time and place of the alleged statements” and referred only to “defendants” despite the fact that there were several defendants in the case); Culy Constr. & Excavating, Inc. v. Laney Di *818 rectional Drilling Co., No. 2:12-cv-4, 2012 WL 2071804 , at *6-7 (S.D.Ohio June 8, 2012).
Against this backdrop, the Court considers Plaintiffs’ claims.
IV. Discussion
A. NATIONWIDE CLASS
Plaintiffs bring their first claim for relief on behalf of a purported nationwide class, defined as all current and former owners or lessees of a 2003-2010 model year Cayenne. On behalf of this class, Plaintiffs allege that PCNA violated the MagnusonMoss Federal Warranty Act (“MagnusonMoss” or “Act”), 15 U.S.C. § 2301 et seq., and that Plaintiffs sustained damages as a result. PCNA moves to dismiss this claim in its entirety.
Count One: Magnuson-Moss Act
Magnuson-Moss provides a civil claim for relief for consumers who are damaged by a supplier or warrantor’s failure to comply with its obligations under a written or implied warranty or under the Act in issuing such a warranty. 15 U.S.C. § 2310 (d)(1). In order to state a claim under the Act, a plaintiff must demonstrate that (i) the item at issue was subject to a warranty; (ii) the item did not conform to the warranty; (iii) the seller was given reasonable opportunity to cure any defects; and (iv) the seller failed to cure the defects within a reasonable time or a reasonable number of attempts. Temple v. Fleetwood Enters., Inc., 133 Fed.Appx. 254, 268 (6th Cir.2005).
1. Written Warranty
Plaintiffs appear to concede that no individual plaintiff has a valid claim for breach of express warranty. PCNA asserts, and the Complaint corroborates, that “no plaintiff claims to have had any problems with his or her coolant pipes until after the applicable warranty term expired.” (ECF No. 62, at 12.) Plaintiffs do not contest this assertion. Without more, Plaintiffs fail to allege an actionable breach of express warranty claim. They therefore cannot advance a Magnuson-Moss claim premised on this theory. Temple, 133 Fed.Appx. at 268 .
Similarly unsuccessful is Plaintiffs’ attempt to “reserve their express warranty claims under Magnuson-Moss for those [currently unnamed] class members whose express warranties may have not yet expired.” (ECF No. 77, at 28.) Plaintiffs offer no authority that would allow them to “reserve” such claims and the Court is not aware of any such authority. The Sixth Circuit has stated that “[i]f it is found, prior to class certification, that the named plaintiffs’ individual claims are without merit, then dismissal is proper.” J & R Mktg., SEP v. Gen. Motors Corp., 549 F.3d 384, 390 (6th Cir.2008). See also Lewis v. Casey, 518 U.S. 343, 357 , 116 S.Ct. 2174 , 135 L.Ed.2d 606 (1996) (“[N]amed plaintiffs who represent a class must allege and show that they personally have been injured, not that injury has been suffered by other, unidentified members of the class to which they belong and which they purport to represent.”). Because Plaintiffs fail to state a claim for breach of express warranty, their Magnuson-Moss claim based on this theory must be dismissed.
The Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss Plaintiffs’ Magnuson-Moss claim to the extent that it is premised on an alleged breach of express warranty.
2. Implied Warranty
Plaintiffs note in their memorandum in opposition that only Colorado, Michigan, New Jersey, Texas, Georgia, and Ohio Plaintiffs are “raising claims” under the Act’s implied warranty provisions. (ECF No. 77, at 32.) California, Florida, New York, and Washington Plaintiffs are therefore excluded from the nationwide class’s Magnuson-Moss claim. To the extent that these Plaintiffs are asserting Magnuson *819 Moss claims as part of the nationwide class, the Court dismisses their claims as they relate to PCNA. See J & R Mktg., 549 F.3d at 390 . The Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss California, Florida, New York, and Washington Plaintiffs’ Magnuson-Moss claims in their entirety.
The remaining Plaintiffs allege that PCNA failed to comply with its implied warranties in violation of MagnusonMoss. The Act defines “implied warranty” as “an implied warranty arising under State law (as modified by sections 108 and 104(a) [ 15 U.S.C. §§ 2308 and 2304(a) ]) in connection with the sale by a supplier of a consumer product.” 15 U.S.C. § 2301 (7). Courts have uniformly held that Congress intended the Act’s implied warranty provisions to be interpreted in accordance with the relevant state’s law, except as expressly modified by the Act. See Walsh v. Ford Motor Co., 807 F.2d 1000, 1013-14 (D.C.Cir.1986). The Court must therefore determine whether Plaintiffs state a claim for breach of implied warranty under the laws of Ohio, Georgia, New Jersey, Colorado, Michigan, and Texas in order to determine which Plaintiffs are included in the nationwide class.
PCNA offers three arguments as to why this Court should dismiss Plaintiffs’ Magnuson-Moss claim. First, PCNA argues that the Act does not supplant state privity requirements and that Georgia and Ohio Plaintiffs’ claims fail for lack of privity. Second, PCNA argues that the Warranties effectively limit the duration of all implied warranties to the duration of the Warranty Period (four-years/50,000 miles), which had expired by the time the alleged defect manifested in each Plaintiffs vehicle. Finally, PCNA arguesThat Plaintiffs are precluded from bringing their MagnusonMoss claims because they failed to provide PCNA with an opportunity to cure the defect. The Court will consider each of these arguments in turn.
a. State Privity Requirements— Georgia and Ohio
It is well settled that Magnuson-Moss does not supplant state law privity requirements. Abraham v. Volkswagen of Am., Inc., 795 F.2d 238, 249-51 (2d Cir.1986); see also Gill v. Blue Bird Body Co., 147 Fed.Appx. 807, 810 (11th Cir.2005) (citing Voelker v. Porsche Cars N. Am., Inc., 353 F.3d 516 , 525 (7th Cir.2003); Abraham, 795 F.2d at 249 ). The Court therefore looks to Georgia and Ohio state law to determine whether Georgia and Ohio Plaintiffs may advance implied warranty claims under the Act as part of the nationwide class.
For the reasons set forth in Section IV(E) of this Opinion and Order (Count Eleven), the Court finds that Georgia Plaintiff fails to meet the privity requirements that are necessary to sustain an implied warranty of merchantability claim under Georgia law. See infra Section IV(E) (Count Eleven). Georgia Plaintiff therefore fails to state an implied warranty claim under Magnuson-Moss. See Temple, 133 Fed.Appx. at 268 .
The Court similarly finds that Ohio Plaintiffs fail to satisfy Ohio’s privity requirements for a breach of implied warranty claim under Magnuson-Moss. Although Ohio courts recognize two forms of implied warranty claims — implied warranty in tort and implied warranty of merchantability (contract) — only the latter can form the basis of a Magnuson-Moss claim. See Curl v. Volkswagen of Am., Inc., 114 Ohio St.3d 226 , 2007-Ohio-3609 , 871 N.E.2d 1141 , ¶ 28. Ohio Plaintiffs concede that they cannot advance an implied warranty of merchantability claim because they are not in privity with PCNA. Ohio Plaintiffs therefore fail to state a Magnuson-Moss claim.
Ohio Plaintiffs’ argument that their Magnuson-Moss claim survives based on *820 their implied warranty in tort claim— which does not require privity — is without merit. In Curl, the Ohio Supreme Court confronted the following question: does Ohio law require that the parties be in privity of contract in order for a plaintiff to state a claim for breach of implied warranty under Magnuson-Moss? Curl, 114 Ohio St.3d ¶ 1. The court unequivocally answered yes. Id. ¶ 28. The court reasoned that privity requirements for contractual claims, such as those arising under the Uniform Commercial Code (“UCC”) and Magnuson-Moss, allow sellers of goods to define the scope of their responsibility and provide a greater degree of foreseeability regarding potential claimants. Id. ¶ 26. The court also cited Walsh v. Ford Motor Co., which provides that “Magnuson-Moss is strictly a warranty statute based in contract law” and that “[i]t is plain to the Court that where a State permits warranty claims that are based on either tort or contract law, the Court must look exclusively to contract law to determine whether privity is required.” 588 F.Supp. 1513, 1527 (D.D.C.1984). The Curl court implicitly reached this same conclusion. See 114 Ohio St.3d ¶ 28. Ohio Plaintiffs’ implied warranty in tort claim cannot form the basis of their Magnuson-Moss claim.
The Court finds that Ohio and Georgia Plaintiffs fail to state a claim for breach of implied warranty under Magnuson-Moss. These Plaintiffs are therefore excluded from the nationwide class’s MagnusonMoss claim. Accordingly, the Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss Georgia and Ohio Plaintiffs’ Magnuson-Moss claims in their entirety.
b. Durational Limitation — Colorado, Michigan, New Jersey, and Texas
The Court now considers the remaining Plaintiffs’ allegations. Colorado, Michigan, New Jersey, and Texas have each adopted the UCC’s implied warranty provisions. In each state, a seller warrants that its goods shall be merchantable in every contract for the sale of those goods, subject to certain restrictions. UCC § 2-314 (2011). 3 Magnuson-Moss provides that a seller/warrantor may limit the duration of this implied warranty “to the duration of a written warranty of reasonable duration, if such limitation is conscionable and is set forth in clear and unmistakable language and prominently displayed on the face of the warranty.” 15 U.S.C. § 2308 (b).
It is undisputed that the Warranties purport to limit the duration of all implied warranties to a period of four-years/50,000 miles and that this period had expired by the time the alleged defect manifested in each Plaintiffs vehicle. The parties dispute whether this durational limitation is enforceable under the Act. Plaintiffs argue that the Warranties’ limitation is unenforceable because it is unconscionable and because it is not conspicuous. The Court finds that Plaintiffs have sufficiently alleged facts to suggest that the limitation is unconscionable; thus, it does not consider the parties’ arguments regarding conspicuousness.
As an initial matter, PCNA argues that the Court should refuse to consider the unconscionability arguments of Colorado, Michigan, and Texas Plaintiffs because *821 these plaintiffs do not mention the word “unconscionable” in asserting their specific claims for relief. 4 The Court rejects this argument for two reasons. First, the relevant question for this Court is whether Plaintiffs have alleged sufficient facts in support of their unconscionability argument, not whether they have specifically alleged certain terms. See, e.g., Alban v. BMW of N. Am., LLC, No. 09-5398, 2011 WL 900114 , at *8-9 (D.N.J. Mar. 15, 2011) (“Alban II”) (dismissing a plaintiffs implied warranty claim premised on unconscionability when she failed to plead facts in support of her unconscionability allegations); see also Tullis v. UMB Bank, N.A., 515 F.3d 673, 680-81 (6th Cir.2008) (stating that courts should not “elevate form over substance” in deciding a motion to dismiss; the complaint need only put the defendant on notice of the claim).
Second, PCNA had adequate notice that Plaintiffs were challenging the Warranties’ durational limitation on this ground. New Jersey Plaintiffs specifically alleged that any limitation or negation of the implied warranty, including any time limitation, is unconscionable and unenforceable. See In re Polyurethane Foam Antitrust Litig., 799 F.Supp.2d at 782 (stating that a court should view each allegation in the context of the entire complaint); cf. In re OnStar Contract Litig., 600 F.Supp.2d 861, 879 (E.D.Mich.2009) (dismissing claim for breach of express warranty over an “unconscionability” challenge when the complaint “eontain[ed] no allegations whatsoever that the express written warranties ... are unconscionable”). PCNA also referenced unconscionability in its motion and argued that the Warranties’ durational limitation was enforceable and not unconscionable; thus, PCNA cannot now argue that this claim was a surprise. The Court will consider Colorado, Michigan, Texas, and New Jersey Plaintiffs’ substantive arguments regarding unconscionability.
Federal courts look to substantive state law in determining whether a durational limitation on an implied warranty is unconscionable. See, e.g., Alban v. BMW of N. Am., LLC, No 09-5398, 2010 WL 3636253 , at *8 (D.N.J. Sept. 8, 2010) (“Al-ban I ”). PCNA does not offer arguments specific to each state; instead, it argues that the Warranties’ durational limitation is not unconscionable under New Jersey law and that there are no meaningful distinctions between New Jersey law and the laws of the other states.
In New Jersey, courts look to the circumstances surrounding the formation of a contract to determine whether procedural or substantive unconscionability exists. Sitogum Holdings, Inc. v. Ropes, 352 N.J.Super. 555 , 800 A.2d 915, 921 (2002). Facts suggesting that the bargaining process was fundamentally unfair or that the resulting contractual provision is “so one-sided as to shock the court’s conscience” would support a finding of unconscionability. Id.; see also Carlson v. Gen. Motors Corp., 883 F.2d 287 , 294-97 (4th Cir.1989).
The fact that a manufacturer had knowledge of a defect at the time it issued a warranty does not make a time/mileage limitation on an implied warranty unconscionable. Henderson v. Volvo Cars N. Am. LLC, No. 09-4146, 2010 WL 2925913 , at *9, 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 73624 , at *26 (D.N.J. July 21, 2010). Such knowledge is, however, relevant in determining whether the bargaining process was fundamentally fair. Carlson, 883 F.2d at 294-97. In *822 other words, although a manufacturer’s knowledge of a defect will not invalidate a durational limitation, the relevant question in the unconscionability context is whether one party abused its superior knowledge and the opposing party’s relative ignorance so as to create an exchange of obligations that is substantively unconscionable. Id. at 296.
The Carlson court provided several examples of facts that would support a finding of unconscionability. 5 For example, when a manufacturer is aware that its product is inherently defective and the buyer has no notice of or ability to detect the problem, “there is perforce a substantial disparity in the parties’ relative bargaining power.” Id. See also Henderson, 2010 WL 2925913 , at *9 n. 6, 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 73624 , at *26 n. 6 (finding that the plaintiffs allegation that a “gross disparity in bargaining power” existed between the parties was sufficient to support a finding of unconscionability at the motion to dismiss stage). The fact that a defect is likely to substantially limit the product’s intended use only amplifies this disparity. See id. at 294 (finding it “most significant” that the plaintiffs alleged that the defendant knew of but concealed from consumers the fact that an inherent defect could cause “catastrophic failures”). Similarly, facts suggesting that the stronger party knew that the weaker party would be unable to receive substantial benefit from the contract invokes both procedural and substantive unconscionability. See id. at 296 ; Sitogum Holdings, 800 A.2d at 921 . The Carlson court considered other allegations such as the “lack of effective warranty competition among dominant firms in the automobile manufacturing industry” but suggested that the contracting parties’ knowledge disparity was perhaps the “most significant” factor in its unconscionability analysis. Carlson, 883 F.2d at 294.
The question for this Court is not whether the Warranties’ durational limitation is unconscionable as a matter of law, but whether Plaintiffs have alleged sufficient facts to state a prima facie case of unconscionability. See, e.g., id. at 293-94. 6 Plaintiffs have made such a showing in this case.
Necessarily viewing the Complaint in its entirety and drawing all reasonable inferences in Plaintiffs’ favor, Plaintiffs (and Colorado, Michigan, Texas, and New Jersey Plaintiffs by incorporation) allege facts suggesting that PCNA knew that the Cayenne’s coolant system was inherently defective and that purchasers would bear the cost of correcting that defect. See supra Section III(B). PCNA allegedly knew that, in order to keep the vehicle in use after the Warranty Period, consumers would be required to purchase *823 a part that is significantly more expensive than the part with which the Cayenne was originally equipped. Plaintiffs also allege facts suggesting that the defect could substantially damage other parts of the engine and/or render the vehicle inoperable. Finally, Plaintiffs allege facts suggesting that PCNA did not disclose this information to purchasers, that purchasers could not have seen the defect given the design and placement of the coolant tubes in the vehicle, and that such information would have altered each individual plaintiffs buying decisions.
These facts are sufficient to suggest that there existed a “substantial disparity in the parties’ relative bargaining power” in this case such that Plaintiffs were unable to receive a substantial benefit from the Warranties’ four-year/50,000 mile implied warranty coverage. See Carlson, 883 F.2d at 294; cf. Alban, 2011 WL 900114 , at *8 (rejecting the plaintiffs argument that a durational limitation on an implied warranty was unconscionable because plaintiff failed to plead facts supporting his assertions that he had “no meaningful choice” in the bargaining process and that a “gross disparity in bargaining power existed”). Plaintiffs have sufficiently alleged facts suggesting that both procedural and substantive unconscionability exist in this case so as to defeat the motion to dismiss.
The Court notes that this holding does not contradict the Second Circuit’s decision in Abraham v. Volkswagen of America, Inc., on which PCNA relies throughout its motion. 795 F.2d at 249-51 . The Abraham court held that a plaintiff could not pursue a claim for breach of express warranty after the warranty period had expired by alleging that the manufacturer had knowledge of a defect at the time it issued the warranty. Id. at 249-50 . The court stated:
Moreover, virtually all product failures discovered in automobiles after expiration of the warranty can be attributed to a “latent defect” that existed at the time of sale or during the term of the warranty. All parts will wear out sooner or later and thus have a limited effective life. Manufacturers always have knowledge regarding the effective life of particular parts and the likelihood of their failing within a particular period of time. Such knowledge is easily demonstrated by the fact that manufacturers must predict rates of failure of particular parts in order to price warranties and thus can always be said to “know” that many parts will fail after the warranty period has expired. A rule that would make failure of a part actionable based on such “knowledge” would render meaningless time/mileage limitations in warranty coverage.
Id. at 250 .
The Carlson court distinguished the express warranty context in which this language arose from the implied warranty context. See 883 F.2d at 294-97. The Carlson court reasoned that the Abraham court was called upon to decide the reasonableness of an express warranty’s temporal limitation, which is an objective analysis based on a reasonable consumer’s expectations. Carlson, 883 F.2d at 295. The manufacturer’s subjective knowledge is therefore not relevant in the express warranty context. Id. Unlike temporal limitations on express warranties, however, temporal limitations on implied warranties must not only be reasonable but also conscionable. 15 U.S.C. § 2308 (“[Ijmplied warranties may be limited in duration to the duration of a written warranty of reasonable duration, if such limitation is conscionable .... ”). Unconscionability is a “broader question” than reasonableness and implicates the parties’ subjective knowledge in the bargaining process. Carlson, 883 F.2d at 295. This *824 Court’s holding is therefore consistent with both Carlson and Abraham .
The Court finds that Colorado, Michigan, Texas, and New Jersey Plaintiffs have alleged sufficient facts to support the inference that the Warranties’ durational limitation on all implied warranties was unconscionable. Thus, for purposes of this motion, the Court assumes that the implied warranty of merchantability had not expired at the time the alleged defect manifested in Colorado, Michigan, Texas, and New Jersey Plaintiffs’ vehicles. PCNA offers no additional arguments regarding these Plaintiffs’ implied warranty claims. The Court finds that Colorado, Michigan, Texas, and New Jersey Plaintiffs state a claim for breach of the implied warranty of merchantability under the law of their respective states, as modified by MagnusonMoss.
c. Opportunity to Cure
To prevail on a Magnuson-Moss claim, a plaintiff must demonstrate not only that a product failed to live up to its written or implied warranties, but also that the seller had an “opportunity to cure” the alleged defect and failed to do so. Temple, 133 Fed.Appx. at 268 ; 15 U.S.C. § 2310 (e). PCNA argues that the opportunity to cure requirement is a condition precedent to filing suit and that, because Plaintiffs failed to provide PCNA with an opportunity to cure before they filed their Complaint, dismissal of their Magnuson-Moss claim is proper. PCNA’s argument is not well taken.
Section 2310(e) sets forth the Act’s opportunity to cure requirement. Under Section 2310(e):
No action (other than a class action or an action respecting a warranty to which subsection (a)(3) applies) may be brought under subsection (d) for failure to comply with any obligation under any written or implied warranty or service contract, and a class of consumers may not proceed in a class action under such subsection with respect to such a failure except to the extent the court determines necessary to establish the representative capacity of the named plaintiffs, unless the person obligated under the warranty or service contract is afforded a reasonable opportunity to cure such failure to comply. In the case of such a class action ... brought under subsection (d) for breach of any written or implied warranty or service contract, such reasonable opportunity will be afforded by the named plaintiffs and they shall at that time notify the defendant that they are acting on behalf of the class. In the case of such a class action which is brought in a district court of the United States, the representative capacity of the named plaintiffs shall be established in the application of rule 23 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure.
15 U.S.C. § 2310 (e) (emphasis added).
The plain language of the statute imposes different requirements on individual plaintiffs and class action plaintiffs regarding the time at which they must satisfy the opportunity to cure requirement. See id. For individual plaintiffs, Section 2310(e) is a condition precedent to filing suit unless the warrantor establishes an informal dispute settlement procedure pursuant to Section 2310(a)(3). See id. In contrast, plaintiffs bringing a class action may file suit before the defendant is afforded an opportunity to cure for the limited purpose of establishing the representative capacity of the named plaintiffs. See id. Once a court makes this determination, but before the class action can proceed, the defendant must be afforded an opportunity to cure the alleged breach of warranty and the named plaintiffs must at that point inform the defendant that they are acting on behalf of a class. See id.; see also Walsh v. Ford Motor Co., 807 F.2d 1000, 1004 (D.C.Cir.1986) (interpreting the plain lan *825 guage of Section 2310(e) as indicating that “a plaintiff may file a class action, but may not proceed with that action, until she has afforded the defendant a reasonable opportunity to cure its alleged breach”); In re Sears, Roebuck & Co. Tools Mktg. & Sales Practices Litig., No. MDL-1703, 2012 WL 1015806 , at *5 (N.D.Ill. Mar. 22, 2012) (“[T]he statute allows a Magnuson-Moss class action to be brought before the defendant is given an opportunity to cure (only to the point of establishing the named plaintiffs’ representative capacity)
PCNA cites cases in which courts have dismissed class action Magnuson-Moss claims because the plaintiff failed to satisfy Section 2310(e) prior to filing suit, but this result contradicts the plain language of the statute. To hold that no class action “may be brought ... unless the person obligated under the warranty or service contract is afforded a reasonable opportunity to cure” would read the “other than a class action” language out of the statute and would nullify the phrase that “a class of consumers may not proceed in a class action ... except to the extent the court determines necessary to establish the representative capacity of the named plaintiffs.” 15 U.S.C. § 2310 (e). The only way to reconcile the latter clause with the rest of the statute is to read Section 2310(e) as standing for the proposition that a class action may be brought, but may not proceed once the court determines the representative capacity of the named plaintiffs, until the defendant is provided with an opportunity to cure the alleged defect. See id. If a class action may not be brought unless a defendant first is afforded an opportunity to cure the alleged breach, then the phrase “a class of consumer may not proceed in a class action” would not make sense. There would be nothing to proceed with because no case would have been brought.
The courts that interpreted Section 2310(e) to dismiss a plaintiffs class action claim at the pleadings stage failed to account for this language in the statute. In Bearden v. Honeywell, for example, the court dismissed a plaintiffs putative class action because she failed to notify the defendant that she was acting on behalf of a class prior to filing her claim. 720 F.Supp.2d 932, 936 (M.D.Tenn.2010) (citing Stearns v. Select Comfort Retail Corp., No. 08-2746, 2009 WL 4723366 , at *10 (N.D.Cal. Dec. 4, 2009)). See also Rehberger v. Honeywell Int’l, Inc., No. 3:11-0085, 2011 WL 780681 , at *11 (M.D.Tenn. Feb. 28, 2011) (citing Bearden and dismissing a class action Magnuson-Moss claim because the plaintiff failed to provide the defendant with an opportunity to cure prior to filing suit). In so holding, however, the Bearden court omitted the phrase “other than a class action” from its quotation of Section 2310(e) and stated, with no apparent analysis, that class actions are subject to the same “no action ... may be brought” language that applies to claims brought by individual plaintiffs. 720 F.Supp.2d at 936 . The Steams and Rehberger courts similarly dismissed class action claims under Section 2310(e) without acknowledging the language in the statute that removes class actions from the requirement that “no action ... may be brought” until the defendant is afforded an opportunity to cure. See Stearns, 2009 WL 4723366 , at *10; Rehberger, 2011 WL 780681 , at *11; 15 U.S.C. § 2310 (e).
The Court finds that Section 2310(e) does not mandate dismissal of Plaintiffs’ class action claim at this stage of the litigation. Thus, the Court does not consider the parties’ arguments regarding PCNA’s alleged knowledge of the defect as an appropriate substitute for notice under Section 2310(e). The Court DENIES PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count One of *826 Plaintiffs’ Complaint to the extent that it is comprised of Colorado, Michigan, Texas, and New Jersey Plaintiffs’ claims for breach of implied warranty of merchantability under Magnuson-Moss.
The Court GRANTS IN PART and DENIES IN PART PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count One of Plaintiffs Complaint.
B. CALIFORNIA
California Plaintiffs Bob Conrad, David Graas, Sean Krider, and Sy Due Tran each purchased Cayennes that came equipped with plastic coolant tubes. Plaintiffs Conrad and Tran purchased their vehicles new from Porsche dealerships, and Plaintiffs Graas and Krider purchased used Cayennes from unidentified sellers. All four California Plaintiffs experienced problems with their coolant tubes, and each paid to install aluminum coolant pipes in their vehicles. California Plaintiffs do not claim that these problems began while any of their vehicles were under warranty.
California Plaintiffs bring claims under California’s Consumer Legal Remedies Act, Cal. Civil Code § 1750 et seq., California’s Unfair Competition Law, Cal. Bus. & Prof.Code § 17200 et seq., and for unjust enrichment. PCNA moves to dismiss each claim.
Count Two: California’s Consumer Legal Remedies Act
California Plaintiffs allege that PCNA violated the California Consumer Legal Remedies Act (“CLRA”) by failing to disclose and/or concealing from consumers the material fact that the Cayenne’s plastic coolant tubes were defective and would likely fail before the life of the engine. California Plaintiffs allege that these facts were material because reasonable consumers, had they known of the defect, would not have purchased the Cayenne or would have insisted on paying less for it. California Plaintiffs seek injunctive relief, actual and punitive damages, and attorney’s fees and costs under the CLRA.
The CLRA serves to “protect consumers against unfair and deceptive business practices and to provide efficient and economical procedures to secure such protection.” Cal. Civ.Code. § 1760. Plaintiffs invoke sections five and seven of the CLRA, which proscribe:
(5) Representing that goods or services have sponsorship, approval, characteristics, ingredients, uses, benefits, or quantities which they do not have or that a person has a sponsorship, approval, status, affiliation, or connection which he or she does not have.
(7) Representing that goods or services are of a particular standard, quality, or grade, or that goods are of a particular style or model, if they are of another.
Id. § 1770(a)(5) & (7).
Omissions are actionable under sections 1770(a)(5) and 1170(a)(7) of the CLRA where (1) the omission is contrary to a defendant’s express representation or (2) the defendant failed to disclose or concealed a fact that it had a duty to disclose. See Daugherty v. Am. Honda Motor Co., 144 Cal.App.4th 824 , 51 Cal.Rptr.3d 118, 126 (2006). In Daugherty , a California court of appeals found that an automobile manufacturer had no duty to disclose a defective oil seal that would manifest and require repairs after the vehicles’ warranties expired. Id. at 837 , 51 Cal.Rptr.3d 118 . The court found that the manufacturer’s silence was not contrary to any of its affirmative representations and that the plaintiff had failed to allege facts suggesting that the defect constituted a safety risk. Id. at 835-37 , 51 Cal.Rptr.3d 118 . See also Bardin v. Daimlerchrysler Corp., 136 Cal.App.4th 1255 , 39 Cal.Rptr.3d 634, 648-49 (2006) (dismissing the plaintiffs *827 CLRA claim because the manufacturer had no duty to disclose the fact that it used steel in its vehicles’ exhaust manifolds instead of the more durable and expensive cast iron). The court therefore affirmed the trial court’s dismissal of the plaintiffs CLRA claim. Daugherty, 51 Cal.Rptr.3d at 128.
Courts have since cited Daugherty for the proposition that a manufacturer has no duty to inform consumers of defects that will manifest outside the warranty period unless the manufacturer has affirmatively misrepresented the defective nature of the product or the defect poses a safety risk to consumers. See Wilson v. Hewlett-Packard Co., 668 F.3d 1136 , 1141— 43 (9th Cir.2012); Oestreicher v. Alienware Corp., 322 Fed.Appx. 489, 493 (9th Cir.2009). Presumably, because a consumer expects that a manufacturer will guarantee its product against unreasonable safety risks, both within and outside the warranty period, a manufacturer’s failure to disclose such risks is misleading and therefore actionable under the CLRA. See, e.g., Decker, v. Mazda Motor of Am., Inc., No. SACV 11-0873, 2011 WL 5101705 , at *4 (C.D.Cal. Oct. 24, 2011); see also Daugherty, 51 Cal.Rptr.3d at 127 .
A defect that poses an objéctive, identifiable safety risk to consumers will trigger a duty to disclose under the CLRA. See, e.g., Cholakyan v. Mercedes-Benz USA, LLC, 796 F.Supp.2d 1220, 1236-37 (C.D.Cal.2011); Smith v. Ford Motor Co., 749 F.Supp.2d 980, 989 (N.D.Cal.2010), aff'd, 462 Fed.Appx. 660 (9th Cir.2011). California courts have found that defects in automobiles that could cause sudden or unexpected engine failure while driving pose such a risk. See, e.g., Cholakyan, 796 F.Supp.2d at 1236-37 . In Cholakyan , the plaintiffs alleged that a defect caused water to enter the driver/front passenger foot well in their vehicles, potentially causing electrical faults due to water in the control units. Id. at 1236 . The court found that plaintiffs had adequately pleaded a safety issue because they alleged that the defect could cause “sudden and unexpected engine failure” while driving. See id. See also Smith, 749 F.Supp.2d at 990 (suggesting that “evidence that the [defect] causes engines to shut off unexpectedly or causes individuals to stop their vehicles under dangerous conditions” would trigger a duty to disclose under the CLRA); Eisen v. Porsche Cars N. Am., No. CV 11-9405, 2012 WL 841019 , at *5 (C.D.Cal. Feb. 22, 2012) (finding that plaintiff did not plead a safety concern because he failed to indicate that “failure of the [defective part] somehow impairs steering or other critical vehicle function”). PCNA acknowledges that vehicle defects that could cause “sudden, unexpected engine failure” or related risks would evince a safety concern under the CLRA. (ECF No. 62, at 41.)
Importantly, the Cholakyan court found that the plaintiffs had sufficiently alleged a safety risk despite the fact that the water leak defect had not actually caused sudden engine failure in their vehicles. 796 F.Supp.2d at 1236-37 (rejecting defendant’s argument that “the purported safety defects are speculative in nature, because there is no allegation that [plaintiff] or any other class member ever experienced such a defect”); see also Ehrlich v. BMW of N. Am., LLC, 801 F.Supp.2d 908, 918 (C.D.Cal.2010) (“The Court is not persuaded ... that Plaintiff must plead that consumers have been injured by the alleged unreasonable safety risk.”). The courts in both Cholakyan and Ehrlich concluded that the plaintiffs had standing to pursue their CLRA claims because they incurred monetary damages in repairing the alleged defects in their vehicles. See Cholakyan, 796 F.Supp.2d at 1236-37 ; Ehrlich, 801 F.Supp.2d at 918 . They therefore could invoke Daugherty’s safety *828 exception without alleging any safety-related injuries. See Cholakyan, 796 F.Supp.2d at 1236-37 ; Ehrlich, 801 F.Supp.2d at 918 .
Here, Plaintiffs allege that the use of plastic coolant tubes in the Cayenne put consumers at risk of engine failure while operating the vehicle. Necessarily taking all facts alleged in the Complaint as true, Plaintiffs (and California Plaintiffs by incorporation) allege that “[a]s a result of continuous exposure to extreme heat, plastic coolant tubes crack and leak” (ECF No. 35 ¶ 52); cracked coolant tubes result in “coolant seeping directly into the vehicle’s starter, transmission seals, and other components causing possible engine damage and engine failure” (id. ¶ 3); that coolant tube failure renders the vehicle “inoperable” (id. ¶ 54) or can “disabl[e] the vehicle” (id. ¶ 70); and that “acute failure of the [coolant tubes] can and sometimes does occur while traveling at high speeds on public roadways” (id.). These allegations are sufficient to support the inference that the alleged defect can cause engine failure and render the vehicle inoperable while driving, which is sufficient to allege a safety concern under California law. See, e.g., Smith, 749 F.Supp.2d at 990 . The Court finds that Plaintiffs have pleaded facts sufficient to invoke the second Daugherty exception.
PCNA’s arguments to the contrary are not persuasive. PCNA contests Plaintiffs’ factual assertions and argues that coolant loss “does not impair a vehicle’s operability during the first few minutes after it occurs,” pointing specifically to one named plaintiff who drove his vehicle for four miles “without any adverse effect on vehicle operability.” (ECF No. 62, at 42.) These arguments are not appropriate at the motion to dismiss stage. Here, the Court must accept that coolant tube failure “renders the vehicle inoperable,” possibly while “traveling at high speeds.” (ECF No. 35 ¶¶ 9, 70). The fact that one of the named plaintiffs did not experience this result does not alter this conclusion. See, e.g., Cholakyan, 796 F.Supp.2d at 1236-37 .
PCNA’s argument that Plaintiffs fail to establish a sufficient nexus between the alleged defect and the purported safety risk is similarly unpersuasive. Plaintiffs describe the layout of the Cayenne’s engine and explain how this layout “virtually guarantees” that plastic coolant tubes will fracture. (ECF No. 35 II53.) Plaintiffs also explain how the cracked coolant tubes cause coolant to leak into specific engine components and allege that such a leak disables the vehicle. (Id. ¶¶ 3, 70.) These allegations are sufficient to demonstrate a causal connection at this stage of the litigation. See, e.g., Cholakyan, 796 F.Supp.2d at 1236-37 (finding that an alleged water leak defect that caused “electrical faults” in some cases could plausibly give rise to the alleged safety concern of “sudden an unexpected engine failure”); Marsikian v. Mercedes Benz USA, LLC, No. CV 08-04876, 2009 WL 8379784 , at *6-7 (C.D.Cal. May 4, 2009) (denying motion to dismiss a CLRA claim where the plaintiff alleged that air intake systems were “susceptible to clogging” and the defect could lead to “substantial electrical failure” because “it is not implausible that the [clogging] would cause catastrophic engine and electrical system failure while the car is on the road” (internal citations omitted)). Cf. Wilson, 668 F.3d at 1144 (holding that, where an alleged computer defect weakened the power connection between the power jack and the motherboard, resulting in a loss of power to the computer, the plaintiff failed to demonstrate how the alleged defect caused the computer to “ignite” and pose a safety concern); Eisen, 2012 WL 841019 , at *3 (finding that a plaintiff failed to allege a safety defect with particularity when he alleged only that the engine shaft in his vehicle “failed” but did not explain *829 “how the shaft fails and how that failure affects the vehicle”).
As a final note, the Court agrees with PCNA’s argument that the risk of being stranded is too speculative to establish a safety concern as a matter of law. Smith, 749 F.Supp.2d at 991 (where an alleged ignition lock defect prevented drivers from starting their engines, leaving them “unexpectedly stranded,” the alleged risks were “speculative in nature, deriving in each instance from the particular location at which the driver initially has parked the vehicle and/or the driver’s individual circumstances.”); Smith, 462 Fed.Appx. at 662-63 ; Eisen, 2012 WL 841019 , at *5 (citing, the Ninth Circuit’s decision in Smith and holding that an engine defect that could leave drivers stranded on the road, “susceptible to being hit by another vehicle,” was too speculative to constitute a safety concern as a matter of law). 7 As such, the individual experience of California Plaintiff Graas, whose coolant tubes failed while traveling and left him “[sjtranded on the side of the highway in the middle of the night,” plays no role in the Court’s decision that Plaintiffs have adequately pleaded a safety concern. (ECF No. 77, at 61.) Considering those objective safety risks that the Cayenne’s plastic coolant tubes allegedly pose to consumers, the Court finds that Plaintiffs’ safety allegations are sufficient to survive a motion to dismiss. Plaintiffs have adequately pleaded facts to invoke Daugherty’s safety exception. The Court therefore finds that Plaintiffs have sufficiently alleged that PCNA had a duty under California law to disclose the alleged coolant tube defect to consumers. PCNA does not argue that it disclosed the alleged defect or that such an omission is not otherwise actionable under the CLRA. Accordingly, the Court finds that Plaintiffs state a claim for violations of the CLRA and need not consider the parties’ arguments regarding the first Daugherty exception. The Court DENIES PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Two of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
Count Three: California’s Unfair Business Practices Act
California’s Unfair Competition Law (“UCL”) proscribes “any unlawful, unfair or fraudulent business act or practice and unfair, deceptive, untrue or misleading advertising.” Cal. Bus. & Prof.Code § 17200; Cel-Tech Commc’ns v. L.A. Cellular Tel. Co., 20 Cal.4th 163 , 83 Cal.Rptr.2d 548 , 973 P.2d 527, 539 (1999). “Because ... Section 17200 is written in the disjunctive, it establishes three varieties of unfair competition — acts or practices which are unlawful, or unfair, or fraudulent.” Boschma v. Home Loan Ctr., Inc., 198 Cal.App.4th 230 , 129 Cal.Rptr.3d 874, 893 (2011); see also Kearns v. Ford Motor Co., 567 F.3d 1120, 1127 (9th Cir.2009). California Plaintiffs allege that PCNA en *830 gaged in unlawful, unfair, and fraudulent business practices by introducing a defective product into the market and failing to disclose the alleged defect to consumers.
The case law suggests, and PCNA does not dispute, that allegations suggesting that a defendant knew of and failed to disclose safety risks posed by its defective product are sufficient to establish UCL liability under all three prongs of the statute. Based on its finding above, the Court therefore finds that California Plaintiffs state a claim for relief under the unlawful, unfair, and fraudulent prongs of the UCL. See supra Section IV(B) (Count Two). The Court addresses the parties’ arguments regarding each prong.
1. Unlawful Conduct
By proscribing any “unlawful” business practice, the UCL “borrows violations of other laws” and makes them “independently actionable” under the UCL. Cel-Tech Commc’ns, 83 Cal.Rptr.2d 548 , 973 P.2d at 539-40 (internal citations omitted). A violation of the CLRA can serve as a predicate for a UCL claim. See, e.g., Stevens v. Super. Ct., 75 Cal.App.4th 594 , 89 Cal.Rptr.2d 370, 375 (1999).
California Plaintiffs state a claim under the CLRA and therefore sufficiently state a claim under the UCL. See, e.g., Cel-Tech Commc’ns, 83 Cal.Rptr.2d 548 , 973 P.2d at 539-40 . PCNA’s argument that Plaintiffs failed to expressly incorporate their CLRA claim into their UCL claim is not persuasive. The Complaint invokes “the acts alleged in this Complaint” and put PCNA on notice of the alleged CLRA violation. See, e.g., In re Polyurethane Foam Antitrust Litig., 799 F.Supp.2d at 782 (noting that courts should view each allegation in the context of the entire complaint); Tullis, 515 F.3d at 680-81 (stating that courts should not “elevate form over substance” in deciding a motion to dismiss). Plaintiffs’ UCL claim premised on “unlawful” conduct therefore survives PCNA’s motion to dismiss.
2. Unfair Conduct
To state a claim under the “unfairness” prong of the UCL, a plaintiff must demonstrate (1) a substantial injury to consumers, (2) that the injury is not counterbalanced by an equivalent or greater benefit to consumers or to competition, and (3) that consumers could not themselves have avoided the injury. Daugherty, 51 Cal.Rptr.3d at 129 -30 (citing Cel-Tech Commc’ns, 83 Cal.Rptr.2d 548 , 973 P.2d at 539-544 ; and Camacho v. Auto. Club of S. Cal., 142 Cal.App.4th 1394 , 48 Cal.Rptr.3d 770, 777 (2006)).
In general, California courts have found that a defendant’s failure to disclose defects that will manifest post-warranty is not “unfair” under the UCL unless the defendant failed to inform consumers of a fact that it had a duty to disclose under Daugherty. See Bardin, 39 Cal.Rptr.3d at 643-44 (affirming trial court’s dismissal of a UCL claim premised on unfair business practices because the use of “less expensive and less durable materials in the manufacture of [the defendant’s] vehicles to make more money” does not violate public policy absent one of the two Daugherty exceptions); 8 Falk v. Gen. Motors Corp., *831 496 F.Supp.2d 1088, 1098 (N.D.Cal.2007) (finding that a defendant’s failure to disclose defects, where it had a duty to disclose, would in turn constitute an unfair practice under the UCL). 9 Here, Plaintiffs have sufficiently alleged that the use of plastic coolant tubes presents a safety risk that triggered a duty to disclose under Daugherty. See supra Section IV(B) (Count Two). PCNA’s reliance on Daugherty, Bardin, and Clemens therefore does not bar California Plaintiffs’ claim in this case. The Court finds that California Plaintiffs’ claim for unfair practices under the UCL survives PCNA’s motion to dismiss.
3. Fraudulent Conduct
The fraudulent conduct prong of the UCL applies to acts that are either akin to common law fraud or likely to deceive the public. In re Tobacco II Cases, 46 Cal.4th 298 , 93 Cal.Rptr.3d 559 , 207 P.3d 20, 29 (2009). Plaintiffs seeking to assert a UCL claim premised on fraudulent conduct must demonstrate that a defendant’s alleged acts or omissions were material and likely to deceive a reasonable consumer. See id.; see also Bardin, 39 Cal.Rptr.3d at 636 .
PCNA cites Clemens v. DaimlerChrysler Corp. for the proposition that the public is not likely to be deceived where the only expectation consumers could have had about a particular engine component is that it would function properly for the duration of the express warranty. 534 F.3d at 1026-27. As stated above, however, consumers expect that products will function safely throughout and past the duration of the express warranty; a manufacturer’s failure to disclose a defect that presents a safety risk is therefore deceptive under the CLRA. See, e.g., Decker, 2011 WL 5101705 , at *4. The Court therefore concludes that a manufacturer’s failure to disclose defects that present safety risks is likely to deceive a reasonable consumer under the fraudulent prong of the UCL. Cf. Smith, 462 Fed.Appx. at 664-65 (rejecting a UCL claim because the plaintiff failed to demonstrate that the alleged defect presented a safety issue to consumers); O’Shea v. Epson Am., Inc., No. CV 09-80634, 2011 WL 3299936 , at *6-7 (C.D.Cal. July 29, 2011) (same). Because Plaintiffs have sufficiently alleged a safety risk under California law, the Court finds that California Plaintiffs’ UCL claim premised on fraudulent conduct survives PCNA’s motion to dismiss.
California Plaintiffs state a claim for relief under the unlawful, unfair, and fraudulent prongs of the UCL. Accordingly, the Court DENIES PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Three of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
Count Four: Unjust Enrichment (California)
California courts do not recognize unjust enrichment as an independent *832 claim for relief. Melchior v. New Line Prods., Inc., 106 Cal.App.4th 779 , 131 Cal. Rptr.2d 347, 357 (2003). Instead, unjust enrichment “is a general principle underlying various doctrines and remedies, rather than a remedy itself,” id., and “is synonymous with restitution.” Durell v. Sharp Healthcare, 183 Cal.App.4th 1350 , 108 Cal.Rptr.3d 682, 699 (2010). Where a plaintiff seeks restitution under statutory claims for relief, an attempt to plead a separate claim for unjust enrichment “adds nothing” to the complaint. Jogani v. Super. Ct., 165 Cal.App.4th 901 , 81 Cal.Rptr.3d 503, 511 (2008); see also Marsikian, 2009 WL 8379784 , at *8 (dismissing a plaintiffs unjust enrichment claim because “including such a claim would not enlarge the range of remedies Plaintiffs may otherwise seek”).
Here, Plaintiffs seek restitution in their statutory claims for relief. (ECF No. 35 ¶ 267 (“Pursuant to §§ 17203 and 17204 of the Business & Professions Code, California Plaintiffs and the other California SubClass members are entitled to: ... full restitution of all monies paid to Porsche as a result of its deceptive practices .... ” (emphasis added)).) If Plaintiffs cannot recover under the CLRA, the purpose of which is to “protect consumers against unfair and deceptive business practices and to provide efficient and economical procedures to secure such protection,” Cal. Civ. Code § 1760 , or the UCL, which addresses any “unlawful, unfair or fraudulent business act or practice,” Cal. Bus. & Prof. Code § 17200 , Plaintiffs may not pursue an independent theory of restitution based on unjust enrichment. See Falk, 496 F.Supp.2d at 1099 (dismissing a plaintiffs unjust enrichment claim because “the sole remedies available for the violations alleged have been discussed [under the CLRA and the UCL] ... there will be no occasion for resort to unjust enrichment”). If PCNA’s conduct is actionable under the CLRA and/or the UCL, then Plaintiffs will recover the appropriate restitution under these statutes.
Plaintiffs’ suggestion that there exists a split of authority in California regarding unjust enrichment as an independent claim for relief is not persuasive. The state cases that Plaintiffs cite involve a restitution theory as the sole claim. See Lectrodryer v. Seoulbank, 77 Cal.App.4th 723 , 91 Cal.Rptr.2d 881, 883-84 (2000) (considering a restitution-based theory of recovery in a credit dispute); First Nationwide Sav. v. Perry, 11 Cal.App.4th 1657 , 15 Cal.Rptr.2d 173, 176-77 (1992) (same). Where, as here, the unjust enrichment claim does not “enlarge the range of remedies” that a plaintiff may seek and thus “adds nothing to the complaint,” dismissal is proper. Marsikian, 2009 WL 8379784 , at *8; Jogani, 81 Cal.Rptr.3d at 511 . See also Falk, 496 F.Supp.2d at 1099 .
The Court finds that California Plaintiffs have failed to state a claim for relief under an independent theory of unjust enrichment. Accordingly, the Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Four of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
C. COLORADO
Colorado Plaintiff Kevin Starkey purchased a model-year 2006 Cayenne from an unidentified seller in 2010. Colorado Plaintiffs coolant tubes cracked in 2011, and the resulting coolant leak damaged his transmission seals and caused the vehicle to cease operating. Colorado Plaintiff paid to replace his coolant tubes with aluminum pipes and repair the other damage to his vehicle. He now brings claims for violations of the Colorado Consumer Protection Act (“CCPA”), Col.Rev.Stat. § 6-1-101 et seq., strict product liability, and breach of implied warranty of merchantability under Colorado law. PCNA moves to dismiss each claim.
*833
Count Five: Colorado’s Consumer Protection Act
The CCPA provides a claim for relief for consumers who are injured by certain “deceptive trade practices.” Col.Rev.Stat. § 6-1-113(l)(a) (consumers have a claim for relief); § 6-1-105 (identifying specific deceptive trade practices). Deceptive trade practices under the CCPA include affirmative misrepresentations, such as “[representing] that goods, food, services, or property are of a particular standard, quality, or grade, or that goods are of a particular style or model, if [the person] knows or should know that they are of another.” Id. § 6-l-105(l)(g); see also id. §§ 6-l-105(l)(e), (i), and (r) (proscribing various types of affirmative misrepresentations such as false advertising). The CCPA also proscribes “[failing] to disclose material information concerning goods, services, or property which information was known at the time of an advertisement or sale if such failure to disclose such information was intended to induce the consumer to enter into a transaction.” Id. § 6-l-105(l)(u).
Colorado Plaintiff invokes each of these sections and alleges that PCNA violated the CCPA by knowingly misrepresenting the quality and characteristics of the Cayenne and by falsely advertising the Cayenne. Colorado Plaintiff also alleges that PCNA committed an unlawful omission under the CCPA by failing to disclose material information to consumers. The Court finds that Colorado Plaintiff states a claim under the CCPA on the latter allegation only.
To state a CCPA claim, a plaintiff must allege: (1) that the defendant engaged in an unfair or deceptive trade practice; (2) that the challenged practice occurred in the course of the defendant’s business, vocation, or occupation; (3) that it significantly impacts the public as actual or potential consumers of the defendant’s goods, services, or property; (4) that the plaintiff suffered injury in fact to a legally protected interest; and (5) that the challenged practice caused the plaintiffs injury. Crowe v. Tull, 126 P.3d 196, 201 (Colo.2006) (citing Rhino Linings USA Inc. v. Rocky Mountain Rhino Lining, Inc., 62 P.3d 142, 146-47 (Colo.2003)). Allegations premised on fraudulent conduct must meet Rule 9(b)’s heightened pleading standard. Duran v. Clover Club Foods Co., 616 F.Supp. 790, 793 (D.Colo.1985); Gen. Steel Domestic Sales, LLC v. Chumley, No. 10-CV-1398, 2011 WL 2415167 , at *4 (D.Colo. June 10, 2011). Here, PCNA argues that Colorado Plaintiff has not pleaded a causal connection between PCNA’s alleged conduct and his damages as required to state a claim under the CCPA. 10
Colorado Plaintiff essentially concedes that his allegations cannot support an inference that PCNA’s affirmative representations proximately caused his injuries. Instead, he argues that he incurred damages because his vehicle contained plastic coolant tubes “while [PCNA], at the same time, represented that the coolant system was ‘extremely robust.’ ” (ECF No. 77, at 166.) Without alleging that he heard or had access to PCNA’s affirmative statements, or identifying the specific statements on which he allegedly relied, Colorado Plaintiff cannot demonstrate proximate cause under the CCPA. See, e.g., Gen. Steel Domestic Sales, LLC, 2011 WL 2415167 , at *4; cf. Crowe, 126 P.3d at 209-10 . The Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Five of Plaintiffs’ Complaint to the extent that it is premised on *834 allegations of affirmative misrepresentations.
The Court now considers whether PCNA’s alleged failure to disclose the alleged coolant tube defect to consumers is actionable under the CCPA. One Colorado district court has held that a plaintiff cannot state an actionable omission under the CCPA unless he or she identifies some form of communication that took place between the parties. See Baca v. Clark, No. 06-cv00714, 2007 WL 2022054 , at *7 (D.Colo. July 9, 2007); see also Warner v. Ford Motor Co., No. 06-ev-02443, 2008 WL 4452338 , *13, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 82858 , *36-37 (D.Colo. Sept. 30, 2008) (citing and distinguishing Baca). In Baca , however, the plaintiff could not establish that the defendant intended to communicate any facts to her when the defendant did nothing but post a picture of a product on its website. 2007 WL 2022054 , at *1-2, *6-7. The defendant therefore did not misrepresent any material facts when it “failed” to instruct the plaintiff how to properly use the product. Id. at *6-7 .
In contrast, Warner v. Ford Motor Co. and a case on which it relies suggest that the act of distributing and selling a product constitutes a “statement” to consumers that the product is reasonably safe for its intended use. 2008 WL 4452338 , at *9-11, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 82858 , at *26-31 (citing Connick v. Suzuki Motor Co., 174 Ill.2d 482 , 221 Ill.Dec. 389 , 675 N.E.2d 584, 595 (1996)). In such a case, a defendant’s failure to disclose defects that present a known safety risk to consumers is an actionable misrepresentation under the CCPA. See id.; accord Connick, 221 Ill. Dec. 389 , 675 N.E.2d at 595 ; Daugherty, 51 Cal.Rptr.3d at 127 . When a consumer alleges that he or she would not have purchased the product had the risk been disclosed, the consumer has alleged facts sufficient to support an inference that the alleged omission caused his or her injuries. See Warner, 2008 WL 4452338 , at *17, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 82858 , at *48; accord Connick, 221 Ill.Dec. 389 , 675 N.E.2d at 595 .
In Warner, for example, the plaintiffs alleged that the defendant-manufacturer failed to disclose the fact that the subject vehicle was defectively designed and that the defect posed a known safety risk to consumers. 2008 WL 4452338 , at *1-2, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 82858 , at *1-4. The plaintiffs asserted that, had they known of the defect, they would not have purchased the vehicle. Id. The court found that such an omission was actionable misconduct under the CCPA and that the plaintiffs had sufficiently alleged that the defendant’s conduct caused their injuries. See id. at *17-18 , 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 82858 , at *49-50. In reaching its conclusion, the court relied heavily on Connick v. Suzuki Motor Co., in which the Illinois Supreme Court found that a defendant-manufacturer’s alleged concealment of a vehicle’s susceptibility to rollover was an actionable omission under the Illinois consumer fraud statute. See Warner, 2008 WL 4452338 , at *9-11, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 82858 , at *27-31. The Connick court similarly found that the plaintiffs’ allegation that they would not have purchased the vehicle had the safety risk been disclosed was sufficient to meet the statute’s proximate cause requirement. 221 Ill.Dec. 389 , 675 N.E.2d at 595 .
Although the plaintiffs in both Warner and Connick had received some form of communication from the defendant, the Court finds that the lack of direct communication between the parties in this case does not mandate dismissal of Colorado Plaintiff’s claim. The Colorado Supreme Court has indicated that the CCPA is to be construed broadly and that “it should ordinarily be assumed that the CCPA applies to the conduct^ t]hat assumption is appro *835 priate because of the strong and sweeping remedial purpose of the CCPA.” Showpiece Homes Corp. v. Assur. Co. of Am., 38 P.3d 47, 53 (Colo.2001); Warner, 2008 WL 4452338 , at *7, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 82858 , at *19 (citing Showpiece Homes). Furthermore, the Connick court appeared to accept the plaintiffs allegations that “the offering for sale of a consumer product constitutes a representation that the product is reasonably safe for its intended use,” id. (internal citations omitted); infra Section IV(F) (Count Fourteen), and the Warner court acknowledged the similarities between Colorado and Illinois law in this area. See Warner, 2008 WL 4452338 , at *11, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 82858 , at *30-31. The Connick court’s holding is also consistent with case law in other jurisdictions in which courts have held that consumers expect to purchase products that do not contain safety-related defects such that a defendant acts fraudulently in knowingly concealing such defects from consumers. See, e.g., Daugherty, 51 Cal.Rptr.3d at 127 .
Here, Plaintiffs (and Colorado Plaintiff by incorporation) have alleged facts sufficient to support an inference that the alleged coolant tube defect presents a safety risk to consumers and that PCNA had knowledge of but failed to disclose this defect to consumers. See supra Section III(B); IV(B) (Count Two). Colorado Plaintiff alleges that he would not have pm-chased his Cayenne had the alleged coolant tube defect been disclosed. The Court predicts that the Colorado Supreme Court would find that these allegations are sufficient to state a claim under the CCPA. The Court DENIES PCNA’s motion to dismiss these allegations.
Accordingly, the Court GRANTS IN PART and DENIES IN PART PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Five of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
Count Six: Strict Product Liability (Colorado)
Colorado Plaintiff brings a claim for strict product liability and alleges that PCNA designed and sold the Cayenne in a defective condition that was unreasonably dangerous to consumers and/or their property. PCNA argues, and the Court agrees, that the economic loss doctrine bars any such claim.
Colorado has adopted the Restatement (Second) of Torts § 402A, which provides the standard for strict product liability claims. In relevant part, Section 402A states:
(1) One who sells any product in a defective condition unreasonably dangerous to the user or consumer or to his property is subject to liability for physical harm thereby caused to the ultimate user or consumer, or to his property, if
(a) the seller is engaged in the business of selling such a product, and
(b) it is expected to and does reach the user or consumer without substantial change in the condition in which it is sold.
Restatement (Second) of Torts § 402A (1965); Hiigel v. Gen. Motors Corp., 190 Colo. 57 , 544 P.2d 983, 989 (1975) (adopting § 402A).
The Colorado Supreme Court initially adopted the view that “property” under Section 402A includes the product itself, such that “damage to the product sold is covered under the doctrine of strict liability.” Hiigel, 544 P.2d at 989 . In Hiigel , the plaintiff sued the manufacturer of his motor home after the wheels fell off the vehicle, allegedly due to the manufacturer’s failure to warn consumers of the proper way to maintain the vehicle’s wheel attachment system. Id. at 985. The plaintiff did not sustain physical injuries but sought recovery for his costs in repair *836 ing the vehicle. See id. In allowing the plaintiffs claim to proceed, the court noted that jurisdictions were split as to whether plaintiffs could pursue tort claims to recover economic loss. See id. The court adopted the holding of Santor v. Karagheusian, Inc., 44 N.J. 52 , 207 A.2d 305 (1965), which allowed a plaintiff to recover in tort when a product contained a defect that damaged only the product itself. Hiigel, 544 P.2d at 989 . The court limited its holding on this point to cases involving individual (and not commercial plaintiffs). Id.
Santor has since received substantial criticism and represents the minority view among courts. See E. River S.S. Corp. v. Transamerica Delaval, Inc., 476 U.S. 858, 868-69 , 106 S.Ct. 2295 , 90 L.Ed.2d 865 (1986) (classifying Santor as the minority approach and declining to follow it in an admiralty case). The majority of courts instead have adopted the holding of Seely v. White Motor Co., in which the California Supreme Court refused to allow a plaintiff to pursue a strict liability in tort theory to recover damages for the purchase price of his vehicle. 63 Cal.2d 9 , 45 Cal.Rptr. 17 , 403 P.2d 145, 151 (1965). The court found that the law draws a boundary between “tort recovery for physical injuries and warranty recovery for economic loss” and that a “manufacturer’s liability [in tort] is limited to damages for physical injuries and there is no recovery for economic loss alone.” Id. The court reasoned that a consumer can contract to protect his or her economic interests but “should not be charged at the will of the manufacturer with bearing the risk of physical injury.” Id. When a defective product fails and the only damage is to the product itself, the consumer has suffered economic loss and may only recover in contract. See id. The United States Supreme Court adopted Seely’s holding in federal admiralty law and stated that “[e]ven when the harm to the product itself occurs through an abrupt, accident-like event, the resulting loss due to repair costs, decreased value, and lost profits is essentially the failure of the purchaser to receive the benefit of its bargain — traditionally the core concern of contract law.” E. River, 476 U.S. at 870-71 , 106 S.Ct. 2295 .
Twenty-five years after Hiigel , the Colorado Supreme Court joined the majority of jurisdictions and officially adopted the economic loss rule for cases brought by all plaintiffs, including individual purchasers. See Town of Alma v. Azco Const., Inc., 10 P.3d 1256, 1259-66 (Colo.2000). The court cited extensively to Seely and East River and ultimately stated:
[W]e now expressly adopt the economic loss rule. We hold that a party suffering only economic loss from the breach of an express or implied contractual duty may not assert a tort claim for such a breach absent an independent duty of care under tort law. [ ] Economic loss is defined generally as damages other than physical harm to persons or property.
Id. at 1264 .
The Town of Alma court illustrated the rule using a manufacturer’s warranty as an example. When a product fails outside its warranty and only the product itself is damaged, the buyer has suffered only economic loss. The buyer could have addressed his or her economic expectations in contract by “demanding] additional warranties on a product while agreeing to pay a higher price, or the same buyer may choose to assume a higher level of risk that a product will not perform properly by accepting a more limited warranty in exchange for a lower product price.” Id. at 1262 . If the buyer fails to protect adequately those economic expectations in contract, he or she cannot then attempt to recover solely economic loss in tort. See id. at 1262-64 ; cf. Camacho v. Honda Motor Co., 741 P.2d 1240 (Colo.1987) (considering the merits of a strict liability *837 claim based on Section 402A where the plaintiff suffered severe leg injuries in an accident involving an allegedly defective motorcycle).
In its analysis, the Town of Alma court noted that application of the economic loss doctrine turns on the source of the duty owed and not the nature of the injury suffered. 10 P.3d at 1262 . The court then cited several examples of circumstances in which an individual could suffer monetary injury but still pursue a tort action based on an independent duty of care that the defendant violated. • Id. at 1263 (citing examples of “special relationships,” such as attorney-client and physician-patient, that impose a duty of care independently of any contractual relationship). In other words, the fact that a plaintiff suffers monetary damages does not necessarily mean that he or she has suffered “economic loss” for purposes of the rule.
This language does not alter the conclusion that “[d]amage to a product is most naturally understood as a warranty claim” that could have been insured or otherwise addressed in contract. E. River, 476 U.S. at 871 , 106 S.Ct. 2295 ; Town of Alma, 10 P.3d at 1262-63 (discussing warranties). When a product sustains damage that would have been covered under its warranty, but the damage occurs outside of the warranty period, the damages could have been addressed in contract and are exactly the Mnd of damages that the economic loss rule developed to address. See Town of Alma, 10 P.3d at 1262 ; Seely, 45 Cal.Rptr. 17 , 403 P.2d at 151 ; Carter v. Brighton Ford, Inc., 251 P.3d 1179, 1183 (Colo.App.2010) (“Damages occurring only to the product itself represent the type of damages that can be foreseen and dealt with by contract.”). Absent some damages that would not have been contemplated under the product’s warranty, the fact that the product is “unreasonably dangerous” is irrelevant to the question of whether the economic loss rule applies. See To%m of Alma, 10 P.3d at 1264 (“Economic loss is defined generally as damages other than physical harm to persons or property.”); accord E. River, 476 U.S. at 871 , 106 S.Ct. 2295 (rejecting an intermediate theory in which economic loss is recoverable in tort where “the defective product creates a situation potentially dangerous to persons or other property” and stating that “[t]he tort concern with safety is reduced when an injury is only to the product itself’); Sherman v. Sea Ray Boats, 251 Mich.App. 41 , 649 N.W.2d 783, 790 (2002) (stating that, where a plaintiff seeks only economic loss and not damages for physical injury, “tort concerns with product safety no longer apply, and economic expectation issues prevail”).
Here, is it undisputed that Colorado Plaintiff suffered only economic loss when his vehicle’s coolant tubes failed. Colorado Plaintiff does not allege that coolant tube failure caused him to suffer personal injury or injury to property other than his Cayenne; 11 instead, the only *838 damages that he suffered could have been addressed under the vehicle’s Warranty. The duty that PCNA allegedly breached therefore sounds in contract and Colorado Plaintiff is barred from pursuing a tort claim for strict product liability.
Colorado Plaintiff attempts to confuse the issue by suggesting that PCNA breached a duty to act reasonably in the design, manufacture, and sale of the Cayenne. (ECF No. 77, at 169 (citing Loughridge v. Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co., 192 F.Supp.2d 1175, 1183-84 (D.Colo.2002), for the proposition that “strict products liability imposes a duty on the manufacturer of a product, outside any contractual duty, to act reasonably in the design, manufacture, and sale of the product”).) Were the Court to apply this principle to the present case, such a holding would contradict the Colorado Supreme Court’s implicit holding that product damage that could have been addressed by a warranty is not recoverable in tort. See Town of Alma, 10 P.3d at 1263 (suggesting that the type of damages suffered is relevant in determining the source of the duty underlying the action); Carter, 251 P.3d at 1183 (rejecting the Loughridge court’s holding that warranty claims — claims in which the product damaged only itself — constitute “property damage” within the meaning of Colorado’s product liability statutes). The Lough-ridge court also based its ruling on the fact that the plaintiffs had alleged harm to property other than the product itself; such a circumstance is not present in this case. See 192 F.Supp.2d at 1184 .
Colorado Plaintiffs final argument is that Hiigel has never been overruled and precludes application of the economic loss doctrine in this case. Colorado Plaintiff does not explain how Hiigel would support a tort action on these facts that would not contradict the theory of and purposes underlying the economic loss rule that the Town of Alma court espoused. See Carter, 251 P.3d at 1183 (finding that, at the very least, Hiigel has been “substantially narrowed and clarified” by Town of Alma). Colorado Plaintiff notes that the plaintiff in Town of Alma was in privity with the defendant, that the contract in Town of Alma covered the “specific subject matter of the lawsuit,” that the issue arose in the negligence context and not strict product liability, and that the defect did not pose safety risks. (ECF No. 77, at 169.) None of these distinctions alter the Court’s conclusion that, because Colorado Plaintiff seeks purely economic loss that he could have addressed by purchasing extended warranty coverage in contract, he cannot now attempt to recover those damages in tort.
The Court finds that the economic loss rule bars Colorado Plaintiffs tort claim for strict product liability. Accordingly, the Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Six of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
Count Seven: Implied Warranty of Merchantability (Colorado)
Colorado Plaintiff brings a claim for breach of implied warranty of merchantability under Colorado law. Like his co-plaintiffs, Colorado Plaintiff asserts that *839 PCNA breached the implied warranty of merchantability under the UCC by failing to supply goods that are fit for their ordinary purpose.
PCNA does not offer any arguments specific to Colorado Plaintiffs implied warranty claim and adopts only those arguments that it advanced in connection with Plaintiffs’ Magnuson-Moss claim. Specifically, PCNA argues that all implied warranties had expired by the time the alleged defect manifested in Colorado Plaintiffs vehicle. The Court rejected these arguments in Section IV(A)(2)(b) of this Opinion and Order (Count One) and found that Plaintiffs had sufficiently alleged facts to suggest that the durational limitation on all implied warranties was unconscionable and unenforceable, such that the Court cannot assume for purposes of this motion that the implied warranty of merchantability had expired. See supra Section IV(A)(2)(b) (Count One). The Court therefore finds that Colorado Plaintiff states a claim for breach of the implied warranty of merchantability. The Court DENIES PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Seven of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
D. FLORIDA
Florida Plaintiff Joseph Dudley purchased a 2004 Cayenne from an unidentified seller sometime in 2010. That same year, Florida Plaintiff became aware that the plastic coolant tubes in his vehicle “faced defective coolant tube issues” and paid to replace the plastic tubes in order to avoid having the defect manifest in his vehicle. (ECF No. 35, at 20.) Florida Plaintiff now brings claims for violations of the Florida Deceptive and Unfair Trade Practices Act (“FDUTPA”), Fla. Stat. § 501.201 et seq., negligence, and unjust enrichment. PCNA moves to dismiss each of these claims.
Count Eight: Florida’s Deceptive and Unfair Trade Practices Act
Under the FDUTPA, “[u]nfair methods of competition, unconscionable acts or practices, and unfair or deceptive acts or practices in the conduct of any trade or commerce are hereby declared unlawful.” Fla. Stat. § 501.204 (1). A person who has suffered a loss as a result of an FDÜTPA violation may recover “actual damages, plus attorney’s fees and court costs.” Id. § 501.211. There are three elements to an FDUTPA claim: (1) a deceptive or unfair practice, (2) causation, and (3) actual damages. Rollins, Inc. v. Butland, 951 So.2d 860, 869 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App. 2006).
Here, the parties dispute whether Florida Plaintiff has alleged causation and actual damages as required to state a claim under the FDUTPA. Florida courts have defined “actual damages” as “the difference in the market value of the product or service in the condition in which it was delivered and its market value in the condition in which it should have been delivered according to the contract of the parties.” Butland, 951 So.2d at 869 (citing Rollins, Inc. v. Heller, 454 So.2d 580, 585 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1984)). Florida Plaintiff seeks to recover two types of actual damages: the cost of replacing the plastic coolant tubes in his vehicle with aluminum pipes and the amount that he overpaid in purchasing what he assumed to be a non-defective vehicle. Under the latter theory, Florida Plaintiff seeks to recover the diminished value of his vehicle, measured as the difference between the value of a Cayenne equipped with non-defective parts and the value of the Cayenne as delivered. PCNA argues that Florida Plaintiff cannot claim actual damages where the vehicle was delivered in a condition that outlived its express warranty, and, alternatively, that Florida Plaintiff fails to allege actual *840 damages because he installed aluminum pipes in his vehicle before the plastic coolant tubes failed.
The Court agrees with PCNA that Florida Plaintiff cannot recover under the FDUTPA the cost of repairing and replacing the allegedly defective coolant tubes in his vehicle. Florida courts have suggested that the cost of repairing and replacing a defective part are “consequential” damages that are not recoverable under the FDUTPA and that the FDUTPA permits a consumer to recover “only the diminished value” of the goods or services received. Orkin Exterminating Co. v. Petsch, 872 So.2d 259 , 263 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.2004) (citing Urling v. Helms Exterminators, Inc., 468 So.2d 451, 454 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1985)); see also Kia Motors Am. Corp. v. Butler, 985 So.2d 1133, 1140 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App. 2008) (finding that, in a case in which the plaintiff paid to repair and replace the allegedly deceptive brakes in her vehicle, the plaintiff sought recovery of consequential damages that are not recoverable under the FDUTPA); Butland, 951 So.2d at 869 .
Here, Florida Plaintiff alleges actual damages under the FDUTPA on a “diminished value” theory of recovery. A district court in Florida recently found that a plaintiff pleaded the elements of an FDUTPA claim on facts similar to those that Florida Plaintiff alleges in this case. In Matthews v. American Honda Motor Co., Inc., the plaintiff alleged that the defendant manufactured and sold vehicles with a latent defect and brought a FDUTPA claim on behalf of herself and all Florida owners and lessees of the subject vehicles. No. 12-60630-CIV, 2012 WL 2520675 , at *1 (S.D.Fla. June 6, 2012). The plaintiff alleged that the defect caused paint discoloration and delamination on the outside of the vehicles, that the defect did not manifest until after the applicable warranties on the vehicles had expired, and that the defendant was aware of the defect but failed to disclose it to the public at large. Id. In finding that the plaintiff adequately pleaded the elements of an FDUTPA claim, 12 the court stated that “Florida courts have recognized that a[n] FDUTPA claim is stated where the defendant knowingly fails to disclose a material defect that diminishes a product’s value.” Id. at *3 (citing Davis v. Powertel, Inc., 776 So.2d 971, 973 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.2000)). The court went on to reject the defendant’s argument that the vehicle’s warranty barred the claim, stating, “[plaintiffs] allegation that [defendant] knowingly failed to disclose the latent paint defect takes this case outside of warranty law.” Id.
Florida case law supports the Matthews court’s holding that a consumer can recover under the FDUTPA when a defendant’s deceptive conduct allegedly diminishes the value of the product sold. See Siegle v. Progressive Consumers Ins. Co., 819 So.2d 732, 738 (Fla.2002) (indicating that the FDUTPA contemplates compensation for diminished value); Davis, 776 So.2d at 973 (reversing a trial court’s dismissal of a putative class action when the plaintiffs alleged that the defendant’s failure to disclose a material fact reduced the value of their phones); Ft. Lauderdale Lincoln Mercury v. Corgnati, 715 So.2d 311, 314 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1998). In a case with facts similar to those alleged here, a Florida court of appeals allowed a plaintiffs FDUTPA claim to proceed where she allegedly purchased a vehicle that came *841 equipped with defective seat belts and sought to.recover the “diminution in value of her [ ] automobile caused by the allegedly defective seatbelt buckles.” Collins v. DaimlerChrysler Corp., 894 So.2d 988, 990-91 , (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.2004). The Collins court suggested that the appropriate measure of damages under the FDUTPA would be the difference in value between the car sold with operational seat belts and the car sold with defective seat belts. Id. at 991 .
Importantly, the Collins court allowed the plaintiffs claim to proceed despite the fact that the alleged seat belt defect had never manifested itself by failing to operate in an emergency or otherwise causing injury. Id. at 990-91 . The court noted that the case was unique in that seat belts present safety and reliability concerns such that the plaintiff had alleged a concrete injury even though the defect had never manifested in her vehicle. Id.
For the reasons set forth in Section IV(B) (Count Two) of this Opinion and Order, the Court assumes for purposes of this motion to dismiss that the alleged coolant tube defect presents a safety risk to consumers. Thus, in light of Collins , PCNA’s argument that Florida Plaintiff alleges only speculative damage because he replaced his coolant tubes before the alleged defect manifested in his vehicle is not persuasive.
Similarly unpersuasive is any attempt to distinguish the Collins court’s holding from the facts of this case on the ground that Florida Plaintiff did not rely on PCNA’s affirmative representations in purchasing his vehicle. The Court acknowledges the fact that the FDUTPA’s actual damages inquiry is premised on the “contract of the parties,” Butland, 951 So.2d at 869 , and that the Florida courts confronting this issue have measured damages in accordance with the defendant’s affirmative representations regarding the quality of its product. See, e.g., Collins, 894 So.2d at 990-91 ; Corgnati, 715 So.2d at 312 ; H & J Paving of Florida, Inc. v. Nextel, Inc., 849 So.2d 1099, 1102 (Fla. Dist.Ct.App.2003). But the Matthews court applied this measure of damages to a case in which the plaintiff did not rely on any of the defendant’s express representations, and Collins does not rule out the theory that a defendant’s failure to disclose defects that implicate safety concerns is actionable regardless of whether the defendant affirmatively represented the fact that its product would operate safely. See Matthews, 2012 WL 2520675 , at *1-3; Collins, 894 So.2d at 991 n. 3; accord Decker, 2011 WL 5101705 , at *4; Connick, 221 Ill.Dec. 389 , 675 N.E.2d at 584 . The Court declines to dismiss Florida Plaintiffs claim on this ground.
Given the above analysis, PCNA’s argument that Florida Plaintiff fails to allege causation is not compelling. Florida Plaintiff alleges that, had he known of the alleged coolant tube defect, he would not have purchased a Cayenne or would have insisted on paying less for it. (ECF No. 35 ¶ 113.) These allegations are sufficient to demonstrate cause under the FDUTPA. See; e.g., Davis, 776 So.2d at 973-75 ; Matthews, 2012 WL 2520675 , at *2-3. PCNA’s argument that Florida Plaintiff must allege “transaction-specific facts” in order to demonstrate causation under the FDUTPA is misleading; this language was relevant in a class certification procedure in which the allegedly deceptive conduct depended on the facts of each individual transaction. Miami Auto. Retail, Inc. v. Baldwin, 97 So.3d 846, 850, 857-58 , 2012 WL 2402152, at *1, 8 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App. 2012). In Miami Automotive Retail, the court distinguished cases in which “every customer received the same misrepresentation” and stated that, in such cases, “individual reliance may not be necessary under FDUTPA.” Id. at 857 , at *8. PCNA’s *842 argument does not mandate dismissal of Florida Plaintiffs claim.
The Court finds that Florida Plaintiff states a claim for relief under the FDUTPA. Accordingly, the Court DENIES PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Eight of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
Count Nine: Negligence (Florida)
Florida Plaintiff alleges that PCNA “owed a duty to [Florida Plaintiff] with regard to the plastic coolant tubes installed in the subject Porsche Cayenne vehicles.” (ECF No. 35 ¶ 309.) Florida Plaintiff asserts that PCNA breached this duty by negligently designing the Cayenne’s cooling system in such a way as to cause injury to Florida Plaintiff.
In Florida, as in Colorado, the economic loss rule prevents plaintiffs from recovering under a negligence claim “when there is a defect in a product that causes damage to the product but causes no personal injury or damage to other property.” Indem. Ins. Co. v. Am. Aviation, Inc., 891 So.2d 532, 536 (Fla.2004). The Florida Supreme Court has stated that “the products liability economic loss rule developed to protect manufacturers from liability for economic damages caused by a defective product beyond those damages provided by warranty law.” Id. at 538 .
Florida Plaintiff does not dispute this contention but instead argues that the rule does not bar tort claims based on fraudulent inducement and negligent misrepresentation. Even if true, Florida Plaintiff does not explain how this fact is relevant to his claim that PCNA negligently designed the Cayenne. Florida Plaintiff was free to plead a claim for fraudulent inducement or negligent misrepresentation if the facts supported such a claim for relief. He failed to do so, and cannot amend his claim in his memorandum in opposition. See, e.g., Pa. ex rel. Zimmerman v. PepsiCo, Inc., 836 F.2d 173 , 181 (3d Cir.1988) (“[I]t is axiomatic that the complaint may not be amended by the briefs in opposition to a motion to dismiss.” (internal quotations omitted)). As it stands, the Complaint fails to provide sufficient notice of a fraudulent inducement or negligent misrepresentation claim such that PCNA could have prepared an informed responsive pleading.
As for the negligent design claim, Florida Plaintiff does not dispute the fact that the alleged coolant defect caused damage to the Cayenne and not personal injury or damage to other property. Thus, the Court finds that the economic loss doctrine, as recognized by Florida courts, bars Florida Plaintiffs negligent design claim. The Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Nine of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
Count Ten: Unjust Enrichment (Florida)
Florida Plaintiff brings a claim for unjust enrichment and alleges that “[PCNA] charged [Florida Plaintiff] and other Florida Sub-Class members more than a fair market price for their vehicles” such that it would be “inequitable” for PCNA to retain the benefit without paying the value of the benefit conferred. (ECF No. 35 ¶¶ 314, 316.) Florida Plaintiff alleges that he conferred a benefit on PCNA, “which it appreciated when it received the monetary compensation for the Cayennes and other benefits conferred.” (Id. ¶ 313.) The Court finds that Florida Plaintiff fails to state a claim for unjust enrichment.
Unjust enrichment is an “equitable claim based on a legal fiction which implies a contract as a matter of law.” 14th & Heinberg, LLC v. Terhaar & Cronley Gen. Contractors, Inc., 43 So.3d 877, 880 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.2010). In order to state a claim for unjust enrichment in Florida, a plaintiff must allege that he or she “directly conferred a benefit on the defendants.” Am. Safety Ins. Serv., Inc. v. Griggs, 959 *843 So.2d 322, 331 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.2007) (citing Peoples Nat’l Bank of Commerce v. First Union Nat’l Bank of Fla., 667 So.2d 876, 879 (Fla.Dist.Ct.App.1996)). The parties need not be in privity of contract in order for a plaintiff to establish that he or she conferred a direct benefit on a defendant; however, a plaintiff cannot recover for unjust enrichment in Florida when he or she purchased a product on the seconds ary market with no direct link to the manufacturer. Compare Romano v. Motorola, Inc., No. 07-CIV-60517, 2007 WL 4199781 , at *2 (S.D.Fla. Nov. 26, 2007) (refusing to dismiss a plaintiffs unjust enrichment claim where the plaintiff purchased a product through a manufacturer’s “retail outfit” and stating that “[w]hile the [product] is ultimately sold through the retailer, [the defendant] is directly benefitted through profits earned from the sale of the [product]”) with Doll v. Ford Motor Co., 814 F.Supp.2d 526, 551-52 (D.Md.2011) (dismissing an unjust enrichment claim under Florida law where the plaintiff purchased a used Ford vehicle from an independent dealership and finding that the plaintiffs failed to demonstrate that the defendant received a direct benefit from the transaction). See also Szymczak v. Nissan N. Am., Inc., No. 10 CV 7493, 2011 WL 7095432 , at *20-21, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 153011 , at *58-59 (S.D.N.Y. Dec. 16, 2011) (dismissing a Florida plaintiffs unjust enrichment claim because he failed to allege that he purchased a product from or otherwise conferred a direct benefit on the defendant).
Here, Florida Plaintiff alleges that he purchased a 2004 vehicle in 2010 and that he replaced the plastic coolant tubes in his vehicle. Florida Plaintiff alleges only that he “bought and/or leased a Porsche Cayenne manufactured by Porsche” and that PCNA “received the monetary compensation for the Cayennes and other benefits conferred by Plaintiff[ ] Dudley ... and the other Florida SubClass members.” (ECF No. 35 ¶ 313.) Without establishing a link between the unidentified seller of his vehicle and PCNA, Florida Plaintiff fails to allege that he conferred a direct benefit on PCNA as Florida law requires. See Doll, 814 F.Supp.2d at 551-52 ; Peoples Nat’l Bank of Commerce, 667 So.2d at 879 . Accordingly, Florida Plaintiffs unjust enrichment claim against PCNA cannot survive.
As an alternative rationale for dismissing Florida Plaintiffs unjust enrichment claim, the Court notes that several district courts in Florida have held that a plaintiff cannot advance an unjust enrichment claim that is predicated on the same wrongful conduct as that which the FDUTPA is designed to prevent. See Matthews, 2012 WL 2520675 , at *2; Jovine v. Abbott Labs., Inc., 795 F.Supp.2d 1331, 1341-42 (S.D.Fla.2011); Nichols v. Wm. Wrigley Jr. Co., No. 10-80759-CIV, 2011 WL 181458 , at *5 (S.D.Fla. Jan. 19, 2011); Prohias v. Pfizer, Inc., 490 F.Supp.2d 1228, 1236-37 (S.D.Fla.2007); Am. Honda Motor Co., Inc. v. Motorcycle Info. Network, Inc., 390 F.Supp.2d 1170, 1178 (M.D.Fla. 2005). The purpose of the FDUTPA is to protect the consuming public from those who engage in unfair methods of competition and/or unconscionable, deceptive, or unfair acts or practices in the conduct of trade of commerce. Fla. Stat. § 501.202 (2). Thus, where a plaintiff alleges that a defendant engaged in deceptive trade practices, the plaintiff has an adequate remedy at law even if his or her FDUTPA claim is ultimately unsuccessful. See Matthews, 2012 WL 2520675 , at *2, *5; In re Managed Care Litig., 185 F.Supp.2d 1310, 1337 (S.D.Fla.2002) (“It is blackletter [sic] law that the theory of unjust enrichment is equitable in nature and is, therefore, not available where there is an adequate legal remedy.” (internal citations omitted)).
*844 Here, Florida Plaintiff does not assert that his unjust enrichment claim is predicated on allegations that are distinct from those underlying his FDUTPA claim. Florida Plaintiff therefore has an adequate remedy at law and is barred from advancing an unjust enrichment claim in this case. See Matthews, 2012 WL 2520675 , at *2, *5.
The Court finds that Florida Plaintiff fails to state a claim for unjust enrichment. Accordingly, the Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Ten of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
E. GEORGIA
Georgia Plaintiff Anthony Gardner purchased a 2005 Cayenne in 2008 from an unidentified seller. Georgia Plaintiff does not disclose the amount that he paid for his Cayenne or any other circumstances surrounding the purchase. Georgia Plaintiff alleges that, in March 2011, the plastic coolant tubes in his vehicle cracked and rendered his vehicle disabled. Georgia Plaintiff paid to repair his vehicle and now brings claims for breach of implied warranty under the UCC, violations of Georgia’s Uniform Deceptive Trade Practices Act, Ga.Code Ann. § 10-1-370 et seq., and unjust enrichment. PCNA moves to dismiss these claims.
Count Eleven: Implied Warranty of Merchantability Under UCC (Georgia)
In Georgia, a warranty that goods shall be merchantable is implied in a contract for their sale if the seller is a merchant with respect to goods of that kind. Ga.Code Ann. § 11-2-314 (adopting UCC § 2-314 as Georgia law). A plaintiff seeking to assert a claim for breach of the implied warranty of merchantability under Georgia law must be in privity with the party against whom the plaintiff seeks to assert his or her claim. Keaton v. A.B.C. Drug Co., 266 Ga. 385 , 467 S.E.2d 558, 560-61 (1996); Chaffin v. Atlanta Coca Cola Bottling Co., 127 Ga.App. 619 , 194 S.E.2d 513, 514 (1972). Georgia courts have consistently held that, “if a defendant is not the seller to the plaintiff-purchaser, the plaintiff as the ultimate purchaser cannot recover on the implied [ ] warranty, if any, arising out of the prior sale by the defendant to the original purchaser, such as [the] distributor or retailer from whom plaintiff purchased the product.” Evershine Prods., Inc. v. Schmitt, 130 Ga.App. 34 , 202 S.E.2d 228, 231 (1973).
Georgia Plaintiff does not argue that he is in privity with PCNA but argues that Georgia courts recognize an exception to this rule where a manufacturer extends a warranty to a remote purchaser. The Court disagrees and finds that Georgia Plaintiff fails to state a claim for breach of the implied warranty of merchantability.
Georgia Plaintiffs argument relies on language from a case in which a Georgia appellate court stated:
While ordinarily under [Georgia law] there is no implied warranty existing between a manufacturer and an ultimate consumer, this is due to the fact that no privity of contract exists between the two. However, where an automobile manufacturer, through its authorized dealer issues to a purchaser of one of its automobiles from such dealer admittedly as a part of the sale a warranty by the manufacturer running to the purchaser, privity exists ....
Chrysler Corp. v. Wilson Plumbing Co., Inc., 132 Ga.App. 435 , 208 S.E.2d 321, 323 (1974) (citing Studebaker Corp. v. Nail, 82 Ga.App. 779 , 62 S.E.2d 198, 202 (1950)); see also McQueen v. Minolta Bus. Solutions, 275 Ga.App. 297 , 620 S.E.2d 391, 393 (2005) (“[W]hen a buyer purchases a product from a retailer, and there is no privity of contract between the manufacturer and the buyer, no implied warranty runs from *845 the manufacturer to the purchaser.”). At least one district court in Georgia has cited Chrysler Corp. and allowed an express warranty to supplant the privity requirement in a plaintiffs implied warranty of merchantability claim. See Terrill v. Electrolux Home Prods., Inc., 753 F.Supp.2d 1272, 1288 (S.D.Ga.2010). 13
The Court accepts Chrysler Corp. as good law but finds that the “exception” does not apply to the facts of this case. The Chrysler Corp. court stated that a warranty supplants privity in certain circumstances — specifically, when a manufacturer issues a warranty to remote purchasers through an authorized dealer and when the warranty is part of the remote consumer’s purchase. 208 S.E.2d at 323 . This language is not superfluous. Instead, prior and subsequent cases suggest that this proposition is less an exception and more a means of implying privity where the sale is effectively a direct sale between the manufacturer and the consumer. See, e.g., Studebaker Corp., 62 S.E.2d at 202 (stating that a purchase through an authorized dealer is “in effect a direct purchase” between the manufacturer and a remote purchaser); Lauria v. Ford Motor Co., 169 Ga.App. 203 , 312 S.E.2d 190, 192-94 (1983) (citing Chrysler Corp. and stating that, “[w]here an automobile manufacturer, through its authorized dealer, issues to a purchaser of one of its new automobiles from the dealer a warranty as part of the sale, certainly an implied warranty of merchantability is in effect despite the lack of actual privity”). By acting through a dealer and by making the warranty part of the sale between the dealer and purchaser, the manufacturer evinces an intent to contract with the remote purchaser and receives consideration in the form of direct profits from its dealers. Studebaker Corp., 62 S.E.2d at 201-02 . The manufacturer therefore bridges the privity gap that would otherwise bar the remote purchaser’s implied warranty claim. See id.
Georgia Plaintiff does not allege any facts suggesting that his purchase transaction was effectively a sale between himself and PCNA. Georgia Plaintiff does not allege that he purchased his vehicle new (instead, he purchased a 2005 vehicle in 2008) from a Porsche authorized dealer (he does not identify the seller) or that the unidentified seller incorporated the Warranty into his purchase of the vehicle. Even assuming all facts alleged in the Complaint as true, the Court cannot conclude that PCNA effectively bridged the privity gap between itself and Georgia Plaintiff. See Twombly, 550 U.S. at 556 , 127 S.Ct. 1955 (stating that a complaint that fails to “raise the claimed right to relief above the speculative level and to create a reasonable expectation that discovery will reveal evidence to support the claim” does not survive a motion to dismiss). Georgia’s general privity rule therefore applies. Georgia Plaintiff acknowledges that he is not in privity with PCNA; thus, Georgia Plaintiff is barred from pursuing his implied warranty claim.
The Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Eleven of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
Count Twelve: Georgia’s Uniform Deceptive Trade Practices Act
Georgia’s Uniform Deceptive Trade Practices Act (“GUDTPA”) provides *846 that “[a] person likely to be damaged by a deceptive trade practice of another may be granted an injunction against it under the principles of equity and on terms that the court considers reasonable.” Ga.Code Ann. § 10-l-373(a). Georgia Plaintiff does not dispute the fact that the “sole remedy available under the [GUDTPA] is injunctive relief.” Moore-Davis Motors, Inc. v. Joyner, 252 Ga.App. 617 , 556 S.E.2d 137, 140 (2001). As such, the GUDTPA provides relief from future wrongful conduct and does not rectify past injuries. See, e.g., Catrett v. Landmark Dodge, Inc., 253 Ga.App. 639 , 560 S.E.2d 101, 106 (2002).
Georgia Plaintiff has already repaired the alleged coolant tube defect in his vehicle and does not suggest that he will experience future wrongful conduct. Instead, without citing any authority, Georgia Plaintiff argues that currently unnamed class members could suffer harm absent injunctive relief. This argument fails. An individual that has only suffered past harm, even when he brings his claim on behalf of a putative class of plaintiffs, fails to state a claim under the GUDTPA. See Bolinger v. First Multiple Listing Serv., Inc., 838 F.Supp.2d 1340, 1364 (N.D.Ga.2012); Terrill, 753 F.Supp.2d at 1291-92 ; see also J & R Mktg., 549 F.3d at 390 .
Because Georgia Plaintiff does not allege any future harm that he will likely experience, an injunction is not warranted and Georgia Plaintiff fails to state a claim under the GUDTPA. The Court GRANTS PCNA’s motion to dismiss Count Twelve of Plaintiffs’ Complaint.
Count Thirteen: Unjust Enrichment (Georgia)
In Georgia, unjust enrichment is an equitable concept that applies when, in the absence of a legal contract, one party has conferred a benefit on the opposing party for which it should be compensated. Wachovia Ins. Servs., Inc. v. Fallon, 299 Ga.App. 440 , 682 S.E.2d 657, 665 (2009). A party is precluded from pursuing an unjust enrichment claim where a valid contract governs the subject matter in dispute. Tuvim v. United Jewish Cmty., Inc., 285 Ga. 632 , 680 S.E.2d 827, 829-30 (2009); Goldstein v. The Home Depot, U.S.A., Inc., 609 F.Supp.2d 1340, 1347 (N.D.Ga.2009). When a consumer seeks compensation for a defective product that failed, the warranty covers the subject matter in dispute and an unjust enrichment claim does not lie. See, e.g., Terrill, 753 F.Supp.2d at 1291 . A plaintiff cannot use an unjust enrichment claim to alter or expand the terms of an express warranty that covers the product that is the subject of his or her claim. Id.
Georgia Plaintiffs Cayenne is subject to the terms of the 2005 Warranty. The 2005 Warranty defines PCNA’s obligation to reimburse consumers for parts that are defective in material or workmanship. (ECF No. 62-5, at 6 (“[PCNA] will repair or replace with a new or remanufactured part ... any factory-installed part that is defective in material or workmanship under normal use ... Warranty repairs will be made free of charge for parts and labor at an authorized Porsche dealership.”).) Georgia Plaintiff argues that, because his vehicle contained a part that is defective in material, he is entitled to recoup some of the cost that he paid for his vehicle or obtain reimbursement for the cost of repairing and replacing the defective part. Alowing such recovery would effectively expand the duration and scope of the 2005 Warranty, which is not an appropriate use of an unjust enrichment claim. See Terrill, 753 F.Supp.2d at 1291 .
Georgia Plaintiffs sole argument regarding the 2005 Warranty’s application to this case is that he is entitled to plead his unjust enrichment claim in the alterna *847 tive to his “warranty-based” claims. (ECF No. 77, at 88.) This argument is not well taken. A plaintiff may bring an unjust enrichment claim in the alternative to a breach of contract claim if and only if the validity or existence of the subject contract is in dispute. See Terrill, 753 F.Supp.2d at 1291 (citing Goldstein, 609 F.Supp.2d at 1347 ). Georgia Plaintiff does not contend that the validity or existence of the Cayenne’s express warranty, which defines PCNA’s obligation to reimburse consumers for defectiv

[Text truncated at 120,000 characters. The full text is on the page linked above.]

---

Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/8700870. Public record. Not legal advice.