# United States v. Louisiana

> District Court, M.D. Louisiana · July 26, 2016 · 196 F. Supp. 3d 612

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/7239082

## Case

- **Full name:** United States v. State of LOUISIANA J. Thomas Schedler Louisiana Department of Health and Hospital Bruce D. Greenstein Louisiana Department of Children and Family Services and Ruth Johnson
- **Court:** District Court, M.D. Louisiana
- **Decided:** July 26, 2016
- **Citations:** 196 F. Supp. 3d 612; 2016 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 97236; 2016 WL 4055648
- **Precedential status:** Published
- **Opinion:** Opinion of the court by Degravelles
- **Judges:** Degravelles
- **Cited by:** 8 later opinions in the Frix Law Library

## Citator (automated)

- No negative treatment found by the automated citator. That is not the same as a confirmation that the case is good law; read the citing cases.
- Full citator and citing cases: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/7239082

## How later opinions describe it (automated extraction)

- describing as "unduly cribbed" an interpretation of the NVRA that clashed with its "primary purpose" of "increas[ing] the number of eligible citizens to register to vote"], vacated on other grounds , No. 3:11-CV-470-JWD-RLB, 2017 WL 4118968 (M.D. La. Aug. 21, 2017

## Opinion text

ORDER AND RULING ON THE MOTIONS TO DISMISS FILED BY DEFENDANTS AND THE MOTIONS FOR SUMMARY JUDGMENT FILED BY THE SECRETARY OF STATE AND THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
JUDGE JOHN W. deGRAVELLES,
UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT, MIDDLE DISTRICT OF LOUISIANA
I. INTRODUCTION
As his second term neared its end, Thomas Jefferson wrote: “[T]hat .government ,.. [is] the strongest of which every man feels himself a part.” 1 Long after the franchise had expanded to more than the free men envisioned by this president and determined to realize its duty to promote the exercise of this most fundamental right, the United States Congress passed and the President signed the National Voter Registration Act of 1993 2 (“NVRA,” “National Voter Registration Act,” or “Act”), 3 described by the latter as this nation’s “newest civil rights law,” Michael Waldman, The Fight to Vote Í7Ó (2016).
On April 19, 2011, pursuant to Section 1983 of the United State Code’s forty- *620 second (42) title 4 and as permitted by this law’s ninth section, Messrs. Roy Ferrand (“Ferrand”) 5 and Luther Scott, Jr. (“Scott”) and the Louisiana State Conference of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored' People (“NAACP”) (collectively, “Scótt Plaintiffs”) sued the Defendants 6 for purported violations of the NVRA in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana, their case captioned Scott v. Schedler, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW (“Scott Matter”). 7 In the Scott Matter, af *621 ter multiple hearings and a lengthy trial, the district court (“Scott Court”) entered a permanent injunction against Defendants on January 22, 2013 (“First Injunction”). After the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit reversed this order in part, the Scott Court issued an amended injunction on July 10, 2015 (“Amended Injunction”). On June 15, 2016, the Amended Injunction, appealed by Schedler, was vacated for its lack of specificity under Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 65(d), 8 the Scott Court’s underlying factual findings still intact.
*620 [[Image here]]
*621 Based on this same law and many of the same circumstances, this case began on July 12, 2011, with the filing of the Complaint by the United States of America (“US,” “United States,” “Government,” or “Plaintiff’) pursuant to § 20510(a). At present, four issues must be resolved by this Court: (1) the relevance of the Scott Matter, including the Fifth Circuit’s partial affirmation; (2) the NVRA’s reach over transactions at voter registration agencies (“VRAs”) that take place by phone, email, or online (“remote transactions”); (3) the minimal legal standard for compliance with this voting rights statute; and (4) whether the Defendants have run afoul of the NVRA and, if so, which remedy is most appropriate based on the evidence so far uncovered. In other words, jurisdictional and statutory questions have been squarely presented, even as many facts remain disputed.
Defendants and Plaintiff (collectively, “Parties”) have filed the six dispositive motions now before this Court: (1) the Motion for Partial Summary Judgment (“Schedler’s MSJ”), (Doc. 336), filed by J. Thomas Schedler, the Louisiana Secretary of State and a defendant (“Schedler” or “SOS”); (2) the Motion to Dismiss Based on Res Judicata, Collateral Estoppel or Mootness (“DCFS’ MTD), (Doc. 340), tendered by two defendants, the Louisiana Department of Children and Family Services (“DCFS”) and the Louisiana Department of Health and Hospitals (“DHH”); 9 (3) the Motion to Dismiss Pursuant to Rule 12(b)(1) (“LA’s First MTD”), (Doc. 341), submitted by LA; (4) the Motion to Dismiss by Secretary of State for Lack of Subject Matter Jurisdiction (“Schedler’s MTD”), (Doc. 342); (5) LA’s Motion to Dismiss Pursuant to Rule 12(c) (“LA’s Second MTD”), (Doc. 345), a second such filing made by LA; and (6) the United States’ Motion for Summary Judgment (“US’ MSJ”), (Doc. 360) (collectively, “Dis- *622 positive Motions”). 10 Schedler, SOS, DCFS, DHH, LA, and these entities’ varied administrative heads, sued in their official capacities, (collectively, “Defendants”), oppose the US’ MSJ. Invoking Rule 12, Defendants seek dismissal of the Complaint for a lack of subject-matter jurisdiction or a failure to state a claim. In their filings, the US and three Defendants — Schedler, joined by DCFS and DHH — request judgment in their favor pursuant to Rule 56.
Each of these six motions has engendered distinct yet interrelated replies and responses. To Schedler’s MSJ, the US has responded with the Memorandum in Opposition to Motion for Partial Summary Judgment (“US’ Opposition to Schedler’s MSJ”), (Doe. 382), to which Schedler has replied with the Memorandum in Reply to Memorandum in Opposition to Motion for Partial Summary Judgment (“Schedler’s MSJ Reply”), (Doc. 395). After the US submitted its Surreply Brief in Support of its Opposition to Defendant Schedler’s Motion for Partial Summary Judgment (“US’ Surreply to Schedler’s Reply”), (Doc. 420), Schedler was allowed to file the Sur-Sur Reply to United States Surreply Submitted and Attached to Doc 411 (“Schedler’s Surreply”), (Doc. 423).
The US has countered DCFS’ MTD with the Memorandum in Opposition to Motion to Dismiss Based on Res Judicata, Collateral Estoppel or Mootness (“US’ Opposition to DCFS’ MTD”), (Doc. 385); DCFS and DHH responded with the Reply to Opposition to Motion to Dismiss (“DCFS’ Reply”), (Doc. 407).
LA’s First MTD spawned its own series of filings, including the US’ Response Brief in Opposition to the State of Louisiana’s Motion to Dismiss Pursuant to Rule 12(b)(1) (“US’ Opposition to LA’s First MTD”), (Doc. 384), and Defendant State of Louisiana’s Reply in Support of Its Motion to Dismiss Pursuant to Rule 12(b)(1) (“LA’s First Reply”), (Doc. 409).
Schedler’s MTD was opposed by the United States’ Memorandum in Opposition to SOS’s Motion to Dismiss (“US’ Opposition to Schedler’s MTD”). (Doc. 388.) DCFS and DHH joined the opposition via the Response to Defendant Schedler’s Motion to Dismiss for Lack of Subject Matter Jurisdiction (“DCFS’ Joinder Response”), (Doc. 389), defended by Schedler’s Reply Memorandum to United States’ Opposition to Schedler’s Motion to Dismiss as Moot (“Schedler’s MTD Reply”), (Doc. 415).
LA’s Second MTD is supported by the Defendant State of Louisiana’s Reply in Support of Its Motion to Dismiss Pursuant to Rule 12(c) (“LA’s Second Reply), (Doc. 414), and opposed by the United States’ Memorandum in Opposition to the State of Louisiana’s Motion to Dismiss Pursuant to Rule 12(c) (“US’ Opposition to LA’s Second MTD”), (Doc. 394).
The US’ MSJ, supported by numerous exhibits, (Docs. 347-56), elicited DHH’s Opposition to USA’s Motion for Summary Judgment (“DHH’s First Opposition to US’ MSJ”), 11 (Docs. 398, 399); 12 Defendant State of Louisiana’s Memorandum in Opposition to Plaintiffs Motion for Summary Judgment (“LA’s Opposition to US’ MSJ”), (Doc. 400); and DCFS’ Opposition to USA’s Motion for Summary Judgment (“DCFS’ Opposition to US’ MSJ”), (Doc. 402), to which exhibits were separately docketed, (Docs. 403-06). The arguments raised in the US’ MSJ were defended by the Combined Reply Memorandum in Sup *623 port of the United States’ Motion for Summary Judgment (“US’ MSJ Reply”), (Doc. 444). Inevitably, the arguments in some of these filings mirror the assertions made in others.
Having waded through these papers, and considered the oral argument made by the Parties on May 17, 2016, this Court reaches four conclusions based on existing jurisprudence. First, neither preclusion nor mootness prevent the United States from maintaining this suit against the Defendants. While the Scott Court determined much, it did not decisively establish Defendants’ requisite compliance with the NVRA and thus absolve them of liability for pre- and post -Scott violations. 13 As this case’s docket reveals, many of the factual allegations advanced herein either postdate or were left unexplored by the Scott Court, and as Defendants’ own words attest, at least some purported violations lay beyond the Scott Court’s purview. Since a finding of preclusion is rarely proper absent unequivocal congruence of fact and law, estoppel does not bar the US’ present suit. Equally as importantly, as a matter of law, the US was never so intimately aligned with the Scott Plaintiffs as to make the latter the former’s virtual representative or dominant director. In short, the doctrines of mootness and preclusion cannot foreclose this suit, the US too unique of a litigant and issues unresolved in Scott remaining.
Second, as the NVRA not only passes constitutional muster but also lodges responsibility for conformity with its dictates onto forty-four (44) 14 “States,” including LA, LA remains bound by its prescriptions. As such, it cannot, by pointing to its assignment of duties to subsidiary agencies and departments that it created, invoke state law as a mean of voiding liability imposed by a plainly written federal law. The same conclusion applies to DHH’s attempt to absolve itself of any legal responsibility for the actions of subordinate actors with which it has contracted to perform services covered by the NVRA. Just as a state may not amend a federal statute by such delegation of both action and responsibility and thereby defy the Constitution’s Supremacy Clause, neither can its own artificial and subordinate creations, like DHH and DCFS. Defendants, quite simply, must obey what Congress has duly passed and the Constitution unambiguously allows.
Third, in accordance with well-established principles of statutory construction, the NVRA must be read to encompass remote transactions. As Defendants insist, its structure arguably creates a modicum of ambiguity. But a rigorously contextual analysis, wedded to basic semantic and syntactic canons and informed by this law’s obvious purposes, renders any other construction unconvincing. Once properly derived, therefore, the NVRA’s plain and unambiguous meaning reveals that its ambit extends to transactions done remotely. Defendants look for comfort in a brief excerpt from a congressional report, but no court and no party may so tinker with a statute’s enacted text. This Court will hon- or the statute’s plain meaning.
Fourth, in weighing the merits of a motion for summary judgment, because this Court must disregard all evidence favorable to the moving party that a reasonable jury is not required to believe, two ostensibly discordant conclusions follow. First, this Court cannot conclude with absolute certainty that the US’ requested remedy— perpetual monitoring of a sovereign state — is proper. Factual issues regarding the nature and extent of the violations remain, issues which are relevant to the proper remedy. Though the US has requested this recognized and occasionally awarded form of relief, when both a fundamental right and a sovereign’s liability for its contravention clash, a court must tread *624 with , care and await the chance to consider evidence that has withstood assault. Here, at least for the moment, this Court chooses such caution. Second, because the incontrovertible evidence nonetheless attests to continuing and ongoing violations, this Court must' declare Defendants to be in violation of Section 7 of the NVRA. Described by Defendants as “minor” and “isolated,” they remain, by definition, violations.
For these reasons, as more fully explained below, this Court DENIES Defendants’ Dispositive Motions and GRANTS IN PART and DENIES IN PART the US’ MSJ.
II. FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
A. CAST OF CHARACTERS
Plaintiff is the United States, suing to enforce the NVRA’s statutory guarantees. (Doc. 1 ¶ 4 at 2; Doc. 2 at 1; Doc. 37 at 1; Doc. 38 at 1-3) In particular, “[t]he United States’ Complaint seeks declaratory and injunctive relief to remedy Louisiana’s previous and ongoing noncompliance with Section 7, and also ensure the state’s future compliance with Section 7.” (Doc. 38 at 3; accord Doc. 1 ¶ 1 at 1, ¶¶ 15-25 at 4-8.) There are six Defendants: (1) LA, a state allegedly subject to the NVRA; (2) Sche-dler, being sued in his official capacity as the chief election official responsible for coordinating LA’s statutory obligations under the NVRA; (3) DHH, which bears responsibility for the administration of a variety of public assistance and disability programs arguably subject to § 20506(a)(2) and (a)(3); (4) Mr. Bruce D. Greenstein (“Greenstein”), seemingly sued in his official capacity as DHH’s former Secretary; 15 (5) DCFS, which bears responsibility for the administration of a variety of public assistance and disability programs arguably subject to § 20506(a)(2) and (a)(3); and (6) Ms. Suzy Sonnier (“Sonnier”), in her official capacity as Secretary of DCFS. 16 (Doc. 1 ¶¶ 5-10 at 2-3; Doc. 27 at 4; Doc. 35 at 2-4; Doc. 59 at 1-2; Doc. 60 at 1-2.) With the exception of LA, the defendants named in this action and the Scott Matter are the same. (Doc. 2 at 2; Doc. 37 at 1.) Nevertheless, as the Honorable James J. Brady first observed in September 28, 2011, “[t]his action is broader than the action filed in the Eastern District [of Louisiana].” (Doc. 37 at 4; accord Doc. 92 at 1-2.)
B. LEGISLATIVE BACKGROUND: NATIONAL VOTER REGISTRATION ACT
1. Constitutional Reach
The United States Constitution provides: “The Times, Places and Manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the place of chusing [sic] Senators” (“Elections Clause”). U.S. Const, art. I, § 4, cl. 1; Ariz. State Logis, v. Ariz. Indep. Redistricting Comm’n, — U.S. —, 135 S.Ct. 2652, 2659 , 192 L.Ed.2d 704, 716 (2015); 17 Smith *625 v. Clark, 189 F.Supp.2d 503, 510 (S.D.Miss.2002). Even as numerous state restrictions on voting have been upheld, see, e.g., Marston v. Lewis, 410 U.S. 679, 681 , 93 S.Ct. 1211, 1212-13 , 35 L.Ed.2d 627, 629-30 (1973); Burns v. Fortson, 410 U.S. 686, 686-87 , 93 S.Ct. 1209, 1210 , 35 L.Ed.2d 633, 634-35 (1973), this two-part clause has been construed as establishing and .guaranteeing a right — that of a citizen to vote in “federal elections” — and a power — that of Congress to legislate (relatively) untrammeled in this area, United States v. Classic, 313 U.S. 299, 314-15 , 61 S.Ct. 1031, 1037 , 85 L.Ed. 1368, 1377 (1941); accord Cook v. Gralike, 531 U.S. 510, 523-24 , 121 S.Ct. 1029, 1038 , 149 L.Ed.2d 44, 56-57 (2001) (quoting Smiley v. Holm, 285 U.S. 355, 366 , 52 S.Ct. 397 , 76 L.Ed. 795, 800 (1932)); Oregon v. Mitchell, 400 U.S. 112, 124-31 , 91 S.Ct. 260, 264-68 , 27 L.Ed.2d 272, 281-85 (1970); see also, e.g., United States v. Bowman, 636 F.2d 1003, 1009-10 (5th Cir.1981) (describing the Elections Clause as “the basis of Congressional authority to provide a complete code for congressional elections” (quoting Smiley, 285 U.S. at 366 , 52 S.Ct. 397 )); Tex. Democratic Party v. Benkiser, No. A-06CA-459-SS, 2006 WL 1851295 , at *8 (W.D.Tex. July 6, 2006) (quoting Cook, 531 U.S. at 523-24 , 121 S.Ct. 1029 ), aff'd, 459 F.3d 582 (5th Cir.2006); cf. Yick Wo v. Hopkins, 118 U.S. 356, 370 , 6 S.Ct. 1064, 1071 , 30 L.Ed. 220, 226 (1886) (“Though not regarded strictly as a natural right, but as a privilege merely conceded by society according to its will, under certain conditions, nevertheless ... [‘the political franchise of voting’] is regarded as a fundamental political right, because preservative of all rights”).
With the Elections Clause so construed, the Necessary and Proper Clause 18 has been read to authorize legislation deemed essential to the realization of principal aims animating the Elections Clause. S. Rep, No. 103-6, at 3-4 (1993). Consequently, in ratifying the Constitution or joining the Union, every then existent state and every subsequent one not only gave “Congress plenary authority over federal elections but also explicitly ensured that all conflicts with similar state laws would be resolved wholly in favor of the national government” in accordance with the Supremacy Clause. 19 Harkless v. Brunner, 545 F.3d 445, 454-55 (6th Cir.2008); see also Jocelyn Friedrichs Benson, Democracy and the Secretary: The Crucial Role of State Election Administrators in Promoting Democracy and Access to Democracy, 27 St. Louis U. Pub. L. Rev. 343 ,347 (2008).
Passed pursuant to these two constitutional provisions, 20 Ass’n of Cmty. Orgs. for *626 Reform Now v. Edgar, 56 F.3d 791, 793-94 (7th Cir.1995), the NVRA became binding and supreme federal statutory law on January 1, 1995, 21 Pub. Law No. 103-31, § 13, 107 Stat. 77 (1993); Young v. Fordice, 520 U.S. 273, 277 , 117 S.Ct. 1228, 1231 , 137 L.Ed.2d 448, 453 (1997); Voting for Am., Inc. v. Steen, 732 F.3d 382, 399 (5th Cir.2013). The NVRA’s constitutionality provoked a debate eventually resolved in its favor, and its preemptive effect was soon widely recognized. 22 Kobach v. U.S. Election Assistance Comm’n, 772 F.3d 1183, 1195 (10th Cir.2014) (“[W]hen Congress acts pursuant to the Elections Clause, courts should not assume reluctance to preempt state law.” (internal quotation marks omitted)); cf. Franita Tolson, Protecting Political Participation Through the Voter Qualifications Clause of Article I, 56 B.C. L. Rev. 159 , 210-11 (2015). That fact may explain why the NVRA’s substantive provisions were seldom litigated as this statute entered its twenties, see True the Vote, 43 F.Supp.3d at 699-700, though several states continued to resist compliance and the Act’s impact was judged to be “positive,” Waldman, supra, at 170; see also, e.g., Bruce Ransom, The National Voter Registration Act and National-State Conflict: The Case of South Carolina, 7 Public Budgeting & Fin. Mgmt. 440, 452-60 (1995)
2. Statutory Purposes
The NVRA’s obvious and well-known purposes appear in its bare text. See Miller v. Amusement Enters., Inc., 394 F.2d 342 , 350 (5th Cir.1968), cited in, e.g., United States v. DuBose, 598 F.3d 726, 731 (11th Cir.2010). To justify its requirements, Congress made three findings; “(1) “the right of citizens of the United States to vote is a fundamental right; (2) it is the duty of the Federal, State, and local governments to promote the exercise of that right; and (3) discriminatory and unfair registration laws and procedures can have a direct and damaging effect on voter participation in elections for Federal office and disproportionately harm voter participation by various groups, including racial minorities.” 52 U.S.C. § 20501 (a)(l)-(3); see also, e.g., Valdez v. Herrera, No. 09-668 JCH/DJS, 2010 WL 6231194 , 2010 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 142209 , at *22-23 (D.N.M. Dec. 21, 2010) (“In enacting the NVRA, Congress found that federal, state, and local governments have a duty to promote the exercise of the right to vote and it sought to mitigate discriminatory and unfair registration laws and procedures!.]” (internal quotation marks omitted)); President’s Remarks on Signing the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, 29 Weekly Comp. PRes. Doc. 914, 915 (May 20, 1993) (“[T]he failure to register is the primary *627 reason given by eligible citizens for their not voting. The principle behind this legislation is clear: Voting should be about discerning the will of the majority, not about testing the administrative capacity of a citizen.”); cf. Justin Weinstein-Tull, Election Law Federalism, 114 Mich. L. Rev. 747 , 755-56 (2016) (summarizing NVRA’s provisions).
So convinced, Congress passed the NVRA so as “to establish procedures that will increase the number of eligible citizens who register to vote in elections for Federal office,” “to make it possible for Federal, State, and local governments to implement this Act in a manner that enhances the participation of eligible citizens as voters in elections for Federal office,” and “to protect the integrity of the electoral process”; and “to ensure that accurate and current voter registration rolls are maintained.” 52 U.S.C. § 20501 (b)(1)-(4); Arcia v. Sec’y of Fla., 772 F.3d 1335, 1346 (11th Cir.2014); see also Robert A. Kengle, To Accept or To Reject: Arizona v. Intertribal Council of Arizona, the Elections Clause, and the National Voter Registration Act of 1993, 57 HOW. L.J. 759, 769 (2014).
As adopted and construed, the NVRA hence seeks to accomplish two general goals. In certain respects, the NVRA strives to “protect the integrity of the electoral process.” Nearman v. Rosenblum, 358 Or. 818, 823 , 371 P.3d 1186 (2016); accord Gonzalez v. Ariz., 677 F.3d 383, 403 (9th Cir.2012). Yet, its “primary emphasis” has always been to simplify the methods for registering to vote in federal elections and maximize such opportunities for a state’s every citizen. Colón-Marrero v. Vélez, 813 F.3d 1 , 9 n. 13 (1st Cir.2016) (relying on Young, 520 U.S. at 275 , 117 S.Ct. 1228 ); accord Democratic Nat’l Comm. v. Republican Nat’l Comm., 673 F.3d 192, 209-10 (3d Cir.2012); cf. Nat’l Coalition for Students with Disabilities Educ. & Legal Defense Fund v. Scales, 150 F.Supp.2d 845, 854 (D.Md.2001) (“A main thrust of the legislation was for states to play a more aetive role in promoting the enfranchisement of eligible voter.”). To Congress, a plethora of byzantine and ambiguous state registration procedures too often denied voters the chance to register with ease and convenience. S. Rep. No. 103-6, at 2-3; see also Ortiz v. City of Philadelphia Office of City Comm’rs Voter Reg. Div., 28 F.3d 306, 339-40 (3d Cir.1994) (combing the NVRA’s legislative history); cf. Peyer Dreier, America’s Urban Crisis: Symptoms, Causes, Solutions, 71 N.C. L. Rev. 1351 , 1400 (1993) (“A major reason for the low rate of urban voting is the nation’s complex, crazy-quilt voter registration laws.”). If only by a fraction, the NVRÁ was intended to ameliorate this “unfortunate” fact. Ortiz, 28 F.3d at 339 .
3. General Structure
The NVRA “prescribes three methods for registering voters for federal elections,” subject to two inapposite exceptions. 52 U.S.C. § 20503 ; Gonzalez, 677 F.3d at 394 ; Broyles v. Texas, 618 F.Supp.2d 661, 690 (S.D.Tex.2009). First, pursuant to Section 5, “[e]ach State motor vehicle driver’s license application (including any renewal application) submitted to the appropriate State motor vehicle authority under State law shall serve as an application for voter registration with respect to elections for Federal office unless the applicant fails to sign the voter registration application.” 23 52 U.S.C.
*628 § 20504(a)(1); Keathley v. Holder, 696 F.3d 644, 646-47 (7th Cir.2012). Second, per Section 6, “[e]ach State shall accept and use the mail voter registration application form prescribed by the Federal Election Commission pursuant to ... § 20508(a)(2) for the registration of voters in elections for Federal office,” though a state “may develop and use a mail voter registration form that meets all of the criteria stated in ... § 20508(b).” 52 U.S.C. § 20505 (a)(1)-(2); Voting for Am., Inc., 732 F.3d at 400 ; Charles H. Wesley Educ. Found., Inc. v. Cox, 324 F.Supp.2d 1358, 1365-66 (N.D.Ga.2004). Lastly, in accordance with Section 7, “[e]aeh State shall designate agencies for the registration of voters in elections for Federal office.” 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(1); Nat’l Council of La Raza v. Cegavske, 800 F.3d 1032, 1035 (9th Cir.2015). As this section’s second subparagraph adds, a state “shall designate” as VRAs “all offices in the State that provide public assistance” and “all offices in the State that provide State-funded programs primarily engaged in providing services to persons with disabilities.” 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(2)(A)-(B); Krieger v. Loudon Cnty., No. 5:13cv073, 2014 WL 4923904 , at *6 (W.D.Va. Sept. 30, 2014); see also H.R. Rep. No. 103-66, at 19 (1993) (explaining that Section 7 is intended to increase registration of “the poor and persons with disabilities who do not have driver’s licenses and will not come into contact with the other princip[al] place to register under this Act”).
As a statutory matter, the two categories listed in § 20506(a)(2) are neither exclusive nor exhaustive, for each state must still “designate other” unspecified “offices within the State as voter registration agencies.” 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(3)(A); cf. N.C. State Conf. of NAACP v. McCrory, Nos. 1:13CV658, 182 F.Supp.3d 320, 398-99 , 2016 WL 1650774, at *61 (M.D.N.C. Apr. 25, 2016). These additional offices “may include [s]tate or local government offices such as public libraries, public schools, offices of city and county clerks (including marriage license bureaus), fishing and hunting license bureaus, government revenue offices, and unemployment compensation offices, and offices not described in ... [§ 20506(a)(2)(B)] that provide services to persons with disabilities” and “[f]ederal and nongovernmental offices, with the agreement of such office.” 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(3)(B)(i)-(ii); Natl Coalition for Students with Disabilities Educ. & Legal Defense Fund, 152 F.3d at 291. Notably, this section refers to other entities, requiring “[a]ll departments, agencies, and other entit[i]es of the executive branch of the Federal Government” to cooperate, “encouraging]” nongovernmental entities to do so, and setting unique procedures as to armed forces’ recruitment offices. 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (b)-(c).
In accordance with the NVRA, each VRA must distribute voter registration application forms for voting in federal elections, assist applicants in completing these forms, and accept completed applications for transmittal to the appropriate state official. 24 Id. § 20506(a)(4)(A); Valdez v. Squier, 676 F.3d 935, 944-45 (10th Cir. 2012). The foregoing duties appear in paragraph (a)(4) of Section 7, whose prefatory phrase reads — “At each voter registration agency.” — and appears nowhere else in this particular section. 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(4)(A).
Section 7, meanwhile, does contain other paragraphs. Thus, in addition to the duties specified in paragraph (a)(4), each VRA must both “distribute with each application for such service or assistance, and with each recertification, renewal, or change of address form relating to such service or assistance-... the mail voter registration application form described in” *629 § 20508(a)(2) “unless the applicant, in writing, declines to register to vote” and provide a form with specified content. 25 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(6)(A)-(B). The NVRA further forbids any partisan involvement or discouragement and the use of any “information relating to a declination to register to vote in connection with an application” at a VRA for “any purpose other than voter registration.” Id. § 20506(a)(5), (7). “Nothing” in the NVRA “authorizes or requires conduct that is prohibited by the Voting Rights Act of 1965.” Id. § 20510(d)(2).
4. Enforcement and Responsibility
Like many statutes, cf. 31 U.S.C. § 3730 (a)-(b); Carter ex rel. United States v. Bridgepoint Educ., Inc., 305 F.R.D. 225, 230-31 (S.D.Cal.2015), the NVRA affords two coequal enforcement methods, 52 U.S.C. § 20510 ; see also 138 Cong. Rec. 10,736 (1992) (statement of Sen. Wendell Ford) (explaining that the language providing for a private cause of action substituted “person” for “individual” to “permit organizations as well as individuals, and the Attorney General to bring actions under the [A]ct”). A private person “aggrieved by a violation” may sue for declaratory or injunctive relief once “written notice of th[is] violation” has been provided “to the chief election official of the State involved” and a certain number of days have passed. 52 U.S.C. § 20510 (b)(1)-(3); Nat’l Council of La Raza, 800 F.3d at 1035 ; Ass’n of Cmty. Orgs. for Reform Now v. Miller, 912 F.Supp. 976, 981 (W.D.Mich.1995). A prevailing private party may be allowed “reasonable attorney fees, including litigation expenses, and costs.” 52 U.S.C. § 20510 (c); Ass’n of Cmty. Orgs. for Reform Now v. Fowler, 178 F.3d 350 , 363 (5th Cir.1999).
Independently, on behalf of the United States, “[t]he Attorney General may bring a civil action in an appropriate district court for such declaratory or in-junctive relief as is necessary to carry out” the NVRA. 52 U.S.C. § 20510 (a); Harkless, 545 F.3d at 450 . The NVRA thereby “provides broad authority to the United States in ensuring compliance with the provisions of the statute.” United States v. New York, 700 F.Supp.2d 186, 197 (N.D.N.Y.2010); see also United States v. New York, 255 F.Supp.2d 73, 78 (E.D.N.Y.2003). According to one appellate court, “[t]he statute envisions the federal government predominantly will enforce the NVRA.” United States v. Missouri, 535 F.3d 844, 851 (8th Cir.2008). These remedies “are in addition to all other rights and remedies provided by law.” 52 U.S.C. § 20510 (d)(1); Miller, 912 F.Supp. at 981 .
Throughout its sections, the NVRA opts for a particular introductory formulation: “Each State shall .... ” 52 U.S.C. §§ 20503 (a), 20506(a) (emphasis added). 26 Among the many duties enumerated in the NVRA is one of delegation, as “[ejach State” must “designate a State officer or employee as the chief State election official to be responsible for coordination of State responsibilities under this ... [Act].” 52 U.S.C. § 20509 (emphasis added); United States v. Louisiana, No. 11-470-JWD-RLB, 2015 WL 893034 , at *1 (M.D.La. Mar. 2, 2015). Within this circuit, this des *630 ignated official’s power to coordinate encompasses “enforcement power.” Scott v. Schedler, 771 F.3d 881, 838 (5th Cir.2014); accord Harkless, 545 F.3d at 453-54 ; cf. Association of Community Organizations for Reform Now v. Miller, 129 F.3d 833, 838 (6th Cir.1997) (holding “that Congress structured the notice requirement [in § 20510(b)(l)-(2)] in such a way that notice would provide states in violation of the Act an opportunity to attempt compliance before facing litigation,” so that the official required to receive notice under state law must also have the concomitant power to cure a violation).
Overall, then, Congress’ chosen terms lead to an inescapable textual conclusion. While some NVRA provisions “envision delegation, and do not require the states to do more than delegate,” “[u]nder the plain language of the statute, states must take specific actions” and thus bear ultimate liability and final responsibility for any contrary nonaction. Missouri, 535 F.3d at 849 (emphasis added). In Louisiana, by virtue of the statute from which he derives his authority, the SOS has been classified as the official responsible for the NVRA’s coordination and enforcement. See La. R.S. §§ 18:18A(6). As surely as this state’s governor, the SOS has always been an “instrumentality] of the state” who has no greater power than that afforded by Louisiana’s constitution and laws. La. Const, art. IV, §§ 1(A), 7.
C. FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND
1. Scott Matter
a. Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law in Scott Matter
“Intermittently homeless,” Scott received benefits pursuant to the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (“SNAP”), a hybrid federal-state program providing nutrition assistance to millions of eligible, low-income individuals and families managed by DCFS. (Doc. 436 at 5, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW; see also Doc. 1 ¶¶ 102-06 at 27-28, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) Scott applied for SNAP in September 2009 and December 2009 and renewed his application on November 2010 at a local DCFS office.” (Doc. 436 at 5-6, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW; see also Doc. 1 ¶¶ 102-06 at 27-28, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) 27
The initial application forms submitted by Scott in 2009 did contain a section entitled “Voter Registration,” which contained “the proper language under” and was generally “in compliance with” the NVRA. (Doc. 436 at 6-9, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) At least once he discussed voter registration with a DCFS-managed office. (Id.) However, the document that he submitted in November 2010 did “not contain the voter registration language as required under the NVRA,” and voter registration was discussed with Scott only on his first recorded visit. (Id. at 9, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW; see also Doc. 1 ¶ 106 at 28.) More problematically, Scott “did not receive a voter registration form[s] [with] ... [his] benefits form[s]” (Doc. 436 at 8-9, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW; see also Doc. 1 ¶¶ 102-06 at 27-28, No. 2:1 l-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.)
On the bases of these factual findings, “Scott suffered an actionable injury during ... [these] transactions with DCFS when ... [its employees] failed to meet their obligation to Scott” under the NVRA. (Doc. 436 at 10, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW; see also Doc. 1 ¶ 106 at 28.) In sum, Scott had “been in person to ... [a] DCFS office several times and did not receive the information required under the NVRA.” *631 (Doc. 436 at 11, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW see also Doc. 1 ¶ 106 at 28, No. 2:11-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) Adducing extensive evidentiary support for its factual findings, (Doc. 436 at 26-27, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW), the Scott Court found DCFS equally guilty of sundry violations:
(1) DCFS did not provide voter registration services with every remote transaction; (2) DCFS did not provide voter registration services with every renewal of benefits prior, to October 31, 2010; (3) DCFS did not require its staff to distribute a voter preference form at every change of address transaction; (4) DCFS policy did not require that voter registration services be provided during any remote change of address transaction; (5) DCFS change of address forms, such as the CCAP 10 and the OFS 4SR, did not contain voter registration questions; (6) DCFS policy did not expressly require that voter registration be provided with the CCAP, KCSP, and DSNAP programs; (7) DCFS policy gave employees discretion to give voter registration forms to clients, or to advise the client about the SOS’s website; [and] (8) DCFS did not require staff to distribute voter registration forms unless the client checked “yes.”
(Id. at 25-26, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW; see also Doc. 1 ¶¶ 57-81 at 16-24, Ño. 2:11-cv-00926-JTM-J CW.)
The Scott Court went further. Having never interacted with Scott, DHH had nonetheless “engaged in numerous NVRA violations” prior to August 11, 2011. (Doc. 436 at 5, 20, 25, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW; see also Doc. 1 ¶ 56 at 16, ¶¶ 61-77 at 17-22, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) Documenting each violation, (Doc. 436 at 21-25, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW), the Scott Court proceeded to identify at least seven separate violations by DHH:
(1) DHH did not provide voter registration services with any remote transactions prior to July 2011; (2) DHH did not provide voter registration services with address changes; (3) DHH did not require staff to distribute voter registration forms unless the client checked the “yes” box; (4) DHH Medicaid application and renewal forms did not include a voter registration question; (5) DHH’s “Motor Voter Form” lacked a disclaimer that registering to vote will not affect the “amount” of assistance received; (6) DHH’s [Woman, Infants, and Children Program • (“WIC”) ] ... did not advise clients of the disclaimers required by the statute; and (7) while DHH checked benefits application forms and followed up for missing information, it did not do so with voter registration forms.
(Id. át 20; see also Doc. 1 ¶¶ 61-77 at 17-22, 84-97 at 24-26, No. 2:ll-ev-00926-JTM-JCW.)
SOS was adjudged next. As the Scott Court concluded, SOS had provided NVRA training and materials, but had not “engage[d] in any other measures to ensure that individual public assistance offices are complying with their responsibilities under the NVRA.” (Doc. 436 at 28, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) The SOS’ training was found to be “inconsistent and inaccurate.” (Id.) For support for this conclusion, the Scott Court emphasized three facts: (1) SOS had provided no NVRA training for DCFS employees from 2008 to the spring of 2011; (2) it had falsely informed DHH personnel “that DHH clients were only afforded an opportunity to register to vote only if ... [they] appeared in person at a DHH officer”; and (3) it did not “Advise DCFS or DHH with regard to distributing voter registration application forms to clients who did not respond to the voter declaration question.” (Id.)
For all these reasons, the Scott Court entered the First Injunction. (Doc. 437, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.)
*632 b. Fifth Circuit’s Scott Decisions
In considering the SOS’ appeal of the First Injunction, the Fifth Circuit left it mostly undisturbed. The panel did “dismiss Scott’s claims on standing and notice grounds,” and it did “vacate in part the relief that the district court granted to the Louisiana NAACP.” Scott, 771 F.3d at 833 . Thus, “[b]ecause it found that the plaintiffs before it lacked standing to raise the issue, the Fifth Circuit did not address the question whether Section 7 requires voter registration agencies to offer voter registration services and assistance to persons who engage in remote transactions,” (Doc. 174 at 2 (emphasis added) (internal quotation marks omitted).) Accordingly, with neither DCFS nor DHH having appealed, the court also resolved “the only question” before it: as to “the validity of the injunction against the Secretary of State,” it held “that the Act gives the Secretary of State enforcement authority, and that consequently he has an obligation to require the two state agencies to comply with the other miscellaneous portions of the Act.” Scott, 771 F.3d at 833 . After the Amended Injunction was appealed, the Fifth Circuit vacated and remanded due to this latest order’s lack of specificity. Scott v. Schedler, No. 15-30652, 826 F.3d 207, 209-10 , 2016 WL 3345277, at *1 (5th Cir. June 15, 2016).
2. Alleged “Facts”: Pre-Scott and Post- Scott
a. US’ Version
Before and after the Scott Matter’s adjudication, other facts relating to several statutory violations have been unearthed. Three alleged violations involve paragraph (a)(4)(A) of Section 7, which begins: “At each voter registration agency, the following services shall be made available_” 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(4)(A (emphasis added); Ass’n of Cmty. Orgs. for Reform Now v. Ridge, Civ. Nos. 95-7671, 1995 WL 136913 , at *2 (E.D.Pa. Mar. 30, 1995). Thereupon § 20506(a)(4)(A)(i) requires each VRA to “distribute] ... mail voter registration application forms” that satisfy the minimal content requirements set in § 20506(a)(6). 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(4)(A)(i); Krieger, 2014 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 138293 , at *15, 2014 WL 4923904 , at *6. Section 20506(a)(4)(A)(ii) requires that “assistance to applicants in completing voter registration application forms, unless the applicant refuses such assistance,” be provided. 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(4)(A)(ii); Scales, 150 F.Supp.2d at 854 . Paragraph (a)(4)(A)’s final subpara-graph then compels each VRA to transmit each “completed voter registration application forms” to “the appropriate State election official.” 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(4)(A)(iii); Valdez, 676 F.3d at 944 .
Paragraph (a)(6) is the focus of a separate series of purported violations. As this paragraph commands, each VRA must “distribute” a certain approved type of mail voter registration application, a form including a series of questions, and finally “provide each applicant who does not decline to register to vote the same degree of assistance with regard to the completion of the [voter] registration application form as is provided by th[at VRA] office with regard to the completion of its own forms, unless the applicant refuses such assistance.” . 52 U.S.C. § 20506 (a)(6)(A)-(C). Unlike paragraph (a)(4)(A), this paragraph does not contain an “at” or any similar preposition. Instead, it begins: “A voter registration agency that is an office that provides service or assistance in addition to conducting voter registration shall .... ” Id. § 20506(a)(6); see also Cegavske, 800 F.3d at 1035 (“Voter registration agencies are required to ‘distribute’ voter registration application forms with each application for assistance” (emphasisadded)).
*633 According to the. US, multiple entities operating under the umbrella of DCFS and DHH have run afoul of these subsections. First and foremost, DCFS itself does not distribute voter registration applications via its Common Access Front End system (“CAFÉ”), this agency’s online portal, thereby violating this NVRA provision in two ways. First, it does “not include an integrated option for users to download and print a voter registration application”; second, it does not “allow users to request that DCFS mail a voter registration system.” (Doc. 360-1 at 17; see also Doc. 1 ¶ 23 at 7-8.).) Instead, “CAFÉ routes users to a website maintained by the SOS where an individual can either register to vote through that website or print out a hardcopy voter registration application.” 28 (Doc. 360-1 at 17; see also Doc. 1 ¶ 23 at 7-8.).) DCFS, moreover, continues not to “distribute voter registration applications every time a client changes their address with the agency,” whether or not CAFÉ is used, and “does not include more than one copy of a declaration form and voter registration form with each benefits application,” though more than one eligible voters can apply for services using a single application. (Doc. 360-1 at 18; see also Doe. 1 ¶ 23 at 7-8.)
The US contends that the Medicaid program managed by DCFS is also rife with compliance issues. “Prior to the initiation of this '... and the Scott litigation, Medicaid applications and renewal forms did not contain the required voter registration forms, and Medicaid offered no voter registration services or assistance to clients and applicants who did not appear in person at a parish office or [Medicaid Application Centers.” (Doc. 3601-1 at 18; see also, e.g., Doc. 360-2 ¶ 12 at 4, ¶ 27 at 7.) Up to August 2015, “Medicaid was still failing to offer voter registration forms and declaration forms to all adult citizens who applied for Medicaid using the standard application form,” opting to provide such forms “only to the first-named applicant.” (Doc. 360-1 at 18; see also, e.g., Doc. 360-2 ¶ 29 at 8.)
Meanwhile, prior to April 11, 2013, the Office for Citizens with Development Disabilities (“OCDD”), classified as a VRA under § 20506(a)(2)(B) and a component of DHH, 29 “failed to provide voter declaration forms, voter registration application forms, and related assistance with easy initial application for the State-funded development disabilities services offered through its Early Steps program.” (Doc. 360-1 at 19; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 59 at 15.) The' same inaction typified OCDD’s regional offices prior to February 2011. (Doc. 360-1 at 19; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 60 at 15.) DHH’s Office of Behavioral Health (“OBH”) has similarly failed. (Doc. 360-1 at 19-20; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶¶ 66-67 at 17.) The Louisiana Commission for the Deaf (“LCD”), prior to February 2011, and the Office of Aging and Adult Services (“OAAS”), prior to May 15, 2013, have also not provided “voter registration application, voter declaration forms, [and/]or related assistance with each initial, renewal, recertification application, or change-of-address transaction.” (Doc. 360-1 at 20; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 45 at 12, ¶ 50 at 13.) An LGE, Jefferson Parish Human Services Authority (“JPHSA”), is currently failing to “offer voter declaration forms, voter registration *634 application forms, and related assistance to the parents or guardians of minor children or other incapacitated wards who apply, recertify, or renew for, or change their addresses.” (Doc. 360-1 at 20; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 94 at 25.)
The US argues that the many colleges and universities within the University of Louisiana System (“ULS”), the Southern University System (“SUS”), and the Louisiana State University System (“LSU”) are not “routinely providing” these forms. (Doc. 360-1 at 21-23; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 149 at 40-41.) Lastly, OAAS and two more LGEs — the Metropolitan Human Services District (“MHSD”) and Capital Area Human Services District (“CAHSD”) — fail to offer “the same degree of assistance” in completing voter registration forms mandated by § 20506(a)(6). (Doc. 360-1 at 23-24; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 46 at 12, ¶¶ 91-92 at 24.)
Moving on to § 20506(a)(4)(A)(iii) and (d), the US documents these same and other entities’ purported failure to comply with the NVRA’s transmittal obligations. By virtue of its reliance on CAFÉ, DCFS “ignores its acceptance and transmittal duties almost entirely by solely providing a link to the SOS’s online voter registration portal, which is a different mode of voter registration altogether.” (Doc. 360-1 at 25; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 118 at 32, ¶ 125 at 33-34, ¶ 131 at 35.) Moreover, throughout 2013, 2014, and 2015, photocopied registration applications were being sent by DCFS document processing centers, though such photocopied materials cannot “result in valid voter registration” under Louisiana law. (Doc. 3601- at 25; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 131 at 35.) In addition, “DCFS also continues to hold voter registration applications it receives longer than the 10 [and/]or five day deadlines mandated by the NVRA.” (Doc. 360-1 at 25 (referring to § 20506(d)(1)); see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 132 at 35-36.) In fulfilling its duty, the US maintains that DCFS has arguably stumbled in one more particular. Specifically, it “still fails to ensure that all completed voter registration applications transmitted to registrars of voters are properly marked as originating from a public assistance agency.” (Doc. 360-1 at 25; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 132 at 35-36.)
Like DCFS, DHH has also failed to transmit voter registration with the rigor expected by § 20506(a)(4) and (d). (Doc. 360-1 at 25-26; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶¶ 67-67A at 17-18.) Relatedly, since DHH’s contracts with each LGE provide that it “shall monitor this Contract and conduct compliance monitoring consistent with the provisions of the AIP, and all applicable statutes, rules, and regulations, assuring corrective action through coordination with the LGE,” (Doc. 360-2 ¶ 77 at 20), these LGEs’ many documented failings to comply with the NVRA must be attributed to DHH. (Doc. 360-1 at 26-28.)
Noting that the SOS’ coordination power includes “enforcement power” pursuant to Scott, 771 F.3d at 838-39 , the US turns to those facts bearing on SOS’ defiance of the NVRA. 30 Broadly, the SOS has “failed to identify and designate” as VRAs “all offices of the State that provide public assistance,” as required by § 20506(a)(2)(A). 31 (Doc. 360-1 at 29 (internal citations omitted); see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 163 at 45.) Moreover, having promulgated administrative rales regarding NVRA compliance in March 2013 after a two-year delay, (Doc. 360-2 ¶ 169 at 47; cf. Doc. 360-1 at 30), the SOS has defied his own regulations. Thus, the SOS “requires that mandatory voter *635 registration agencies appoint NVRA department and site coordinators to be responsible for ensuring that the offices under their supervision comply with the NVRA,” but “none of Louisiana’s four public college and university systems has appointed an NVRA department coordinator.” (Doc. 360-2 ¶ 172 at 48; see also Doe. 360-1 at 30-31.) Indeed, the SOS has not ensured that coordinators are appointed at each of more than 600 DHH-eertified MACs or at each of more than 200 DCFS-certified community partners. (Doc. 360-1 at 31; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 173 at 48.) No regular annual trainings regarding NVRA compliance have been given, and the SOS’ list of physical VRAs “remains incomplete and infrequently updated.” (Doc. 360-1 at 31-32; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶¶ 176-81 at 49-50.)
More violations are alleged by the US: the SOS does not include instructions on voter registration declaration and application forms outlining the duties of applicants and agencies and uses a model form that does not include information required by Louisiana’s own Election Code. (Doc. 360-2 ¶¶ 186-87 at 52.) The SOS has even given voter registration agencies advice or instructions that “directly ... conflict” with the NVRA. (Doc. 360-1 at 32; see also Doc. 360-2 ¶ 182 at 51-52.) Even his classification system for voter forms runs afoul of federal law’s clear requirements, with many applications not being coded as having been received or generated through a public assistance agency. (Doc.. 360-2 ¶¶ 193-96 at 54-55; cf Doc. 1 ¶ 23 at 7-8.) One more example suffices: though SOS has required DCFS to submit quarterly activity reports as of January 2014, “DCFS did not submit any of the required quarterly reporting information until January 2015.” (Doc. 360-2 ¶ 104 at 28.)
b. Defendants’ Version
As to the foregoing failings predating the Scott Matter, DHH and DCFS have acknowledged their noncompliance “with the NVRA in every respect.” (Doc. 398 at 1; Doc. 399 at 1; Doc. 402 at 2.) More importantly, while they challenge the propriety of the present suit, DHH and DCFS aver no more than their “substantial compliance” with the NVRA and characterize any “current ... violation” as “minimal, at best.” (Doc. 398 at 2; Doc. 399 at 2; Doc. 402 at 2.) Hence, DCFS and DHH do not truly deny every “fact,” characterized as such by the US. (Doc. 398 at 2; Doc. 399 at 2; Doc. 402 at 2; Doc. 399-1; Doc. 402-1.) Instead, these allied defendants repeatedly insist “substantial compliance with the NVRA” has occurred since the First Injunction was entered, (Doc. 398 at 9-38; Doc. 399 at 9-38), though SOS attempted to do so with a belated motion, (Doc. 448).
c. Summary: Selected Comparison
In its Findings of Fact and Conclusions of Law, the Scott Court stated its conclusions plainly and unmistakably: “[p]rior to August 15, 2011,” DHH, DCFS, and SOS had not not “in full compliance with the [NVRA’s] mandates.” (Doc. 436 at 3, 25, 27, 29, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) This court did award a broad remedy, requiring the SOS “to implement such policies, procedures, and directives as to each [qualifying’] program,” (Doc. 437, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW), and was eventually reversed for this seeming “vagueness” pursuant to Rule 65(d), Scott, 826 F.3d at 212-13 , 2016 U.S. App. LEXIS 10919, at *12-13 , 2016 WL 3345277, at *4 . However, as its actual opinion reveals, the Scott Court adjudicated NVRA compliance by SOS, DHH, and DCFS as to only three specific state programs: Medicaid, WIC, 32 and the *636 Louisiana Children’s Health Insurance Program (“LaCHIP”). (Doc. 436 at 3, 25, 27, 29, No. 2: ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.)
Examples gleaned from Defendants’ own filings and the US’ MSJ disclose as much. Thus, DCFS and DHH have already-conceded that certain “disability services programs,” including the regional service centers of several LCDs, OBH, and OAAS, were “not raised or litigated in Scott.” (Doc. 398 at 9; Doc. 399 at 9.) Yet, according to these Defendants, these VRAs “were not consistently providing voter registration with each application” as required by the NVRA. (Doc. 398 at 10-13; Doc. 399 at 10-13.) Similarly, DCFS has acknowledged that the Scott Court never discussed or determined CAFÉ’s compliance with the NVRA. (Doc. 402 at 7.) Indeed, in DHH’s First Opposition to US’ MSJ, DHH identifies only two programs as having been litigated to a final judgment in Scott: WIC and Medicaid. (Doc. 398 at 9.) No mention of any deficiencies in the services provided by Louisiana’s higher education system or several LGEs, moreover, can be found in Scott. (Compare Doc. 346-1, with Doc. 436, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) Despite their multiple motions, DCFS and DHH admit that “instances of program-specific NVRA violations” still regularly occur. (Doc. 398 at 2.)
D. PROCEDURAL HISTORY
Eighty-four (84) days after the Scott Matter had begun, Plaintiff filed the relevant complaint on July 12, 2011, charging Defendants with violating Section 7 of the NVRA. (Doc. 1; see also Doc. 1, No. 2:11-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) Dated January 25, 2016, Schedler’s MSJ prompted the filing of the US’ Opposition to Schedler’s MSJ on February 24, 2016, (Doc. 382), which was followed by Schedler’s MSJ Reply on March 15, 2016, (Doc. 395), the US’ Surre-ply to Schedler’s Reply on March 23, 2016, (Doc. 420), and Schedler’s Surreply on March 28, 2016, (Doc. 423). DCFS’ MTD, filed on January 29, 2016, (Doc. 340), led to the tendering of the US’ Opposition to DCFS’ MTD on February 29, 2016, (Doc. 385), and the DCFS’ Reply on March 21, 2016, (Doc. 407). Stamped January 29, 2016, (Doc. 341), LA’s First MTD prompted the US’ Opposition to LA’s First MTD on February 29, 2016, (Doc. 384), and LA’s First Reply on March 21, 2016, (Doc. 409). Schedler’s MTD, filed on January 31, 2016, (Doc. 342), was followed by the US’ Opposition to Schedler’s MTD on March 1, 2016, (Doc. 388), DCFS’ Joinder Response on March 1, 2016, (Doc. 389), and Sche-dler’s MTD Reply on March 23, 2016, (Doc. 415). LA’s Second MTD was filed on February 1, 2016, (Doc. 345), the US’ Opposition to LA’s Second MTD on March 2, 2016, (Doc. 394), and Schedler’s MTD Reply on March 23, 2016, (Doc. 414). The US’ MSJ, an incorrect version filed on February 1, 2016, (Doc. 346), and a corrected one on February 2, 2016, (Doc. 360), was trailed by DHH’s First Opposition to US’ MSJ, (Docs. 398-99), LA’s Opposition to US’ MSJ, (Doc. 400), and DCFS’ Opposition to US’ MSJ on March 18, 2016, (Doc. 402). The US’ MSJ Reply came on April 18, 2016. (Doc. 444.) Twenty days earlier, on March 29, 2016, in response to the Parties’ Joint Motion to Set Dispositive Motions for Oral Argument, (Doc. 421), the Court scheduled oral argument on these motions for May 17, 2016. (Doc. 426.) On May 17, 2016, this Court heard the Parties’ arguments (“Motions Hearing”) and took the matter under advisement. 33 (Doc. 452.)
On January 23, 2013, the Scott Court issued the First Injunction. (Doc. 437, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) The Fifth Circuit affirmed and vacated in part on No *637 vember 5, 2014. Scott, 771 F.3d at 881, 841-42 . In response, the Scott Court issued the Amended Injunction on July 10, 2015. (Doc. 538, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW.) Neither DCFS nor DHH appealed the Scott Court, as both the Amended Injunction, (Id. at 1 n.l.), and the Fifth Circuit emphasize, Scott, 771 F.3d at 835 . (See also Doc. 174 at 3.) The Amended Injunction was reversed and remanded on June 15, 2016. Scott, 826 F.3d 207 , 2016 U.S. App. LEXIS 10919 , 2016 WL 3345277 .
III. SUMMARY OF PARTIES’ ARGUMENTS 34
A. LA’S ARGUMENTS FOR DISMISSAL: NVRA’S APPLICABILITY TO STATE
In its first dispositive motion, (Docs. 341), and its supporting reply, (Doc. 409), LA invokes Rules 12(b)(1), contesting this Court’s jurisdiction for three reasons. 35
First, LA argues that this court has always lacked subject-matter jurisdiction over the Parties’ dispute based on the Constitution’s Eleventh Amendment. (Doc. 341 at 2; Doc. 341-1 at 2-4; see also Doc. 414 at 6-8.) This amendment “bars a state’s citizens from filing suit against ... [a sjtate in federal court unless it has waived its immunity.” (Doc. 341 at 2-3, 3 n.3.) LA has not done so, as both case law and state law reveal, and Plaintiffs suit must therefore be dismissed.' (Id. (referring to LA. R.S. § 13:5106(A); Patterson v. Stalder, Civ. No. 06-752-P, 2007 WL 2479830 (W.D.La. Aug. 27, 2007); and Kiper v. La. State Bd. of Elementary & Secondary Educ., 592 F.Supp. 1343 (M.D.La.1984)); see also, e.g., Doc. 341-1 at 4-6; Doc. 409 at 7-8.)
Second, LA asserts that only one “very narrow” and inapplicable exception — the so-called “Ex Parte Young exception”— exists. (Doc. 341 at 2.) In general, this exception allows “[a] state official in his or her official capacity ... [to] be sued for prospective injunctive relief [so as] to prevent or cure an ongoing violation of the Constitution or federal law.” (Doc, 341-1 at 6.) Here, however, “the Plaintiff [has] fail[ed] to show that the State of Louisiana has the requisite connection with the enforcement of the act challenged necessary to establish the Ex Parte Young Exception.” (Doc. 341 at 2; see also, e.g., Doc. 341-1 at 6-7; Doc. 409 at 8-9.) Young does not apply, and' Young alone could' justify the US’ present suit.
Third, “other officers and agencies,” not LA, “are actually responsible for specific enforcement of the provisions of the National Voter Registration Act challenged.” (Doc. 341 at 2.) LA “cannot singularly enforce the policies of the NVRA,” and since “[t]his court” has already held the SOS “responsible, for NVRA compliance/’ it was and is “not necessary or proper for ‘the State’ to be a named Defendant in connection with this case,” (Doc. 341 at 3; see also Doc. 409 at 2-6.) For support for this contention, LA directs this Court to un order regarding the Plaintiffs motion to compel, (Doc. 315), issued by the Honorable Richard L. Bourgeois and identifying the SOS as “the entity responsible for NVRA compliance” (“Order on Motion to Compel”), (Doc. 327 at 5). (Doc. 341-1 at 7-8; see also Doc. 409 at 6; cf. Doc. 414 at 8.) In LA’s First Reply, this.point is emphasized: as LA has designated the SOS as its chief election officer, it “has completed its duty” under the NVRA and “is no longer *638 directly responsible or liable for enforcement of the NVRA.” (Doe. 409 at 3.)
To LA’s First MTD, the US makes three responses. First, the Eleventh Amendment does forbid suits by a state’s citizens against a state, but it does not proscribe a suit against a state by the United States. (Doc. 384 at 3-4; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) While there are limited exceptions, none apply here, and the present action is thus unimpeded by the Constitution. (Doc. 384 at 4-5; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) Second (and relatedly), LA is “mistaken” when it insists the Ex Parte Young Exception could alone justify this suit, as “Ex Parte Young does not apply to the United States’ suing the State.” (Doc. 384 at 6-7; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) Third, “[qjuestions about whether the United States has sufficiently alleged acts and omissions on the part of the State that violate the NVRA, or about whether the State has the ability to enforce the NVRA” go to the merits, more properly advanced in a motion to dismiss predicated on Rule 12(b)(6) or (c). (Doc. 384. at 7; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) The US even advises LA that Rule 12(c) 36 is “the proper vehicle for resolving such issues.” (Doc. 384 at 7; see also Doc. 444 at 14.)
Within days of its first motion, (Doc. 341; Doc. 384 at 7), LA submitted its second dismissal motion, (Doc. 345). In essence, this motion argues that “no statutory authority is given [by the US] to support a suit against the State of Louisiana under the NVRA,” (Doc. 345 at 2; see also Doc. 414 at 9), as “none of the[ ] provisions [cited by the US] give the ... [US] the authority to actually bring suit against the state,” (Doc. 345-1 at 2). LA goes further, contending that the Complaint contains “no allegations against the State of Louisiana or that the State of Louisiana caused the deprivation of a clearly established constitutional right of the Plaintiff.” 37 (Doc. 345 at 2.) Once more, LA maintains that “the State of Louisiana, as a whole, is not responsible for enforcement of the NVRA” and attacks the US for not having alleged “any action by the State of Louisiana that was unreasonable or unconstitutional” and “not specifically identify[ing] what laws they [sic] want changed.” (Id.; see also Doc. 345-1 at 2-6.) According to LA’s understanding of Scott, “other state agencies and officers ... have been held by the Fifth Circuit to be the proper parties to enforce the NVRA.” (Doc. 345 at 2; see also Doc. 345-1 at 5-6; Doc. 414 at 4-5, 10.) Therefore, “for this reason alone, a claim against the State of Louisiana, as a separate defendant, is improper.” (Doc. 345-1 at 2; see also Doc. 414 at 2, 8-10.) Again citing to the Order on Motion to Compel, (Doc. 327), LA insists that “[t]his court has found that another defendant state official is responsible for NVRA compliance.” (Doc. 345 at 3; see also Doc. 414 at 8.) In sum, then, LA’s Second MTD repeats the third reason for dismissal advocated in LA’s First MTD, (Compare Doc. 341-1 at 8, with Doc. 345 at 2), entire paragraphs being indistinguishable replicas, (Compare Doc. 345-1 at 3-4, with Doc. 409 at 4-5).
The US responds to LA’s Second MTD with statutory citations and jurisprudential distinctions. By its reckoning, “as a ‘State of the United States,’ Louisiana is subject to the requirements of the NVRA.” (Doc. 394 at 3 (citing to 52 U.S.C. §§ 20502 (4), 20503); see also Doc. 444 at 14.) Section 20509, in turn, “speaks generally about *639 ‘State responsibilities under this chapter.’ ” (Doc. 394 at 3 (emphasis in original); see also Doc. 444 at 14.) In addition, pursuant to § 20510(a), the United States may “bring a civil action in an appropriate district court for such declaratory or injunc-tive relief as is necessary to carry out th[is Act].” (Doc. 394 at 2 (citing § 20510(a)); see also Doc. 444 at 14.) As such, LA is “mistaken” to contend that no provision of the NVRA gives the United States “the authority to actually bring suit against the state.” (Doc. 394 at 2, 4 (quoting Doc. 345-1 at 2); see also Doc. 444 at 14.) Instead, “the United States routinely, and often without dispute, sues states to enforce the NVRA and other statutes it enforces.” (Doc. 394 at 3-4; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) Moreover, no case cited by LA actually supports its contention that a state agent’s responsibility for NVRA compliance absolves the state of liability for NVRA violations. (Doc. 394 at 4-5, 6-8; see also Doc. 444 at 14.)
The US then points to a telling piece of evidence: on July 8, 2015, the former Governor of Louisiana issued an executive order directing the other defendants here to comply with the SOS’ efforts to enforce the NVRA, a “recent and noteworthy example of the State’s exercise of its direct authority under the NVRA.” (Doc. 394 at 5; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) Characterizing LA’s reliance on Rule 12(c) as “misguided,” the US concludes with a reaffirmation of this case’s factual and legal underpinnings, as it perceives them: LA “is responsible for its consistent and repeated failure to meet its obligations under the NVRA,” and the “behavior of ... [its] officials— actions and omissions which have resulted in consistent and widespread NVRA noncompliance throughout Louisiana — make the State an appropriate Defendant in this case.” (Doe. 394 at 8-9.) Naturally read, the NVRA pegs LA as the entity responsible for its overall enforcement and compliance, assigning it ultimate liability even as it requires that one official be selected as the state’s administrator, as the Governor’s statement underscores.
B. DCFS’ AND DHH’S ARGUMENTS FOR DISMISSAL: PRECLUSION AND MOOTNESS
Predicated on res judicata and mootness, DHH and DCFS advance four specific grounds for this matter’s dismissal in DCFS’ MTD.
First, invoking the doctrine of res judi-cata, which “incorporates claim preclusion and issue preclusion,” DCFS and DHH contend that the Scott judgement should bind this Court and lead to this action’s dismissal. Defendants argue that, in the two actions, “defendants (DHH and DCFS) are the same,” “the sole issue” is “the same,” and “the remedy requested ... is the same.” (Doc. 340-1 at 3, 6-7.) Further, DHH and DCFS “continue to operate their voter registration programs under compulsion of the Eastern District’s permanent injunction.” (Id. (emphasis in original); see also Doc. 407 at 3-7, 9-12.) The Scott Court rejected the need for “monitoring and further reporting,” the remedy that the US now seeks, and the present suit thus amounts to an “unsupportable” attempt at the “dissection and partial enforcement of the Scott court’s final judgment.” (Doc. 340-1 at 2-3 (internal quotation marks omitted); see also Doc. 407 at 3-4, 9.) In other words, the remedy chosen by the Scott Court must bind this Court, regardless of any caveats and conditions appended, see supra Part II.1.
Second, DCFS and DHH deem the US to have been in “aligned interest with the Scott Plaintiffs.” (Doc. 340-1 at 3; see also Doc. 185 at 9.) Though a non-party to the Scott suit, the US was “adequately represented” as Scott and the NAACP were “so closely aligned to ... [its] interests as to be ... [its] (virtual) representative.” (Doc. 340-1 at 3; see also Doc. 185 at 9.) This *640 alignment is “extensively illustrated through court filings and on/off-the-record appearances.” (Doc. 340-1 at 3.)
This “ample” evidence consists of the Statement of Interest the US filed in the Scott Matter, taken “under consideration” by the Scott Court, its filing of an amicus brief in the Fifth Circuit, and its five-minutes’ worth of oral argument there. (Doc. 185 at 9-10; see also Doc. 340-1 at 4.) In addition, “USA’s counsel” allegedly “observed the Scott trial and often conferred with counsel for the Scott Plaintiffs throughout trial.” (Doc. 185 at 10 n.37; see also Doc. 340-1 at 4.) With the US having been virtually represented in the Scott matter, res judicata applies, and the US should not be allowed “to take a second shot at ... [its] previously-rejected request for continued monitoring and reporting.” (Doc. 340-1 at 5.) In making this argument, Defendants emphasize res judi-cata’s underlying purposes: the avoidance of duplicative and wasteful litigation. (See, e.g., Doc. 38 at 6-7; Doc. 340-1 at 5-7; Doc. 398 at 42-44, 47-48; Doc. 407 at 7, 12.)
Third, “because the issues raised in this case were mooted through resolution of those same issues in Scott, there is no case or controversy for this Court to resolve.” 38 (Doc. 340-1 at 4; see also Doc. 185 at 13-15; Doc. 407 at 14-15.) More precisely, “because no additional remedy beyond the injunction already rendered ... is appropriate in this case, the US[ ] cannot establish that any case or controversy exists.” (Doc. 407 at 14.) When viewed from these Defendants’ perspective, this case, then, is moot as a matter of law, for “those same issues” have already been “resol[ved]” by the Scott Court. (Doc. 340-1 at 4.)
Lastly, these Defendants question the propriety of the kind of constant monitoring that the US has now demanded, as the latter has yet to show Defendants’ unwillingness to comply with the NVRA. (Doc, 340-1 at 5-6; see also Doc. 191 at 9-10; Doc. 407 at 14-15.) Absent such defiance, monitoring has been rejected as a remedy, as it was by the Scott Court. (Doc. 340-1 at 6; see also Doc. 191 at 9-10.) Federalism itself compels that this Court stay its hand. (See, e.g., Doc. 340-1 at 5, 7.)
Beyond these rationales for dismissal, DHH and DCFS repeatedly concede that “isolated instances of non-compliance” or “minor issues” have occurred since Scott’s injunction was entered, but deny the emergence of “a supportable persistent practice of current noncompliance.” (Doc. 407 at 7-8, 16-17.) 39 As DCFS and DHH are in “substantial compliance” with the NVRA and as the Scott Plaintiffs served as the US’ “virtual representatives,” dismissal should follow on the basis of “res judicata, collateral estoppel, or mootness.” Doc. 185 at 2-4, 12; Doc. 191 at 2-3; Doc. 407 at 9; cf. Doc. 340 at 1, 3.) According to DCFS and DHH, “the principles of equity and judicial economy” girding these distinct doctrines leave this Court with no other option, (Doc. 407 at 12-14), the US “privy of the Scott Plaintiffs and holder of the identical interests successfully vindicated by the Scott Plaintiffs,” (Doc. 191 at 10).
The US responds with five distinct points. First, it has independent authority and interest in the NVRA’s enforcement; thus, it cannot be barred by preclusion principles from litigating the present matter as a result of private parties’ separate litigation. (See, e.g., Doc. 189 at 8, 13-14; Doc. 385 at 3; Doc. 444 at 9.) Second, regardless of how Defendants portray its prior actions, the US was neither a party nor in privity with the Scott Plaintiffs, and its interests were not so aligned as to render the latter virtual representatives of *641 this nation’s federal sovereign. (See, e.g., Doe. 189 at 8, 14-17; Doc. 385 at 3, 5-14; Doe. 444 at 9.) Third, the claim here cannot be moot, as the US is seeking relief for two types of violations: (1) those not before the Scott court and (2) those that transpired or continued after the First Injunction was issued. (See, e.g., Doc. 189 at 17-18; Doc. 385 at 14; Doc. 444 at 9.) As to the former, the US highlights certain areas allegedly left uncovered by Scott, which focused purely on “Louisiana’s public assistance programs” and did not deal with “facts related to NVRA compliance or noncompliance in Louisiana’s disability services program” or find that Defendants were in “full compliance with the requirements of the NVRA.” (Doc. 189 at 17; see also, e.g., Doc. 385 at 14-15.) As to the latter, as a matter of logic, it did not resolve the problems raised by Defendants’ continued noncompliance in Scoffs aftermath. (Doc. 385 at 4, 15-16; see also Doc. 189 at 17-18.) 40 Fourth, whatever the suitability of the remedial monitoring that it now seeks, arguments about proposed remedies “cannot properly support dismissal on res judicata grounds.” (Doc. 385 at 15-17; see also Doc. 189 at 17-19.) Rather, whether monitoring should be “part of an appropriate remedy, and to what extent,” should await this Court’s determination of DCFS and DHH’s liability. (Doc. 385 at 17.) Naturally, the US emphasizes that “[c]ourts have ordered monitoring as part of the remedy in cases involving ... violations of the NVRA and other federal voting rights statutes.” (Id. at 16-17.) Finally, even though the US is not affected by these sundry preclusion precepts, DCFS and DHH are, indeed, fully and completely bound. (See, e.g., Doc. 444 at 9-13; Doc. 189 at 9-13; Doc. 385 at 3-4.)
C. SCHEDLER’S ARGUMENT FOR DISMISSAL: MOOTNESS
On January 31, 2016, Schedler filed his own MSJ. As Schedler argues, “[c]om-pelled” by the Scott court’s injunction, (Doc. 437, No. 2:ll-cv-00926-JTM-JCW), “defendants adopted a regime of NVRA rules, practices,, procedures and forms that changed their previous practices and procedures relating to. voter registration.” (Doc. 342 at 2; see also Doc. 342-15 at 1.) Logically, therefore, “[t]he declaratory and injunctive relief sought by the United States has been rendered moot because the United States can no longer challenge registration practices and procedures that no longer exist in order to obtain prospective relief.” (Doc. 342 at 2; see also Doc. 342-15 at 10.) In other words, “[ujnless the United States can assert colorable claims that have not been subsumed by Scott and the State’s response to Scott, the issues in this case, again with the exception of the in-person remote issue, are moot.” (Doc. 415 at 3; see also Doc, 342-15 at 1, 3-4.) SOS has “made more than a reasonable effort to coordinate the State’s NVRA responsibilities post-Scott,” as shown by the declaration of Ms. Lani Durio, SOS’ own NVRA coordinator, (Doc. 342-15 at 14). (Doc. 415 at 19.) Accordingly, “[tjhere really is no case left.” (Id.; see also Doc. 342-15 at 14-15.) With only one exception — “to the extent” the US seeks “to expand the provisions of Section 7 beyond ‘in person’ applications” — no ease and controversy, as required by the Constitution’s third article, remains. 41 (Doe. 342 at 2; see also Doc. 342-15 at 1.)
Though he has disparaged the Amended Injunction’s vagueness before the Fifth *642 Circuit, see Scott, 826 F.3d at 209-10 , 2016 U.S. App. LEXIS 10919, at *9-10 , 2016 WL 3345277, at *1 , Schedler here maintains that the relief sought by the US has now “been obviated by the changes in rules, policies, practices, forms, training, oversight and procedures” effectuated by SOS, (Doc. 342-15 at 16-17), as SOS has taken “the reasonable efforts to ensure state compliance required” by case law and statute, (Doc. 415 at 1). This case must therefore be deemed moot. (See, e.g., Doc. 342 at 2; Doc. 342-15 at 17; Doc. 415 at 5.)
Incorporating the arguments already raised in response to DCFS’ MTD, (Doc. 385), and the US’ MSJ, (Docs. 346, 360), the US contests Schedler’s construction of the mootness doctrine. Under well-settled law, “[a] case should not be declared moot as long as the parties maintain a concrete interest in the outcome and effective relief is available to remedy the effect of the violation.” (Doc. 388 at 4 (quoting Envtl. Conservation Org. v. City of Dallas, 529 F.3d 519, 527 (5th Cir.2008)). Here, because it has presented evidence demonstrating SOS’ continued violation of the NVRA and ineffective implementation of his own promulgated regulations, this case has not been mooted by Scott’s still indeterminate 42 resolution. (Id. at 5-9; see also Doc. 444 at 13.) Moreover, since the US has also presented much proof of noncompliance either not adjudicated in Scott or postdating the First Injunction, the “partial relief’ ordered there cannot “moot an action seeking additional relief.” (Doc. 388 at 9-10 (quoting 13A Chables A. Weight et al„ Fed. PraC. & PRoc. § 3533.2 (2d ed. 1995)); see also Doc. 444 at 13.) Such relief is precisely what it now hopes to win here. (Doc. 1 at 8-9.)
D. SCHEDLER’S MSJ: NVRA’S COVERAGE AS TO REMOTE TRANSACTIONS
In his own MSJ, Schedler advances one argument: per its text, the NVRA does not apply to certain types of actions undertaken by Louisiana’s various VRAs. (Doc. 336 at 1; see also Doc. 395 at 1,11-12.) Defined more precisely, the NVRA, he contends, does not require that the voter registration efforts it mandates in Section 7 occur when a VRA engages in a remote transactions. (Doc. 336 at 1; see also Doc. 395 at 1.) Instead, it “applies only to in person transactions at agency offices.” (Doc. 336-5 at 4; see also Doc. 395 at 1-2.) In his view, any other construction of the NVRA expands its coverage and scope in a manner contrary to the Constitution and the laws of the United States. (Doc. 336 at 2; see also Doc. 336-5 at 7; Doc. 395 at 6-9.)
In support, SOS offers up the following “evidence.” First, he cites to one of Section 4’s paragraphs. (Doc. 336-5 at 7.) In relevant part, this subsection states that “each State shall establish procedures to register to vote in elections for Federal office ... by application in person ... at a Federal, State, or nongovernmental office designated under section 7.” 52 U.S.C. § 20503 (a)(3). This subsection, in turn, cabins the scope of Section 7 to only “in person” transactions; thus, as “the NVRA speaks in clear, unambiguous terms with respect to in person applications at public assistance and disability services offices,” this Court obligated to adhere to “[such] particular, concrete terms.” (Doc. 336-5 at 8-9; see also Doc. 395 at 12-13.) In such instances, any construction of Section 7 that ignores the limitation in Section 4 *643 disregards the NVRA “architecture” and thus runs afoul of two cardinal rules of statutory interpretation by both producing an absurd result and disregarding statutory structure. (Doc. 336-5 at 11-13; see also Doc. 395 at 12-14.) To him, the US’ proposed construction is inherently “anomalous,” an impermissible attempt to employ Section 7 as “an exegetical fulcrum to construe the Act as a whole.” (Doc. 336-5 at 12; see also Doc. 395 at 12-14.)
Second, Schedler places much weight on the NVRA’s legislative history. Most particularly, he stresses the “in person” phrase encoded in Section 20503(a)(3) and the Act’s apparent silence as to the issue of remote transactions. (Doc. 336-6 at 9-10; see also Doc. 395 at 14-16.) No reference to telephonic or online applications appears in that thirteen page act, and the “in person” restriction that adorns other sections must be read into Section 7(a)(6). “Statutes do not change their terms,” he states. (Doc. 395 at 18.) “Congress” alone “must amend them.” (Id.)
Third, he contends that if one looks at how the VRAs “work in practice,” it is clear “that the procedures contemplate an in person, face to face transaction.” (Doc. 336-5 at 13-17.) To ignore the weight of this evidence is to rewrite the statute, a congressional function beyond the province of any court. (See, e.g., Id. at 17-18; Doc. 395 at 18-19.) Although they both failed to appeal the Scott Court’s decision finding the NVRA to extend to remote transactions, DCFS and DHH now endorse this position. (See, e.g-., Doc. 38 at 6, 8.)
The US counters with two points. First, it disputes the extent to which a live and ripe controversy as to the NVRA’s coverage over remote transactions actually exists for one reason. As Schedler has himself admitted, (Doc. 382-1 at 2), the actual policies already governing the VRAs require that these entities provide “voter registration services in connection with qualifying transactions that occur remotely.” (Doc. 382 at 3; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) In fact, despite the SOS’ insistence to the contrary, DHH and DCFS have adopted the same such regulations, and this general approach is embodied in .SOS’ NVRA compliance manual. (Doc. 382 at 3-4; see also, e.g., Doc. 420 at 1; Doc. 444 at 14.) The US emphasizes the latter, this “long understood” construction of the NVRA wholly consistent with the SOS’ own online manual, regardless of its present head’s litigation posture. (Doc. 382 at 4-5; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) In other words, Schedler, not the US, is contravening history by adopting a personalized statutory “reading,” one previously rejected by the agency he administers, as his “current litigation position.” 43 (Doc. 382-1 at 2, 4; see also Doc. 382 at 5.) In short, the VRAs must provide voter registration services as a matter of Louisiana law, so that.no “live controversy’ truly exists. (Doc. 382 at 5-6; see also Doc. 444 at 14.)
Second, the US strives to. show that Section 7 does apply to remote transactions, attacking Schedler’s reading for being “inconsistent with the NVRA’s plain text and contrary to Congress’!] intent.” (Doc. 382 at 6; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) Textually, the NVRA “establishes a framework through which all voter registration agencies must offer registration opportunities both (1) upon request by individuals appearing in person,” in accordance with § 20506(a)(4), and “(2) with ‘each’ qualifying transaction,” in accordance with *644 § 20506(a)(6). (Doc. 382 at 6; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) The latter requirement is qualified by the former, as two different courts have ruled: Scott, (Doc. 436, No. 2:11-cv-00926-JTM-JCW), and Georgia State Conference of N.A.A.C.P. v. Kemp, 841 F.Supp.2d 1320, 1329 (N.D.Ga.2012). (Doc. 382 at 6-7; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) In the course of this analysis, the US insists that Section 4 “does no more than identify a State’s general obligation” while Sections 5, 6, and 7 set forth more detailed requirements regarding motor-voter, mail-in, and agency-based voter registration. (Doc. 382 at 8-9.) Properly understood, pursuant to the general/specific canon, Section 7 should be read as imposing additional and more particularized obligations on a certain subject of designated VRAs; it expressly requires voter registration be attempted with “each application” for service. (Doc. 382 at 11-15; see also Doc. 444 at 14.) Quite simply, nothing within Section 7’s language “limits ... [its] application to in-person transactions only.” (Doc. 382 at 10-11.) As the US repeats, the SOS’s “narrow interpretation” of Section 4 should not be read to undercut Section 7’s broadly inclusive language. (Id. at 12-15.)
Such an interpretation, according to the US, has additional benefits. Most obviously, it does not render two other statutory phrases — Section 4’s reference to “in person” transactions and Section 7’s use of “in addition” — superfluous, as one more canon forbids, see infra Parts IV.D, V.B. (Id. at 15-16.) Furthermore, it aligns with the NVRA’s preeminent purpose — “to increase voter registration and expand registration opportunities” — and avoids an “odd, “obviously unintentional,” and “absurd” result— the NVRA would not reach those citizens “not likely to benefit from the State motor-vehicle registration application provisions.” (Id. at 17-18.) The Act was expansively written, and remote transactions rather neatly fit within Section 7(a)(6).
E. US’ MSJ: DEFENDANTS’ PAST AND CONTINUING VIOLATIONS OF THE NVRA
In moving for summary judgment, the US relies on the “facts” summarized above, see supra Part II.C.2, that it has collected during this case’s discovery to support a specific conclusion: as a matter of undisputed fact and clear law, Defendants have failed to achieve “full compliance with Section 7” and “to remedy its earlier pre-Scott “non-compliance,” their failings varied and documented. (Doc. 346 at 1-2; see also Doc. 444 at 19-56.) Briefly summarized, the US contends there is no genuine dispute as to four issues.
First, despite § 20506(a)(6)(A)-(B), DCFS, DHH, OCDD, OBH, LCD1, OAAS, LGEs, disability offices at various colleges and universities have not and continue not to distribute voter registration applications, voter declaration forms, and related assistance with each initial application for their NVRA-eovered services. (Doc. 360-1 at 18-23; accord Doc. 346-1 at 17-23; see also Doc. 444 at 19-29, 40-51.)
Second, although § 20506(a)(6)(C) requires each VRA to “provide to each applicant who does not decline to register to vote the same degree of assistance with regard to the completion of the registration application form as is provided by the office with regard to the completion of its own forms, unless the applicant refuses such assistance,” two of these same entities — OAAS and LGEs — have not done so. (Doc. 360-1 at 23-24; accord Doc. 346-1 at 23-24; see also, e.g., Doc. 444 at 2, 17-19, 37-40, 51-52.)
Third, even as § 20506(a)(4)(A)(iii) mandates that “at each” VRA that entity “accept[ ] ... completed voter registration application forms for transmittal to the appropriate State election official” and § 20506(d) sets precise deadlines, a VRA “may not simply direct an applicant to *645 another state agency that accepts completed voter registration application forms,” thereby “shed[ding] one of its core NVRA responsibilities,” (Doc. 360-1 at 24-25; accord Doc. 346-1 at 24-25.) The US attributes this failure to three separate agencies: DCFS, DHH, and several LGEs supervised by DHH and its own constituent departments. (Doc. 360-1 at 25-28; accord Doc. 346 at 25-28; see also Doc. 444 at 29-37.) Notably, while the first and second failings argued by the US apply as to both in-person and remote transactions, the third refers to failings occurring when an applicant appears in-person. (Doc. 360-1 at 17, 25-26.)
Fourth, in defiance of the NVRA’s tenth section and the Fifth Circuit in Scott, the SOS “continues to disavow his authority and responsibility to ensure statewide compliance with the NVRA,” (Doc. 360-1 at 29; accord Doc. 346-1 at 29; see also Doc. 444 at 54-56), as suggested by the “facts” uncovered so far, see supra Part Part II.C.2.a. For example, SOS “willingly allowed DCFS and DHH to flout” his own NVRA rules “for more than two years because those agencies repeatedly questioned the SOS’s authority to issue the rules.” (Doc. 360-1 at 29-32; accord Doc. 346-1 at 29-32. 44 ) To recap, based on the facts so far collected, the US points to multiple incontestable violations of the NVRA by Defendants before and after the Scott Court’s Amended Injunction.
The US makes two more legal points. First, it insists that preclusion does apply to the Scott Court’s findings as to Defendants, but that preclusion does not bar it from introducing evidence of pre-Scott noncompliance or this Court from considering additional relief appropriate to address the Defendants’ past and present noncompliance, regardless of the Amended Injunction. (Doc. 360-1 at 33-37; accord Doc. 346-1 at 32-37; see also Doc. 444 at 51-54.) Second, the US emphasizes that the very fact that Defendants have continued to defy the NVRA supports its present suit’s unique remedial request. As it explains, “[t]he United States is seeking different and more tailored declaratory and injunctive relief than what the Scott court granted to the private plaintiffs in that ease — precisely because, as the uneontro-verted evidence in this case shows, the Scott court’s remedial order was not sufficient to prevent Louisiana’s continued noncompliance with the NVRA or to remove the lingering impact of Louisiana’s longtime noncompliance with the NVRA.” (Doe. 360-1 at 37-38; accord Doc. 346-1 at 37-38; see also Doc. 444 at 6.) Three years after the Scott Matter began, the evidence establishes that “simply requiring Defendants to certify generic compliance with the NVRA, without imposing any mechanism for monitoring how such compliance is achieved and without specifying the particular actions that Defendants must take to remedy th[ose] violations, is insufficient.” (Doc. 360-1 at 38; accord Doc. 346-1 at 38; see also Doc. 444 at 6.) With Defendants’ recent history having underscored the ineffectiveness of the Scott Court’s chosen remedy, a new one is now appropriate. (Doc. 360-1 at 38; accord Doc. 346-1 at 38; see also Doc. 444 at 6.)
In general, even while repeatedly insisting on the strict application of preclusion law to bar this suit by the US, (Doc. 398 at 1-2, 38-42; Doc. 399 at 1-2, 38-42; Doc. 400 at 10-11; Doc. 402 at 17), and . emphasizing the unfairness and wastefulness effectuated if this Court was not to do so, (Doc. 398 at 42-48; Doc. 399 at 42-48; Doc. 400 at 11, 17), DCFS and DHH advance five other 45 arguments against the US’ *646 MSJ. First, emphasizing their “substantial compliance” with the NVRA, Defendants contend that the NVRA requires merely a “ ‘reasonable effort’ standard,” as “actually contemplated by Congress.” (Doc. 398 at 2-3; Doc. 399 at 2-3; Doc. 402 at 5, 18.) For support, as they have done before, Defendants both direct this Court’s attention to the NVRA’s legislative history and, without citing to a specific section, claim that this touchstone is “the only standard set forth on the face of the statute.” (Doc. 398 at 7; Doc. 399 at 7; Doc. 402 at 2-3, 5-6, 18. 46 ) Full compliance, DCFS adds, is “simply not practical.” (Doc. 402 at 6.) In fact, “[t]he [G]overnment alleges NVRA violations even though some of the allegedly defective practices are not even required by the Act.” (Doc. 398 at 3; Doc. 399 at 3.)
Second, Defendants contest every “fact” collected by and relied upon by the Plaintiff in the US’ MSJ. (Doc. 398 at 4; Doc. 399 at 4.) By Defendants’ reckoning, their current efforts “far exceed the ‘reasonable effort’ standard imposed” by the NVRA; only “discrete and isolated events” in contravention of the NVRA can be supported. (Doc. 402 at 5-6, 12; Doc. 398 at 7; Doc. 399 at 7.) Third, Defendants maintain that their every past effort has already been “litigated to final judgment in Scott,” (Doc. 398 at 9; Doc. 399 at 9), a position that they promptly undermine, (Doc. 398 at 10-12; Doc. 399 at 10-12). 47 Still, “all such programs achieved certified substantial compliance with the NVRA in 2013.” (Doc. 398 at 9; Doc. 399 at 9; see also Doc. 400 at 10-11; Doc. 402 at 11.)
Throughout their papers, Defendants rest on their asserted achievement of “substantial compliance” by those VRAs involved — and those not involved — in Scott. (Doc. 398 at 10-21, 26-29; Doc. 399 at 10-21, 26-29; Doc. 400 at 10-11; Doc. 402 at 5-6, 10-12.) In this vien, the absence of any formal complaint by an applicant is repeatedly stressed. (Doc. 398 at 26; Doc. 399 at 26; Doc. 402 at 15.) Any more burdensome duties mined from the NVRA by the US, in turn, are simply unsupported by the Act’s plain text. (Doc. 398 at 18-25; Doc. 399 at 18-25; Doc. 402 at 6-15.)
Fourth, DHH first denies its responsibility for the LGEs’ alleged violations of the NVRA and then labels the US’ allegations as to these creations be wholly “unsubstantiated.” (Doc. 398 at 29-38; Doc. 399 at 29-38.) Finally, returning to their preclusion arguments, Defendants contend that the “law dictates denial of the [G]ov-ernment’s proposition that this Honorable Court revisit the Defendants’ past violations in order to fashion a remedy in this case.” (Doc. 398 at 49-53; Doc. 399 at 49-53; Doc. 400 at 9-11.) Too little evidence of unwillingness to comply, in their view, exists to justify the kind of extensive monitoring that the US now demands. (Doc. 398 at 49-53; Doc. 399 at 49-53; Doc. 400 at 11.) With their final motion in opposition, Defendants reiterate these points, concluding: “There is no occasion in this case for the requested intrusion into the [state] government’s sovereignty.” (Doc. 402 at 18.)
IV. APPLICABLE STANDARDS
A. RULE 12(b)
Rule 12(b)(1) requires a federal court to dismiss an action over which it “lack[s] subject matter jurisdiction.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(1). The lack of such consti *647 tutionally required jurisdiction may be found in any one of “three separate bases”: (1) the complaint alone; (2) the complaint supplemented by undisputed facts evidenced in the record; or (3) the complaint supplemented by undisputed facts plus a court’s resolution of disputed facts. Barrer Or-Montenegro v. United States, 74 F.3d 657, 659 (5th Cir.1996) (quoting Voluntary Purchasing Grps., Inc. v. Reilly, 889 F.2d 1380, 1384 (5th Cir.1989)); accord, e.g., Jasper v. FEMA, 414 Fed.Appx. 649, 651 (5th Cir.2011). Nonetheless, a court may consider “outside matter” attached to a motion to dismiss “if the material is pertinent to the question of the [district [c]ourt’s jurisdiction since it is always the obligation of a federal court to determine if it has jurisdiction.” Alabama ex rel. Baxley v. Woody, 473 F.2d 10, 12 (5th Cir.1973). As such, “[u]nlike a 12(b)(6) motion, the district court is empowered to consider matters outside the Complaint and matters of fact that may be in dispute,” Higgins v. Tex. Dep’t of Health Servs., 801 F.Supp.2d 541 , 547 (W.D.Tex.2011), and a “trial court is free to weigh the evidence and satisfy itself as to the existence of its power to hear the case,” MDPhysicians & Assocs., Inc. v. State Bd. of Ins., 957 F.2d 178, 181 (5th Cir.1992) (internal citations omitted); see also Vantage Trailers, Inc. v. Beall Corp., 567 F.3d 745, 748 (5th Cir.2009).
“The burden of proof for a Rule 12(b)(1) motion to dismiss is on the party asserting jurisdiction.” Ramming v. United States, 281 F.3d 158, 161 (5th Cir.2001); accord Thomson v. Gaskill, 315 U.S. 442, 446 , 62 S.Ct. 673, 675 , 86 L.Ed. 951, 955 (1942); cf. Padilla-Mangual v. Pavia Hosp., 516 F.3d 29, 34 (1st Cir.2008). Yet, district courts are expected to treat Rule 12(b)(1) motions to dismiss where jurisdiction is intertwined with the merits as challenges to the latter. Williamson, 645 F.2d at 415; accord, e.g., Stem v. Gomez, 813 F.3d 205, 210 (5th Cir.2016); Lawrence v. Dunbar, 919 F.2d 1525, 1530 (11th Cir.1990).
Rule 12(b)(6) permits dismissal for- “failure to state a claim upon which relief can be granted.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 12(b)(6). The analysis mandated by Rule 12(b)(6) analysis incorporates the pleading standard articulated in Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly: “To pass muster under Rule 12(b)(6), [a] complaint must have contained enough facts to state a claim to relief that is plausible on its face.” Reece v. U.S. Bank Nat’l Ass’n, 762 F.3d 422, 424 (5th Cir. 2014) (quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 547 , 127 S.Ct. 1955, 1974 , 167 L.Ed.2d 929, 949 (2007)). In the course of this determination, a court “must” still “consider the [factual] allegations in the plaintiffs complaint as true.” Williamson v. Tucker, 645 F.2d 404, 412 (5th Cir.1981); accord, e.g., S.R.P. v. United States, 676 F.3d 329, 344 (3d Cir.2012). A claim possesses the requisite facial plausibility when a plaintiff pleads factual content that allows the court to draw the reasonable inference that the defendant is liable for the misconduct alleged. Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678 , 129 S.Ct. 1937, 1949 , 173 L.Ed.2d 868, 884 (2009).
In the Fifth Circuit, “[generally a res judicata contention cannot be brought in a motion to dismiss; it must be pleaded as an affirmative defense.” Test Masters Educ. Servs., Inc. v. Singh, 428 F.3d 559 , 570 n. 2 (5th Cir.2005); see also Norris v. Hearst Trust, 500 F.3d 454 , 461 n. 9 (5th Cir.2007). The Fifth Circuit has further noted that “[r]es judicata is an affirmative defense that should not be raised as part of a 12(b)(6) motion, but should instead be addressed at summary judgment or at trial.” Am. Realty Trust, Inc. v. Hamilton Lane Advisors, Inc., 115 Fed.Appx. 662 , 664 n. 1 (5th Cir.2004) (citing Moch v. E. Baton Rouge Parish Sch. Bd., 548 F.2d 594 , 596 n. 3 (5th Cir.1977) *648 (“Generally, a party cannot base a 12(b)(6) motion on res judicata.”). Nevertheless, “[dismissal under Rule 12(b)(6) on res ju-dicata grounds is appropriate when the elements of res judicata are apparent on the face of the pleadings.” Murry v. Gen. Servs. Admin., 563 Fed.Appx. 362, 364 (5th Cir.2014) (citing Kan. Reinsurance Co. v. Mortg. Corp, of Tex., 20 F.3d 1362, 1366 (5th Cir.1994)).
B. RULE 12(c)
Pursuant to Rule 12(c), “[ajfter the pleadings are closed — but early enough not to delay trial — a party may move for judgment on the pleadings.” Fed. R. Crv. P. 12(c); Lillian B. v. Gwinnett Cnty. Sch. Dist., 631 Fed.Appx. 851, 852 (11th Cir.2015). As required for purposes of Rule 12(b)(6), a court may not consider any evidence outside the pleadings in weighing the merits of a Rule 12(c) motion. Hiller v. HSBC Fin. Corp., 589 Fed.Appx. 320, 322 (6th Cir.2015). In addition, it must “construe the complaint in the light most favorable to the plaintiff, accept all of the complaint’s factual allegations as true, and determine whether the plaintiff undoubtedly can prove no set of facts in support of his claim that would entitle him to relief.” Hoven v. Walgreen Co., 751 F.3d 778, 783 (6th Cir.2014) (citing Ziegler v. IBP Hog Mkt., Inc., 249 F.3d 509, 512 (6th Cir.2001)); see also Cleveland v. Caplaw Enters., 448 F.3d 518, 521 (2d Cir.2006) (“The standard for addressing a Rule 12(c) motion for judgment on the .pleadings is the same as that for a Rule 12(b)(6) motion to dismiss for failure to state a claim.”). Rule 12(c) provides “a means of disposing of cases when ... a judgment on the merits can be achieved by focusing on the content of the competing pleadings.” Perez v. Wells Fargo N.A., 774 F.3d 1329, 1336 (11th Cir.2014) (emphasis omitted).
C. RULE 56
Per Rule 56(a), summary judgment is appropriate “if the movant shows there is no genuine dispute as to any material fact and the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.” Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(a); Wilson v. Tregre, 787 F.3d 322, 325 (5th Cir.2015) (quoting Rule 56(a)). A dispute is “genuine” so long as “the evidence is such that a reasonable jury could return a verdict for the nonmoving party”; a fact is “material” if it “might affect the outcome of the suit under the governing law.” Anderson v. Liberty Lobby, Inc., 477 U.S. 242, 248 , 106 S.Ct. 2505, 2510 , 91 L.Ed.2d 202 (1986); see also Ray v. United Parcel Serv., 587 Fed.Appx. 182, 186 (5th Cir.2014). A court construes all facts and evidence in the light most favorable to the nonmovant. Haverda v. Hays Cnty., 723 F.3d 586, 591 (5th Cir.2013). In response to another’s motion, the nonmovant cannot rely on “[c]onclusional allegation and details, speculation, ... unsubstantiated assertions, and legalistic argumentation.” TIG Ins. Co. v. Sedgwick James of Wash., 276 F.3d 754, 759 (5th Cir.2002).
Still, “[w]hen both parties have submitted evidence of contradictory facts,” Boudreaux v. Swift Transp. Co., Inc., 402 F.3d 536, 540 (5th Cir.2005), a court is bound to “draw all reasonable inferences in favor of the nonmoving party,” Reeves v. Sanderson Plumbing Prods., 530 U.S. 133, 150 , 120 S.Ct. 2097, 2110 , 147 L.Ed.2d 105, 122 (2000); see also Anderson, 477 U.S. at 248 , 106 S.Ct. 2505 (emphasizing the irrelevance of “[a]ny proof or evidentiary requirements imposed by the substantive law,” materiality “not a criterion for evaluating the evidentiary underpinnings of [factual disputes]”). It thus cannot “make credibility determinations or weigh the evidence.” Reeves, 530 U.S. at 150 , 120 S.Ct. 2097 . This command — that a district court “eschew making credibility determination *649 or weighing the evidence,” Calhoun v. Johnson, 632 F.3d 1259, 1261 (D.C.Cir.2011) (citing Lathram v. Snow, 336 F.3d 1085 , 1088 (D.C.Cir.2003)); accord, e.g,, Flythe v. Dist. of Columbia, 791 F.3d 13, 22 (D.C.Cir.2015) — applies so long as the record retains patches of reasonable ambiguity that have not been artificially manufactured. See, e.g., Tolan v. Cotton, — U.S. —, 134 S.Ct. 1861, 1866 , 188 L.Ed.2d 895 (2014) (per curiam) (“[C]ourts may not resolve genuine disputes of fact in favor of the party seeking summary judgment”).
So constrained, by Rule 56, this Court must “give credence to the evidence favoring the nonmovant as well as that evidence supporting the moving party that is uncontradicted and unimpeached, at least to the extent that that evidence comes from disinterested witnesses.” 9A WRIGHT, supra, § 2529. To wit, although this Court “should review the record as a whole, it must disregard all evidence favorable to the moving party that the jury is not required to believe.” Reeves, 530 U.S. at 151 , 120 S.Ct. 2097 , cited in Haverda, 723 F.3d at. 591. Within the narrow domain of Rule 56, summary judgment is hence inappropriate (1) if there are legitimate, not superficial or frivolous, factual disputes that may affect the outcome of the case under the applicable substantive law, see Anderson, 477 U.S. at 248 , 106 S.Ct. 2505 , and (2) so long as the nonmovant does not exclusively rely on “some metaphysical doubt as to the material facts,” “eonclusory allegations,” “unsubstantiated assertions,” or “a scintilla of evidence,” Little v. Liquid Air Corp., 37 F.3d 1069, 1075 (5th Cir.1994) (quoting Matsushita Elec. Indus. Co., Ltd. v. Zenith Radio Corp., 475 U.S. 538 , 586, 106 S.Ct. 1348 , 89 L.Ed.2d 538 (1986); Lujan v. National Wildlife Federation, 497 U.S. 871, 871-73 , 110 S.Ct. 3177 , 111 L.Ed.2d 695 (1990), and Hopper v. Frank, 16 F.3d 92 (5th Cir.1994)). Questions of statutory construction is particularly well-suited for resolution by summary judgment. See, e.g., Asher v. Am. Home Mortg. Servicing, Inc. (In re Ash-er), 488 B.R. 58, 64 (Bankr.E.D,N.Y.2013); Heublein, Inc. v. United States, 996 F.2d 1455, 1461 (2d Cir.1993) (citing Oklahoma ex rel. Dep’t of Human Servs. v. Weinberger, 741 F.2d 290, 291 (10th Cir.1983)); Stissi v. Interstate & Ocean Transport Co., 765 F.2d 370, 374 (2d Cir.1985); William W. SCHWABTZER ET AL., FEDERAL JUDICIAL Center, The Analysis and Deoision op Summary Judgment Motions 15 (1991).
D. OVERVIEW: PERTINENT PRINCIPLES OF STATUTORY INTERPRETATION
Statutory interpretation begins with the enacted text, and a court’s review must terminate if that language is both plain and unambiguous. E.g., Roberts v. Sear-Land Servs., 566 U.S. 93 , 132 S.Ct. 1350, 1356 , 182 L.Ed.2d 341, 354 (2012) (quoting Robinson v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U.S. 337, 340 , 117 S.Ct. 843, 846 , 136 L.Ed.2d 808, 813 (1997)); Tyler v. Douglas, 280 F.3d 116, 122 (2d Cir.2001) (quoting Sullivan v. Cnty. of Suffolk, 174 F.3d 282 , 285 (2d Cir.1999)), cert. denied, 536 U.S. 906 , 122 S.Ct. 2361 , 153 L.Ed.2d 182 (2002). Indeed, though the result may be harsh or impractical, the written text must be applied. See, e.g., Lamie v. U.S. Tr., 540 U.S. 526, 538 , 124 S.Ct. 1023, 1032 , 157 L.Ed.2d 1024, 1036 (2004) (“Our unwillingness to soften the import of Congress’ chosen words even if we believe the words lead to a harsh outcome is longstanding.”); Cent. Trust Co. v. Official Creditors’ Comm. of Geiger Enters., Inc., 454 U.S. 354, 360 , 102 S.Ct. 695, 698 , 70 L.Ed.2d 542, 548 (1982) (per curiam) (‘While the Court of Appeals may have reached a practical result, it was a. result inconsistent with the unambiguous language used by Congress.”); Edwards v. Valero Refining-Meraux, LLC, No. 3:14-00772-JWD- *650 EWD, 2016 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 9898 , at *15 n. 9, 2016 WL 355080 , at *5 n. 9 (M.D.La. Jan. 28, 2016) (“Indeed, laws can often have hard consequences, ... but the words must control absent certain ... exceptions.”).
In ascertaining a statute’s degree of ambiguity or plainness, an interpreter must attend to “the language itself, the specific context in which that language is used, and the broader context of the statute as a whole.” Robinson, 519 U.S. at 341 , 117 S.Ct. 843 ; accord, FCC v. AT & T, Inc., 562 U.S. 397, 407 , 131 S.Ct. 1177, 1184 , 179 L.Ed.2d 132, 141 (2011). In the most mundane instances of statutory construction, it is context that often proves critical. Cf. Towne v. Eisner, 245 U.S. 418, 425 , 38 S.Ct. 158, 159 , 62 L.Ed. 372, 375 (1918) (Holmes, J.) (“A word is not a crystal, transparent and unchanged, it is the skin of a living thought and may vary greatly in color and content according to the circumstances and the time in which it is used.”). The reason has oft been noted. As language is “inherently contextual,” Moskal v. United States, 498 U.S. 103, 108 , 111 S.Ct. 461, 465 , 112 L.Ed.2d 449, 458 (1990), the ambiguity generated by a term’s multiple ordinary connotations can oftentimes be dissipated — and a statute found to be both plain and unambiguous— if it can be determined that “only one of the[se] permissible meanings produces a substantive effect that is compatible with the rest of the law,” Sav. Ass’n v. Timbers of Inwood Forest Assocs., Ltd., 484 U.S. 365, 371 , 108 S.Ct. 626, 630 , 98 L.Ed.2d 740, 748 (1988), quoted in AT & T Mobility LLC v. Concepcion, 563 U.S. 333 , 354, 131 S.Ct. 1740 , 1754, 179 L.Ed.2d 742 , 760 (2011); accord FCC, 562 U.S. at 407 , 131 S.Ct. 1177 ; Nken v. Holder, 556 U.S. 418, 426 , 129 S.Ct. 1749, 1756 , 173 L.Ed.2d 550, 561 (2009). For this reason, “[i]n expounding a statute, ... [courts] must not be guided by a single sentence or member of a sentence, but look to the provisions of the whole law, and to its policy.” Colortex v. Richardson, 19 F.3d 1371 , 1375 (11th Cir.1994) (quoting Offshore Logistics v. Tallentire, 477 U.S. 207, 222 , 106 S.Ct. 2485, 2494 , 91 L.Ed.2d 174, 189 (1986)); accord Hickman v. Texas (In re Hickman), 260 F.3d 400, 403 (5th Cir.2001) (quoting Kelly v. Robinson, 479 U.S. 36, 43 , 107 S.Ct. 353, 357-58 , 93 L.Ed.2d 216, 225 (1986)).
For decades, numerous linguistic, semantic, and syntactic canons have been utilized in this exercise. See generally ANTonin Scalia & Bryan A. Garner, Reading Law: The Inteepretation of Legal Texts (2012). Even if a statute has been found both plain and unambiguous by means of such analysis, courts may reject that meaning’s application if: (1) an absurdity would result; (2) clear and incontrovertible evidence of contrary legislative intent exists; (3) an “obvious clerical or typographical error[ ]” is to blame; or (4) a constitutional conflict would arise. See, e.g., Clark v. Martinez, 543 U.S. 371, 381-82 , 125 S.Ct. 716, 724-25 , 160 L.Ed.2d 734, 747 (2005); U.S. Nat’l Bank v. Indep. Ins. Agents of Am., 508 U.S. 439, 462 , 113 S.Ct. 2173, 2186 , 124 L.Ed.2d 402, 422 (1993); Russello v. United States, 464 U.S. 16, 20 , 104 S.Ct. 296, 299 , 78 L.Ed.2d 17, 22 (1983); Amalgamated Transit Union Local 1309, AFL-CIO v. Laidlaw Transit Servs., Inc., 448 F.3d 1092, 1097 (9th Cir.2006) (Bybee, J., dissenting); United States v. DBB, Inc., 180 F.3d 1277, 1281 (11th Cir.1999). In this jurisprudence, absurdity is narrowly understood, and “odd” things, the byproducts of stray omissions or careless additions, are not necessarily “absurd.” Exxon Mobil Corp. v. Allapattah Servs., Inc., 545 U.S. 546, 565 , 125 S.Ct. 2611, 2624 , 162 L.Ed.2d 502, 525 (2005); see also Durr v. Shinseki, 638 F.3d 1342, 1349 (11th Cir.2011) (holding canon applicable only in “rare situations where the plain language of a statute, at least where read in isolation, yields a result that is *651 both absurd and completely at odds with the entire statutory context in which the language is found”). “The oddity or anomaly of certain consequences” may thus militate against a certain construction, “but it is no basis for disregarding or changing the text,” S calía & GARNER, supra, at 237, especially in light of the courts’ “unwillingness to soften the import of Congress’ chosen words even if we believe the words lead to a harsh outcome,” Lamie, 540 U.S. at 538 , 124 S.Ct. 1023 ; cf. Bd. of Trs. of IBT Local 863 Pension Fund v. C & S Wholesale Grocers, Inc., Woodbridge Logistics LLC, 5 F.Supp.3d 707, 720 (D.N.J.2014) (“Just because the application of ... bright line rules sometimes leads to harsh outcomes does not mean that courts may deviate from them whenever doing so seems fair.”). In all other cases, if the foregoing textual and contextual analysis discloses one certain meaning and the statutory scheme is neither incoherent nor inconsistent, the statute’s import is plain and unambiguous and hence dispositive and conclusive, the court’s sole function “to enforce it according to its terms.” Planned Parenthood Gulf Coast, Inc. v, Kliebert, 141 F.Supp.3d 604, 641 (M.D.La.2015).
V. DISCUSSION
A. THRESHOLD QUESTIONS: RES JUDICATA, IMMUNITY, AND MOOTNESS
Before considering the motions for summary judgment filed by Schedler and the US, this Court must determine whether three separate doctrines — the principles of preclusion and of mootness and the extent, if any, of LA’s constitutional immunity— compel the Complaint’s dismissal. In this analysis, Rule 12 governs. (See, e.g., Doc 340-42, 345.) Accordingly, this Court must grant a presumption of truth to every factual allegation made by the US, the non-movant, and must confíne itself to the pleadings or any documents incorporated by reference. See supra Part IV.A-B; see also, e.g., Chambers v. Time Warner, Inc., 282 F.3d 147, 153 (2d Cir.2002). Relying on no other evidence, this Court does not choose to convert the relevant Dispositive Motions into motions for summary judgment, even though some of the same essential points reappear in Defendants’ miscellaneous filings.
Defendants’ position is straightforward. In their view, their “substantial compliance” with the NVRA in Scott’s aftermath moots the US’ current suit, as it is partly predicated on their pre-Scott misdeeds. (See, e.g., Doc. 340-1 at 1-4; Doc. 407 at 1.) Similarly, as the Scott Matter involved the same issues and was litigated by plaintiffs aligned with the US, claim and issue preclusion foreclose the continuance of this litigation. (See, e.g., (Doc. 340-1 at 4; see also Doc. 185 at 13-15; Doc. 407 at 14-15.) LA alone, in turn, insists on its immunity from suit under the NVRA, pointing to both the Eleventh Amendment and the alleged absence of explicit statutory authority for such suit. (See Doc. 341.) If preclusion does indeed apply, dismissal of some discrete issues should likely follow, and if LA’s position is not legally mistaken, its dismissal as a party would be mandatory. However, as shown below, preclusion cannot foreclose this action in its entirety, and neither the Eleventh Amendment nor the NVRA absolve LA of liability for this law’s violation.
1. Preclusion as to the US 48
a. Introduction: Control and Virtual Representation
As used by the Parties here, (Doc. 340-1 at 3), and as widely accepted, *652 res judicata can refer to two separate preclusion doctrines: claim and issue preclusion. 49 See, e.g., Test Masters Educ. Servs., Inc. v. Singh, 428 F.3d 559 , 571 (5th Cir.2005); Kelly-Hansen v. Kelly-Hansen, 87 Wash.App. 320 , 941 P.2d 1108, 1111-12 (1997). According to binding federal common law, see Semtek Int’l Inc. v. Lockheed Martin Corp., 531 U.S. 497, 507 , 121 S.Ct. 1021, 1027 , 149 L.Ed.2d 32, 42 (2001), claim preclusion serves to preclude litigation of a later claim if four elements are met: “(1) the parties are identical or in privity; (2) the judgment in the prior action was rendered by a court of competent jurisdiction; (3) the prior action was concluded by a final judgment on the merits; and (4) the same claim or cause of action was involved in both action,” Comer v. Murphy Oil USA, 718 F.3d 460, 467 (5th Cir.2013); accord Stevens v. Bank of Am., N.A, 587 Fed.Appx. 130, 132-33 (5th Cir.2014). More simply, this “relevant aspect of res judicata ... prohibits successive litigation of the very same claim by the same parties.” Whole Woman’s Health v. Hellerstedt, — U.S. —, 136 S.Ct. 2292, 2305 , 195 L.Ed.2d 665 (2016) (internal quotation marks omitted) (citing New Hampshire v. Maine, 532 U.S. 742, 748 , 121 S.Ct. 1808, 1814 , 149 L.Ed.2d 968, 976-77 (2001)). 50 Issue preclusion applies when the following three elements are met: “(1) the issue at stake must be identical to the one involved in the prior action; (2) the issue must have been actually litigated in the *653 prior action; and (3) the determination of the issue in the prior action must have been a part of the judgment in that earlier action.” Southmark Corp. v. Coopers & Lybrand (In re Southmark Corp.), 163 F.3d 925, 932 (5th Cir.1999).
Regardless of the form of preclusion applicable, an effective congruence of interest between a former litigant and the present party is required. See, e.g., Taylor, 553 U.S. at 893-96, 128 S.Ct. 2161 ; Stephens v. Jessup, 793 F.3d 941, 944-45 (8th Cir.2015); Virnich v. Vorwald, 664 F.3d 206, 216 (7th Cir.2011). The reason for this requirement is clear, as “a person who was not a party to a suit generally has not had a full and fair opportunity to litigate the claims and issues settled in that suit.” Taylor, 553 U.S. at 892-93 , 128 S.Ct. 2161 (internal quotation marks omitted). In Taylor v. Sturgell, at least six relationships were recognized as creating the requisite link by the Supreme Court. Id. at 893-96, 128 S.Ct. 2161 . Here, Defendants rely on only two, insisting the US either controlled the Scott Plaintiffs or was “adequately represented” by these private parties. 51
For two reasons, this Court cannot preclude the US from re-litigating those factual and legal allegations not definitively adjudicated by the Scott court and Defendants’ allegedly ongoing noncompliance with the NVRA.
b. Insufficient Evidence of Control
First and foremost, despite the US’ obvious interest in the Scott litigation, its involvement was simply too minimal for this Court to conclude that it “assume[d] control over [that] litigation,” Montana v. United States, 440 U.S. 147, 154 , 99 S.Ct. 970, 974 , 59 L.Ed.2d 210, 218 (1979); accord, e.g., Donley v. Hudson’s Salvage, LLC, No. 10-3223, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 136908 , at *38-39, 2011 WL 5930473 , at *14 (E.D.La. Nov. 29, 2011). “To have control of litigation requires that a person have effective choice as to the legal theories and proofs to be advanced in behalf of the party to the action ... [and] must also have control over the opportunity to obtain review.” Freeman v. Lester Coggins Trucking Inc., 771 F.2d 860 , 864 n. 3 (5th Cir.1985). A “typical example[]” occurs when the nonparty is but the party’s alter ego. Dudley v. Smith, 504 F.2d 979, 982 (5th Cir. 1974), cited in Freeman, 771 F.2d at 864 ; see also Robin Singh Educ. Servs. Inc. v. Excel Test Prep Inc., 274 Fed.Appx. 399 , 400 n. 1 (5th Cir.2008).
Beyond this oft-cited example, due to this high standard, only a handful of other examples can be found in the case law. In one famed case — Montana v. United States — the requisite control by the government was indeed found. Montana, 440 U.S. at 155 , 99 S.Ct. 970 . That finding, however, came only after the United States stipulated that it (1) had required the first lawsuit to be filed, (2) reviewed and approved the complaint, (3) paid the plaintiffs attorneys’ fees and costs, (4) directed the appeal from the state district court to the Montana Supreme Court, (5) appeared and submitted a brief as amicus in the Montana Supreme Court, (6) directed the filing of a notice of appeal to the Supreme Court, and (7) effectuated Kiew-it’s abandonment of that appeal on advice of the Solicitor General. Id. As these and other examples show, decisive evidence of domination over a party’s strategy, presen *654 tation, and procedural maneuvers must be provided by the party demanding preclusion’s application. See, e.g., Donley, 2011 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 136908 , at *26, 2011 WL 5930473 , at *9; cf. United States v. Bhatia, 545 F.3d 757, 759-60 (9th Cir.2008) (“[A] court must evaluate whether the relationship between the nonparty and a party .was such that the nonparty had the same practical opportunity to control the course of the proceedings.” (emphasis added) (internal quotation marks omitted)).
Here, no such overwhelming evidence of the domination required by Montana and its progeny appears in either case’s docket. That the US filed a single statement of interest and a single amicus brief and presented a five-minute argument before the Fifth Circuit does not show that it so tightly managed and supervised the Scott Plaintiffs’ litigation. Yet, no more than these few facts have been shown. (Doc. 185 at 9-10; see also Doc. 340-1 at 4.) Nor does the unproven allegation that a US attorney observed the Scott proceedings and conferred with counsel for the Scott Plaintiffs throughout trial, (Doc. 185 at 10 n.37; see also Doc. 340-1 at 4), demonstrate that the US dictated these private persons’ every move or framed their every argument. See, e.g., United States v. Davis, 906 F.2d 829, 833 (2d Cir.1990). Unlike in Montana , the US did not “require” that the first lawsuit be filed; it did not “review and approve” the complaint; it did not pay attorneys’ costs and fees; it did not “direct” the Scott Plaintiffs’ appeal to the Fifth Circuit or “direct” the filing of a notice of appeal to the Supreme Court; and it did not “effectuate [the] abandonment” of any such appeal. Montana, 440 U.S. at 155 , 99 S.Ct. 970 . In Montana , the US stipulated to these pivotal facts; neither here nor before the Scott Court, has it done so.
True, the US’ actions do indicate its interest in the Scott Matter and even its hopes for the success of these private actors. However, this fails to prove that the US possessed “effective choice as to the legal theories and proofs to be advanced in behalf of the party to the action.” Freeman, 771 F.2d at 864 n. 3; see also Algie v. RCA Global Commc’n, 891 F.Supp. 839, 852 (S.D.N.Y.1994) (“[A] purported controlling non-party must, at least, be able to decide what legal theories and evidence should be advanced in the first action and whether an appeal should be taken from an adverse decision.”). Rather, these facts are cumulatively too minor to support preclusion’s application, as numerous authorities have recognized. See, e.g., Nat’l Fuel Gas Distrib. Corp. v. TGX Corp., 950 F.2d 829 , 839 (2d Cir.1991) (participation as amicus insufficient to demonstrate control under New York law); Va. Hosp. Ass’n v. Baliles, 830 F.2d 1308 , 1313 (4th Cir.1987) (observing that a nonparty’s “substantial interest in establishing favorable precedent under the doctrine of stare decisis cannot preclude the nonparty from later relitigating issues determined in the prior suit” and adding that “a nonparty is not deemed to have control over litigation simply because he procures witnesses or evidence for a party to the suit” (internal quotation marks omitted); Restatement (Second) of Judgments § 39 cmt. c (1983) (“It is not sufficient ... [to prove control] that the person merely contributed funds or advice in support of the party, supplied counsel to the party, or appeared as ami-cus curia.”).
In fact, in the decades since Montana , the Fifth Circuit has not bucked this pattern nor strayed from such a narrow construction. Thus, after enumerating three examples of “necessary” control — “the president and sole shareholder,” “parent corporation” which controls its “subsidiary,” and “an indemnitor defending] an action against an indemnitee” — the Fifth Circuit once warned: “[L]esser measures of participation without control do not suf *655 fice.” Benson & Ford, Inc. v. Wanda Petroleum Co., 833 F.2d 1172, 1174 (5th Cir.1987). It then proceeded to add the following as insufficient:
Thus it is not enough [that] the nonparty supplied an attorney or is represented by the same law firm; helped to finance the litigation; appeared as an amicus curiae; testified as a witness; participated in consolidated pretrial proceedings; undertook some limited presentations to the court; or otherwise participated in a limited way.
Id.-, accord, e.g., Hinsley v. Boudloche (In re Hinsley), No. 97-20967, 1998 U.S. App. LEXIS 39954 , at *26, 1998 WL 414302, at *9 (5th Cir. July 15, 1998).
Viewed in toto, the facts indicate nothing more than the US’ bare interest, the evidence of supposed control presented by Defendants discounted by the Fifth Circuit in its distinct precedents, including Benson & Ford, Inc. v. Wanda Petroleum Company, 833 F.2d at 1174 ; see also, e.g., Royal Ins. Co. of Am. v. Quinn-L Capital Corp., 960 F.2d 1286, 1297 (5th Cir.1992) (requiring “an express or implied legal relationship between the party and the nonparty “in which [the] party to the first suit [is] accountable to [the] non-party who files a subsequent suit raising identical issues” (alteration in original) (internal quotation marks omitted)). With Defendants having failed to satisfy their heavy burden of demonstrating clear domination as long defined by multiple courts, see, e.g., Terrell v. DeConna, 877 F.2d 1267, 1271 (5th Cir.1989); Jon Jon’s Inc. v. City of Warren, 534 Fed.Appx. 541, 543 (6th Cir.2013); Buck v. Thomas M. Cooley Law Sch., 597 F.3d 812, 816 (6th Cir.2010), this Court finds the conduct by the US in the Scott litigation to be insufficient to trigger preclusion on this basis, cf. Hastings v. Judicial Conf. of U.S., 829 F.2d 91, 101 (D.C.Cir.1987). At best, no more than “participation” has been confirmed, and the requisite “actual control” not shown. See Benson & Ford, Inc., 833 F.2d at 1174 ; Fitzgibbon v. Martin Cnty. Coal Corp., Civ. No. 05-36, 2007 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 30388 , at *23-24, 2007 WL 1231509 , at *8-9 (E.D.Ky. Apr. 25, 2007).
c. Insufficient Indicia of Virtual Representation
Similarly, this Court cannot regard the Scott Plaintiffs as having been the US’ “virtual representatives,” as Defendants have also repeatedly maintained. As the Supreme Court and Fifth Circuit have stressed, this concept contemplates only a limited set of relationships: estate beneficiaries bound by administrators, presidents and sole stockholders by their companies, parent corporations by their subsidiaries, and a trust beneficiary by the trustee. Taylor , 553 U.S at 895, 128 S.Ct. 2161 ; Kinnison v. Humana Health Plan of Tex., Inc., Civ.A. No. C-07-381, 2008 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 47289 , at *33, 2008 WL 2446051 , at *10 (S.D.Tex. June 17, 2008) (summarizing Fifth Circuit jurisprudence). For its part, the Fifth Circuit has stressed that “virtual” or “adequate” representation “demands the existence of an express or implied legal relationship in which parties to the first suit are accountable to nonparties who file a subsequent suit raising identical issues.” Freeman, 771 F.2d at 864 ; see also, e.g., Taylor, 553 U.S. at 904 , 128 S.Ct. 2161 ; Pollard v. Cockrell, 578 F.2d 1002, 1008 (5th Cir.1978); Reneker v. Offill, No. 3:08-CV-1394-D, 2012 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 83017 , at *53 n. 17, 2012 WL 2158733 , at *16 n. 17 (N.D.Tex. June 14, 2012); Limon v. Berryco Barge Lines, L.L.C., 779 F.Supp.2d 577, 583 (S.D.Tex.2011). Such representation, it clarified, “requires more than a showing of parallel interests — it is not enough that the non-party may be interested in the same questions or proving the same facts.” Eubanks v. Fed. Deposit Ins. Co., 977 F.2d 166 , 170 (5th Cir.1992). Just as the Supreme Court *656 specifically rejected “an expansive doctrine of virtual representation,” Taylor , 553 U.S at 896, 128 S.Ct. 2161 , so has the Fifth Circuit, see, e.g., In re Hinsley, 1998 U.S

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/7239082. Public record. Not legal advice.