# Richardson v. Reno > Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit · December 22, 1998 · 162 F.3d 1338 URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/73347 ## Case - **Full name:** Ralph RICHARDSON, Petitioner-Appellee, v. Janet RENO, Attorney General of the United States; Doris Meissner, Commission, Immigration and Naturalization Service; Robert Wallis, Acting District Director, Immigration and Naturalization Service; United States Immigration and Naturalization Service; United States Department of Justice; And Executive Office of Immigration Review, Respondents-Appellants - **Court:** Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit - **Decided:** December 22, 1998 - **Citations:** 162 F.3d 1338; 1998 U.S. App. LEXIS 32693; 1998 WL 889376 - **Precedential status:** Published - **Opinion:** Opinion by Hull - **Judges:** Carnes, Hull, Henderson - **Cited by:** 70 later opinions in the Frix Law Library ## Citator (automated) - **Red flag:** Vacated on other grounds by Richardson v. Reno, 526 U.S. 1142 (1999). - Negative treatments: 1 - Distinguished by: 0 - Full citator and citing cases: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/73347 ## How later opinions describe it (automated extraction) - holding that IIRI-RA’s repeal of Section 2241 jurisdiction is not unconstitutional because IIRIRA does not eliminate all judicial review of immigration matters and expressly noting “Congress had abbreviated judicial review to one place and one time: only in the court of appeal… - holding that the INA’s “broad admonition that it applies ‘notwithstanding any other provision of law’ sufficiently and clearly encompasses other provisions of law.” - reasoning that a broad jurisdictional limitation can satisfy the requirements of Felker v. Turpin, 518 U.S. 651 , 116 S.Ct. 2333 , 135 L.Ed.2d 827 (1996) - reasoning that a broad jurisdictional limitation can satisfy the requirements of Felker v. Turpin, 518 U.S. 651, 116 S.Ct. 2333, 135 L.Ed.2d 827 (1996) - noting that "Congress strictly regulated the exclusive mode and timing of judicial review in order to remove overlapping jurisdiction and to prevent dilatory tactics previously used to forestall departure of aliens” ## Opinion text United States Court of Appeals, Eleventh Circuit. No. 98-4230. Ralph RICHARDSON, Petitioner-Appellee, v. Janet RENO, Attorney General of the United States; Doris Meissner, Commission, Immigration and Naturalization Service; Robert Wallis, Acting District Director, Immigration and Naturalization Service; United States Immigration and Naturalization Service; United States Department of Justice; and Executive Office of Immigration Review, Respondents-Appellants. Dec. 22, 1998. Appeal from the United States District Court for the Southern District of Florida. (No. 97-3799-CIV- EBD), Edward B. Davis, Chief Judge. Before CARNES and HULL, Circuit Judges, and HENDERSON, Senior Circuit Judge. HULL, Circuit Judge: The Court VACATES and WITHDRAWS the previous opinion dated December 9, 1998 and substitutes the following opinion. While the remainder of the opinion stays the same, the Court has revised footnotes 88, 137, and the third paragraph in Section IV(H) and added the following subsequent history to the citations of Hose v. INS, 141 F.3d 932 (9th Cir.1998): withdrawn and reh'g en banc granted, --- F.3d ----, No. 97-15789, (9th Cir. December 2, 1998). Although the Ninth Circuit's order granting the rehearing en banc was dated December 2, 1998, the order did not appear in the on-line subsequent history of Hose until December 10, 1998—the date after the Court published its original decision in this case. TABLE OF CONTENTS I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY 933 II. RICHARDSON'S HABEAS CORPUS PETITION 936 III. NEW IMMIGRATION LAWS 937 A. "Removal" Proceedings 937 B. Permanent Resident Criminal Aliens Returning From Abroad 938 C. Supreme Court's Fleuti Doctrine 939 D. Detention of Criminal Aliens "Seeking Admission" 940 E. Detention Under TPCRs in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3) 942 F. Detention Under INA § 236(c) 943 G. INA § 236(e) Restricts Review of Bond and Parole Decisions 945 H. Procedures for Removal Hearings 945 I. IIRIRA Consolidates Judicial Review in the Court of Appeals 946 J. INA § 242(a)(2)(C) Restricts Review of Removal Orders Against Criminal Aliens 948 K. INA § 242(a)(2)(B)(ii) Restricts Review of Discretionary Decisions 949 IV. DISCUSSION 949 A. INA § 242(g) Precludes § 2241 Habeas Jurisdiction Over Immigration Decisions 949 B. No Constitutional Infirmities to Avoid 953 C. Eleventh Circuit's Boston-Bollers Decision 954 D. Due Process Clause 957 2 E. Article III 959 F. Suspension Clause 960 G. Second Circuit's Henderson Decision 962 H. Ninth Circuit's Magana-Pizano Decision 963 I. Seventh Circuit's Yang Decision 965 J. INA §§ 242(b)(9) and (d) Require Final Removal Order 970 K. Alternative Review Under INA Satisfies Suspension Clause 971 V. CONCLUSION 976 This appeal arises from a district court's order granting a writ of habeas corpus to a thirty-year permanent resident alien petitioner with a cocaine-trafficking conviction who was detained as he attempted to enter the United States after a two-day trip to Haiti. The INS district director denied bond pending the outcome of petitioner's removal proceedings. Petitioner filed his habeas corpus petition under 28 U.S.C. § 2241 asserting that the INS' illegal detention, denial of admission, and denial of a bond hearing violated his constitutional and statutory rights as a lawful permanent resident alien. This case presents issues of first impression in this Circuit regarding subject matter jurisdiction under the Immigration and Nationality Act ("INA"), as amended by the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996 ("IIRIRA"). After review, we find the district court lacked jurisdiction over the habeas corpus petition. We reverse and order the district court to dismiss the petition. I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY 3 Appellee-petitioner Ralph Richardson ("Richardson") is a native and citizen of Haiti who has been a lawful permanent resident alien in the United States since 1968. In 1984, Richardson was convicted of carrying a concealed weapon. In 1990, Richardson was convicted of trafficking cocaine and served five years in prison.1 The parties do not dispute that Richardson could have been deported under the immigration laws in existence in 1990 and could be deported under current immigration law but that deportation proceedings were never initiated.2 On October 24, 1997, Richardson left the United States and traveled to Haiti. On October 26, 1997, Richardson attempted to re-enter the United States at the Miami International Airport, but was not allowed to enter. At the initial immigration checkpoint, Richardson presented an expired "I-151" card, also called an Alien Resident Card, and a valid Haitian passport. Richardson's use of an expired card caused him to be referred to a secondary immigration inspector for a more detailed interview regarding his eligibility to enter the United States. Through this inspection, the INS concluded that Richardson, although a lawful permanent resident alien, was no longer eligible to enter the United States under the new immigration laws due to his prior criminal convictions. During the inspection, Richardson admitted his criminal history including his cocainetrafficking conviction, an aggravated felony under INA § 103(a)(43).3 1 Richardson initially served only three years of his five-year sentence on the drug-trafficking offense. In 1993, he was arrested for violating his probation by eluding police and served the remainder of his sentence in prison. He was released from prison on January 11, 1994. 2 8 U.S.C. § 1251(a)(1)(1990); 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(10)(1990); 8 U.S.C. § 1227(a)(2)(b)(i) (Supp.1998). 3 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43) (Supp.1998). This opinion utilizes the section numbers of the INA and IIRIRA because the text of those statutes references INA and IIRIRA sections and because certain parts of IIRIRA are not codified. See footnote 42 infra. At the Miami International Airport, the immigration inspector prepared a four-page sworn statement signed by Richardson that outlined his criminal history. 4 Richardson was taken to the Krome Detention Center, Miami, Florida, and immediately was placed in "removal" proceedings under INA § 240.4 On November 13, 1997, Richardson's attorney sent a letter to the INS district director in Miami requesting release from custody. On December 4, 1997, the district director denied Richardson's request. On November 18, 1997, while awaiting the district director's response, Richardson also sought release on bond with the immigration judge at Krome. New INA § 101(a)(13)(C)(v)5 provides that a lawful permanent resident alien, returning from abroad, is not deemed to be seeking an official "admission" to the United States, and can be admitted summarily, unless the alien has been convicted of certain crimes. Since Richardson's conviction for trafficking cocaine is a crime described in INA § 101(a)(13)(C)(v),6 the immigration judge found that Richardson was "seeking admission" to the United States, that aliens "seeking admission" at the border can request release only from a district director, and that immigration judges lack jurisdiction over such requests.7 On November 24, 1997, the immigration judge denied Richardson's release request for lack of jurisdiction.8 4 8 U.S.C. § 1252 (Supp.1998). An INS "notice to appear," dated October 26, 1997 was served on Richardson alleging that he was an arriving alien who was a citizen of Haiti, not the United States, and was subject to removal due to his criminal convictions. 5 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(13)(C)(v) (Supp.1998). 6 Id. 7 See 8 C.F.R. § 103.1(g)(2)(ii)(B) (1997); 62 Fed.Reg. 10312, 10360 (1997) (codified in 8 C.F.R. § 236.1(c)(5) (Jan. 1, 1998)); see footnotes 38 and 40 infra. 8 The proceedings before the immigration judge on Richardson's release request were not recorded or transcribed. On November 24, 1997, the immigration judge signed a form bond order with blanks to check for granting or denying release. The immigration judge checked the 5 On November 26, 1997, Richardson filed in the district court a petition for writ of habeas corpus pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 2241. Richardson filed an amended petition on December 10, 1997. Richardson's petition asserted, inter alia, that he was being illegally detained and, at a minimum, was entitled to a hearing before an immigration judge on his release request and not merely consideration by the district director. The INS moved to dismiss Richardson's petition for lack of subject matter jurisdiction. On December 30, 1997, the magistrate judge issued a report finding statutory habeas jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 2241 and recommending that Richardson be given "an individualized hearing, within 14 days of any order adopting this recommendation at which time the immigration judge should considered [sic] whether petitioner is an arriving alien, and if not, whether and under what circumstances petitioner may be released from custody pending the completion of deportation proceedings." On January 8, 1998, Richardson's removal proceedings concluded with the immigration judge's order that Richardson be removed to Haiti.9 After a hearing during which Richardson testified and was represented by counsel, the immigration judge found that, because of his criminal convictions, Richardson was "inadmissible" under INA §§ 212(a)(2)(A)(i)(I), 212(a)(2)(A)(i)(II), box stating that the request for release was denied and wrote "arriving alien" at the bottom of the form. Although nothing in the record clearly establishes that the basis of the immigration judge's decision was a lack of jurisdiction, both parties agree that the immigration judge did not conduct a bond hearing, although witnesses were present ready to testify, and that the immigration judge indicated lack of jurisdiction over Richardson's release request due to his status as an alien seeking admission. 9 In the Matter of Ralph Richardson, Respondent: In Removal Proceedings, Case # A17-566- 876 (Immigration Court, January 1, 1998). 6 and 212(a)(2)(C)10 and not entitled to cancellation of removal under INA § 240A(a).11 Richardson's appeal of the removal order to the Board of Immigration Appeals ("BIA") remains pending.12 On February 19, 1998 and over the INS' objections, the district court adopted the magistrate judge's report and recommendations, denied the INS' motion to dismiss and granted Richardson's petition. The district court ordered the immigration judge to hold "an individualized hearing within eleven (11) days from the date stamped on the Order, at which time the Immigration Judge should determine whether Petitioner is an arriving alien, and if not, whether and under what conditions Petitioner may be released from custody pending the completion of deportation proceedings." This appeal ensued. On February 23, 1998, this Court granted the INS' motion to stay the district court's order pending this appeal. Richardson remains in custody. II. RICHARDSON'S HABEAS CORPUS PETITION Before examining the new immigration laws, we outline Richardson's claims. In this case, Richardson does not dispute that he is an alien, that he has a cocaine-trafficking conviction, and that 10 8 U.S.C. §§ 1182(a)(2)(A)(i)(I), 1182(a)(2)(A)(i)(II), & 1182(a)(2)(C) (Supp.1998). 11 8 U.S.C. § 1229b (Supp.1998). Denying cancellation of removal under INA § 240A(a), the immigration judge found that Richardson was statutorily ineligible due to his cocaine-trafficking conviction, deemed an aggravated felony under INA § 101(a)(43). 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43) (Supp.1998). INA § 240A (a), 8 U.S.C. § 1229b(a) (Supp.1998), provides that the "Attorney General may cancel removal in the case of an alien who is inadmissible or deportable from the United States if the alien—(a) has been an alien lawfully admitted for permanent resident for not less than five years, (2) has resided in the United States continuously for seven years after having been admitted in any status, and (3) has not been convicted of any aggravated felony." (Emphasis supplied.) 12 Richardson's brief was filed with the BIA on October 15, 1998, and the INS brief was due on November 28, 1998. 7 cocaine trafficking is a basis for both inadmissibility and deportability under the INA.13 Instead, Richardson's habeas corpus petition asserts, inter alia, that his constitutional and statutory rights were violated because: (1) the INS ignored his thirty-year legal permanent resident alien status, misinterpreted INA § 101(a)(13)(C)14 in classifying Richardson as an arriving alien "seeking admission," unlawfully detained him, and illegally denied him admission, as opposed to permitting entry into the United States and then initiating removal proceedings based on "deportability;" (2) the Attorney General's detaining and denying a legal permanent resident alien admission back into the United States and delegating her custody release authority to only the INS district director, without a bond hearing before an immigration judge, are ultra vires of the INA and illegal; (3) the Attorney General's detaining and denying a legal permanent resident alien admission and a bond hearing before the immigration judge solely because of his brief trip abroad violates that resident alien's due process guarantees under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment; and (4) the Attorney General's allowing a bond hearing before an immigration judge for legal permanent resident aliens arrested in the United States, but denying a bond hearing to Richardson 13 In the removal hearing before the immigration judge, Richardson contended that the INS' evidence of his criminal conviction for cocaine trafficking was improperly certified, but the judge admitted this evidence of his conviction. The INS also introduced Richardson's sworn statement at inspection that he had a cocaine-trafficking conviction. At the removal hearing, Richardson testified that while he signed the statement, he did not read it because he was "confused," "shocked," and "upset." The immigration judge found that the INS had proved a cocaine-trafficking conviction. This is one of many issues Richardson has raised on appeal to the BIA; however, this issue was not raised in the district court. 14 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(13)(C) (Supp.1998). 8 only because of his two-day sojourn abroad violates the equal-protection guarantees of the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. In explaining why he filed his habeas petition while his BIA appeal remained pending, Richardson contends that exhaustion of administrative remedies is futile because the INA, as amended by IIRIRA, eliminates judicial review in the courts of appeals over any prospective BIA final order removing him as a criminal alien, and forecloses appeal of the INS' district director's bond decisions to an immigration judge. Finally, Richardson asserts that INA § 242(g)'s exclusive-jurisdiction provision15 does not repeal habeas jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 2241 and does not prevent the district court from hearing a permanent resident alien's habeas petition alleging unlawful executive detention in violation of the INA and the Constitution. Since Richardson attempted to enter the United States on October 26, 1997, IIRIRA's extensive revisions to the INA undisputedly govern this case.16 III. NEW IMMIGRATION LAWS In 1996, Congress twice revised the INA. The changes began incrementally with the enactment of the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act ("AEDPA") in April 1996 and accelerated with IIRIRA's major structural revisions to the INA in September 1996.17 Congress' reconstruction of the INA includes, inter alia, these key elements applicable to Richardson's appeal: (1) new custody rules mandating detention of aliens after a serious criminal conviction; 15 8 U.S.C. § 1252(g) (Supp.1998). 16 IIRIRA was signed into law on September 30, 1996 and became effective on April 1, 1997. 17 Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act ("AEDPA"), Pub.L. No. 104-132, 110 Stat. 1214 (1996), and the Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act ("IIRIRA"), Pub.L. No. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009 (1996). 9 (2) new procedures for prompt removal of criminal aliens from the United States; (3) new restrictions on judicial review that preclude all judicial involvement in the administrative agency removal and detention process until after a final removal order is entered by the BIA; (4) new provisions directing that judicial review shall be exclusively under the INA and in only the court of appeals after a final BIA removal order; and (5) new provisions removing all other formerly available federal-court jurisdiction over the detention and removal of criminal aliens, including repeal of statutory habeas under 28 U.S.C. § 2241. Simply put, IIRIRA strips all jurisdiction, including § 2241 habeas, from the district courts, places exclusive judicial review in the court of appeals, and delays even that judicial review until after a final administrative agency order. Congress has reduced judicial review to one time in one place in an effort to expedite the removal of resident aliens with serious criminal convictions. Since these legislative revisions to the INA are extensive, complicated, and affect so many resident aliens with criminal convictions in such a significant manner, we outline them in detail. A. "Removal" Proceedings Upon being denied entry, Richardson was detained and immediately placed in "removal" proceedings.18 As one of its broad structural changes to the INA, IIRIRA eliminated some of the distinctions between "deportation" and "exclusion" proceedings and created a unified set of 18 Before IIRIRA, the INA separated the concepts of exclusion proceedings and deportation proceedings. Different procedural rules applied to proceedings to exclude an alien from entering the United States. Compare 8 U.S.C. § 1226 (1996) with 8 U.S.C. § 1252b (1996). 10 proceedings in INA § 24019 called "removal proceedings."20 New INA § 240(e)(2) defines the term "removable" as an alien who is "deportable" or an alien who is "inadmissible" (replacing the old term "excludable").21 New INA § 240(a)(3) provides that unless specified otherwise under the INA, a removal proceeding "shall be the sole and exclusive procedure for determining whether an alien may be admitted to the United States or, if the alien has been so admitted, removed from the United States."22 Under the unified framework in INA § 240, many of the procedures in "removal proceedings" are now the same regardless of whether the alien is seeking admission to the United States or the alien is being deported from the United States.23 In contrast, the substantive grounds for determining "inadmissibility" and "deportability" are still handled in several separate parts of 19 8 U.S.C. § 1229a (Supp.1998). 20 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(a)(1) (Supp.1998). Removal proceedings were created in INA § 240. Other sections of the INA established the procedures to be employed in removal proceedings. For example, INA § 239, 8 U.S.C. § 1229 (Supp.1998), established the procedures for the initiation of removal proceedings. INA § 240A, 8 U.S.C. § 1229b (Supp.1998), established the procedures for the cancellation of removal proceedings. 21 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(e)(2) (Supp.1998). 22 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(a)(3) (Supp.1998). 23 Within INA § 240's framework, certain procedures are still differentiated based on whether deportability or inadmissibility is the subject of the removal proceeding. 8 U.S.C. § 1229a (Supp.1998). For example, INA § 240(c)(2)(A) provides that an alien has the burden of establishing eligibility for admission "clearly and beyond doubt" or "by clear and convincing evidence that the alien is lawfully present in the United States pursuant to a prior admission;" whereas, INA § 240(c)(3)(A) provides that the INS has the burden of establishing by clear and convincing evidence "that the alien is deportable." 8 U.S.C. §§ 1229a(c)(2)(A) (Supp.1998) & 1229a(c)(3)(A) (Supp.1998). As discussed infra in footnotes 38 and 40, the INS district director decides bond requests for arriving aliens detained while seeking admission into the United States; whereas, aliens being deported may request bond from an immigration judge. 11 the INA and vary considerably.24 However, Richardson's cocaine-trafficking conviction is a sufficient basis alone for both deportation and inadmissibility under the INA.25 B. Permanent Resident Criminal Aliens Returning From Abroad IIRIRA also altered the rules for permanent resident aliens returning from abroad, which is why the INS detained Richardson and immediately initiated "removal proceedings" against him. Under IIRIRA's restructuring, most permanent resident aliens returning from abroad are summarily admitted back into this country. In this regard, new INA § 101(a)(13)(c) provides that "an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence in the United States shall not be regarded as seeking an admission into the United States for purposes of the immigration laws unless the alien": (i) has abandoned or relinquished that status (ii) has been absent from the United States for a continuous period in excess of 180 days (iii) has engaged in illegal activity after having departed the United States (iv) has departed from the United States while under legal process seeking removal of the alien from the United States, including removal proceedings under this Act and extradition proceedings, (v) has committed an offense identified in section 212(a)(2) of this Act [which includes controlled substances], unless since such offense the alien has been granted relief under section 212(h) or 240A(a), or 24 Compare admission qualifications for aliens covered by 8 U.S.C. §§ 1181-1189 (Supp.1998), with the basis for deporting aliens in 8 U.S.C. § 1227 (Supp.1998). 25 See 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(2) (Supp.1998) (listing criminal inadmissibility grounds); Id. § 1227(a)(2) (listing criminal deportability grounds). A permanent resident alien is "deportable" for many more crimes than a permanent resident alien is deemed "seeking admission" and "inadmissible." Id. 12 (vi) is attempting to enter at a time or place other than as designated by immigration officers or has not been admitted to the United States after inspection and authorization by an immigration officer. INA § 101(a)(13)(C) (emphasis supplied).26 Section 101(a)(13)(C)(v) references offenses in "section 212(a)(2)," which provides that any alien convicted of a controlled substance offense is inadmissible.27 Because Richardson was a lawful permanent resident with a cocaine-trafficking conviction covered by Section 1182(a)(2), the INS treated him as an arriving alien "seeking admission" to the United States under INA § 101(a)(13)(C) and subjected him to inspection as any other alien arriving to the United States.28 C. Supreme Court's Fleuti Doctrine 26 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(13) (Supp.1998). INA §§ 212(a)(2) and (h) are codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(2) and (h) (Supp.1998). INA § 240A(a) is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1229b(a) (Supp.1998). 27 INA § 212(a)(2)(A)(i)(I) and (II), 8 U.S.C. § 1182(2)(A)(i)(I) and (II) (Supp.1998), includes controlled substance offenses as follows: ... any alien convicted of ... a crime involving moral turpitude ... or ... a violation of (or a conspiracy or attempt to violate) any law or regulation of a State, the United States, or a foreign country relating to a controlled substance ... is inadmissible. Id. Pre-IIRIRA, certain criminal aliens could seek discretionary relief under INA § 212(h), 8 U.S.C. § 1182(h) (1995), or suspension of deportation under INA § 244, 8 U.S.C. § 1254 (1995). Post-IIRIRA an alien, including a permanent resident alien, convicted of an aggravated felony as defined under INA § 101(a)(43), 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43) (Supp.1998), is statutorily ineligible for a waiver under INA § 212(h), 8 U.S.C. § 1182(h) (Supp.1998), and also statutorily ineligible for cancellation of removal under INA § 240A(a), 8 U.S.C. § 1229b(a) (Supp.1998). See footnote 11 supra. 28 Since under INA § 101(a)(13)(C), 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(13)(C) (Supp.1998), Richardson was "seeking admission" at a port of entry, the INS treated Richardson an "arriving alien" under INS regulation 62 Fed.Reg. 10312, 10330 (1997) (currently codified in 8 C.F.R. § 1.1(q) (1998)), which states: "The term arriving alien means an alien who seeks admission to or transit through the United States ..." 13 Immediately upon his detention, the INS initiated removal proceedings against Richardson. In turn, Richardson filed his § 2241 habeas petition in the district court. Richardson contended, inter alia, that the INS had interpreted erroneously new INA § 101(a)(13)(C), illegally considered him an arriving alien "seeking admission," and therefore unlawfully detained him and denied him admission and bond. Before 1996, INA § 101(a)(13) provided that a returning permanent resident alien shall not be regarded as making "an entry" into the United States if the alien's presence abroad was not "intended or reasonably ... expected."29 In Rosenberg v. Fleuti, 374 U.S. 449, 83 S.Ct. 1804, 10 L.Ed.2d 1000 (1964), the Supreme Court interpreted "intended" in former INA § 101(a)(13) as an intent to depart the country in a manner "meaningfully interruptive of the alien's permanent residence." The Court held that a lawful permanent resident's "innocent, casual and brief" excursion was not sufficiently interruptive of the alien resident's status to be "intended" and would not be deemed an "entry." Id. 29 INA § 101(a)(13), 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(13) (1994), provided: (13) The term "entry" means any coming of an alien into the United States, from a foreign port or place or from an outlying possession, whether voluntarily or otherwise, except that an alien having a lawful permanent residence in the United States shall not be regarded as making an entry into the United States for the purposes of the immigration laws if the alien proves to the satisfaction of the Attorney General that his departure to a foreign port or place or to an outlying possession was not intended or reasonably to be expected by him or his presence in a foreign port or place or in an outlying possession was not voluntary: Provided, That no person whose departure from the United States was occasioned by deportation proceedings, extradition, or other legal process shall be held to be entitled to such exception. Id. 14 Unfortunately for Richardson, IIRIRA replaces former INA § 101(a)(13) with an entirely new statutory scheme.30 New INA § 101(a)(13)(A) replaces the term "entry" with the terms "admission" and "admitted," which are defined as "the lawful entry of the alien into the United States after inspection and authorization by an immigration officer."31 The statute no longer references an alien's intent. Instead, new INA § 101(a)(13)(C) provides that a lawful permanent resident "shall not be regarded as seeking admission," and thus shall be summarily admitted back into the United States, unless the alien falls under one of the six subparagraphs (i) through (vi) of INA § 101(a)(13)(C) quoted above. Since Richardson's cocaine-trafficking conviction is covered expressly by INA § 101(a)(13)(C)(v), the INS treated Richardson as an arriving alien "seeking admission."32 In the district court, the INS stressed that, in another case, the BIA had held that Fleuti 's "innocent, casual, and brief" rule no longer applies because IIRIRA repealed the statutory language relied upon in Fleuti.33 The INS emphasized that INA § 101(a)(13)(C) no longer defines "admission" with reference to an alien's intent, thus removes the entire Fleuti concept, and requires the INS to treat Richardson as "seeking admission."34 Rejecting the INS' position, the district court 30 IIRIRA § 301(a) enacted the new version of INA § 101(a)(13), 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(13) (Supp.1998). 31 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(13)(A) (Supp.1998). 32 See footnote 28 supra. 33 See Matter of Collado-Munoz, Int. Dec. No. 3333 (BIA Dec. 18, 1997). 34 Fleuti addressed the harsh result of a legal permanent resident alien suddenly being excludable from the United States just because he left the country a few days, while not being deportable for the same conduct. The INS stresses the concern in Fleuti is not applicable here as Richardson is both inadmissible and deportable for his crimes. 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(2) (Supp.1998); 8 U.S.C. § 1227(a)(2)(B) (Supp.1998). New INA § 101(a)(13)(C) is also arguably 15 determined that the INS was not required to treat Richardson as "seeking admission." The district court interpreted new INA § 101(a)(13)(C) as specifying only when a returning alien may not be regarded as "seeking admission," as opposed to shall be regarded as "seeking admission." The INS submits that the language of INA § 101(a)(13)(C) is explicit and nondiscretionary and that the district court circumvented its plain language.35 The proper construction of INA § 101(a)(13)(C) and the Fleuti issue are some of the issues Richardson has raised before the BIA in his pending appeal of the immigration judge's removal order. D. Detention of Criminal Aliens "Seeking Admission" While his BIA appeal proceeds, Richardson's habeas claims also stem, in part, from IIRIRA's new stringent custody rules for aliens with serious criminal convictions. INA § 235(b)(2)(A) provides that any alien "seeking admission" to the United States who "is not clearly and beyond a doubt entitled to be admitted" "shall be detained" for removal proceedings, as follows: ... in the case of an alien who is an applicant for admission, if the examining immigration officer determines that an alien seeking admission is not clearly and beyond a doubt entitled to be admitted, the alien shall be detained for a proceeding under section 240 [removal proceedings]. INA § 235(b)(2)(A) (emphasis supplied).36 more favorable for most legal permanent residents as they are able to re-enter the United States automatically for up to 180 days (as opposed to just after a brief trip abroad under Fleuti ), unless they fall into one of the six categories in INA § 101(a)(13)(C)(i-vi). 35 The INS also asserts that the Attorney General is entitled to deference if her interpretation of an immigration statute is reasonable, citing Chevron USA v. Natural Resources Defense Council, 467 U.S. 837, 104 S.Ct. 2778, 81 L.Ed.2d 694 (1984). Perlera-Escobar v. Executive Office for Immigration, 894 F.2d 1292, 1296 (11th Cir.1990) (quoting Chevron ). 36 8 U.S.C. § 1225(b)(2)(A) (Supp.1998). INA § 240 is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1229a (Supp.1998). 16 An alien so detained may seek parole into the United States temporarily. INA § 212(d)(5)(A) provides that the Attorney General "may in his discretion ... parole into the United States temporarily under such conditions as he may prescribe only on a case-by-case basis for urgent humanitarian reasons or significant public benefit or for reasons deemed strictly in the public interest any alien applying for admission to the United States."37 At the time of Richardson's attempted entry, the Attorney General's regulations delegated to the INS district director the authority to review "parole" requests.38 On December 4, 1997, the district director sent Richardson's counsel a letter outlining Richardson's criminal convictions and denying parole on the basis of no showing of a significant public benefit or urgent humanitarian reasons.39 After initial custody and release determinations by the INS district director, aliens may seek release from the immigration judge. However, at the time of Richardson's attempted entry, the 37 8 U.S.C. § 1182(d)(5)(A) (Supp.1998). 38 8 C.F.R. § 103.1(g)(2)(ii)(B) (1997) stated: (B) District directors are delegated the authority to grant or deny any application or petition submitted to the Service, except for matters delegated to asylum officers pursuant to part 208 and § 253.1(f) of this chapter, or exclusively delegated to service center directors, to initiate any authorized proceeding in their respective districts, and to exercise the authorities under § § 242.1(a), 242.2(a) and 242.7 of this chapter without regard to geographical limitations. District directors are delegated authority to conduct the proceeding provided for in § 252.2 of this chapter. Id. 39 Noting that Richardson's criminal convictions included an aggravated felony as defined by INA § 101(a)(43), the district director's letter, dated December 4, 1997, stated: "The release of Mr. Richardson into the community will be of no significant public benefit. Mr. Richardson has not shown that his release would be warranted based upon urgent humanitarian reasons." 17 Attorney General's regulations provided that immigration judges lacked jurisdiction over release requests by "arriving aliens" facing removal proceedings.40 E. Detention Under TPCRs in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3) IIRIRA enacted new mandatory custody rules for certain criminal aliens in both INA § 236(c) and the Transition Period Custody Rules ("TPCRs") in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3). When Richardson attempted to enter the United States, the TPCRs mandated the detention of certain criminal aliens, as follows: (A) In General—During the period in which this paragraph is in effect pursuant to paragraph (2), the Attorney General shall take into custody any alien who— 40 62 Fed.Reg. 10312 (1997) (currently codified in 8 C.F.R. § 236.1(d)(1) (Nov. 3, 1998)) stated: Application to immigration judge. After an initial custody determination by the district director, including the setting of a bond, the respondent may, at any time before an order under 8 CFR part 240 becomes final, request amelioration of the conditions under which he or she may be released. Prior to such final order, and except as otherwise provided in this chapter, the immigration judge is authorized to exercise the authority in section 236 of the Act (or section 242(a)(1) of the Act as designated prior to April 1, 1997 in the case of an alien in deportation proceedings) to detain the alien in custody, release the alien, and determine the amount of bond, if any, under which the respondent may be released, as provided in § 3.19 of this chapter. If the alien has been released from custody, an application for amelioration of the terms of release must be filed within 7 days of release. Once a removal order becomes administratively final, determinations regarding custody and bond are made by the district director. Id. However, 62 Fed.Reg. 10312, 10360 (1997) (codified in 8 C.F.R. § 236.1(c)(5)(i) (Jan. 1, 1998)) stated: An immigration judge may not exercise the authority provided in this section, and the review process described in paragraph (d) of this section shall not apply, with respect to ... [a]rriving aliens as described in § 1.1(q) of this chapter.... Id. This provision was subsequently modified in 8 C.F.R. § 236.1(c)(11) (Nov. 3, 1998). 18 (i) has been convicted of an aggravated felony (as defined under section 101(a)(43) of the Immigration and Nationality Act, as amended by section 321 of [IIRIRA] ) (ii) is inadmissible by reason of having committed any offense covered in section 212(a)(2) of such Act (iii) is deportable by reason of having committed any offense covered in section 241 (a)(2)(A)(ii), (A)(iii), (B), (C), or (D) of such Act (before redesignation under this subtitle), or (iv) is inadmissible under section 212(a)(3)(B) of such act or deportable under section 241(a)(4)(B) of such act (before redesignation under this subtitle) when the alien is released, without regard to whether the alien is released on parole, supervised release, or probation, and without regard to whether the alien may be arrested or imprisoned again for the same offense. IIRIRA § 303(b)(3)(A).41 The TPCRs mandated Richardson's detention because his cocaine-trafficking conviction is an aggravated felony under the INA42 and thus falls under subparagraph (i) of the TPCR in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3)(A). Richardson's cocaine-trafficking conviction is also an offense covered by INA §§ 212(a)(2), 241(a)(2), 212(a)(3)(B), and 41 The TPCRs are not codified. The text of the TPCRs can be found in the historical notes following 8 U.S.C. § 1226 (Supp.1998). Richardson argues that the interim TPCRs apply to aliens detained while attempting to gain admission to the United States. Whether these rules apply only to aliens within the United States or to any alien detained by the INS is not material to the resolution of this appeal. The Court assumes without deciding that the detention and release provisions of the TPCRs apply to aliens seeking admission and aliens already in the United States. INA § 101(a)(43) is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43) (Supp.1998). INA § 212 is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1182 (Supp.1998). INA § 241 is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1227 (Supp.1998). 42 Successive definitions of the term "aggravated felony" have been enacted in INA § 101(a)(43), 8 U.S.C. § 1101(a)(43). As initially enacted in 1988, the term covered only a few serious offenses, such as murder, drug trafficking, and illicit trafficking in firearms. The definition has expanded continually to include less serious offenses. The adverse immigration consequences legislated by Congress for permanent resident aliens with an aggravated felony conviction, as defined under the INA, have likewise continued to expand. 19 241(a)(4)(B),43 and thus is also covered by the other three subparagraphs (ii), (iii), and (iv) of the TPCR in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3)(A). The TPCRs also significantly restricted the Attorney General's release authority for the criminal aliens subject to the TPCRs' mandatory detention. The TPCR in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3)(B) provides that the Attorney General "may release" an alien but only if the alien is an alien described in subparagraphs (A)(ii) or (A)(iii) of the TPCR in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3), is lawfully admitted, will not pose a danger and is likely to appear for any scheduled proceeding.44 Under the TPCRs, the Attorney General could not have released an alien detained because of an aggravated felony conviction because that alien is in a category mandatorily detained under the TPCR in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3)(A)(i) and is not in an (A)(ii) or (A)(iii) category subject to release under the TPCR in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3)(B).45 43 8 U.S.C. §§ 1182(a)(2), 1227(a)(2), 1182(a)(3)(B), & 1227(a)(4)(B) (Supp.1998). 44 The TPCR in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3)(B) states: (B) Release.—The Attorney General may release the alien only if the alien is an alien described in subparagraph (A)(ii) or (A)(iii) and— (i) the alien was lawfully admitted to the United States and satisfies the Attorney General that the alien will not pose a danger to the safety of other persons or of property and is likely to appear for any scheduled proceeding, ... Subsections (A)(ii) and (A)(iii) describe aliens inadmissible because of an offense described in INA § 212(a)(2) or deportable because of an offense described in INA §§ 241(a)(2)(A)(ii), (A)(iii), (B), (C), or (D). The TPCR in IIRIRA §§ 303(b)(A)(ii) & 303(b)(A)(iii). 45 Commentators note that since criminal aliens, even if legal permanent resident aliens, are now clearly removable for certain crimes, the mandatory custody rules for criminal aliens were intended to insure removal because criminal aliens no longer have incentive to show up voluntarily for removal proceedings. See, e.g., Peter H. Schuck, INS Detention and Removal: A "White Paper", 11 Geo. Immigr. L.J. 667, 671 (1997). Similarly, the INS acknowledged at oral 20 When Richardson attempted to enter the country, the Attorney General had implemented regulations delegating her detention and release authority under the TPCRs and INA § 236(c). Under those regulations, the INS district director made an initial determination regarding custody and release of criminal aliens under both the TPCRs and INA § 236(c).46 After the district director's initial determination, an alien could seek release from an immigration judge.47 However, immigration judges lacked jurisdiction over release requests of "arriving aliens" facing removal proceedings.48 In addition to denying parole, the INS district director's letter, dated December 4, 1997, concluded that Richardson "would have no incentive to appear for Immigration hearings" and thus in effect denied bond as well. Although Richardson was subject to mandatory detention and not eligible for release on bond, it appears that the district director considered release on bond. F. Detention Under INA § 236(c) Although enacted by IIRIRA in 1996, new INA § 236(c) was not in effect when Richardson attempted to enter the United States on October 24, 1997.49 IIRIRA § 303(b)(2) allowed the Attorney General to delay the implementation of INA § 236(c) for up to two years by providing notice to Congress that the INS lacked sufficient space and personnel to accommodate the mandate of INA § 236(c). The Attorney General twice provided such notice and delayed the effective date argument that it is discovering permanent residents convicted of serious crimes when they seek re-entry in part because of the difficulty of finding them through the myriad state courts. 46 See footnote 40 supra. 47 Id. 48 Id. 49 INA § 236(c), 8 U.S.C. § 1226(c) (Supp.1998). 21 of INA § 236(c) until October 10, 1998. During the two-year interim, the TPCR in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3) supplanted INA § 236(c).50 As of October 10, 1998, INA § 236(c)(1) also mandates Richardson's detention, whether he is considered inadmissible or deportable, for his criminal convictions, as explained below. New INA § 236 contains some general custody rules for aliens in removal proceedings and some specific, more stringent, custody rules for certain criminal aliens. Under INA § 236(a) "[o]n a warrant issued by the Attorney General, an alien may be arrested and detained pending a decision on whether the alien is to be removed from the United States."51 Under INA § 236(a) and (b), the Attorney General may grant bond or parole and may revoke bond or parole for an alien so arrested.52 However, INA § 236(c) provides for mandatory detention of certain criminal aliens, whether inadmissible or deportable. Subparagraph (1) of new INA § 236(c), entitled "Detention of criminal aliens," mandates that the Attorney General shall take into custody a criminal alien who falls into one of these four categories: (A) is inadmissible by reason of having committed any offense covered in section 212(a)(2),53 50 Id. 51 8 U.S.C. § 1226(a) (Supp.1998) (emphasis supplied). 52 8 U.S.C. § 1226(a) and (b) (Supp.1998). 53 INA § 212(a)(2), 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(2) (Supp.1998), covers certain crimes involving "moral turpitude (other than a purely political offense) or an attempt or conspiracy to commit such a crime," or "a violation of (or a conspiracy or attempt to violate)" any state, federal, or foreign law "relating to a controlled substance." 22 (B) is deportable by reason of having committed any offense covered in section 237(a)(2)(A)(ii), (A)(iii), (B), (C), or (D),54 (C) is deportable under section 237(a)(2)(A)(i)55 on the basis of an offense for which the alien has been sentence[d] to a term of imprisonment of at least 1 year, or (D) is inadmissible under section 212(a)(3)(B) or deportable under section 237(a)(4)(B),56 when the alien is released, without regard to whether the alien is released on parole, supervised release, or probation, and without regard to whether the alien may be arrested or imprisoned again for the same offense. INA § 236(c)(1).57 Next, subparagraph (2) of new INA § 236(c) provides that the Attorney General "may release" an alien in one of these four mandatory detention classes "only if the Attorney General decides" that the alien's release is necessary to the protection of someone cooperating in the investigation of major criminal activity, and the alien satisfies the Attorney General that the alien will not pose a danger to the safety of others and is likely to appear at any scheduled hearing.58 54 These sections cover certain multiple criminal convictions in INA § 237(a)(2)(A)(ii), an aggravated felony in § 1227(a)(2)(A)(iii), certain controlled substance offenses in INA § 237(a)(2)(B), certain firearm offenses in INA § 237(a)(2)(C), and other miscellaneous crimes in INA § 237(a)(2)(D). INA §§ 237(a)(2)(A)(ii), (A)(iii), (B), (C) & (D), 8 U.S.C. §§ 1227(a)(2)(A)(ii), (A)(iii), (B), (C) & (D) (Supp.1998). 55 INA § 237(a)(2)(A)(i), 8 U.S.C. § 1227(a)(2)(A)(i) (Supp.1998), covers crimes involving moral turpitude committed within a certain time frame after the date of admission and for which a sentence of one year or longer may be imposed. 56 INA § 212(a)(3)(B), 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(3)(B) (Supp.1998), and INA § 237(a)(4)(B), 8 U.S.C. § 1227(a)(4)(B) (Supp.1998), cover certain "terrorist activities." 57 8 U.S.C. § 1226(c)(1) (Supp.1998). 58 INA § 236(c)(2), entitled "Release," provides: The Attorney General may release an alien described in paragraph (1) only if the Attorney General decides pursuant to section 3521 of Title 18, that release of the alien from custody is necessary to provide protection to a witness, a potential witness, a person cooperating with an investigation into major criminal 23 Richardson's cocaine-trafficking offense brings him within several mandatory detention categories in INA § 236(c)(1), but he does not fall within the discretionary release option in INA § 236(c)(2). G. INA § 236(e) Restricts Review of Bond and Parole Decisions Of particular relevance to Richardson's situation is INA § 236(e) which applies to detention and release decisions under both INA § 236(c)59 and the TPCR in IIRIRA § 303. INA § 236(e) significantly restricts the judicial review of the Attorney General's decisions as follows: (e) Judicial review The Attorney General's discretionary judgment regarding the application of this section [236's custody rules] shall not be subject to review. No court may set aside any action or decision by the Attorney General under this section regarding the detention or release of any alien or the grant, revocation, or denial of bond or parole. activity, or an immediate family member or close associate of a witness, potential witness, or person cooperating with such an investigation, and the alien satisfies the Attorney General that the alien will not pose a danger to the safety of other persons or of property and is likely to appear for any scheduled proceeding. A decision relating to such release shall take place in accordance with a procedure that considers the severity of the offense committed by the alien. INA § 236(c)(2), 8 U.S.C. § 1226(c)(2) (Supp.1998). 59 8 U.S.C. § 1226(c) (Supp.1998). 24 INA § 236(e).60 Thus, the INS contends that the district court had no jurisdiction to review the INS district director's discretionary decision to grant or deny Richardson bond or parole. Richardson responds that INA § 236(e) applies to only final, not interim, orders, and that historically bond decisions were considered collateral to the removal proceedings and cognizable under § 2241 habeas in immigration cases. However, INA § 236(e), by its plain language, bars judicial review of the INS' discretionary bond and parole decisions. Nonetheless, we note that Richardson is not actually seeking review of those INS discretionary decisions but instead review of his constitutional claim that denial of bond without a hearing before an immigration judge violates his constitutional rights. H. Procedures for Removal Hearings While only the INS district director decided Richardson's request for parole and bond, IIRIRA did not diminish Richardson's right to a full hearing before the immigration judge on the merits of his removal from the United States.61 Before issuing any removal order, an immigration 60 8 U.S.C. § 1226(e) (Supp.1998). Richardson contends that INA § 236(e) does not apply to this case because he was detained while the TPCRs were in place. Although Richardson correctly argues that the TPCRs (and not INA § 236(c)) applied to his detention from October 26, 1997 to October 9, 1998, the TPCRs appear to supplant only INA § 236(c) and not INA § 236(e) for the reasons below. IIRIRA § 303(b)(2), the effective date provision for IIRIRA § 303(a), allows the Attorney General to delay for up to two years the effective date of INA § 236(c). During the period when INA § 236(c) is not in effect, the TPCRs apply instead of INA § 236(c). However, IIRIRA § 303(b)(2) does not provide that the Attorney General can delay the effective date of new INA § 236(e). Instead, INA § 236(e) is governed by the effective-date provision in IIRIRA § 303(b)(1) which provides the general rule that INA § 236 is effective the same day as the rest of Title III of IIRIRA. In any event, we need not resolve this issue because the two-year delay has expired and INA § 236(e) is now clearly effective. 61 Compare 8 U.S.C. § 1252 (1995) with 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(a)(1) (Supp.1998). 25 judge still must hold a hearing62 in which the alien may be represented by counsel.63 The alien is entitled to present evidence and cross-examine witnesses presented by the United States.64 A complete record is required to be kept of all testimony and evidence produced at the hearing.65 A "criminal alien" subject to removal (either as inadmissible or deportable) has a right to appeal a removal order to the BIA,66 and the immigration judge "shall inform the alien of the right to appeal."67 Represented by counsel, Richardson received a hearing before an immigration judge on the merits of his removal from the United States and has appealed the judge's removal order to the BIA. As of this date, the BIA has not issued its decision. I. IIRIRA Consolidates Judicial Review in the Court of Appeals IIRIRA also completed the major overhaul of federal-court jurisdiction over immigration matters begun by the AEDPA. Prior to 1996, INA § 106 set out the judicial-review scheme for deportation and exclusion orders.68 INA § 106(a)(2) provided for petition for review in the court 62 The hearing can take several forms—a hearing with the alien present, a hearing without the alien's presence if the alien so consents, through a video conference, or over the telephone if the alien so consents. INA § 240(b)(2), 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(b)(2) (Supp.1998). 63 Although an alien subject to removal may secure his or her own counsel, according to INA § 240(b)(4)(A) the government is not required to provide counsel to the alien. 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(b)(4)(A) (Supp.1998). 64 INA § 240(b)(4)(B), 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(b)(4)(B) (Supp.1998). 65 INA § 240(b)(4)(C), 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(b)(4)(C) (Supp.1998). 66 8 C.F.R. § 3.1(b)(3) (1998). 67 INA § 240(c)(4), 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(c)(4) (Supp.1998). 68 See generally 8 U.S.C. § 1105a (1995). 26 of appeals.69 In addition, INA § 106(a)(10) allowed aliens in custody to seek habeas corpus review of final deportation orders under the INA.70 Aliens also could rely on 28 U.S.C. § 2241 habeas corpus to challenge INS detention or deportation proceedings.71 On April 24, 1996, Congress enacted the Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996 ("AEDPA").72 AEDPA § 44073 repealed INA § 106(a)(10), which had allowed habeas corpus review under the INA. In its place, AEDPA § 440(a) enacted a new INA § 106(a)(10), which states that a final deportation order against an alien deportable for certain criminal offenses "shall not be subject to review by any court."74 69 8 U.S.C. § 1105a(a)(2) (1995). 70 8 U.S.C. § 1105a(a)(10) (1995). See general discussion of the old scheme of judicial review and Congress' attempts as early as 1961 to streamline judicial review of deportations to avoid "interminable procedural delays" in deportations through overlapping modes of judicial review. United States, ex rel. Marcello v. District Director, 634 F.2d 964, 967-72 (5th Cir. Jan.1981) (INA § 106(a)(q) discussed in Marcello became INA § 106(a)(10).) 71 See, e.g., Orozco v. INS, 911 F.2d 539, 541 (11th Cir.1990). 72 Pub.L. No. 104-132, 110 Stat. 1214 (1996). 73 Id. 74 AEDPA § 440(a) amended INA § 106(a)(10), 8 U.S.C. § 1105a(a)(10) (1995), to read: Any final order of deportation against an alien who is deportable by reason of having committed a criminal offense covered in section 241(a)(2)(A)(iii), (B), (C), or (D), or any offense covered by section 241(a)(2)(A)(ii) for which both predicate offenses are covered by section 241(a)(2)(A)(i), shall not be subject to review by any court. Id. See footnote 83 infra for IIRIRA's amendments to INA § 106(a)(10). INA § 241 is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1227 (Supp.1998). 27 Five months after the AEDPA, Congress enacted IIRIRA.75 Section 306 of IIRIRA repealed the entire judicial-review scheme in INA § 106 and replaced it with a new judicial-review scheme in INA § 242. IIRIRA did not eliminate all judicial review. Instead, IIRIRA removed all jurisdiction from the district courts and consolidated judicial review into the court of appeals.76 INA § 242(b)(2) provides that the venue for judicial review is only in the court of appeals.77 More importantly, INA § 242(g), entitled "Exclusive Jurisdiction," provides that except as provided in INA § 242, no court shall have jurisdiction over aliens' claims arising from the Attorney General's decisions or actions, as follows: Except as provided in this section [242] and notwithstanding any other provision of law, no court shall have jurisdiction to hear any cause or claim by or on behalf of any alien arising from the decision or action by the Attorney General to commence proceedings, adjudicate cases, or execute removal orders against any alien under this Act. INA § 242(g).78 75 Pub.L. No. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009 (1996). 76 As outlined infra at footnote 93, INA § 242(e)(2) does provide for a truncated form of habeas review for non-resident aliens summarily rejected at ports of entry without any removal proceedings. 8 U.S.C. § 1252(e)(2) (Supp.1998). Throughout the remainder of this opinion, we repeatedly note that IIRIRA consolidates all judicial review into one procedure—a petition for review in the court of appeals after a final removal order has been issued. We note that INA § 242(e)(2), 8 U.S.C. § 1252(e)(2) (Supp.1998), remains a narrow exception to our statement about IIRIRA's providing for judicial review in only the court of appeals. Since that narrow exception applies only to non-resident aliens in limited circumstances, it has no applicability here or to any immigration cases involving resident aliens. 77 INA § 242(b)(2), 8 U.S.C. § 1252(b)(2) (Supp.1998), provides: The petition for review shall be filed with the court of appeals for the judicial circuit in which the immigration judge completed the proceedings. Id. 78 8 U.S.C. § 1252(g) (Supp.1998). This Court recently held that INA § 242(g) divests district courts of jurisdiction over removal orders under former INA § 106(a)(10) and that "judicial 28 IIRIRA also mandated the timing of the INA's exclusive judicial review. INA § 242(b)(9) proscribes that judicial review shall be only after a final removal order, as follows: Judicial review of all questions of law and fact, including interpretation and application of constitutional and statutory provisions, arising from any action taken or proceeding brought to remove an alien from the United States under this chapter shall be available only in judicial review of a final order under this section. INA § 242(b)(9).79 INA § 242(d)(1) mandates that "a court may review a final order of removal only if ... the alien has exhausted all administrative remedies available ..."80 In these new INA provisions, Congress has abbreviated judicial review to one place and one time: only in the court of appeals and only after a final removal order and exhaustion of all administrative remedies. In IIRIRA, Congress strictly regulated the exclusive mode and timing of judicial review in order to remove overlapping jurisdiction and to prevent dilatory tactics previously used to forestall departure of aliens. J. INA § 242(a)(2)(C) Restricts Review of Removal Orders Against Criminal Aliens Even within the INA's exclusive judicial-review scheme, Congress further limited what a court of appeals can review after a final removal order. Of particular relevance to Richardson is review of orders of removal may only be initiated in the court of appeals" under the INA. Auguste v. Reno, 152 F.3d 1325, 1328 (11th Cir.1998). Auguste did not address judicial review under § 2241 habeas because Auguste, a non-criminal alien in custody, filed a habeas petition in the district court pursuant to only INA § 106(a)(10) which provided for habeas review under the old INA. The AEDPA repealed the habeas review in INA § 106(a)(10) and replaced it with the version of INA § 106(a)(10) that restricted judicial review of deportation orders against criminal aliens. Thus, whether INA § 242(g) repealed § 2241 was not discussed in Auguste. 79 INA § 242(b)(9), 8 U.S.C. § 1252(b)(9) (Supp.1998). 80 8 U.S.C. § 1252(d)(1) (Supp.1998). IIRIRA imposes other timing requirements to expedite judicial review. The petition for direct review in the court of appeals must be filed 30 days after a final order, as opposed to 90 days under the pre-IIRIRA version of the INA. Compare INA § 242(b)(1), 8 U.S.C. § 1252(b)(1) (Supp.1998), with former INA § 106a(a)(1), 8 U.S.C. § 1105a(a)(1) (Supp.1996). 29 INA § 242(a)(2)(C), which provides that no court shall have jurisdiction to review "any final order of removal against an alien who is removable" because of certain criminal convictions, as follows: Notwithstanding any other provision of law, no court shall have jurisdiction to review any final order of removal against an alien who is removable by reason of having committed a criminal offense covered in section 212(a)(2) [covers certain controlled substance offenses] or 237(a)(2)(A)(iii), (B), (C), or (D), or any offense covered by section 237(a)(2)(A)(ii) for which both predicate offenses are, without regard to their date of commission, otherwise covered by section 237(a)(2)(A)(i). INA § 242(a)(2)(C).81 Section 212(a)(2)82 includes Richardson's cocaine-trafficking conviction. New INA § 242(a)(2)(C) is similar to former INA § 106(a)(10) which also placed restrictions on judicial review of deportation orders against criminal aliens.83 As detailed later, this Court has 81 8 U.S.C. § 1252(a)(2)(C) (Supp.1998). INA § 212(a)(2) is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(2). INA § 237(a)(2) is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1227(a)(2) (Supp.1998). 82 8 U.S.C. § 1182(a)(2) (Supp.1998). 83 See footnotes 74 and 176 in order to compare INA § 106(a)(10), as amended by the AEDPA, with INA § 242(a)(2)(C), as amended by IIRIRA. IIRIRA made two amendments to INA § 106(a)(10). First, IIRIRA § 306(d) eliminated the phrase "any offense covered by section 241(a)(2)(A)(ii) for which both predicate offenses are covered by section 241(a)(2)(A)(i)" and replaced it with the phrase "any offense covered by section 241(a)(2)(A)(ii) for which both predicate offenses are, without regard to the date of their commission, otherwise covered by section 241(a)(2)(A)(i)." IIRIRA § 306(d). This amendment was effective immediately and has been applied by several circuits. Id. IIRIRA's second amendment to INA § 106(a)(10) included more substantial changes, although the end result—new INA § 242(a)(2)(C)—is overall very similar to its predecessor. As a technical matter, IIRIRA repealed INA § 106(a)(10) and replaced it with new INA § 242(a)(2)(C). Altering the language of INA § 106(a)(10) in several respects, IIRIRA added the introductory phrase "Notwithstanding any other provision of law, no court shall have jurisdiction to review (4)27" and replaced INA § 106(a)(10)'s reference to a final order of "deportation" with a reference to a final order of "removal." Similarly, IIRIRA changed the citations listing the criminal offenses that precluded judicial review to the citations corresponding to the sections amended under IIRIRA. The cumulative result of the two amendments enacted by IIRIRA is new INA § 242(a)(2) which limits the judicial review of removal orders based on certain criminal convictions with language similar to that in former INA § 106(a)(10). 30 upheld the judicial review restrictions in former INA § 106(a)(10) as constitutional. Boston-Bollers v. INS, 106 F.3d 352 (11th Cir.1997). K. INA § 242(a)(2)(B)(ii) Restricts Review of Discretionary Decisions IIRIRA also limits other aspects of the exclusive judicial review remaining for aliens under the INA. INA § 242(a)(2)(B)(ii) limits judicial review of the Attorney General's discretionary decisions, as follows: Notwithstanding any other provision of law, no court shall have jurisdiction to review— ... (ii) any other decision or action of the Attorney General the authority for which is specified under this title to be in the discretion of the Attorney General, other than the granting of relief under section 208(a). INA § 242(a)(2)(B)(ii).84 IV. DISCUSSION Against this backdrop, Richardson filed his habeas petition in the district court under 28 U.S.C. § 2241. Given IIRIRA's overhaul of the judicial-review scheme in immigration cases, the first question we must address is whether INA § 242(g), as enacted by IIRIRA, has eliminated federal jurisdiction under § 2241 over Richardson's habeas petition.85 84 8 U.S.C. § 1252(a)(2)(B)(ii) (Supp.1998). INA § 208(a) is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1158(a) (Supp.1998). The INS asserts that INA § 242(a)(2)(B)(ii) is a complete bar to judicial review of any discretionary decision to deny bond and parole to Richardson. Even if that position is well founded, Richardson points out that he is not seeking review of the discretionary denial of bond and parole or the discretionary authority to delegate bond decisions to the INS district director. Instead, Richardson seeks review of his constitutional claims that denial of a bond by the INS district director, without a bond hearing before an immigration judge, violated his constitutional rights under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment. See footnote 179 infra. 85 28 U.S.C. § 2241 (1994) states: 31 A. INA § 242(g) Precludes § 2241 Habeas Jurisdiction Over Immigration Decisions We begin by recognizing and applying established canons of statutory construction applicable to immigration statutes. First, ambiguities in the law are to be interpreted in favor of the alien.86 Second, restrictions on jurisdiction are to be read narrowly, courts should not assume that jurisdiction is repealed unless the statute says so explicitly, and repeals by implication of jurisdictional statutes are disfavored.87 Although guided by these same principles, courts are divided on whether the new INA § 242(g) abrogates statutory habeas, as provided in § 2241, over an alien's petition challenging detention or a final removal order. See Hose v. INS, 141 F.3d 932, 934-35 (9th Cir.) (holding that INA § 242(g) deprives district court of habeas corpus jurisdiction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 2241), withdrawn and reh'g en banc granted, --- F.3d ----, No. 97-15789, (9th Cir. December 2, 1998);88 (a) Writs of habeas corpus may be granted by the Supreme Court, any justice thereof, the district courts and any circuit judge within their respective jurisdictions. The order of a circuit judge shall be entered in the records of the district court of the district wherein the restraint complained of is had. (b) The Supreme Court, any justice thereof, and any circuit judge may decline to entertain an application for a writ of habeas corpus and may transfer the application for hearing and determination to the district court having jurisdiction to entertain it. Id. 86 INS v. Cardoza-Fonseca, 480 U.S. 421, 449, 107 S.Ct. 1207, 94 L.Ed.2d 434 (1987); Fong Haw Tan v. Phelan, 333 U.S. 6, 9-10, 68 S.Ct. 374, 92 L.Ed. 433 (1948). 87 See McNary v. Haitian Refugee Ctr., 498 U.S. 479, 496, 111 S.Ct. 888, 112 L.Ed.2d 1005 (1991); Bowen v. Michigan Academy of Family Physicians, 476 U.S. 667, 670-72, 106 S.Ct. 2133, 90 L.Ed.2d 623 (1986). 88 This Court notes two points relevant to the Hose decision. First, although Hose v. INS held that INA § 242(g) repealed § 2241 habeas over a non-criminal alien's claims for discretionary relief, the Ninth Circuit subsequently held that INA § 242(g) is unconstitutional when applied to 32 Cabrera v. Reno, 5 F.Supp.2d 244, 245-46 (D.N.J.1998) (same); Ray v. Reno, 3 F.Supp.2d 1249, 1251 (D.Utah 1998) (same); Rusu v. Reno, 999 F.Supp. 1204, 1209-10 (N.D.Ill.1998) (same); Mendez-Tapia v. Sonchik, 998 F.Supp. 1105, 1107 (D.Ariz.1998) (same); Marriott v. Ingham, 990 F.Supp. 209, 213-14 (W.D.N.Y.1998) (same); Mustata v. United States Dep't of Justice, 979 F.Supp. 536, 539 (W.D.Mich.1997) (same); Mayers v. Reno, 977 F.Supp. 1457, 1461 (S.D.Fla.1997) (same); Udenze v. Strapp, 977 F.Supp. 418, 421 (N.D.Tex.1997) (same); Moore v. District Director, INS, 956 F.Supp. 878, 882 (D.Neb.1997) (same); see also Yang v. INS, 109 F.3d 1185, 1195 (7th Cir.) (stating in dicta that "effective April 1, 1997, § 306(a) of the IIRIRA [INA § 242] abolishes even review under § 2241, leaving only the constitutional writ, unaided by statute"), cert. denied sub nom, Katsoulis v. INS, --- U.S. ----, 118 S.Ct. 624, 139 L.Ed.2d 605 (1997). But see Goncalves v. Reno, 144 F.3d 110, 113, 120-21 (1st Cir.1998) (holding that IIRIRA did not eliminate § 2241 habeas corpus jurisdiction); Jean-Baptiste v. Reno, 144 F.3d 212, 218-20 (2d Cir.1998)89 (same); Tam v. INS, 14 F.Supp.2d 1184, 1187-88 (E.D.Cal.1998) (same); Lee v. Reno, 15 F.Supp.2d 26, 37 (D.D.C.1998) (same); Barrett v. INS, 997 F.Supp. 896, 900 (N.D.Ohio 1998) (same); Gutierrez-Martinez v. Reno, 989 F.Supp. 1205, 1209 (N.D.Ga.1998) (same); certain criminal aliens who cannot obtain judicial review under INA § 242(a)(2)(C). Magana- Pizano v. INS, 152 F.3d 1213 (9th Cir.1998). Therefore, the Ninth Circuit concluded that INA § 242(g) does not repeal § 2241 in its entirety but that criminal aliens may proceed in the district court under § 2241, whereas the non-criminal alien in Hose could not proceed under § 2241. Second, this Court notes that the Ninth Circuit has granted a rehearing en banc and withdrawn its published decision in Hose. Nevertheless, this Court still finds persuasive the reasoning in Hose and the Ninth Circuit's subsequent discussion of Hose in Magana-Pizano. 89 A subsequent Second Circuit decision in Henderson v. Reno, 157 F.3d 106, 119 n. 9 (2d Cir.1998), followed Jean-Baptiste but noted that "[w]ere we not bound by Jean-Baptiste, the members of the panel would be strongly inclined to find that the proper mechanism for judicial review is by petition for review in the courts of appeals, rather than by § 2241 habeas in the district courts." 33 Morisath v. Smith, 988 F.Supp. 1333, 1338 (W.D.Wash.1997) (same); Mojica v. Reno, 970 F.Supp. 130, 157 (E.D.N.Y.1997) (same). After review, we conclude that INA § 242(g) abrogates jurisdiction over Richardson's § 2241 habeas corpus petition for several reasons. First, the language of INA § 242(g) is plain and clear. INA § 242(g)'s language that "[e]xcept as provided in this section [242] ... no court shall have jurisdiction" clearly and unequivocally precludes any jurisdiction in the district court except that provided in INA § 242.90 INA § 242 does not permit the kind of habeas corpus review in the district court Richardson sought. Instead, INA § 242 provides for judicial review for aliens only in the court of appeals and only after a final removal order. More importantly, INA § 242(g)'s broad admonition that it applies "notwithstanding any other provision of law" sufficiently and clearly encompasses other provisions of law, such as § 2241.91 When Congress says "any," it means "any" law, which necessarily includes § 2241.92 In addition, while INA § 242 consolidates judicial review in the court of appeals for aliens, there is another section within INA § 242 that does permit limited habeas corpus review under INA 90 See Auguste v. Reno, 152 F.3d 1325, 1328 (11th Cir.1998), and footnote 78 supra. 91 8 U.S.C. § 1252(g) (emphasis supplied). See, e.g., United States v. Gonzales, 520 U.S. 1, 117 S.Ct. 1032, 1035, 137 L.Ed.2d 132 (1997) ("Read naturally the word "any' has an expansive meaning, that is "one or some indiscriminately of whatever kind.' ") (citation omitted); Merritt v. Dillard Paper Co., 120 F.3d 1181, 1185 (11th Cir.1997) (" "Congress did not add any language limiting the breadth of that word,' so "any' means all.") (quoting in part Gonzales, supra ). 92 On other occasions, this Court found that "notwithstanding any other provision of law" means precisely "notwithstanding any other provision of law," especially where the Court's jurisdiction is involved. Allen v. David, 334 F.2d 592, 597-98 (5th Cir.1964); United States v. C.E. Sykes, 310 F.2d 417, 419-20 (5th Cir.1962). 34 § 242(e)(2)93 for certain non-resident arriving aliens. INA § 235(b)(1) permits a single immigration officer to remove summarily a non-resident arriving alien without a removal hearing or review, unless the alien indicates an intention to apply for asylum or indicates fear of persecution.94 Therefore, INA § 242(e)(2) provides for statutory habeas review under the INA in this narrowly limited situation.95 This evidences Congress' ability to create statutory habeas review under the INA when it so desires. Congress' express provision of some limited habeas review within § 242 of the 93 INA § 242(e)(2), 8 U.S.C. § 1252(e)(2) (Supp.1998), provides for habeas review for non-resident arriving aliens subject to expedited and summary removal under 8 U.S.C. § 1225(b)(1): (2) Habeas corpus proceedings Judicial review of any determination made under section 235(b)(1) is available in habeas corpus proceedings, but shall be limited to determinations of— (A) whether the petitioner is an alien, (B) whether the petitioner was ordered removed under such section, and (C) whether the petitioner can prove by a preponderance of the evidence that the petitioner is an alien lawfully admitted for permanent residence, has been admitted as a refugee under section 207, or has been granted asylum under section 208 of this title, such status not having been terminated, and is entitled to such further inquiry as prescribed by the Attorney General pursuant to Section 235(b)(1)(C). INA § 242(e)(2), 8 U.S.C. § 1252(e)(2) (Supp.1998). INA § 235(b)(1) is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1225(b)(1) (Supp.1998). INA § 207 is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1157 (Supp.1998). INA § 208 is codified in 8 U.S.C. § 1158 (Supp.1998). This procedure, originally called "summary exclusion," was created by the AEDPA but modified by IIRIRA before taking effect. 94 INA § 235(b)(1), 8 U.S.C. § 1255(b)(1) (Supp.1998). 95 See footnote 93. 35 INA underscores Congress' clear intent in INA § 242(g) that no court shall have jurisdiction over immigration decisions except as provided under INA § 242.96 Second, in addition to the sweeping language of new INA § 242(g), the elimination of INA § 106(a)(10)'s habeas corpus review by the AEDPA further evidences congressional intent to preclude statutory habeas corpus review over immigration decisions. AEDPA § 440 first eliminated the specific habeas review granted under former INA § 106(a)(10).97 Then IIRIRA enacted the broad language of INA § 242(g) that "notwithstanding any other provision of law, no court shall have jurisdiction except as provided under INA § 242."98 Thus, the AEDPA and IIRIRA reflect Congress' clear intent to avoid unduly protracted litigation over removal orders against resident aliens by consolidating all judicial challenges in the courts of appeals under INA § 242(b)(2) after a final removal order, and by removing all district-court jurisdiction, including § 2241 habeas jurisdiction, over immigration decisions.99 Accordingly, we conclude that INA § 242(g) repeals any statutory jurisdiction over immigration decisions other than that conferred by INA § 242. That 96 See, e.g., United States v. White, 118 F.3d 739, 742 (11th Cir.1997) ("The selection of the statutes set forth [in the Act] reflects an intent to omit all others."); United States v. Koonce, 991 F.2d 693, 698 (11th Cir.1993) ("The canon of statutory construction that the inclusion of one implies the exclusion of others is well-established."). 97 Pub.L. No. 104-132, 110 Stat. 1214 (1996). 98 8 U.S.C. § 1252(g) (Supp.1998). 99 See, e.g., H. Rep. No. 104-469(I) (1996). Indeed, INA § 242(g), along with INA § 242(b)(9), should be properly understood not as an attempt to divest the courts of jurisdiction they previously possessed, but as Congress' effort to make absolutely clear what should have been apparent under the INA and AEDPA all along: that review of INS' conduct of deportation proceedings is available only after the entry of a final order of deportation, and only under the INA provisions specifically provided for that purpose. 36 repeal includes § 2241 habeas jurisdiction over immigration decisions by the Attorney General under the INA. Richardson's main argument is that § 2241 habeas corpus jurisdiction survives IIRIRA's enactment of new INA § 242(g) because INA § 242(g) fails to mention § 2241 expressly.100 Richardson emphasizes the presumption against implied repeal of habeas corpus jurisdiction addressed in Felker v. Turpin, 518 U.S. 651, 116 S.Ct. 2333, 135 L.Ed.2d 827 (1996). However, the jurisdictional repeal at issue in Felker was much narrower than the repealing language of INA § 242(g). AEDPA § 106(b)(3)(E) repealed a narrow class of Supreme Court jurisdiction—the Court's review of a court of appeals decision denying or granting authorization to file a second or successive habeas corpus petition.101 In addition, AEDPA § 106(b) specifically cited § 2244(b) as the statute it amended. In Felker, the Supreme Court determined that this express prohibition of a specific, limited form of judicial review of second or successive habeas corpus petitions, did not also repeal by implication the Supreme Court's original jurisdiction to entertain habeas petitions.102 100 Richardson also asserts that INA § 242(g) affects only final removal orders and that the INS ignores the critical distinction between review of interim detention orders—denying admission, bond and parole—and review of final removal orders. We disagree. The INS' interim orders and actions are not collateral proceedings but are inextricably part of the removal proceedings and covered by the broad language of INA § 242(g). See, e.g., I.N.S. v. Chadha, 462 U.S. 919, 938, 103 S.Ct. 2764, 77 L.Ed.2d 317 (1983); Massieu v. Reno, 91 F.3d 416 (3d Cir.1996). 101 Felker, 518 U.S. at 661, 116 S.Ct. 2333. Specifically, AEDPA § 106(b)(3)(E) states "the grant or denial of an authorization by a court of appeals to file a second or successive application shall not be appealable and shall not be the subject of a petition for rehearing or for writ of certiorari." 28 U.S.C. § 2244(b)(3)(E) (Supp.1998). 102 Felker, 518 U.S. at 660, 116 S.Ct. 2333. 37 Conversely, the repeal of jurisdiction under INA § 242(g) is much broader. INA § 242(g) does not address a limited set of statutory provisions. Instead, the jurisdiction-repealing language in INA § 242(g) states comprehensively that "[e]xcept as provided in this section and notwithstanding any other provision of law, no court shall have jurisdiction" over the specified claims.103 INA § 242(g) expressly repeals any and all jurisdiction except that conferred by INA § 242. Unlike Felker, the language of INA § 242(g) does not require repeal by implication. Indeed, Congress could hardly have chosen broader language to convey its intent to repeal any and all jurisdiction except that provided by INA § 242. Based on the foregoing, we conclude that INA § 242(g) repealed § 2241 habeas jurisdiction over Richardson's claims challenging his executive detention without bond and removal order and that the district court erred in exercising jurisdiction under § 2241. B. No Constitutional Infirmities to Avoid Richardson asserts that IIRIRA's elimination of § 2241 jurisdiction means he has no judicial review of his executive detention. Although conceding many aliens can still obtain judicial review in the court of appeals under the INA, Richardson stresses that other limitations within the INA's judicial-review scheme result in his having no judicial review whatsoever. Richardson contends, for example, that INA § 242(a)(2)(C) adds other limits to the judicial review available to criminal aliens and thus he has no judicial review under the INA. Richardson argues that no judicial review whatsoever of his executive detention violates the Due Process Clause, Article III, and the Suspension Clause. For those reasons, Richardson submits INA § 242(g) cannot repeal § 2241 habeas. 103 8 U.S.C. § 1252(g) (Supp.1998). 38 The INS responds that INA § 242(g)'s repeal of § 2241 habeas jurisdiction over immigration decisions creates no constitutional infirmities because the INA does not eliminate all judicial review for Richardson. According to the INS, these new INA provisions, enacted by IIRIRA, do not "operate to bar the court of appeals from redressing substantial claims of constitutional error as part of the petition for review" of any final removal order against criminal aliens. The INS and Richardson vigorously dispute how much judicial review is required under the INA to avoid constitutional infirmities arising from the INA's repeal of § 2241 habeas jurisdiction over immigration decisions. The INS concedes only that any constitutionally required judicial review of administrative agency decisions must occur under the INA and in the form of a petition for review in the court of appeals after a final removal order. Richardson rejoins that the other circuits have held that INA § 242(g) does not repeal § 2241 habeas, in large part, to avoid what the Second Circuit described as "serious constitutional issues" in Jean-Baptiste104 or what the First Circuit termed "serious, novel and complex constitutional issues" in Goncalves, stating: Finally, our refusal to find express repeal of § 2241 in new INA § 242(g) eliminates the need to address serious, novel and complex constitutional issues. We would be loathe to find a repeal where that repeal creates serious constitutional problems. We note these constitutional concerns briefly to underscore the wisdom of avoiding them. 104 144 F.3d at 219. 39 Goncalves, 144 F.3d at 122.105 Similarly, in Jean-Baptiste, the Second Circuit outlined how historically habeas was available to aliens, why permanent resident aliens enjoy procedural due process rights, and avoided what it foresaw as "serious constitutional issues" under the Suspension Clause and Due Process Clause. Jean-Baptiste, 144 F.3d at 219. The Second Circuit worried that without § 2241 habeas, a permanent resident criminal alien would lack a forum in which to vindicate substantial constitutional rights. Id.106 We agree with Richardson that both the First and Second 105 Goncalves was a 25-year permanent resident alien subject to a deportation order because of certain criminal convictions. 144 F.3d at 114. His application for discretionary relief under former INA § 212(c), 8 U.S.C. § 1182(c), was denied by the INS because the AEDPA made him ineligible for such relief. Id. AEDPA § 440(d) greatly expanded the category of criminal convictions rendering an alien ineligible to apply for INA § 212(c) relief. Id. Goncalves filed a § 2241 habeas, rather than a petition for direct review in the court of appeals. Id. at 115. The First Circuit held that jurisdiction existed under § 2241 habeas, that § 2241 habeas encompassed legal issues based on statutory construction as well as constitutional claims, and that the AEDPA § 440(d) did not apply retroactively to Goncalves. Id. at 123. But compare Boston-Bollers v. INS, 106 F.3d 352 (11th Cir.1997) (holding AEDPA § 440(d), effective April 24, 1996, applies retroactively and listing six other circuits reaching same result). See footnote 110 infra. 106 In Jean-Baptiste, two permanent resident aliens and one conditional permanent resident alien faced deportation under INA §§ 241(a)(2)(B)(i) and 241(a)(2)(A)(iii) for criminal convictions involving controlled substances. 144 F.3d at 214. Alleging that the INS' deportation procedures deprived them of due process, the aliens filed a proposed class action in district court in which they sought to enjoin their deportation proceedings. Id. The district court dismissed the aliens' complaint for failure to state a claim upon which relief could be granted under Fed.R.Civ.P. 12(b)(6), and the aliens appealed. Id. Holding that INA § 242(g) eliminated the district court's jurisdiction over the aliens' proposed class action, the Second Circuit affirmed the district court's dismissal of the complaint. Id. at 218-220. Nevertheless, the court held that INA § 242(g) did not repeal § 2241 jurisdiction over petitions for habeas relief by aliens facing removal from the United States. Id. at 220. The Second Circuit still dismissed the aliens' complaint because they "sought federal court jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1331, not habeas jurisdiction under U.S.C. § 2241." Id. at 220. However, the court noted that "in finding that § 2241 habeas review remains available for aliens deemed deportable under certain circumstances to raise constitutional questions, we express no opinion on the permissible scope of that review." Id. 40 Circuits' holdings that INA § 242(g) did not repeal § 2241, stemmed from their adopting a principle of "constitutional avoidance," as opposed to following the plain language of INA § 242(g). We reject this "constitutional avoidance" approach for two reasons. First, although courts wisely prefer avoiding thorny constitutional issues, the language of INA § 242(g), in our view, is plain, unambiguous, and yields only one permissible statutory construction. See United States v. Locke, 471 U.S. 84, 96, 105 S.Ct. 1785, 85 L.Ed.2d 64 (1985) ("[c]ourts cannot press statutory construction "to the point of disingenuous evasion' even to avoid a constitutional question."); American-Arab Anti-Discrimination Comm. v. Reno, 132 F.3d 531, 532-33 (9th Cir.1997) (O'Scannlain, J., dissenting from the denial of rehearing en banc) ("Whatever the merits of constitutional avoidance might be, no court may "avoid' a perceived conflict when the text is unambiguous, as it is here. The avoidance canon, invoked with such abandon, amounts to nothing less than rewriting the statute."), cert. granted, --- U.S. ----, 118 S.Ct. 2059, 141 L.Ed.2d 137 (1998).107 Second, examining, not avoiding, Richardson's constitutional concerns, we find that INA § 242(g)'s repeal of § 2241 habeas jurisdiction over immigration decisions does not violate the Due Process Clause and Article III because neither provision mandates judicial review of immigration decisions. This repeal also does not violate the Suspension Clause because Richardson still has adequate and effective judicial review available under the INA. In light of these significant constitutional issues, we outline why in considerable detail. C. Eleventh Circuit's Boston-Bollers Decision 107 See footnote 169 infra. 41 This Circuit already has upheld as constitutional the similar, restricted judicial review afforded criminal aliens under former INA § 106(a)(10), enacted by the AEDPA. Boston-Bollers v. INS, 106 F.3d 352 (11th Cir.1997). Although decided before the effective date of IIRIRA's repeal of § 2241108 and involving a slightly different statute, Boston-Bollers is our necessary starting point because it held that INA § 106(a)(10)'s precluding judicial review of a deportation order against a permanent resident criminal alien109 did not violate the Due Process Clause or Article III.110 Quoting from Reno v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 305, 113 S.Ct. 1439, 123 L.Ed.2d 1 (1993), this Court recognized that the "responsibility for regulating the relationship between the United States and our alien visitors has been committed to the political branches of the Federal Government," and that "over no conceivable subject is the legislative power of Congress more complete." Boston- Bollers, 106 F.3d at 355.111 Accordingly, this Court determined that INA § 106(a)(10) did not 108 Boston-Bollers was decided on February 5, 1997. Although Congress enacted IIRIRA on September 30, 1996, with some limited technical amendments thereafter in October 1996, IIRIRA § 309(a) provided for a general effective date of April 1, 1997. Although there is some dispute over whether certain parts of IIRIRA were effective immediately on September 30, 1996, or only after April 1, 1997, Lalani v. Perryman, 105 F.3d 334, 336 (7th Cir.1997), that question is of no continuing significance because both dates have now passed. 109 Paul Boston-Bollers entered the United States as a lawful permanent resident in January 1987. 106 F.3d at 353. In 1992, Boston-Bollers pled guilty to second-degree murder which made him deportable under INA § 241(a)(2)(A)(iii) for a conviction of an "aggravated felony" as defined under the INA. Id. 110 In holding that AEDPA applied retroactively to Boston-Bollers' pending appeal, this Court found that INA § 106(a)(10), as enacted by AEDPA § 440(d), did not impair Boston-Bollers' substantive rights but was a jurisdiction-eliminating statute. Therefore, this Court declined to apply the Supreme Court's presumption against the retroactive application of statutes which impair substantive rights, citing Landgraf v. USI Film Prod., 511 U.S. 244, 265, 114 S.Ct. 1483, 128 L.Ed.2d 229 (1994). Boston-Bollers, 106 F.3d at 354 (listing six other circuits reaching same result). See footnote 105 supra. 111 See also Shaughnessy v. United States ex rel. Mezei, 345 U.S. 206, 210, 73 S.Ct. 625, 97 L.Ed. 956 (1953) (noting that this Court's decisions "have long recognized the power to expel or 42 violate the Due Process Clause because deportation is not a criminal proceeding or punishment and no judicial review is guaranteed by the Due Process Clause, stating: This restriction of federal court jurisdiction does not violate the Due Process Clause. As the Supreme Court stated in Carlson v. Landon, "[t]he power to expel aliens, being essentially a power of the political branches of government, the legislative and executive, may be exercised entirely though executive officers, with such opportunity for judicial review of their action as congress may see fit to authorize or permit." 342 U.S. 524, 537, 72 S.Ct. 525, 532-33, 96 L.Ed. 547 (1952) (internal quotation omitted). And since "[d]eportation is not a criminal proceeding and has never been held to be punishment ... [n]o judicial review is guaranteed by the Constitution." Id. at 537, 72 S.Ct. at 533 (footnote omitted). Because the Constitution does not give aliens the right to judicial review of deportation orders, section 440(a)(10) does not violate the Due Process Clause. 106 F.3d at 355.112 In addition, this Court concluded that former INA § 106(a)(10) did not offend Article III because Congress and the executive branch exercise plenary authority over immigration regulation. Id. at 355. We also recognized that "the federal appellate courts have "jurisdiction to review certain final orders of deportation and exclusion against aliens only because Congress has conferred it.' " 106 F.3d at 354 (quoting Duldulao v. INS, 90 F.3d 396, 399-400 (9th Cir.1996)). Accordingly, this exclude aliens as a fundamental sovereign attribute exercised by the Government's political departments largely immune from judicial control."); Fiallo v. Bell, 430 U.S. 787, 794-95, 97 S.Ct. 1473, 52 L.Ed.2d 50 (1977); Kleindienst v. Mandel, 408 U.S. 753, 765-67, 92 S.Ct. 2576, 33 L.Ed.2d 683 (1972); Harisiades v. Shaughnessy, 342 U.S. 580, 588-90, 72 S.Ct. 512, 96 L.Ed. 586 (1952). 112 In Carlson v. Landon, 342 U.S. 524, 528-29, 72 S.Ct. 525, 96 L.Ed. 547 (1952), the alien brought a habeas corpus petition alleging his detention without bond violated the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment and the Eighth Amendment. Because the alien had access to a petition for habeas, there was no claim of conflict with the Suspension Clause. Id. at 528, 72 S.Ct. 525. The Supreme Court found no Due Process Clause or Eighth Amendment violation for the reasons quoted above in Boston-Bollers. Carlson, 342 U.S. at 537, 72 S.Ct. 525. However, in between these quotations about the executive and legislative power over expelling aliens, the Supreme Court also stated: "This power is, of course, subject to judicial intervention under the "paramount law of the Constitution.' " Carlson, 342 U.S. at 537 n. 27, 72 S.Ct. 525 (citing a long line of Supreme Court precedent). 43 Court concluded that INA § 106(a)(10)'s restricting judicial review of deportation orders against criminal aliens "not only does not violate Article III, it is illustrative of the concept of separation of powers envisioned by the Constitution." Id. Boston-Bollers would resolve Richardson's constitutional concerns were it not for two facts: (1) when this Court interpreted former INA § 106(a)(10) in Boston-Bollers, IIRIRA's repeal of § 2241 was not yet effective, and (2) in a footnote, this Court in Boston-Bollers expressly recognized that whether INA § 106(a)(10) precluded judicial review of deportation orders against criminal aliens "via a writ of habeas corpus" was not presented in that appeal. Id. at 354 n. 1.113 While Boston-Bollers informs our analysis, we recognize that it was decided under INA § 106(a)(10) as enacted by the AEDPA, was not colored by the same constitutional concerns created by IIRIRA's repeal of § 2241 habeas in INA § 242(g), and did not address the restrictions now in INA § 242(a)(2)(C) on judicial review of deportation orders against criminal aliens. Nonetheless, we find that these additional circumstances still do not create constitutional infirmities in IIRIRA's new judicial-review scheme. We reach this conclusion not only for the reasons outlined in Boston- Bollers but also because Congress clearly has the authority (a) to repeal § 2241 jurisdiction over 113 Boston-Bollers was before this Court on a petition for direct review of a final deportation order. Both parties agreed "that the issue of whether section 440(a)(10) precludes judicial review of deportation orders via a writ of habeas corpus is not presented in this appeal." 106 F.3d at 354 n. 1. In Yang v. INS, 109 F.3d 1185, 1195 (7th Cir.), cert. denied sub nom, Katsoulis v. INS, --- U.S. ----, 118 S.Ct. 624, 139 L.Ed.2d 605 (1997), the Seventh Circuit noted that four courts of appeal have rejected contentions that INA § 106(a)(10) violates the Constitution but the Yang court pointed out that "they observe that limited opportunity to apply for a writ of habeas corpus may remain," citing Kolster v. INS, 101 F.3d 785, 790-91 (1st Cir.1996); Hincapie-Nieto v. INS, 92 F.3d 27, 30-31 (2d Cir.1996); Duldulao v. INS, 90 F.3d 396, 399-400 & n. 4 (9th Cir.1996). See also Morel v. INS, 144 F.3d 248, 251 (3d Cir.1998); Mansour v. INS, 123 F.3d 423, 426 (6th Cir.1997); Williams v. INS, 114 F.3d 82, 83-84 (5th Cir.1997); Fernandez v. INS, 113 F.3d 1151, 1154 (10th Cir.1997). 44 immigration decisions, (b) to legislate that all judicial review of immigration decisions must be exclusively under the INA, and (c) to regulate the exclusive mode and precise timing of that judicial review within the INA's provisions. As shown below, Congress' repeal of § 2241 and its enactment of the requirement that all judicial review now be exclusively under the INA, in the court of appeals, and after a final removal order do not violate the Due Process Clause, Article III, or the Suspension Clause. We now examine each such constitutional provision in turn. D. Due Process Clause Permanent resident aliens are protected by the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment which provides that "[n]o person shall be ... deprived of life, liberty or property, without due process of law ..." U.S. Const. amend. V. Although the political branches exercise plenary control over the admission and removal of aliens, INS v. Chadha, 462 U.S. 919, 103 S.Ct. 2764, 77 L.Ed.2d 317 (1983), this plenary authority is subject to the limits of the Constitution. See, e.g., Galvan v. Press, 347 U.S. 522, 531, 74 S.Ct. 737, 98 L.Ed. 911 (1954); Carlson v. Landon, 342 U.S. 524, 533, 72 S.Ct. 525, 96 L.Ed. 547 (1952). While an alien seeking initial admission to the United States has no constitutional rights regarding an application for admission, United States ex rel. Knauff v. Shaughnessy, 338 U.S. 537, 542, 70 S.Ct. 309, 94 L.Ed. 317 (1950), "once an alien gains admission to our country and begins to develop the ties that go with permanent residence his constitutional status changes." Landon v. Plasencia, 459 U.S. 21, 32, 103 S.Ct. 321, 74 L.Ed.2d 21 (1982). The Supreme Court has held that a permanent resident alien "continuously present" in the United States has a right to procedural due 45 process in any proceedings to remove that alien from the country.114 See, e.g., Reno v. Flores, 507 U.S. 292, 113 S.Ct. 1439, 123 L.Ed.2d 1 (1993); Landon v. Plasencia, 459 U.S. at 21, 103 S.Ct. 321.115 At the core of the alien's due process rights is the right to notice of the nature of the charges and a meaningful opportunity to be heard. See, e.g., Kwong Hai Chew v. Colding, 344 U.S. 590, 596-98, 73 S.Ct. 472, 97 L.Ed. 576 (1953). Removal proceedings under the INA are not criminal proceedings and are not summary ejection proceedings. See Boston-Bollers, 106 F.3d 352, 355 (11th Cir.1997). Instead, removal 114 Although Richardson's leaving the United States may have changed his legal status under INA § 101(a)(13)(C) to an arriving alien "seeking admission" due to his criminal convictions, we assume solely for purposes of this case that it did not change his constitutional status in light of his thirty-year permanent residency in the United States. Specifically, the Supreme Court instructs that "[w]e do not regard the constitutional status which petitioner indisputably enjoyed prior to his voyage as terminated by that voyage. From a constitutional point of view, he is entitled to due process without regard to whether or not, for immigration purposes, he is to be treated as an entrant alien." Kwong Hai Chew v. Colding, 344 U.S. 590, 600, 73 S.Ct. 472, 97 L.Ed. 576 (1953). The alien in Chew was a lawful permanent resident who worked on an American ship. Id. at 592, 73 S.Ct. 472. He was on a voyage to the Far East for about four months. Id. at 594, 73 S.Ct. 472. Upon his return, he was denied entry to the United States under an immigration regulation which allowed the Attorney General to exclude certain aliens without a hearing when information relating to the exclusion would "be prejudicial to the public interest." Id. Thus, not only was Chew excluded and detained, he also was denied any notice of the reasons for his exclusion and any opportunity to challenge those reasons. In contrast, Richardson has been afforded extensive procedural safeguards in his removal proceedings. 115 In Landon v. Plasencia, 459 U.S. 21, 31, 103 S.Ct. 321, 74 L.Ed.2d 21 (1982), the Supreme Court stated: "although we have only rarely held that the procedures provided by the executive were inadequate, we developed the rule that a continuously present permanent resident alien has a right to due process ...," citing United States ex rel. Vajtauer v. Comm'r of Immigration, 273 U.S. 103, 106, 47 S.Ct. 302, 71 L.Ed. 560 (1927); Japanese Immigrant Case, 189 U.S. 86, 100- 101, 23 S.Ct. 611, 47 L.Ed. 721 (1903); United States ex rel. Tisi v. Tod, 264 U.S. 131, 133, 44 S.Ct. 260, 68 L.Ed. 590 (1924); Low Wah Suey v. Backus, 225 U.S. 460, 32 S.Ct. 734, 56 L.Ed. 1165 (1912). 46 proceedings are imbued with procedural safeguards that satisfy the Due Process Clause. The alien has the right to notice, the opportunity to present evidence and cross examine witnesses, and the right to do so with the assistance of counsel at a hearing before an immigration judge.116 Given these procedural safeguards, no judicial review is required to provide the process due to a permanent resident alien facing removal. See, e.g., Carlson v. Landon, 342 U.S. 524, 537, 72 S.Ct. 525, 96 L.Ed. 547 (1952); Boston-Bollers, 106 F.3d at 354-55; Yang v. INS, 109 F.3d 1185, 1196-97 (7th Cir.), cert. denied sub nom, Katsoulis v. INS, --- U.S. ----, 118 S.Ct. 624, 139 L.Ed.2d 605 (1997).117 Therefore, the fact that IIRIRA repeals § 2241 habeas jurisdiction over immigration decisions, provides for exclusive judicial review under the INA, and within that INA scheme further limits the mode, timing and types of issues for which Richardson can seek judicial review under the INA, does not violate the Due Process Clause. We recognize that Richardson also asserts that the INA's limiting his bond requests in these removal proceedings to written request to the INS district director, without any judicial review by an immigration judge, deprives him of due process. We disagree. The sufficiency of that process is evaluated under the three factors outlined in Mathews v. Eldridge, 424 U.S. 319, 334-35, 96 S.Ct. 893, 47 L.Ed.2d 18 (1976):(1) a petitioner's interest in additional procedures; (2) the "risk" of the procedure; and (3) the government's interest in the procedure. Richardson's "liberty interest" under 116 See footnotes 62-67 supra. 117 "The role of the judiciary is limited to determining whether the procedures meet the essential standard of fairness under the Due Process Clause and does not extend to imposing procedures that merely displace congressional choices of policy." Landon v. Plasencia, 459 U.S. 21, 32-33, 103 S.Ct. 321, 74 L.Ed.2d 21 (1982) (emphasis supplied). 47 the Due Process Clause is weighty, although slightly attenuated given his resident alien status.118 However, the "risk" factor is low, as Richardson's counsel was able to make written bond and parole requests to the INS district director, supported by evidence, which here included several documents and affidavits on Richardson's behalf. In contrast, the INS' interest is fairly high in its district director's being able to make parole and bond decisions for arriving aliens facing removal proceedings in that district without a subsequent hearing before an immigration judge. Given the volume of arriving aliens and numerous ports of entry, it simplifies the procedures, expedites consideration, and reduces costs, while still giving the alien an opportunity to request bond and parole.119 Being the initial step in the removal proceedings, the INS' bond and parole procedures also must be evaluated in light of the many procedural safeguards in the overall removal proceedings. Indeed, Richardson received a plenary removal hearing before an immigration judge. Richardson has shown no due process violation. E. Article III IIRIRA's repeal of § 2241 habeas over INS decisions also does not violate Article III. While § 2 of Article III extends the judicial power to "all cases ... arising under the Constitution," § 1 of 118 See, e.g., Mathews v. Diaz, 426 U.S. 67, 80, 96 S.Ct. 1883, 48 L.Ed.2d 478 (1976) ("Congress regularly makes rules that would be unacceptable if applied to citizens."). 119 Congress acts well within its plenary power in mandating detention of a criminal alien with an aggravated felony conviction facing removal proceedings. See INA § 236(c), 8 U.S.C. § 1226(c) (Supp.1998); TPCRs in IIRIRA § 303(b)(3). This poses no constitutional issue, for the Supreme Court already has stated that "[t]he Eighth Amendment has not prevented Congress from defining the classes of cases in which bail shall be allowed ..." Carlson v. Landon, 342 U.S. at 545, 72 S.Ct. 525. The Supreme Court has determined that bail need not be provided in all immigration cases. Id. at 546, 72 S.Ct. 525. More importantly, Richardson does not challenge the INS district director's denial of his release request as incorrect under the INS regulations or show why the opportunity to be heard by the regulations governing bond and parole was inadequate. 48 Article III provides that this judicial power shall be vested "in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." U.S. Const. art. III §§ 1, 2. Even if Richardson had no judicial review available in the district court under § 2241 or in the court of appeals under the INA, Article III does not mandate the judicial review of immigration decisions in any inferior court. Instead, Congress possesses the sole authority to establish the jurisdiction of the inferior federal courts.120 The jurisdiction of the inferior federal courts is created by statute and jurisdiction does not exist except to the extent conferred by statute. Sheldon v. Sill, 49 U.S. (8 How.) 441, 449, 12 L.Ed. 1147 (1850). Therefore, inferior federal courts must have some statutory basis upon which to retain jurisdiction regardless of the character of Richardson's claims. Similar to many congressionally enacted limits on federal jurisdiction, Article III does not preclude Congress from removing all judicial review over immigration decisions from the inferior courts.121 120 See Morel v. INS, 144 F.3d 248, 251 (3d Cir.1998); Chow v. INS, 113 F.3d 659, 668 (7th Cir.1997); Yang v. INS, 109 F.3d 1185, 1196 (7th Cir.) cert. denied sub nom, Katsoulis v. INS, -- - U.S. ----, 118 S.Ct. 624, 139 L.Ed.2d 605 (1997). In finding lack of jurisdiction under former INA § 106(a)(10) over Morel's appeal of a final deportation order, the Third Circuit stated that "we do not see any deprivation of his rights which is of constitutional proportion," noting "the INS concedes that § 440(a) [INA § 106(a)(10) ] does not preclude Article III court review of claims of substantial Constitutional error." Morel, 144 F.3d at 251. Finding Morel's appeal raised only a "question of law," the Third Circuit concluded that "relevant Supreme Court authority does not mandate judicial review by an Article III court of questions of law underlying legislatively-created public rights such as immigration. See Crowell v. Benson, 285 U.S. 22, 52 S.Ct. 285, 76 L.Ed. 598 (1932) (drawing a distinction between public and private rights and listing immigration as an exemplar of a public right)." Morel, 144 F.3d at 252. 121 Congress has established significant limits on federal jurisdiction throughout history and continuing today. For example, during the first century of the nation's existence, the inferior courts lacked federal-question jurisdiction; and, until 1976 the federal-question jurisdiction remained restricted by an amount-in-controversy requirement. Yang v. INS, 109 at 1195. The Seventh Circuit in Chow v. INS, 113 F.3d 659, 668 (7th Cir.1997), also outlined the following reasons why the AEDPA's enacting INA § 106(a)(10), restricting judicial review of deportation 49 F. Suspension Clause Contending that he has no judicial review available under the INA, Richardson asserts that the Suspension Clause entitles him to judicial review, and thus Richardson argues INA § 242(g) cannot be read to repeal § 2241 habeas. The Suspension Clause provides that "[t]he Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it." U.S. Const. art. I § 9. Since "the traditional Great Writ was largely a remedy against executive detention,"122 the INS concedes that the Suspension Clause requires some limited judicial review of Richardson's executive detention. The INS emphasizes, however, that any constitutionally required judicial review (a) must be found under the INA and not § 2241 habeas, orders against criminal aliens, does not offend Article III. Although Article III enumerates cases over which the judicial power shall extend, Article III, however, grants Congress the power "to ordain and establish" such lower federal courts and courts of appeal. Keene Corp. v. United States, 508 U.S. 200, 207, 113 S.Ct. 2035, 124 L.Ed.2d 118 (1993); Northern Pipeline Constr. Co. v. Marathon Pipeline Co., 458 U.S. 50, 57-60, 102 S.Ct. 2858, 73 L.Ed.2d 598 (1982); Chow, 113 F.3d at 670. The Constitution does not prescribe how much judicial power must vest in the inferior courts and leaves it to Congress to make that decision. Id. Thus, the Seventh Circuit found that the INA, that limits the lower courts' jurisdiction, is not unconstitutional unless it confers powers not enumerated in the Constitution. Sheldon, 49 U.S. (8 How.) at 449. Therefore, the court concluded that the INA does not offend Article III or the separation of powers. Id. 122 Swain v. Pressley, 430 U.S. at 386, 97 S.Ct. 1224 (Burger, C.J., concurring). The Second Circuit also emphasized that "[t]he primary historical use of the writ of habeas corpus was precisely against executive detention. See Felker, 518 U.S. at 663, 116 S.Ct. 2333 (noting that the writ originally only extended to prisoners in federal custody who were not "detained in prison by virtue of the judgment of a court' (citation and internal quotation marks omitted))." Henderson, 157 F.3d at 120; see also Brown v. Allen, 344 U.S. 443, 533, 73 S.Ct. 397, 97 L.Ed. 469 (1953) (Jackson, J., concurring) ("[T]he historic purpose of the writ has been to relieve detention by executive authorities without judicial trial."). 50 and (b) is limited to only "substantial constitutional claims" or "substantial claims of constitutional error."123 The Supreme Court has not defined the level of judicial review preserved by the Suspension Clause, unaided by § 2241 or its precursor statutes, because statutory habeas review historically has been available since 1789.124 Both parties repeatedly cite Heikkila v. Barber, 345 U.S. 229, 73 S.Ct. 123 The Second Circuit in Henderson observed that "the government itself does not argue that the 1996 amendments completely forbid judicial review of deportation against criminal aliens.... In its view, the courts are only empowered to examine petitions presenting "substantial' or "colorable' constitutional claims, and not petitions involving "mere' questions of statutory law." Henderson, 157 F.3d at 119. As the Second Circuit also noted, "[a]nd well [the INS] might concede this point, for the Supreme Court decided more than seventy-five years ago that the Constitution required judicial review of the executive's decision that a person facing deportation was a non-citizen." Henderson, 157 F.3d at 122 n. 14 (citing Ng Fung Ho v. White, 259 U.S. 276, 42 S.Ct. 492, 66 L.Ed. 938 (1922)). In Ng Fung Ho, the Supreme Court stated that the precise question in that habeas petition was whether a claim of citizenship by a resident entitles him to judicial review of his claim. 259 U.S. 276, 282, 42 S.Ct. 492, 66 L.Ed. 938 (1922). The Court held that "[j]urisdiction in the executive to order deportation exists only if the person arrested is an alien. The claim of citizenship is thus a denial of an essential jurisdictional fact." Id. at 284, 42 S.Ct. 492. 124 The United States Constitution became effective on March 4, 1789. In September 1789, the First Congress passed the Judiciary Act of 1789. Section 14 of the Judiciary Act granted the federal courts jurisdiction to issue writs of habeas corpus. 1 Stat. 81 (1789). In 1867, Congress significantly expanded federal jurisdiction to issue writs of habeas corpus. 14 Stat. 385 (1867). The Supreme Court has recognized that this amendment to federal habeas jurisdiction increased the scope of habeas review beyond the "bare legal review" of the common-law writ. Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 466, 58 S.Ct. 1019, 82 L.Ed. 1461 (1938); see also McCleskey v. Zant, 499 U.S. 467, 477, 111 S.Ct. 1454, 113 L.Ed.2d 517 (1991) (noting inter alia that the 1867 amendments expanded availability of the writ in federal court to people held in state custody). Accordingly, the Court has concluded that this revision to habeas jurisdiction conferred on federal courts the ability to determine the legality and constitutionality of a person's detention even if "the proceedings resulting in incarceration may be unassailable on the face of the record." United States v. Hayman, 342 U.S. 205, 212, 72 S.Ct. 263, 96 L.Ed. 232 (1952). Over the years, Congress amended habeas jurisdiction several times. For the 51 603, 97 L.Ed. 972 (1953), in which the Supreme Court held that "the 1917 Immigration Act ... clearly had the effect of precluding judicial intervention in deportation cases except insofar as it was required by the Constitution." Id. at 234-35, 73 S.Ct. 603. The Supreme Court upheld the preclusion of judicial review in the 1917 Act, but in the context of statutory habeas remaining available, stating: The rule which we reaffirm recognizes the legislative power to prescribe applicable procedures for those who would contest deportation orders. Congress may well have thought that habeas corpus, despite its apparent inconvenience to the alien, should be the exclusive remedy in these cases in order to minimize opportunities for repetitious litigation and consequent delays as well as to avoid possible venue difficulties connected with any other type of action. Id. at 237, 73 S.Ct. 603. Thus, Heikkila does not resolve the issue here of whether IIRIRA's repeal of § 2241 habeas would violate the Suspension Clause if Richardson has no judicial review under the INA.125 most part, these amendments have related to the form and procedure for seeking the writ and to the codification of federal statutes in 1874 and 1948. Rev. Stat. §§ 751-766 (1874); 62 Stat. 869 (1948). However, the Supreme Court has recently recognized that the Judiciary Act of 1789 is the "direct ancestor" of 28 U.S.C. § 2241(a) and the 1867 amendments to the Judiciary Act are the "direct ancestor" of 28 U.S.C. § 2241(c). Felker, 518 U.S. at 659 n. 1 & 2, 116 S.Ct. 2333; see also Hayman, 342 U.S. at 211 n. 11, 72 S.Ct. 263 (noting that the 1867 Act is [n]ow incorporated in 28 U.S.C. (Supp.IV) § 2241 et seq.) 125 Both Richardson and the INS cite Webster v. Doe, 486 U.S. 592, 603, 108 S.Ct. 2047, 100 L.Ed.2d 632 (1988), which involved a discharge of a government employee based on sexual preference. Chief Justice Rehnquist's majority opinion in Webster states it reached certain conclusions "to avoid the "serious constitutional question' that would arise if a federal statute were construed to deny any judicial forum for a colorable constitutional claim." (quoting Bowen v. Michigan Academy of Family Physicians, 476 U.S. 667, 681 n. 12, 106 S.Ct. 2133, 90 L.Ed.2d 623 (1986)). Since we find that certain judicial review remains under the INA, as outlined infra, this case also does not present a denial of all judicial review. Also, two dissents stated that judicial review is not required over constitutional claims challenging the validity of employment decisions by the Central Intelligence 52 Unguided by direct Supreme Court precedent, the Second, Seventh, and Ninth Circuits have thoughtfully addressed and reached different conclusions about what level of judicial review is protected by the Suspension Clause, what scope of judicial review the INA provides, and whether constitutional infirmities are created by INA § 242(g)'s repeal of § 2241 habeas jurisdiction over immigration decisions. The Second and Ninth Circuits have outlined in great detail the two-hundred year history of the Suspension Clause and why the Great Writ protected by the Suspension Clause (whether under an originalist approach as it existed in 1789 or today) requires judicial review of an alien's executive detention that is the equivalent of § 2241 habeas. Magana-Pizano v. INS, 152 F.3d 1213, 1217-21 (9th Cir.1998); Henderson v. INS, 157 F.3d 106, 112-21 (2d Cir.1998). In Magana- Pizano, the Ninth Circuit concluded that INA § 242(g)'s repeal of § 2241 habeas violated the Suspension Clause. In Jean-Baptiste, 144 F.3d 212 (2d Cir.1998), the Second Circuit, in order to avoid the Suspension Clause issue, held that INA § 242(g) did not repeal § 2241 habeas. A subsequent panel of the Second Circuit in Henderson followed yet questioned the correctness of the Jean-Baptiste decision. The Seventh Circuit took a different approach. After outlining the history of § 2241 habeas and the Suspension Clause, the Seventh Circuit agreed that "[a]liens may seek the writ that Art. I § 9 cl. 2 preserves against suspension." Yang v. INS, 109 F.3d 1185, 1195 (7th Cir.1997). However, Agency. In his dissent, Justice Scalia pointed out that "the denial of all judicial review is not at issue," but "merely the denial of review in United States district courts." Id. at 611, 108 S.Ct. 2047. Since Article III, § 1 provides that the judicial power shall be vested "in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish," Justice Scalia stressed that "[w]e long ago held that the power not to create any lower federal courts at all includes the power to invest them with less than all the judicial power." Id. His dissent concluded that Congress can prescribe that for certain jobs, the dismissal decision is "committed to agency discretion by law" and "that not all constitutional claims require a judicial remedy." Id. at 614, 108 S.Ct. 2047. 53 the Seventh Circuit found that "28 U.S.C. § 2241 offers an opportunity for collateral attack more expansive than the Great Writ preserved in the Constitution." Id. While Yang 's direct holding involved the restrictions on a criminal alien's judicial review under former INA § 106(a)(10), the Seventh Circuit noted that "effective April 1, 1997, § 306(a) of the IIRIRA [INA § 242] abolishes even review under § 2241, leaving only the constitutional writ, unaided by statute." Id. The Seventh Circuit found that the particular errors of law and discretionary INS decision of which Yang, a criminal alien in custody, sought judicial review were simply not protected by the "Great Writ." Id. Similarly, the Seventh Circuit noted there is a "vast gulf between the non-suspendable constitutional writ" and certain other forms of judicial review, such as under the Administrative Procedures Act. Id. Below we first discuss the different approaches of these three circuits in considerable detail. Second, we address IIRIRA's clear mandate that judicial review be exclusively after a final removal order—a factor we find not given sufficient weight by our sister circuits. Third, we outline why we find INA § 242(g)'s repeal of § 2241 habeas and its requirement of exclusive judicial review under the INA do not conflict with the Suspension Clause. G. Second Circuit's Henderson Decision When it decided Henderson, the Second Circuit in Jean-Baptiste already had held that INA § 242(g) did not repeal § 2241 habeas. Jean-Baptiste v. Reno, 144 F.3d 212, 218-19 (2d Cir.1998); Henderson v. INS, 157 F.3d 106, 119 (2d Cir.1998). Subsequently, in Henderson the Second Circuit revisited whether constitutional issues under the Suspension Clause are actually implicated by 54 IIRIRA's repeal of § 2241 habeas. Noting that it was bound by Jean-Baptiste, the Second Circuit in Henderson held that INA § 242(g) did not repeal § 2241.126 However, in a footnote, the Second Circuit in Henderson expressly acknowledged that "[w]ere we not bound by Jean-Baptiste, the members of this panel would be strongly inclined to find that the proper mechanism for judicial review is by petition for review in the courts of appeals, rather than by § 2241 habeas in the district courts."127 The Henderson panel noted that Congress "clearly" meant to streamline judicial review and concluded that "it seems perverse to find that the new laws [IIRIRA] actually added a layer of review in the district courts that did not generally exist before."128 The Second Circuit in Henderson noted that Jean-Baptiste expressly had reserved the question of the extent and nature of judicial review remaining available under the INA post-IIRIRA.129 The Henderson panel rejected the INS' contention that judicial review under IIRIRA is limited to "substantial constitutional issues."130 Instead, the Second Circuit indicated that 126 Henderson, 157 F.3d at 119. 127 Id. at 119 n. 9. 128 Id. (emphasis supplied). 129 Henderson, 157 F.3d at 119. 130 Id. at 120. The Second Circuit also noted that the INS borrowed this standard from the standard for reviewing successive habeas petitions but observed that this standard arose in an entirely different context than presented under the immigration laws. Id. Specifically, the Second Circuit recognized that the substantial-constitutional-question standard applied to petitioners in state custody who had necessarily enjoyed several opportunities to challenge their detention before in a judicial forum. Id. (citing Goncalves, 144 F.3d at 118 n. 8). Conversely, according to the Henderson panel, aliens detained pending removal from the country are detained by the executive with no prior judicial review of their detention. Henderson, 157 F.3d at 120. 55 judicial review post-IIRIRA " "is much like it was prior to the enactment of the INA' and is similar to that which existed under the early statutes that were "intended to make these administrative decisions nonreviewable to the fullest extent possible under the Constitution.' "131 The Second Circuit then noted that the Attorney General's position that no court has power to review her interpretation of immigration laws "is, to put it mildly, not only at war with the historical record described earlier in this opinion—for at least a hundred years, the courts have reviewed the executive branch's interpretation of the immigration laws, and have deemed such review to be constitutionally mandated—it is also hard to square with the core conception of habeas corpus as it has been applied over many centuries."132 Ultimately, the Second Circuit in Henderson concluded only that whatever the remaining parameters of § 2241 relief in the immigration context, the claims presented by the Henderson aliens facing deportation fell within the remaining scope of § 2241.133 As its holding, the Second Circuit stated "federal courts have jurisdiction under § 2241 to grant writs of habeas corpus to aliens when those aliens are "in custody in violation of the Constitution or laws or treaties of the United States.' "134 But, the Second Circuit immediately qualified that holding by stating that "[t]his is not to say that every statutory claim that an alien might raise is cognizable on habeas."135 Instead, the court 131 Id. at 119. 132 Id. 133 Id. at 122. The aliens in Henderson presented questions of pure law. The Second Circuit also noted, almost in passing, that judicial review under the INA as long as "the equivalent of habeas" would avoid any conflict with the Suspension Clause. Henderson, 157 F.3d at 119 n. 10. 134 Id. at 122 (quoting 28 U.S.C. § 2241). 135 Id. 56 concluded that the range of claims available under § 2241 consisted of "the sort that the courts have secularly enforced ... in the face of statutes seeking to limit judicial jurisdiction to the fullest e [Text truncated at 120,000 characters. The full text is on the page linked above.] --- Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/73347. Public record. Not legal advice.