# State v. Loftin

> Supreme Court of New Jersey · August 8, 1996 · 146 N.J. 295

URL: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/1992848

## Case

- **Full name:** State of New Jersey, Plaintiff-Respondent, v. Donald Loftin, Defendant-Appellant
- **Court:** Supreme Court of New Jersey
- **Decided:** August 8, 1996
- **Citations:** 146 N.J. 295; 680 A.2d 677; 1996 N.J. LEXIS 970
- **Precedential status:** Published
- **Opinion:** Opinion
- **Judges:** Garibaldi, Handler, O'Hern
- **Cited by:** 191 later opinions in the Frix Law Library

## Citator (automated)

- No negative treatment found by the automated citator. That is not the same as a confirmation that the case is good law; read the citing cases.
- Full citator and citing cases: https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/1992848

## How later opinions describe it (automated extraction)

- finding that State presented sufficient circumstantial evidence to support c(4)(f) factor even when defendant wore mask because *226 victim “might have been able to identify his assailant’s voice, height, weight, and overall build”
- concluding it was unlikely "that a juror would have been so affected by the sight of defendant engaging in the act of credit card fraud that she or he would have been moved to convict defendant of the violent crime of murder"
- stating that jury should be informed of *130 defendant’s prior sentences if “there is a reasonable likelihood that [the judge] will impose a sentence to be served consecutively to any of defendant’s prior sentences”
- stating that jury should be informed of defendant's prior sentences if "there is a reasonable likelihood that [the judge] will impose a sentence to be served consecutively to any of defendant's prior sentences"
- holding defendant in allocution is not authorized to argue legal points, advance or dispute facts, or attempt to exculpate himself; Homick, 825 P.2d at 604-05 (same) (citing Zola, 548 A.2d at 1046); State v. Mak, 105 Wash.2d 692, 718 P.2d 407 (1986)

## Opinion text

146 N.J. 295 (1996)
680 A.2d 677
STATE OF NEW JERSEY, PLAINTIFF-RESPONDENT,
v.
DONALD LOFTIN, DEFENDANT-APPELLANT.
The Supreme Court of New Jersey.
Argued April 30, 1996.
Decided August 8, 1996.
*317 Daniel V. Gautieri and Susan Herman, Assistant Deputies Public Defender, argued the cause for appellant ( Susan L. Reisner, Public Defender, attorney).
Paul H. Heinzel, Deputy Attorney General, argued the cause for respondent ( Deborah T. Poritz, Attorney General of New Jersey, attorney).
The opinion of the Court was delivered by GARIBALDI, J.
A jury convicted defendant, Donald Loftin, of the murder of Gary K. Marsh. At the penalty-phase hearing, a separately empanelled jury returned a death-penalty verdict, and the trial court sentenced defendant to death. Defendant appeals directly *318 to this Court as of right. See Rule 2:2-1(a)(3). We affirm defendant's conviction for murder and his sentence of death.
I
A. Guilt Phase
1. The crime
On May 5, 1992, Gary Marsh was working the midnight to six-thirty a.m. shift at an Exxon service station located on Alternate Route One in Lawrenceville, New Jersey. Marsh had a key to the office that was located behind the gas pumps, away from the highway. At approximately 4:10 a.m., E. Thomas Citron stopped for gas at the station. He paid for his gas with a fifty-dollar bill.
David Paddock was scheduled to relieve Marsh at 6:30 a.m. Arriving early, at approximately 6:10 a.m., he waited in his parked truck. Paddock observed a customer pull up to the pumps, wait without service, and ultimately leave. Paddock then left his truck to find Marsh.
Approaching the station office, Paddock saw three large planters, a cola machine, a pile of pink slip receipts, and a half-eaten orange. The orange was found on the ground just outside the passenger door of Marsh's car. Paddock further observed the office keys in the door. The door was unlocked, but pulled closed. Marsh lay inside the office, his head in a puddle of blood. Paddock closed down the station and called the Lawrenceville Police. The murder had occurred between Citron's visit at 4:10 a.m. and Paddock finding Marsh at 6:10 a.m.
Marsh lay on his back with his head located three feet from the front doorway that was located in the northeast corner of the office. Officer Maple, one of the first police officers on the scene, observed that a large amount of blood was on the floor next to Marsh's head. His feet were pointed toward the southwest (back) corner of the office. Marsh's arms were at his side and his eyes *319 were shut. His right eye was black and blue. Although still alive, Marsh was unconscious and struggling for breath.
Marsh's clothing did not appear to have been disturbed. His pockets were not turned out and he still was in possession of some personal items, including three dollar bills, some change, and lottery tickets. A spent brass shell casing was found on the office floor, four to six inches from Marsh's left ear. Further, the cash drawer sat empty on one of the counters and there was also some loose change on the floor. Closer examination of the station office revealed several crucial pieces of evidence. Although no fingerprints of defendant were found anywhere in or around the station, the bullet used to kill Marsh served a similar purpose. The bullet that killed Marsh was found behind a pegboard that hung on the back wall of the office. A few of Marsh's hairs were removed from the area of the bullet hole. Later ballistics testing traced that bullet to a .380 caliber Bryco Model 48 pistol, purchased by defendant from D & S Gun Supplies of Levittown, Pennsylvania, and subsequently discovered by the police in defendant's car under the dashboard.
Additionally, Mr. Peterson, the station owner, determined that approximately ninety dollars had been taken from that evening's revenue. Moreover, although Mr. Citron reported purchasing gas from Marsh with a fifty-dollar bill around 4:00 a.m., there was no fifty-dollar bill in the proceeds or on Marsh's person. Defendant was in possession of a fifty-dollar bill at the time of his arrest. However, the two fingerprints detected on that bill did not belong to Marsh, Loftin, or Citron.
Further examination of the office revealed the absence of a struggle, a significant fact because the office is particularly small and narrow. Without taking account of the furniture in the office, the dimensions of the room are nine feet seven inches by thirteen feet, five inches. The office furniture did, however, consume considerable floor space. As Officer Maple testified, "Nothing appeared to be touched or disturbed or moved or appeared out of place. I mean, it was ... the office was, to me appeared basically *320 untouched. There was no signs of any struggle or anybody going through or gone through anything there."
Marsh never regained consciousness and died approximately nine and one half hours after he was discovered bleeding in the Exxon station. The next day, Mercer County's Chief Medical Examiner, Dr. Raafat Ahmad, conducted an autopsy and concluded that the cause of death was a gunshot wound to the head and that the manner of death was homicide. The entry wound was located in the left temporal region, with the bullet grazing the top of the left ear on entry. The bullet penetrated Marsh's skull, passed directly through both hemispheres of his brain, and exited on the opposite side at the right temporoparietal area, slightly above the right temple. Dr. Ahmad opined that the bullet's slight upward path through the skull was possibly caused by the tilting of the head on impact. The bullet caused fracturing lines to run from the top to the base of the skull on both sides. The doctor testified that Marsh's right eye was black and blue as a result of the bullet causing fractures inside the skull and the blood seeping into the eye area.
Dr. Ahmad observed that Marsh had no external injuries, cuts, or bruises. There were no "defense wounds" on the hands or arms that would have been indicative of a struggle.
2. The arrest
Because the police had been unable to find Marsh's wallet, Detective Burns notified each of Marsh's credit card companies that a murder and robbery had taken place. Burns requested that the Lawrenceville Police should be contacted if anyone attempted to use the cards.
Defendant was arrested four days after the murder, on May 9, 1992, when he attempted to purchase a family computer from a Sears store in Pennsylvania with a Sears charge card belonging to Marsh. After selecting a computer system, defendant agreed to open a "Sears Plus" account in order to help finance the purchase. *321 Defendant handed the Sears sales representative, Mr. Cassidy, the driver's license and Sears charge card belonging to Marsh.
Mr. Cassidy called the central credit office and spoke with John Metzler. Cassidy provided some general information to Metzler and then Metzler spoke directly to defendant, who identified himself as Gary Marsh and provided Metzler with relevant factual information, including Gary Marsh's name, social security card number, age, address, and the fact that he was employed by Exxon.
Metzler discovered the message from the Lawrenceville Police as soon as he accessed Marsh's account. Metzler thereupon instructed Cassidy to stall defendant because this was a potential case of credit fraud. Mr. Metzler then called the Lawrenceville Police and thereafter the Middletown Police, as well as store security. Store security videotaped the events leading up to and including the arrest of defendant for receiving stolen property, fraudulent use of a credit card, and theft by deception. The videotape of the arrest was played to the jury at the guilt and penalty phases of the trial.
A search of defendant's person was conducted at Sears, whereupon the police recovered his bi-fold wallet from his left breast pocket. The wallet did not belong to Marsh, but when Officer Burnett searched the plastic insert of the wallet at the Middletown Township police station, he found four of Marsh's cards: two credit cards, a social security card, and a health insurance card.
Also found in the wallet were both Mr. Loftin's and Mr. Marsh's driver's licenses; some identification and health plan cards in Mr. Loftin's name; various cards belonging to Mr. Marsh including credit cards, a bank card, and a vehicle registration card; a gun permit in Mr. Loftin's name from the State of Washington; a receipt [from D & S Gun Supplies of Levittown, Pennsylvania] for the purchase of a [.380 caliber Bryco Model 48 pistol and the receipt indicating that Loftin paid in full for the gun,] and a fifty-dollar bill. The items that belonged to Marsh and defendant were mixed in together, and the date and eye color on Marsh's driver's *322 license had been altered so as to conform to defendant's appearance. None of the items in the wallet indicated that Marsh had worked at Exxon.
At the time of the offense, defendant, who was twenty-six years old, was residing with his wife Dorothy and two young children, in Bristol, Pennsylvania. The police obtained and executed a search warrant of defendant's home and car. At his home they found a box in a closet that contained 500 rounds for a .380 caliber weapon, and a smaller box that contained twenty-six (of its original fifty) bullets. Various items for making one's own ammunition were also found and confiscated, including smokeless powder, reloading dies, a reloading scale, a powder measurer, and a turret press. The ammunition that was confiscated from Loftin's home was compatible with the murder weapon. An application form for a gun club was seized from the living room closet. The police also confiscated several articles of clothing from defendant's home. Neither blood nor gunshot residue was detected on any of Loftin's possessions.
In defendant's car, the police found the murder weapon, a .380 caliber gun equipped with a safety that required ten and one half pounds of weight in order to fire the gun. The gun found in defendant's car bore a serial number matching the serial number on a receipt for a recent gun purchase found in defendant's wallet. State Trooper Stephen Deady, the State's ballistics and firearms expert, testified that the spent shell retrieved along-side Marsh's head, and the bullet retrieved from the Exxon office wall behind the pegboard, had both been fired and discharged from defendant's gun. The weapon was hidden under the dashboard on the driver's side. Also in defendant's car were two magazines for a semi-automatic weapon. One magazine was empty and one was partially loaded. There was also a "side-kick" shoulder holster under the driver's seat.
The police additionally found a plastic mask in defendant's car. However, the mask was not confiscated as evidence, and no member of the team that searched defendant's car mentioned *323 finding the mask. Rather, it was only during the penalty-phase cross-examination of Detective Burns that for the first time the State acknowledged the mask's existence.
On September 11, 1992, defendant was indicted on four counts: purposefully or knowingly murdering Gary K. Marsh by his own conduct, contrary to N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3a(1) and (2) (count I); felony murder, contrary to N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3a(3) (count II); first-degree robbery, contrary to N.J.S.A. 2C:15-1 (count III); and second-degree possession of a handgun with a purpose to use it unlawfully, contrary to N.J.S.A. 2C:39-4a (count IV). Defendant pleaded not guilty.
Subsequently, the State served a notice of its intent to prove three aggravating factors: N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(4)(a)(c(4)(a)) (conviction for another murder); N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(4)(f)(c(4)(f)) (murder to escape apprehension for another offense); and N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(4)(g) (c(4)(g)) (murder committed during the course of a robbery). The c(4)(a) prior-murder aggravating factor is based on an Atlantic County conviction for the March 28, 1992, knowing or purposeful murder of sixty-nine year old Sophia Fetter. Defendant was convicted of the Fetter murder on September 22, 1993. His conviction was affirmed by the Appellate Division. State v. Loftin, 287 N.J. Super. 76 , 670 A. 2d 557 (App.Div. 1996). We denied defendant's petition for certification concerning the Atlantic County murder. 144 N.J. 175 , 675 A. 2d 1123 (1996).
The guilt and penalty phases of the trial were tried before different juries with the same judge presiding over both phases. Defendant filed several pretrial motions including a motion to strike aggravating factor c(4)(f). Those motions were denied.
The State presented witnesses and evidence, including a videotape of defendant's arrest at Sears, to establish the above-mentioned facts. Defendant did not testify and called no witnesses at the guilt phase. Prior to summations, the State moved to preclude the defense from arguing that the killing was the result of "a robbery gone bad." The defense argued that it should be allowed to make arguments from the absence of evidence about what had *324 occurred at the gas station and from Dr. Ahmad's testimony that the evidence did not preclude an accidental shooting. The trial court barred the defense from presenting the "robbery gone bad" argument, stating that there was not sufficient evidence to support it.
On July 8, 1994, defendant was found guilty on all counts. Specifically, the jury concluded that defendant's intent was to kill the victim, Gary Marsh, as opposed to causing him serious bodily injury. The jury also found that defendant had murdered Gary Marsh by his own conduct.
B. Penalty Phase
Prior to the penalty phase trial, defendant filed a Notice of Mitigating Factors which included the following four statutory mitigating factors:
1. Defendant was under the influence of extreme mental or emotional disturbance insufficient to constitute a defense to prosecution, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(5)(a);
2. Defendant's age, 26 at the time of the murder, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(5)(c);
3. Defendant's capacity to appreciate the wrongfulness of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of the law was significantly impaired as the result of mental disease or defect, but not to a degree sufficient to constitute a defense to prosecution, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(5)(d);
4. Defendant had no significant history of prior criminal activity, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(5)(f).
Defendant also proposed twenty-nine specific factors pursuant to the catch-all statutory mitigating factor, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(5)(h):
5. Defendant was traumatized by the loss of his father at an early age;
6. Defendant was traumatized by a fire he accidentally set that resulted in the loss of the family home;
7. Defendant was emotionally impoverished when growing up;
8. Defendant was deprived of an environment where he could verbalize his sense of loss;
9. Defendant was raised in poverty;
10. Defendant was deprived of a positive male role model while growing up;
11. Defendant was a considerate and loving son;
12. Defendant provided his siblings with a positive sense of direction;
13. Defendant developed and evidenced strong spiritual and religious standards;
*325 14. Defendant assumed the responsibility of the man in the family before he was emotionally and financially prepared to do so;
15. Defendant was forced to become estranged from his family after he got married, choosing to align himself with his wife at the expense of his family of origin;
16. Defendant was traumatized by the loss of his first son, but did not have the support of his mother to help him deal with his pain;
17. Defendant maintained employment and provided for his wife and children;
18. Defendant served in the United States Navy;
19. Defendant attended Bucks County Community College;
20. Defendant shared a positive relationship with his wife and children;
21. Defendant had been a model prisoner;
22. Defendant had led a crime-free and productive existence for the first 26 years of his life;
23. Defendant had been generous to those less fortunate than himself;
24. Defendant was under the influence of mental and emotional pressure at the time the crime was committed;
25. Defendant was suffering from impaired mental capacity at the time the crime was committed;
26. Defendant was a loving father;
27. Defendant's execution would be a hardship to his family;
28. Defendant's execution would be a hardship to his 5 year old daughter, Danielle;
29. Defendant's execution would be a hardship to his 3 year old son, Jay;
30. Defendant had the love and support of his family;
31. Defendant had sincere and heartfelt remorse;
32. Defendant offered the State to plead guilty in exchange for a life sentence;
33. Any other mitigating evidence presented at the trial.
Numerous motions were made before the penalty phase of the trial began on November 14, 1994. On September 13, 1994, the trial court granted defendant's motion to expand the allotted peremptory challenges, providing him with five additional challenges and the State with three. The trial court denied defendant's request to establish the "likelihood that defendant would die in prison" as an additional mitigating factor under the catch-all factor. The court granted the State's motion to strike mitigating factors twenty-seven through thirty as irrelevant. However, the court later reversed its ruling on mitigating factor thirty.
*326 A separate penalty-phase determined whether defendant deserved to die. The aggravating factors offered by the State were: (1) evidence of a prior murder, (2) murder during the course of a robbery, and (3) murder to avoid apprehension.
At the penalty phase, the State called many of the same witnesses that appeared at the guilt phase including Gunnar Marsh (Gary's father), Dr. Ahmad, David Paddock, Edward Peterson, Officer Mosner, Detective Burns, Officer Burnett, and Trooper Deady, all of whom testified in a manner consistent with the evidence adduced at the guilt phase. Gunner Marsh added, however, that Gary did not know defendant, nor did he own or carry a handgun. Detective Burns indicated that a mask had been found in defendant's car. Dr. Charles Martinson, the State's expert, testified that defendant indicated that he had been wearing the mask during the robbery. As at the guilt phase, the Sears surveillance videotape was shown to the jury.
With respect to the prior murder aggravating factor, the parties stipulated that defendant had been convicted of the March 28, 1992 murder of Sophia Fetter, by a single gunshot wound to the head. Ms. Fetter was sixty-nine years old and a total stranger to defendant. Although the court instructed the jury that defendant received thirty years without parole on the Atlantic County sentence, the defense was not permitted to submit to the jury, in mitigation of punishment, that a second life sentence imposed as a result of the Marsh murder would result in defendant's likely dying in prison.
In mitigation, defendant called Charles Jurman, his attorney at the Fetter murder trial. Jurman testified about defendant's willingness to accept the Mercer County Prosecutor's Office tentative plea offer of consecutive life sentences in exchange for defendant pleading guilty to both the Fetter and Marsh murders. Jurman, however, acknowledged that the State had never formalized that offer. Jurman also testified that defendant had no prior criminal record, aside from the Atlantic County murder, the Mercer County murder, and the related credit-card offenses in *327 Pennsylvania. He also stated that defendant was not a drug user, alcoholic, or compulsive gambler. Over the defense's objection, Jurman testified that his investigation for and experience in representing defendant failed to reveal that defendant suffered from any mental disease or defect that could be raised as a defense to the prosecution of the Atlantic County murder.
Next, Jennifer Blumberg, a penal counselor at the Mercer County Detention Center, testified that no "major" disciplinary actions had been brought against defendant and that he was a "model inmate."
Defendant did not testify, but told the story of his life primarily through Carmeta Albarus, an expert in conducting psychosocial histories, Dr. Dougherty, a defense psychologist, and a few close family members.
Albarus constructed a social history of defendant by engaging in repeated interviews with him, his family members, and with other significant people in his life. Albarus also personally reviewed institutional records on defendant such as his school, Navy, and employment records. The goal of her investigation was to explore patterns of behavior in the family system in order to help her draw conclusions about defendant. On cross-examination, the State brought out that Albarus was not a psychiatrist, psychologist, social worker, or attorney. She also acknowledged that all of her prior appearances in capital cases had been on behalf of defendants.
Albarus testified that defendant was one of seven children born to Fred and Ellen Loftin. Fred Loftin was the more nurturing parent, but a poor provider. When Donald was five, Fred Loftin suddenly disappeared. Mrs. Loftin was left pregnant, with seven children, and a great amount of debt.
Mrs. Loftin worked constantly and extremely hard to keep her children dressed, fed, and educated. Albarus testified that the strain of being the sole provider meant Mrs. Loftin was rarely home, and that she had little ability to nurture the children at *328 home. Albarus believed that Mrs. Loftin was never able to relate to her children in a warm or maternal manner because she came from a dysfunctional and abusive upbringing and dealt with extraordinary stresses.
In the year following Fred Loftin's abandonment of his family, conditions deteriorated. Defendant, at six-years old, set his mattress on fire and as a result the family home burned to the ground. The Loftins, already on public assistance, were moved to a one bedroom hotel room. Though only planning to stay for a brief period, the Loftins actually remained for an extended period. Defendant never received counseling to explore why he acted out in this manner or to help him with the guilt and trauma of causing such a significant event.
Albarus related that Fred Loftin did attempt to resurface in the children's lives on two separate occasions. In the first instance, when defendant was approximately eleven or twelve, Fred Loftin called his family and invited his children to visit him in Denver, Colorado. Defendant was the only child that refused to meet his father. In the second instance, Fred Loftin came home to visit. Although the transcript is unclear, it appears that defendant was in his early twenties when his father returned. At that time, defendant did confront his father, demanding an answer to why he had left the family. Defendant received no explanation, and never fully resolved the issue. Although Albarus testified on direct that defendant's father's departure "traumatized" defendant, she acknowledged that a report prepared by Dr. Ryno Jackson, a defense-retained psychiatrist, concluded that "Donald does not recall having any feeling regarding his father's leaving."
According to Albarus, defendant was always struggling to "do the right thing" and be the "perfect son." Even when younger, he seemed to want to take responsibility for his mother. Although defendant did drop out of school during a brief stint of marijuana use in his early teens, he soon found a flyer advertising the road to salvation through Jesus. Defendant chose to pursue that avenue. Returning to school, defendant completed his G.E.D. The testimony *329 adduced at trial indicates that defendant actually expended significant time and effort trying to help his siblings get on or stay on the right path.
When defendant was twenty-years old, he married Dorothy McMillan. According to Albarus, as a result of Ellen Loftin's strong disapproval, defendant felt compelled to abandon his first family in order to remain loyal to his new family. The separation was most painful when Donald and Dorothy's first son was still-born and Mrs. Loftin did not attend the funeral.
Defendant and Dorothy had a conflict-filled relationship, although the extent to which the conflicts manifested themselves in various forms of domestic violence was disputed at trial. The conflicts seemed to have several roots. First, defendant and Dorothy each had their own, rather uncompromising, visions of the proper role for a wife. Defendant's vision was far more conservative. Conflicts in the marriage also seem to have been rooted in, or exacerbated by, defendant's inability to achieve the success he desired. Defense experts suggested that Donald wanted to be the provider that his father was not. Defendant went through a number of careers, never attaining the goals to which he aspired. Defendant moved himself and his family to Denver. He eventually joined the Navy and was fairly successful. Within a year, he was assigned to ship duty. Unable to stand the idea of separation and survival in a new place with their young daughter, Dorothy Loftin attempted suicide on the day that defendant was scheduled to sail. He then obtained a general discharge to attend to his wife.
After his discharge from the Navy, defendant sent Dorothy home to her family in Pennsylvania. Eventually, however, defendant did return home to live with Dorothy's family and work with his father-in-law. Defendant then decided to return to auto-mechanic school. While successfully completing his training at Lincoln Institute, defendant never obtained a job as a mechanic. Rather, he was able only to find work washing cars. Ultimately he and his wife each decided to return to school at Bucks County *330 Community College. Dorothy Loftin did very well at college, but defendant was not performing on a passing level. He refused to seek counseling for his grades or to handle the depression and frustration resulting from his performance.
Although the conflicts can be identified with some certainty, how these conflicts manifested themselves within the relationship is less clear. Probation Officer Daria Christie, the Atlantic County case supervisor who prepared the presentence report following defendant's conviction for the Fetter murder, testified that in a phone interview Dorothy Loftin indicated that she was unhappy in the marriage, that defendant was "very spiteful," and that defendant "frequently abused" her and the children. Rather than taking responsibility for his actions, Dorothy Loftin reportedly said that defendant shifted the blame. Christie also testified that Dorothy Loftin refrained from calling the police because she was fearful of defendant. Dorothy Loftin also allegedly reported that defendant was mentally abusive.
When questioned on direct and cross-examination, however, Dorothy Loftin denied ever stating that defendant "abused" her or the children. Although Mrs. Loftin acknowledged that defendant hit her on one occasion, she testified that she did not call the police because she had no bruises and did not see a need to call; she denied that she feared reprisal if she called.
Both the defense and the State presented testimony of psychologists who evaluated defendant's mental health. Dr. Edward J. Dougherty, a defense psychology expert, concluded that defendant's aberrant behavior was consistent with the fact that he suffered from "borderline personality disorder." On direct examination, Dr. Dougherty explained that the disorder manifests as
a pervasive pattern of instability of personal relationships. Self-image sometimes marked passivity. [sic] Begins in early adulthood and appears in various ways. It takes a long time to develop. It is a very serious personality disorder.
A person is believed to suffer this disorder if he or she satisfies five out of nine criteria set forth in the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-IV). Dr. *331 Dougherty testified that defendant met six or seven of the nine criteria.
He demonstrated: (1) frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment ... (2) a pattern of unstable and intense interpersonal relationships characterized by alternating between extremes of idealization and devaluation (overidealization of his wife and mother); (3) identity disturbance: markedly and persistently unstable self-image or sense of self; (6) affective instability due to a marked reactivity of mood ... (7) chronic feelings of emptiness ... (8) inappropriate, intense anger or difficulty controlling anger ... and (9) transient, stress-related paranoid ideation or severe dissociative symptoms.
Dr. Dougherty further opined that defendant was experiencing moderate to severe symptoms when he committed the offenses. Dougherty based this conclusion on the degree of stress that defendant was laboring under at the time. Unlike the structured environments that defendant had experienced in the Navy, auto-mechanic school, or prison, defendant was struggling through a period where he did not have structure or stability. He was failing objectively — in school, in his relationship with his wife, in his employment endeavors — yet fighting to maintain the image he hoped to achieve by putting on the appearance of success. Dr. Dougherty explained that
Donald Loftin sees the world in black and white ... no grey areas. This is how he judges people and life. And when he doesn't see, when he starts being faced with the reality of the world, there are gray areas in everything, he can't handle it. Dealing with people, dealing with jobs, dealing with identity.
The defense also called numerous family members who corroborated much of the factual background information provided by Albarus, described their relationships with defendant, and begged the jury to spare his life. Some of the family members who testified included defendant's wife, parents, sisters, twin brother, and his father-in-law. None of these witnesses testified that defendant was abused during his childhood, and all indicated that defendant's mother was devoted to her children.
In rebuttal, the State called Dr. Charles Martinson as its psychiatric expert. Dr. Martinson concluded that defendant did not suffer from any mental illness, disease, defect, or disorder as defined in the DSM-IV. Rather, Dr. Martinson asserted that defendant committed the murder for economic reasons. Dr. Martinson *332 added that the only "remorse" defendant exhibited occurred when he learned that Marsh held two jobs. Defendant's responses in a "sentence completion test" administered by a defense-retained psychologist also revealed defendant's lack of remorse. For example, when asked to complete the sentence beginning "My greatest mistake was ..." defendant wrote, "become incarcerated." "I don't know how ..." was completed to read "I allowed myself to get into this predicament." "I feel bad when ..." was completed with "I think about my family." "It hurts when..." was completed with "things I have achieved in life are taken away" and "I only wish that ..." was completed with "racism is banished from society."
Dr. Martinson also concluded that defendant did not suffer from a borderline personality disorder when he murdered Marsh. Instead, he opined that defendant exhibited narcissistic and antisocial personality traits. On cross-examination, Dr. Martinson acknowledged, however, that defendant did exhibit some signs of emotional distress.
Although defendant did not testify, he did exercise his right of allocution. See, infra, at 392, 680 A. 2d at 795 .
On December 6, 1994, the jury returned a death sentence, finding that the State has proved each of the three aggravating factors beyond a reasonable doubt. Although at least one juror had found the existence of the statutory mitigating factors, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(5)(a) and N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(5)(c), and at least one juror had found the existence of seventeen of the proffered non-statutory mitigating factors, the jury unanimously found that the three aggravating factors outweighed those nineteen mitigating factors. The jury further found that each aggravating factor individually outweighed the mitigating factors beyond a reasonable doubt.
Defendant was sentenced to death on count I, knowing or purposeful murder. Defendant's conviction for felony murder, count II, was merged into his conviction for capital murder. Defendant was sentenced to a term of twenty years with a ten-year *333 parole disqualifier on count III. He was sentenced to a term of five years with a two and one-half year parole disqualifier on count IV. The sentences on counts III and IV were made concurrent to count I. The sentences were run consecutive to the life sentence that defendant was serving for the Atlantic County murder conviction.
A Notice of Appeal was filed with this Court on January 11, 1995. As a result of an article appearing in The Trentonian on the day after the penalty-phase jury returned the verdict, the defense submitted and argued a motion to interview the penalty-phase jurors. That motion was denied. Defendant's motion for a limited remand was denied by this Court.
Defendant made two motions to expand the record, seeking to include the autopsy report and affidavits stating that the prosecutor failed to provide defense counsel with proper notice in advance of obtaining the Atlantic County presentence report. Both motions were granted.
II
Constitutionality of the Act
Defendant argues that the death-penalty statute violates the prohibition against cruel and unusual punishment contained in the Eighth Amendment of the federal Constitution. We have repeatedly rejected similar arguments, see, e.g., State v. Harris, 141 N.J. 525, 574 , 662 A. 2d 333 (1995); State v. Biegenwald, 126 N.J. 1, 16 , 594 A. 2d 172 (1991) ( Biegenwald IV ); State v. Moore, 122 N.J. 420, 486 , 585 A. 2d 864 (1991); State v. Ramseur, 106 N.J. 123, 185-97 , 524 A. 2d 188 (1987), and continue to reject them today.
III
Guilt-Phase Issues
A. Death-qualification of guilt-phase jury
In Lockhart v. McCree, 476 U.S. 162 , 106 S.Ct. 1758 , 90 L.Ed. 2d 137 (1986), the United States Supreme Court approved of *334 the practice of "death qualifying" jurors. "Death qualification" excludes for cause those jurors whose views "would prevent or substantially impair the performance of [their] duties." Adams v. Texas, 448 U.S. 38, 45 , 100 S.Ct. 2521, 2526 , 65 L.Ed. 2d 581, 589 (1980); see also Ross v. Oklahoma, 487 U.S. 81, 85-89 , 108 S.Ct. 2273, 2276-79 , 101 L.Ed. 2d 80, 88-90 (1988)(clarifying that death-qualification entails excluding jurors who would either always oppose or always support death penalty); Ramseur, supra, 106 N.J. at 248-56 , 524 A. 2d 188 (requiring New Jersey trial courts to follow Adams test). To death-qualify jurors, the trial court informs them of the capital nature of the case and then questions them closely on their views of capital punishment.
Two separate juries were empaneled for the guilt and penalty phases of defendant's capital trial because one of the aggravating factors cited by the State for the penalty phase was a prior murder conviction. To avoid the "blinding impact" of the prior murder on the determination of guilt, this Court has required separate juries. Biegenwald IV, supra, 126 N.J. at 43-44 , 594 A. 2d 172 . The penalty-phase jury was fully death qualified.
Prior to jury selection for the guilt phase, defense counsel made clear his objection to death qualification of the jurors who would determine guilt:
Judge, as I stated on the record yesterday, my position is that there should be no mention whatsoever that this is a death penalty case. I mean, as far as I'm concerned that issue is totally irrelevant as to whether this jury determines that Mr. Loftin committed the offense or not. They're determining the guilt or innocence, not death.
I agree with the State there is some impact and the impact is prejudicial. Any time you mention death penalty to jurors or prospective jurors, certain things start going on in their heads. And I think when the juror hears it's a death penalty [case, the juror might think that] this guy is guilty that's why the State is seeking the death penalty....
Ultimately, the trial court agreed not to inform the jury of the potential death penalty in the case, but decided that if a juror asked about the potential sentence, the trial court would not lie; if the juror was unable to fairly and impartially decide that issue, *335 then that juror would be removed. Defense counsel again complained:
Obviously, the only individuals that are going to say, look, your Honor, I can't sit are the individuals that are against the death penalty.... So what we're going to have, if we use that suggestion, Judge, is a jury packed with people pro-death penalty.
However, no juror asked about the potential sentence, and thus the guilt-phase jury deliberated without being death-qualified.
Defendant contends that the trial court's failure to sua sponte death-qualify the guilt-phase jury and inform the jurors, during voir dire and during the jury charge at the close of trial, of the potential consequences of their decision, violated his constitutional rights by "dilut[ing] the jury's responsibility for the imposition of the death penalty," constituting plain error. State v. Mejia, 141 N.J. 475, 485 , 662 A. 2d 308 (1995) (quoting State v. Bey, 112 N.J. 123, 164 , 548 A. 2d 887 (1988) ( Bey II )).
In Biegenwald IV, supra, 126 N.J. at 44 , 594 A. 2d 172 , we stated that we "most likely will require a two-jury system for all capital cases in which the State seeks to prove [the c(4)(a)] factor." In reaching that conclusion, we recognized the differences between a jury's function in the guilt phase and in the penalty phase.
Prior-murder convictions are relevant to the determination of the appropriate sentence because the sentencing phase focuses in part on the character of the defendant. The guilt phase, however, is limited to a determination of what the defendant did. See United States v. Myers, 550 F. 2d 1036, 1044 (5th Cir.1977) ("A concomitant of the presumption of innocence is that a defendant must be tried for what he did, not who he is."), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 847 , 99 S.Ct. 147 , 58 L.Ed. 2d 149 (1978). Because of the prejudice that could be engendered by voir dire prior to the guilt phase about a defendant's other murder convictions that are not otherwise admissible as evidence during that portion of the case, see Evid. R. 55, that questioning should almost invariably come only after a jury has found a defendant death eligible. See [ State v. ] Pinnell, supra, 311 Or. [98] at 108, 806 P. 2d [110] at 116 [(1991)] (finding that "objective of a bifurcated trial was thwarted" by voir dire before guilt phase that "implied that defendant had previously been convicted of other crimes").
[ Id. at 44-45, 594 A. 2d 172 .]
*336 In State v. Erazo, 126 N.J. 112, 133 , 594 A. 2d 232 (1991), we again stated our belief that "[a] separate jury [for the penalty phase] would obviate death qualification of the guilt-phase jury." In Mejia, supra, however, we held that trial courts in capital cases "must inform juries of the legal effect of their findings." 141 N.J. at 485, 662 A. 2d 308 . Both Mejia and Bey II involved one jury for both the guilt and penalty phase hearings and neither involved the prejudicial impact of factor c(4)(a) on a defendant.
That knowledge of a defendant's prior conviction would have a "blinding impact" on a defendant's subsequent conviction is undisputed. Biegenwald IV, supra, 126 N.J. at 43-43, 594 A. 2d 172 . Moreover, defense counsel asserts, as have defense counsel in other cases, that death-qualifying a jury prior to the guilt phase produces conviction-prone juries. See, e.g., Lockhart, supra, 476 U.S. at 173 , 106 S.Ct. at 1764 , 90 L.Ed. 2d at 147 (discussing studies that purported to prove that "`death qualification' in fact produces juries somewhat more `conviction-prone' than `non-death qualified' juries"). Whether defense counsel is correct that death qualification results in death-prone juries is a debatable issue that we need not decide in this case.
Even in death-penalty cases, we have held that "except in the most extreme cases, strategic decisions made by defense counsel will not present grounds for reversal on appeal." State v. Marshall, 123 N.J. 1, 93 , 586 A. 2d 85 (1991) ( Marshall I ). Thus, in Marshall I, supra, we found no error when the court conducted a limited death qualification at voir dire pursuant to defense counsel's request. Ibid. Therefore, if defense counsel objects to the death-qualification of the guilt-phase jury in a case involving aggravating factor c(4)(a), a trial court shall deem such an objection to be a waiver of defendant's right to a death-qualified jury in the guilt-phase. However, in the absence of any such objection, trial courts will give guilt-phase jurors a severely restricted death qualification, specifically not informing them of defendant's prior conviction for murder. That result presents a proper balance between the concerns expressed by defense counsel that a death-qualified *337 jury is more prone to convict and the Court's holding that jurors should be told "of the legal effects of their findings." Mejia, supra, 141 N.J. at 485, 662 A. 2d 308 (quoting Bey II, supra, 112 N.J. at 164-65 , 548 A. 2d 887 ).
Because defense counsel made a strategic decision that a death-qualified jury might be more prone to convict and objected to the death-qualification of guilt-phase jurors, his decision does not provide grounds for a finding of plain error.
B. Voir Dire
1. Individualized voir dire
During the guilt phase, without objection, the trial court conducted an in banc voir dire of the jury. Sixteen prospective jurors from the entire venire were called for questioning and told to provide responses to any question that applied to them. The court instructed the remaining venire to "listen very carefully to all of the court's remarks and questions. In the event that one or any of these persons are excused, then it's going to be necessary to replace them with someone from the courtroom. Rather than repeat all of the questions ... I'm simply going to ask you if you've heard everything ... and whether or not you have any responses." The court further repeatedly instructed the jurors that, if they felt uncomfortable responding to any question, they could wait for a few more questions and then raise their hands and seek a sidebar meeting to discuss the issue on a more private level.
The court then read the entire indictment. It asked whether the jurors knew anything about the case. The trial court next described the location where the crime took place, and asked if anyone was familiar with that location. The trial court again questioned all jurors furnishing affirmative responses and asked counsel whether additional questioning was needed.
The next day the court continued voir dire and employed the same procedure, again encouraging jurors to approach the court at *338 sidebar to discuss sensitive issues. The court listed all potential witnesses and individuals whose names were likely to be mentioned during trial, asking whether any juror knew any of them. Given that many witnesses would be law enforcement officers, the court asked whether any juror would be inclined to give more or less weight to their testimony. The trial court also inquired whether any juror, their family, or close friends had ever been employed by the Mercer County Prosecutor's Office or any other law enforcement agency; whether they had been victims of a crime; had ever been accused of a crime; whether they had prior service on a grand or petit jury, and, to those who acknowledged prior civil jury service, explained the differing burdens involved in civil and criminal actions. If a juror responded affirmatively to any of these questions, the court questioned that juror more specifically.
Each juror was then required to provide pedigree information such as name, residence, marital status, and occupations of themselves and their spouses. For every juror, the court turned to counsel and asked whether they had "any additional questions or applications" and, at the end, asked counsel if they desired additional sidebar. To each request, counsel responded negatively.
Rule 1:8-3(a) provides that "the court shall interrogate the prospective jurors in the box after the required number are drawn without placing them under oath.... At trials of crimes punishable by death, the examination shall be made of each juror individually, as his name is drawn, and under oath." Defendant contends that the in banc voir dire violated both the requirement of Rule 1:8-3(a) and also failed to provide the "heightened" need for juror impartiality in capital cases (citing State v. Williams, 93 N.J. 39, 61 , 459 A. 2d 641 (1983) ( Williams I )).
An individualized voir dire is required in capital cases pursuant to Rule 1:8-3(a) for two reasons. One purpose is to ascertain "whether [the juror's opinion regarding capital punishment] disables him from discharging the statutory duty to decide what the punishment should be." State v. Mathis, 52 N.J. 238 , *339 245, 245 A. 2d 20 (1968)(emphasis added), rev'd in part on other grounds, 403 U.S. 946 , 91 S.Ct. 2277 , 29 L.Ed. 2d 855 (1971); see also State v. Williams, 113 N.J. 393, 413 , 550 A. 2d 1172 (1988) ( Williams II ) (viewing extensive voir dire as necessary to death-qualify the jury). The second purpose behind the individualized voir dire is to ensure that attorneys are more informed and better able to exercise their challenges in order to ensure an impartial jury. Ibid. While an in banc voir dire is ordinarily deemed adequate to ensure an impartial jury, we insist on an individualized voir dire for capital cases "[b]ecause of the range of discretion entrusted to a jury in a capital sentencing hearing." Turner v. Murray, 476 U.S. 28, 35 , 106 S.Ct. 1683, 1688 , 90 L.Ed. 2d 27, 35 (1986) (affirming conviction but reversing sentence due to failure to conduct voir dire adequate for sentencing jury). Because juries have so much more discretion, there is a greater need to screen out those jurors who cannot be impartial.
We find no error in the trial court's decision to conduct an in banc voir dire. In State v. Manley, 54 N.J. 259, 282-83 , 255 A. 2d 193 (1969), the Court set forth the reasons for the adoption of Rule 1:8-3(a) and its belief that the in banc procedure would provide an impartial jury. The purposes behind an individualized voir dire are unique to the sentencing phase. The guilt-phase jury in this case was not determining the sentence, and thus was not deciding a case in which death could be the punishment. Therefore, Rule 1:8-3(a) does not require an individualized voir dire. [1]
Moreover, defendant's claim that an individualized rather than an in banc proceeding would have led to more candid responses by jurors is unsupported by the evidence. There is no indication in the record that the prospective jurors were not fully *340 candid with the court or would have been more candid if they were asked the questions in an individualized voir dire. Defendant points to jurors who failed to disclose criminal backgrounds; however, those jurors were all questioned at sidebar, in an individualized manner, yet still failed to disclose the information. Because all the examples cited by defendant occurred initially at sidebar when a new panelist replaced a prospective juror struck by a peremptory challenge, defendant's assertion that prospective jurors kept silent for fear of other people learning their secrets is unfounded.
Although no voir dire is perfect, State v. Martini, 131 N.J. 176, 217 , 619 A. 2d 1208 (1993) ( Martini I ), we are satisfied that this voir dire was sufficient to secure an impartial jury in the guilt phase. The trial court's voir dire was thorough and probing. After eight peremptory challenges by the defense and seven by the State, both the defense and the State agreed that the empanelled jury was satisfactory.
2. Adequacy of voir dire on racial bias
We have previously held that when, as in this case, the trial involves an interracial murder, defendant is entitled to have the potential jurors questioned about prejudices and biases. Ramseur, supra, 106 N.J. at 243-48 , 524 A. 2d 188 ; see also State v. Horcey, 266 N.J. Super. 415, 418 , 629 A. 2d 1367 (App.Div. 1993) ("Whenever there is a racial or ethnic difference between victim and accused, at defendant's request the trial judge should inquire of the prospective jurors as to whether the disparity will affect their ability to be impartial.").
Prior to voir dire, defense counsel requested that the trial court ask the following questions:
Mr. Loftin is a black man, victim white, would that in any way prejudice or influence your sitting as a juror in this case?
Do you know of any reason, such as prejudice, bias, or other opinion that you can think of that would prevent you from serving as a completely impartial juror?
*341 The trial court agreed to ask the first question and noted that the other question would come out in the court's own extensive voir dire. The court informed defense counsel that "if at the end of the court's preliminary questioning of the jurors you still have additional questions that you'd like to raise from this list, we can address it at that time."
The trial court gave the following instruction to the prospective jurors:
But in deciding what the facts are, you are to do so without bias, without prejudice, without sympathy, passion, or favor of any kind, and I'm going to talk a little bit more about bias and prejudice, because for most of us, when we hear the word prejudice, we get defensive because we don't want anybody to think or accuse us of being prejudiced. And that's why I asked that question yesterday.
I pointed out to you that the defendant in this case is an African-American and that the victim in this matter is white, and I asked would any of you make a decision in this case based on the racial makeup, and you all answered no....
We need to find a little bit about yours, so these attorneys can make a decision as to whether or not your bias or prejudice will impact on your ability to be fair and impartial in this case.
So I'm going to give you an example. And it's a very simplistic example, but I don't want you to think that because the example is simplistic that I'm not trying to make a serious point. I keep emphasizing your responsibility as a juror is very, very critical....
The example I'm going to use is a sports example. I am a diehard Cowboys fan.... Now, you know, the attorneys in this courthouse know where I'm going from. And some of them are real bold. They let me know, I don't like the Cowboys. How do I handle that?....
Getting back to the attorneys, when they walk in here, do I tell them you can't get justice because you don't have the ... right attitude.... Do I take that kind of attitude and be open about my bias, or do I take the more subtle approach?....
Obviously, isn't that how we deal with our biases and prejudices. This is 1994. We don't go out and openly tell people how we feel about things. Only you know that, but we ask you if have a bias or if you have a prejudice that would affect your ability to be fair to the State of New Jersey and fair to the defendant, tell us about it. You don't — you can wait a couple of questions, you can do it at sidebar, but if you believe that you have any bias that could affect your ability to be fair and impartial, please raise your hand.
Defense counsel never objected to this explanation or sought to ask additional questions. Defendant now, however, claims that the trial court's failure to question jurors more extensively was plain error. First, defendant contends that the trial court's *342 question invited only one answer, namely, that jurors are not racist. See Moore, supra, 122 N.J. at 449 , 585 A. 2d 864 . Second, defendant argues that the football analogy trivialized the issue.
We find defendant's contentions to be without merit. We have often held that a general question about racial prejudice is sufficient absent a specific request or objection from defense counsel seeking more probing questions. See, e.g., State v. Perry, 124 N.J. 128, 157 , 590 A. 2d 624 (1991) (finding one general question investigating potential presence of "any passion, prejudice, sympathy or bias" is sufficient absent request from counsel for more specific inquiry); State v. McDougald, 120 N.J. 523, 550-51 , 577 A. 2d 419 (1990)(finding one general question sufficient to probe bias and prejudice where defense counsel also had freedom to inquire); Ramseur, supra, 106 N.J. at 244-48 , 524 A. 2d 188 (finding general question sufficient and commenting on ability of counsel to probe further). The trial court invited defense counsel to suggest additional questions if necessary, but defense counsel made no such request.
Justice Handler argues that the trial court had a duty to conduct a further inquiry because defendant was charged with an interracial crime. Post at 416-20, 680 A. 2d at 737-39 (Handler, J., dissenting). However, that complaint ignores the basic principle of Perry, McDougald, and Ramseur , that "a capital defendant accused of an interracial crime ... cannot complain of a judge's failure to question the venire on racial prejudice unless the defendant has specifically requested such an inquiry." Turner, supra, 476 U.S. at 37, 106 S.Ct. at 1689 , 90 L.Ed. 2d at 37 . Defense counsel asked for a general inquiry into bias, and the judge honored that request. "We in no way require or suggest that the judge broach the topic sua sponte." Id. 476 U.S. at 37 n. 10, 106 S.Ct. at 1688 n. 10, 90 L.Ed. 2d at 37 n. 10.
We find that the trial court's question was proper and appropriate. The court's football example may not have been ideal, but it adequately conveyed the point.
*343 C. Limitation on defense theories
1. Refusal to allow cross-examination about other perpetrators
Defendant did not testify, nor did he present any witnesses at the guilt phase of the trial. Rather, the defense pursued the following three theories to raise doubt about whether he had committed the murder of Marsh: (1) that there were multiple perpetrators involved in the robbery, or third-party guilt; (2) that defendant did not commit the crime but only found the wallet after the murder; and (3) that the murder resulted from a "robbery gone bad."
In cross-examining members of the police force who had investigated the Marsh murder, defendant attempted to elicit testimony supporting the theory that multiple perpetrators may have been involved in the robbery of the Exxon station. The trial court twice refused to allow certain questions of police witnesses, and defendant complains that those restrictions deprived him of his right to confront witnesses and present a defense.
N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c limits death-penalty eligibility to those defendants convicted of murder committed by their own conduct. "[A] capital-murder defendant may focus his or her efforts in the guilt phase on raising a reasonable doubt about issues that trigger the penalty phase, rather than vigorously contesting guilt or innocence on the murder charge." State v. Brown, 138 N.J. 481, 517 , 651 A. 2d 19 (1994).
Patrolman Thomas Maple was called by the State to testify about the police investigation of the murder scene. During direct examination, the officer described the police arrival at the scene, the appearance of the gas station, and the victim's appearance. Maple further testified that there was no evidence of a struggle. During his testimony, Maple relied upon his partner's report of the crime scene to refresh his recollection.
During cross-examination, defense counsel attempted to ask the following question: "Patrolman Maple, was there anything in your *344 investigation on May 5th, 1992 between 6:15 in the morning and 9:00 in the morning which would eliminate the possibility of multiple actors involved with this particular robbery/homicide?" The trial court sustained an objection, finding that the question was outside the scope of direct examination. The trial court added: "[t]o the extent that you want to cover areas not covered by his direct examination, I do believe he is listed on the defense witness list.... You want the officer to be available for recall on defense case, you certainly may do that, but this line of questioning must stop." Defendant chose not to call Maple and address these questions.
Cross-examination is generally limited to the scope of direct examination, N.J.R.E. 611(b). At trial, defense counsel argued that the question was within the scope of direct examination because the report written by Maple's partner that Maple used to refresh his recollection, discussed "suspect[s]," raising the implication of multiple perpetrators. The trial court correctly rejected that attempt, because that reference to a single line in a report that was not admitted into evidence did not constitute part of the direct examination. Defendant now contends that, because Maple discussed the crime scene, it was legitimate to question him about whether the crime scene revealed any evidence about multiple perpetrators. That contention would bring the question into the scope of direct examination if trial counsel had raised it with the trial court. However, any error was harmless because the trial court clearly informed defendant that he could recall Maple and raise those questions. R. 2:10-2. Thus, defendant's right to present a defense was not compromised at all.
The State also presented Sergeant Joseph Mosner. Mosner described the layout of the gasoline station and the office, including the locations where blood and bullets were found. Defense counsel then cross-examined Mosner about the details of his description of the layout, and elicited from the officer the fact that the police had found several fingerprints in the office (none matched the defendant). Then, suddenly, defense counsel asked: *345 "Sometime later you were asked to check or investigate the brother of Donald Loftin, Ronald Loftin?" The trial court refused to allow the question under the third-party guilt doctrine.
The third-party guilt doctrine is implicated when a defendant "seek[s] to prove that another agency produced the death with which he is charged." State v. Sturdivant, 31 N.J. 165, 179 , 155 A. 2d 771 (1959), cert. denied, 362 U.S. 956 , 80 S.Ct. 873 , 4 L.Ed. 2d 873 (1960). Because of the ease in which unsupported claims may infect the process, we have held that third-party guilt evidence is admissible only when "the proof offered has a rational tendency to engender a reasonable doubt with respect to an essential feature of the State's case." Ibid. In State v. Koedatich, 112 N.J. 225, 300 , 548 A. 2d 939 (1988) ( Koedatich I ), cert. denied, 488 U.S. 1017 , 109 S.Ct. 813 , 102 L.Ed. 2d 803 (1989), we reaffirmed the Sturdivant standard and noted that "the issue of whether the trial court abused its discretion in excluding evidence of third-party guilt is a particularly fact-sensitive one." However, courts have recognized that evidence that tends to create reasonable doubt that someone else, generically, rather than defendant, committed the offense, is admissible. State v. Jorgensen, 241 N.J. Super. 345, 351 , 575 A. 2d 31 (App.Div.), certif. denied, 122 N.J. 386 , 585 A. 2d 389 (1990). Thus, in Koedatich I, the defendant sought to introduce testimony that a small sports car was in the vicinity of the murder, while the defendant drove a large car; the defendant further sought to introduce evidence that an identified third-party owned such a sports car. We refused to allow testimony about the specific third-party since no evidence linked that person to the crime; however, we did allow evidence about the sports car since it tended to create reasonable doubt about whether someone other than the defendant committed the crime. Koedatich I, supra, 112 N.J. at 306, 548 A. 2d 939 .
Defendant does not argue, nor did he argue at trial, that he has any evidence linking his brother to the crime. Thus, the trial court correctly applied Koedatich I and Sturdivant in refusing to allow any questions about Ronald Loftin. As in Koedatich *346 I, defendant was free to introduce evidence tending to prove that a generic "someone else" did the crime, but he could not identify any specific individual without more notice. The trial court's ruling was therefore correct.
2. Limitations on defense counsel's summation
Prior to closing statements, the trial court granted a motion in limine precluding the defense from making certain arguments during summation. Defendant contends that those limitations deprived him of "a meaningful opportunity to present a complete defense." Crane v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 683, 690 , 106 S.Ct. 2142, 2146 , 90 L.Ed. 2d 636, 645 (1986) (citations omitted).
During the trial, the State focused on defendant's statement to the Sears employees that he (as Gary Marsh) worked at Exxon. Because none of Marsh's personal belongings identified him as an Exxon employee, the State asked the jury to conclude that defendant could have known that Mr. Marsh worked at Exxon only if defendant had been at the Exxon station during the robbery/homicide. Defense counsel sought to argue in summation that defendant need not have been at the Exxon station, but could have simply found Mr. Marsh's wallet and read about the homicide in one of the Trenton newspapers that reported the homicide and provided details. Indeed, Thomas Citron, one of the State's witnesses, had first contacted the police after seeing an article about the homicide in the newspaper.
The trial court refused to allow defense counsel to assert that defendant read about the crime in the newspaper because there was no evidence presented at trial to allow this inference. However, the court did permit the defense to argue that the information in the newspaper was available for "people" to read.
I want it to be clear, you're not going to tell the jury that Mr. Loftin could have read the article. You're not going to say those words. You can certainly say to the jury that Mr. Citron read the article.... Certainly one could infer or conclude a lot of people could have read the article.
During summation, defense counsel argued that the information supplied by defendant to Sears was "the same information that *347 Mr. Citron was equipped with ... that he had read in the newspapers about the incident."
The scope of defendant's summation argument must not exceed the "four corners of the evidence." State v. Reynolds, 41 N.J. 163, 176 , 195 A. 2d 449 , cert. denied, 377 U.S. 1000 , 84 S.Ct. 1930 , 12 L.Ed. 2d 1050 (1964) (citation omitted). The "four corners" include the evidence and all reasonable inferences drawn therefrom. State v. Hill, 47 N.J. 490, 499 , 221 A. 2d 725 (1966). We agree with the trial court that defendant's claim here was not based on any evidence introduced at trial. Defendant did not establish that he ever read the newspaper, or that he even saw it, especially since he did not live in Trenton but in Bristol, Pennsylvania. Defendant need not have taken the stand and waived his right to remain silent in order to have established a factual basis for this argument; he could have had his wife or mother testify on the availability of Trenton newspapers. Because no such evidence was offered, the trial court properly excluded that argument.
Moreover, even if the argument should have been allowed, its exclusion was harmless error. The defense was adequately able to suggest to the jury that defendant could have acquired the information from the newspaper. Moreover, the evidence was overwhelming that defendant was at the Exxon station and committed the murder, and no rational jury would have concluded that defendant was not at the scene but merely read about the crime in the paper.
Defense counsel also sought to argue in summation that the homicide may not have been intentional but rather an accident, the result of a "robbery gone bad." The trial court restricted that argument in several ways. First, defendant sought to argue that because Mr. Marsh was a nail biter and nail biters are nervous people, he might have acted in a nervous manner "which could explain the unintended discharge of the weapon which went off." We readily agree with the trial court that such an argument had no basis in the evidence.
*348 Second, defendant sought to argue in summation that the homicide was the result of an accidental discharge of the gun. The State objected, clarifying that it did not object to the defense arguing that "the evidence cannot tell us whether this is an intentional murder versus an accident or a fight or a robbery that just went awry," but it did object to defense counsel asserting an evidentiary basis for a conclusion that was unsupported by the evidence. As defendant virtually conceded at the in limine hearing, the scenarios he wished to proffer were not based on facts in evidence but the lack of facts. The trial court agreed with the State, asserting that there was no fact or inference to support a "robbery gone bad" theory. We agree.
Defendant was permitted to argue, and did in fact argue, that there was no evidence conclusively proving that this was not an accidental death. For example, defense counsel pointed to the medical examiner's inability, based on the autopsy itself, to rule out accidental death. However, because no evidence that actually supported the defense theory was developed on the record, the trial court correctly precluded defendant from arguing that a factual basis existed to affirmatively support the conclusion that the death was accidental.
There was no evidence of a struggle and no evidence that the gun discharged accidentally. Indeed, the State presented testimony that the gun could fire only if the safety was removed and ten pounds of pressure was applied to the trigger. Thus, even if defendant were able to argue a "robbery gone bad" theory, the sheer weight of the facts would have led the jury to disregard it. Because there was no evidence to support a "robbery gone bad" theory, the trial court correctly limited the defense argument on that theory.
D. Failure to provide non-unanimity instruction
The trial court's jury charge followed the law as it existed at the time of trial, but we have modified the required jury charges in two recent cases, Mejia, supra, 141 N.J. 475 , 662 A. 2d 308 and *349 Brown, supra, 138 N.J. 481 , 651 A. 2d 19 . Defendant contends that the failure to provide the Brown and Mejia charges constitutes plain error.
N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3 contemplates two types of murder: murders committed with an intent to kill and those committed with an intent to inflict serious bodily injury. In State v. Gerald, 113 N.J. 40, 69 , 549 A. 2d 792 (1988), we held that only those convicted of murder with an intent to kill could be eligible for the death penalty. Those who killed with an intent to inflict serious bodily injury could be convicted only of non-capital murder.
In 1992, the New Jersey Constitution was amended to overrule Gerald. N.J. Const. art. I, ¶ 12. The Legislature subsequently passed N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3i, authorizing the death penalty for murders committed with the intent to commit serious bodily injury. However, Gerald is applicable to this case because the offense was committed before Gerald was overruled. Accord Mejia, supra, 141 N.J. at 482, 662 A. 2d 308 .
For a defendant to be eligible for the death penalty, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c requires that the defendant have caused death either by his own conduct or by hiring someone to commit the murder. Generally, "[t]here is no question that a defendant may be convicted of purposeful or knowing murder on a theory of vicarious liability." Gerald, supra, 113 N.J. at 99, 549 A. 2d 792 . However, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c imposes "a triggering device for the death penalty," an additional requirement that renders the defendant death-eligible. Ibid. (quoting State v. Moore, 207 N.J. Super. 561, 576 , 504 A. 2d 804 (Law Div. 1985)).
The trial court properly instructed the jury in accordance with Gerald that it must decide whether the defendant acted with an intent to kill or to inflict serious bodily injury. The jury returned a unanimous verdict that defendant intended to kill Marsh. The trial court also instructed the jury that it must decide whether defendant caused Marsh's death by his own conduct. Again, the jury unanimously decided that defendant did in fact do so.
*350 In Brown, supra, we held that "[a]lthough a jury verdict that a defendant committed a murder by his own conduct must be unanimous, unanimity is not required to support a verdict that a defendant guilty of murder did not commit the murder by his own conduct." 138 N.J. at 511 , 651 A. 2d 19 . A jury's inability to decide that crucial issue unanimously is a de facto decision that the defendant is not death-eligible. We expressed fear that although a non-unanimous decision would not create a mistrial but would result in a custodial sentence, "in the absence of an instruction on the permissibility of a non-unanimous verdict, an erroneous belief that a failure to agree will result in a mistrial `reasonably may [sway] a juror to join the majority, rather than [to] hold to his honest convictions, ... to avoid forcing the parties, witnesses and court officials to undergo additional proceedings.'" Id. at 518 , 651 A. 2d 19 (quoting Ramseur, supra, 106 N.J. at 309 , 524 A. 2d 188 ). As a result, we concluded that "the proper approach is to inform juries in capital cases of their option to return a non-unanimous verdict on whether the defendant committed the murder by his own conduct." Ibid. Because the trial court was without the benefit of our decision in Brown , it did not provide that non-unanimity charge.
In Mejia, supra, also decided after the trial in this case, we extended our holding in Brown to hold that the trial court should also "inform the jury of the option of returning a non-unanimous verdict on a defendant's mental state." 141 N.J. at 486, 662 A. 2d 308 . Without the benefit of our decision in Mejia, the trial court did not provide that charge.
"In appropriate cases, we have found the failure to give a Gerald charge to be harmless when the evidence did not provide a rational basis for a finding that the defendant intended only serious bodily injury." Id. at 488, 662 A. 2d 308 . We have undertaken a similar analysis when the trial court failed to provide a Mejia instruction, ibid.; Harris, supra, 141 N.J. at 544-47, 662 A. 2d 333 , and when the trial court failed to provide a Brown *351 instruction, e.g., Brown, supra, 138 N.J. at 522-27 , 651 A. 2d 19 . Defendant contends that the evidence did provide a rational basis to infer that he intended serious bodily injury and that he did not commit murder by his own conduct because he was one of multiple perpetrators.
We address the Gerald issue first. The issue is whether there was a rational basis on which the jury could have concluded that defendant intended only serious bodily injury when he shot the victim, at close range, in the side of the head. (Marsh was shot in the side of the head and the bullet ended up in the back wall. Obviously, then, Marsh was shot from the front wall or the door. When the police arrived, Marsh's head was three feet from the front wall. The clear implication is that Marsh was quite close to defendant (who must have been standing between Marsh and the front wall, three feet away), and that defendant had his gun pointing to the side of Marsh's head.) "To state the question is virtually to answer it." State v. Rose, 120 N.J. 61, 63-64 , 576 A. 2d 235 (1990). There was uncontradicted evidence that there was no sign of a struggle and that the victim had no defensive wounds on his hands or arms. There was also uncontradicted evidence that defendant had a license to carry weapons, a business card for a shooting range, a membership application for a gun association, equipment to make his own ammunition, and over 500 rounds of ammunition for his gun. He had apparently used his gun before, as one box of ammunition was half-empty. In order to fire the weapon, defendant was required to remove the safety and, with ten and a half pounds of pressure, pull the trigger. "It is inconceivable that defendant was not `practically certain' that his action would kill" the victim. Ibid. (finding no rational basis to believe that defendant only intended serious bodily injury when defendant, who was experienced with weapons and was required to apply four pounds of pressure to fire weapon, killed victim with single, close range shot to abdomen).
Defendant contends that the facts of the current case are similar to those in State v. Long, 119 N.J. 439 , 575 A. 2d 435 (1990), and State v. Pennington, 119 N.J. 547 , 575 A. 2d 816 (1990), where *352 we found that the failure to provide a Gerald charge was reversible error because a rational basis existed to find an intent to inflict serious bodily injury. In Long, supra, 119 N.J. at 451, 575 A. 2d 435 , the defendant fired one shot that entered the victim's chest and killed him after an hour, and in Pennington, supra, 119 N.J. at 557, 575 A. 2d 816 , the defendant fired one shot into the victim's heart from close range. However, both of those cases are distinguishable. The defendant in Long, supra, presented evidence that "defendant had reacted to the victim's reaching down, which defendant thought might be for a gun rather than a bag." 119 N.J. at 462, 575 A. 2d 435 . Defendant, however, never presented any evidence that the victim did anything to cause him to shoot; indeed, the victim was shot in the side of the head, hardly a circumstance that is suggestive of an instinctive gun shot. Moreover, the single shot fired by the defendant in Long, supra, was not aimed at the victim's head. Ibid. Unlike Long, supra, there is no evidence in the record here to justify a finding that defendant only intended serious bodily injury.
Similarly, the defendant in Pennington, supra, claimed that "he was startled when the victim threw a glass at him, and he fired his gun reflexively." 119 N.J. at 561, 575 A. 2d 816 . Immediately after firing the shot, a witness heard defendant state that "I just shot a woman. I didn't mean to do it." Id. at 562 , 575 A. 2d 816 . Unlike the defendant in Pennington , defendant presented no evidence that his firing of the gun was accidental or instinctive; the only evidence was that he removed the safety on the gun and applied ten pounds of pressure to the trigger, firing a bullet at close range into Marsh's brain.
Justice O'Hern argues, in dissent, that Loftin's conduct was similar to that of the defendant in Mejia, where we found a rational basis to conclude that defendant intended serious bodily injury rather than death. Post at 439, 680 A. 2d at 748 (O'Hern, J., dissenting). However, in Mejia, as in Pennington, supra, and Long, supra, the defendant presented evidence indicating that the shooting may not have been with an intent to kill. The defendant *353 had been fighting with an acquaintance and had hit him over the head with the gun "`because I didn't want to use the gun ...;" the gun then discharged accidentally when he slipped. Mejia, supra, 141 N.J. at 490, 662 A. 2d 308 . Unlike the defendants in those cases, defendant presented no evidence of a struggle or an accidental discharge.
While defense counsel argued in summation that there could have been a struggle or an accidental discharge of the weapon and that Marsh might have done something to provoke defendant, counsel's argument is not evidence. There was simply no evidence to contradict the overwhelming proof that defendant intended to kill Marsh without provocation or struggle. Our dissenting colleague, however, asserts that the defense would have presented a stronger theory of an accidental shooting "if it had not been unfairly restricted in developing its defense at trial." Post at 440, 680 A. 2d at 749 (O'Hern, J., dissenting). He cites as examples, the pathologist's testimony that based on an examination of the bullet hole in Marsh's skull she could not preclude accidental death and the observation that "neither the pathologist nor the State's ballistic expert stated that there was any evidence that the gun was fired at point blank range." Ibid. Considering that bullets penetrate flesh and bones in the same manner whether the person firing the bullet intends to kill or shoots accidentally, and the ballistic expert's testimony that the gun could only fire if the safety was removed and ten pounds of pressure was applied to the trigger, those revelations offer scant support for an accidental-death theory. In the face of the undisputed evidence that defendant, an experienced shot, removed the safety, exerted over ten pounds of pressure on the trigger, and then fired a bullet into the side of Marsh's head from close range (in the absence of any signs of struggle), those slender reeds could not form a rational basis for a juror to conclude that defendant did not intend to kill his victim. While the jurors did, at one point, ask the court to explain the difference between intent to kill and intent to inflict serious bodily injury, they did so in the context of a question about felony murder and whether defendant could be found guilty only of one *354 or all of the charged crimes. That question seems to have reflected a confusion about whether the jury was required to choose between the different crimes or consider each one independently. We do not infer from that question that the jury could find that a rational basis existed to conclude that defendant only intended serious bodily harm.
Defendant's conduct is similar to that of other cases where we found no rational basis to conclude that the defendant might have only intended to inflict serious bodily injury. See, e.g., Harris, supra, 141 N.J. at 550-51, 662 A. 2d 333 (finding no rational basis when defendant fired single shot into victim's back and neck at close range while victim was laying on ground. "But what purpose did the gunshot have other than to kill?"); Biegenwald IV, supra, 126 N.J. at 18, 594 A. 2d 172 (finding no rational basis when defendant shot victim four times in head at close range); State v. Hightower, 120 N.J. 378, 413 , 577 A. 2d 99 (1990) (finding no rational basis when defendant shot victim three times, including one shot to brain, at close range); Rose, supra, 120 N.J. at 64, 576 A. 2d 235 (finding no rational basis when defendant fired sawed-off shotgun into victim's abdomen at point-blank range). As in those cases, defendant's close-range killing of the victim with a bullet into the head leaves no rational basis for a jury to have found anything but an intentional murder.
We also find that the court's failure to provide a Brown instruction was harmless because there was no rational basis for a juror to have concluded that defendant did not commit the murder by his own conduct. The uncontradicted evidence revealed that Mr. Marsh was killed by a bullet fired by a gun bought by defendant and found in defendant's car. In addition to owning and possessing the instrumentality of the crime, defendant appeared to be in possession of all of the proceeds of the crime when he was arrested, including Marsh's identification and credit cards as well as the fifty-dollar bill. Defendant presented no evidence to rebut those facts. In the absence of evidence to the contrary, the evidence presented at trial conclusively establishes that defendant *355 killed Marsh "by his own conduct." Since there was no rational basis for a juror to have concluded otherwise, the failure to provide the Brown instruction will not disturb defendant's conviction or sentence.
IV
Penalty-Phase Issues
A. Exclusion of three photographs
During the penalty phase of trial, Dorothy Loftin, defendant's wife, testified about five photographs of defendant and his family. Each photo depicted an event in defendant's life in 1989. The photographs included: (1) defendant in a naval uniform at his graduation from boot camp; (2) defendant, again in his naval uniform, taken after he rushed home from his naval training to tend to his six-month old daughter who had been seriously ill with croup; (3) defendant with his sister-in-law and his daughter, Danielle, just prior to defendant's move to Colorado; (4) defendant with his nephew, Clinton, at the celebration of defendant's graduation from technical school; and (5) defendant and his wife at Saint Francis Hospital in Trenton, immediately after the birth of his daughter.
The State objected to defendant's motion to introduce the photographs into evidence. The State argued that the photographs were not reliable evidence establishing any mitigating factor properly before the jury, and therefore, were not admissible even under the relaxed rules of evidence. N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(2)(b). While not sustaining the State's relevancy argument, the trial court found photos three through five to be cumulative and therefore not admissible. Defendant now asserts that the trial court's ruling on the photos requires a reversal of the penalty-phase verdict because the trial court excluded relevant mitigating evidence in violation of defendant's constitutional rights.
We need not decide whether the trial court's finding that photographs three through five were cumulative was erroneous. *356 We also need not address whether the trial court improperly excluded relevant mitigating evidence by not admitting those photographs into evidence. Any error that resulted from the exclusion of those photos was harmless. To the extent the excluded photographs possibly conveyed the impression that defendant "was capable of giving and receiving love" as he contends, they were no different from the photographs that were admitted and certainly were not more persuasive than the vivid and obviously genuine displays of emotion from the numerous family members who testified to mutual feelings of love. "[T]he question whether an error is reason for reversal depends finally upon some degree of possibility that it led to an unjust verdict." State v. Macon, 57 N.J. 325, 335 , 273 A. 2d 1 (1971). The exclusion of these photos presented no real possibility of an unjust result.
We also find defendant's argument that the trial court's rulings on evidence were inconsistent and strongly biased in favor of the State to be without merit.
B. Testimonial evidence that defendant did not have a mental defense to the Atlantic County murder
At the penalty-phase trial, defendant called Charles Jurman, defendant's attorney from the Atlantic County murder trial. Defense presented Jurman to support mitigating factor thirty-two, that "defendant offered the State to plead guilty in exchange for a life sentence." On direct examination, Jurman testified that defendant was willing to accept a tentative plea offer, encompassing both the Atlantic County and the Mercer County cases, which would have resulted in consecutive life sentences. (That offer was subsequently withdrawn.) Jurman also testified about defendant's character, explaining that he was intelligent, even tempered and had no prior record before the two murders. On cross-examination, the State elicited two important facts from Jurman. First, Jurman testified that he did not believe that there was a mental health defense to the Atlantic County murder. Second, Jurman acknowledged that, after reviewing the presentence report with *357 his client, he affirmed the accuracy of the presentence report in which defendant indicated that he did not have any history of mental disease.
Defendant argues that the information solicited on cross-examination was irrelevant and exceeded the scope of direct examination. Furthermore, defendant asserts that even if the evidence was relevant to refute a mitigating factor, the prejudicial effect of the evidence outweighed any probative value. Defendant claims that the evidence denigrated three of the defense's mitigating factors, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(5)(a), c(5)(d), and c(5)(h). Defendant also claims that the testimony misled the jury into believing that because there was no mental health defense to the Atlantic County murder, defendant could not have suffered any emotional or mental disturbance at the time of the Marsh murder. Finally, defendant contends that the instruction provided by the court concerning the use of the testimony was insufficient. As a result, defendant argues he was denied his constitutional rights to a fair trial, to due process, and to a reliable sentencing proceeding under the State and Federal Constitutions.
Questions of admissibility of evidence are largely within the broad discretion of the trial court. See McDougald, supra, 120 N.J. at 577-78, 577 A. 2d 419 (citation omitted); State v. Sands, 76 N.J. 127, 144 , 386 A. 2d 378 (1978). A reviewing court should overrule a trial court's evidentiary ruling only where "a clear error of judgment" is established. Koedatich I, supra, 112 N.J. at 313, 548 A. 2d 939 .
Evidence is admissible when it is relevant and when the probative value of the evidence outweighs its prejudicial effect. N.J.R.E. 403. Jurman's testimony was clearly relevant. Jurman's testimony, elicited on cross-examination, supported the State's argument that defendant sought to plead guilty to avoid a prosecution for which there was no viable defense, rebutting the defense's attempt to use defendant's willingness to plead as evidence of remorse for committing the murders.
*358 In order for relevant evidence to be excluded, it must be found that the evidence's probative value is "so significantly outweighed by [its] inherently inflammatory potential as to have a probable capacity to divert the minds of the jurors from a reasonable and fair evaluation of the basic issue of guilt or innocence." State v. Thompson, 59 N.J. 396, 421 , 283 A. 2d 513 (1971). Jurman's testimony was not unduly prejudicial. Defendant's concern that the jury was misled or confused about the distinction between the lack of a mental defense in the recent prior murder and the evidence of mental impairment that could be considered as mitigation of punishment is without merit. First, the court provided a sufficient limiting instruction that operated to eliminate any confusion present in the minds of the jurors. The trial court's immediate instruction informed the jury that the lack of a mental defense to the Atlantic County murder was irrelevant to their deliberations. That instruction also informed the jury that the mental state necessary to establish mitigating factors did not rise to the level of a legal defense. Second, defense counsel repeatedly emphasized the distinction between mental state as a legal defense and as a mitigating factor through its examination of defense psychiatrist, Dr. Dougherty, and in counsel's summation. Therefore, the trial court's ruling and the limiting instruction were not "so wide of the mark that a manifest denial of justice resulted." State v. Carter, 91 N.J. 86, 106 , 449 A. 2d 1280 (1982).
C. Use of inculpatory statements made to psychiatrist
Prior to the penalty phase, the State notified the court of its intention to have a State psychiatrist, Dr. Martinson, examine defendant for the purpose of rebutting the mental health mitigating factors. Dr. Martinson testified at the penalty phase and concluded that defendant did not suffer from any mental or emotional disturbance at the time of the murder. His conclusions were based in part on defendant's motives for and reflection on the crime, which defendant's relayed to the doctor during an interview. Dr. Martinson recounted the exact words of the defendant *359 during his testimony. The doctor explained that defendant stated:
What led to it was my economical situation. A certain lifestyle I was used to, I couldn't have it anymore. I was doing college because I didn't really have anything better to do. I was between a rock and a hard place, this particular evening when I pondered our financial situation and I elected to go out and try to supplement the funds we were receiving from the government, At ... the point at which the crime was committed, it may be a digression in my life. Maybe bitter, resentful. I needed money at the time. We couldn't do anything we wanted to do. We couldn't eat at our favorite diner any more. First thought it would payoff. Then started looking at the next four years, the fact we were living in a bad neighborhood, I felt we needed money, she didn't, I was disappointed ... Going back to school as an adult. A little sad because coerced into doing something I didn't want to do.
At no time did defense counsel request any limiting instruction concerning that statement.
Defendant asserts for the first time on appeal that, "especially since defendant did not testify on his own behalf, the quoting of these remarks into proof transcended proper rebuttal, transforming the remarks into proof of the (4)(g)[felony murder] aggravating factor." Therefore, defendant asserts that the admission into evidence, without any limiting instruction, of the statements made to Dr. Martinson, resulted in such undue prejudice to defendant that a vacation of his death sentence is required.
This Court has held that psychiatrists retained by the State may interview defendants to rebut asserted mental defenses. State v. Whitlow, 45 N.J. 3, 16 , 210 A. 2d 763 (1965). The Whitlow court added that statements made by a defendant during such an interview, even if inculpatory, are admissible, so long as those statements are necessary for the formulation of the psychiatrist's opinion. Defendant's statements were relevant to Dr. Martinson's evaluation of defendant's mental health. Nonetheless, the Whitlow court also held that although such statements are admissible, "the jury [must be] fully and fairly informed as to the purpose of admitting them and to the absolute limitation of their use." Id. at 19-20 , 210 A. 2d 763 . No such instruction was provided.
The absence of the Whitlow instruction, however, was harmless error. There was overwhelming evidence presented to prove *360 aggravating factor c(4)(g) (that the murder was committed during a robbery). Indeed, defense counsel never seriously questioned that defendant had committed a robbery. Because the lack of the Whitlow instruction could have had no effect on the outcome of this case, we need not decide whether the defendant's failure to request a Whitlow instruction could constitute a waiver of that instruction under N.J.R.E. 105. See Brown, supra, 138 N.J. at 535 , 651 A. 2d 19 (holding that N.J.R.E. 105 "acknowledges that a party may wish to forego such an instruction for tactical reasons. Thus, while the court may give a limiting instruction, if warranted, despite the lack of a request, we find no support for defendant's suggestion that a court should provide an instruction despite a party's calculated decision to waive it").
D. Limitations on defendant's right to allocution
At the conclusion of the State's penalty-phase case-in-chief, the trial court explained to defendant the right of allocution. The court delineated specific boundaries that defendant would have to respect:
Number one, you may ask the jury to spare your life. Number two, you may explain to the jury, if it's true, that you are a person who is capable of feeling and expressing remorse, and that you feel remorse, and that you have hope of rehabilitating yourself if your life is spared....
What you must not do, Mr. Loftin, is you must not deny your guilt. You must not deny the truth of any evidence, you must not argue about the evidence. You must not argue about aggravating and mitigating factors. You must not say anything about the witnesses, the prosecutor, your lawyers, this court, or the trial.... You must not say anything about the legality or morality of capital punishment.
The court identified the remedies it might pursue if defendant exceeded the court-imposed boundaries. The court also informed defendant that he was permitted to submit a written version of his allocution statement to ensure that it was proper. Defendant and his counsel received a written copy of the court's instructions, which both signed, confirming that they understood and accepted the court's instructions. Defendant chose not to submit a written version of his allocution statement.
*361 In his allocution statement, defendant blamed his conduct on racial inequities, discussed the adverse impact his execution would have on his family, and commented on the evidence presented with respect to mitigating factors. As a result, the trial court held a sidebar conference to discuss how best to cure the problem. After rejecting the State's suggestion that it be permitted to cross-examine defendant, the trial court and counsel discussed potential curative instructions. Defense counsel agreed to an instruction in which the court would inform the jury that it should disregard what defendant said about the impact of the execution on his family, his comments on racism, and his discussion of the aggravating and mitigating factors presented in this case. Accordingly, the trial court instructed as follows:
Ladies and Gentlemen, it is necessary for the Court at this juncture to instruct you with respect to Mr. Loftin's allocution and to instruct you that some of his remarks went outside the bounds of his right to exercise allocution.
Number one, it is not an appropriate exercise of his right of allocution to raise the issue of racism, it falls outside of the bounds of his right to speak. Secondly, it falls outside the bounds of his right to speak to discuss the aggravating and/or mitigating factors that have been presented in this case by both sides.
Finally, as I have instructed you repeatedly, the impact of his execution on his mother, his children, his wife and his family is not a proper mitigating factor for you to consider, and you are to disregard not only his comments about racism, his comments with respect to the evidence of mitigating and aggravating [factors], but also the impact that his execution would have upon his family.
In its final instructions on allocution, the court permitted the jury to "consider what Mr. Loftin stated insofar as it impacts one or more of the mitigating factors, and subject to the court's limiting instructions at the conclusion of his statement." Defense counsel did not raise any objection relating to the court's limitation on the right of allocution or to the court's remedy after defendant exceeded the court-imposed boundaries. Defendant contends that he did not exceed the scope of proper allocution and now objects to the trial court's restrictions on his right of allocution.
During allocution, a defendant is permitted to make a brief statement in order to allow the jury to ascertain that he or she is an "`individual capable of feeling and expressing remorse and of demonstrating some measure of hope for the future.'" *362 State v. Zola, 112 N.J. 384, 430 , 548 A. 2d 1022 (1988) (quoting J. Thomas Sullivan, The Capital Defendant's Right to Make a Personal Plea for Mercy: Common Law Allocution and Constitutional Mitigation, 15 N.M.L.Rev. 41, 41 (1985)), cert. denied, 489 U.S. 1022 , 109 S.Ct. 1146 , 103 L.Ed. 2d 205 (1989). The right to make a statement in allocution is not commanded by the Constitution, id. at 429, 548 A. 2d 1022 , but is rather a common-law right recognized in New Jersey. Id. at 428 , 548 A. 2d 1022 . In delivering an allocution statement, a defendant is not authorized to argue legal points, advance or dispute facts, or attempt to exculpate himself. Id. at 430 , 548 A. 2d 1022 . In Zola, supra, we made clear that in making an allocution statement, a defendant should limit himself to standing before the jury and, in his own voice, asking that his life be spared. Ibid. If the accused does not stray from that subject matter in his statement, he will not expose himself to cross-examination. However, should a defendant dispute facts in issue or offer other facts to exculpate himself, defendant "will be subject to corrective action by the court including either comment by the court or prosecutor or in some cases possible reopening of the case for cross-examination." Id. at 432 , 548 A. 2d 1022 .
In asserting that the substantive limitations imposed on his allocution were improper, defendant misconstrues the nature of that right. Defendant's statements exceeded the scope of the right of allocution envisioned in Zola, supra, 112 N.J. at 429-32, 548 A. 2d 1022 . In State v. DiFrisco, 137 N.J. 434, 478 , 645 A. 2d 734 (1994) ( DiFrisco II ), cert. denied, ___ U.S. ___, 116 S.Ct. 949 , 133 L.Ed. 2d 873 (1996), we explained that "the purpose of allocution is twofold. First, it reflects our commonly-held belief that our civilization should afford every defendant an opportunity to ask for mercy. Second, it permits a defendant to impress a jury with his or her feelings of remorse." However, a defendant's allocution should not take on a testimonial color. To allow defendant to testify about mitigating or aggravating factors without permitting the State to cross-examine him would be unfair to the State and could have the effect of misleading the jury. Zola, *363 supra, 112 N.J. at 429-32, 548 A. 2d 1022 . Because defendant's statements about racism, the mitigating evidence, and the impact that his execution would have on his family went beyond the permitted boundaries, it was proper for the trial court to issue a curative instruction.
Defendant asserts that the trial court's decision to strike the portions of the allocution that went beyond the permitted boundaries was overly drastic and prejudicial. However, the appropriate form of corrective action for an abuse of the right of allocution is within the discretion of the trial court. In Zola, supra, we indicated that corrective action might include comment by the court or prosecutor, or, in some cases, reopening the case for cross-examination. Id. at 432 , 548 A. 2d 1022 . The trial court did not abuse its discretion by striking the improper portions of the allocution statement. Nor were the trial court's instructions regarding the allocution statement inconsistent or confusing.
E. Outburst
After defendant delivered his allocution statement, the court called a sidebar conference. Neither the judge nor the attorneys were observing the jury at that time. A few minutes later, a spectator, allegedly the daughter of the Atlantic County Murder victim Sophia Fetter, rose from the gallery and shouted at a tearful juror: "Who the hell are you crying for? We —." The woman was quickly quieted and removed from the courtroom. Neither the judge nor the attorneys reacted to the outburst. The court simply instructed the jury on the allocution statement, making no reference to the outburst. Apparently, the jurors did, however, notice the outburst and reported to the sergeant-at-arms that they were concerned for their safety.
The trial court did not directly address the jurors about the outburst. Instead, the court told the jury:
[T]hings get somewhat testy, the court would make sure that everything is being done to make you feel secure in every regard. And if you have any concern about that, you know, please let us know, because that's what we're here for is to make *364 sure that you feel secure and that you can go about your responsibilities without feeling any undue pressure from any outside forces.
The jury recessed for four days.
During the jury's recess, the trial court conducted a charge conference with the attorneys. Defense counsel moved for a mistrial because of the outburst, arguing that the jury had been prejudicially influenced by the incident. The court ruled that there was no evidence of prejudice requiring a mistrial. The court promised to inquire of the jury whether any individual felt unable to proceed according to the law and whether the specific juror who had been crying felt that her ability to perceive and evaluate the evidence had been compromised. The court explained that if the juror believed that she could not continue, she would be removed for cause.
Defense counsel raised two concerns. First, counsel argued that any comment made by the court would highlight the prejudicial outburst in the minds of the jurors. Second, the defense was afraid that the court might focus the voir dire on the one juror who had been moved to tears despite the court's insistence that it would not focus on any one juror. Defense counsel believed that if defendant had a chance for life, it might be from this one emotional juror.
Acknowledging that it had a responsibility to address the concerns of the jurors, the court addressed the jury:
I'd like to ask you, to poll at this time as to whether or not any of you have experienced anything, whether it was when we last met, I believe it was Wednesday afternoon ... Or you read anything or saw anything, or has anything happened that would affect your ability to continue to serve in this case, anything at all?
Noting that no juror raised their hands, the court moved on without giving a curative instruction or further individualized voir dire. Defense counsel now argues, despite his prior insistence that no individualized voir dire be conducted or instruction be given, that the trial court failed to inquire sufficiently whether prejudice resulted from the outburst. A more probing voir dire, asserts defendant, was necessary to determine if a mistrial should *365 have been granted. If the court determined that a mistrial was not necessary, then a stronger and more immediate curative instruction was required. Defendant also claims that the outburst amounted to victim impact evidence because it was likely that jurors knew the identity of the woman in the courtroom. Finally, defendant contends that the instruction given by the court, four days after the incident, was insufficient because it failed to directly address the outburst and was too general in nature. Based on the nature of the outburst, the reaction of the jurors, and the inadequate response of the court, defendant argues that prejudice should be presumed and defendant's death sentence reversed.
Defense counsel may not now argue that the inquiry made by the trial court was not sufficiently probing, when counsel insisted that the court refrain from making any individualized voir dire or from singling out any one juror. Defense counsel likewise cannot now argue that the court should have given a more immediate curative instruction, when it was defense counsel who insisted that the court not "highlight" the prejudicial outburst with a instruction to the jury. This Court has held that "except in the most extreme cases, strategic decisions made by defense counsel will not present grounds for reversal on appeal." Marshall I, supra, 123 N.J. at 93 , 586 A. 2d 85 ; accord State v. Buonadonna, 122 N.J. 22, 44 , 583 A. 2d 747 (1991); State v. Pontery, 19 N.J. 457, 471 , 117 A. 2d 473 (1955). Given the concerns raised by defense counsel and the limited nature of the outburst itself (both the judge and the attorneys who were at sidebar were not even aware it had occurred), the court's limited inquiry was reasonable and sufficient.
The trial court recognized it had a responsibility to insure that the jury remain fair and impartial throughout the proceedings. State v. Bey, 112 N.J. 45, 75 , 548 A. 2d 846 (1988) ( Bey I ). The jury's impartiality is significantly threatened by extraneous influences arising from contact with non-record facts. Id. at 74-76 , 548 A. 2d 846 (citation omitted). The determination of whether the appropriate response is a curative instruction, as well as the *366 language and detail of the instruction, is within the discretion of the trial judge "who has the feel of the case and is best equipped to gauge the effect of a prejudicial comment on the jury in the overall setting." State v. Winter, 96 N.J. 640, 647 , 477 A. 2d 323 (1984) (citations omitted). The trial court properly exercised its discretion and instructed the jury sua sponte, despite defense counsel's insistence that the court take no action.
"Not every admission of inadmissible hearsay or other evidence can be considered to be reversible error." Winter, supra, 96 N.J. at 646 , 477 A. 2d 323 (quoting Bruton v. United States, 391 U.S. 123, 135 , 88 S.Ct. 1620, 1627 , 20 L.Ed. 2d 476, 484 (1968)). In White v. Smith, 984 F. 2d 163, 166-67 (6th Cir.1993), cert. denied, 508 U.S. 920 , 113 S.Ct. 2367 , 124 L.Ed. 2d 273 (1993), the court remarked: "[W]here [a] communication is innocuous and initiated by a spectator in the form of an outburst, a hearing is not necessarily required. This is particularly true when, in this case, the trial court follows up with a statement to the jury, allaying any apprehensions."
In this case, the brief outburst by a courtroom spectator did not operate to unduly prejudice the jury against defendant. The outburst was momentary, and the woman was immediately quieted and removed from the courtroom. Despite defendant's claim that the outburst amounted to victim impact evidence, there is nothing to suggest that the jury was aware of the identity of the spectator. Additionally, the outburst contained no factual information that could have influenced the jury. See Hunt v. State, 312 Md. 494 , 540 A. 2d 1125 (1988) (upholding capital conviction despite trial court's failure to provide a curative instruction after victim's family members, who were never identified on the record, left courtroom crying), cert. denied, 502 U.S. 835 , 112 S.Ct. 117 , 116 L.Ed. 2d 86 (1991).
The trial court polled the jury to ensure that nothing had affected their ability to continue. Lastly, in its final charge to the jury, the trial court instructed the jury that neither bias, prejudice, nor sympathy were to play any role in their deliberations, *367 except for sympathy generated by the mitigating factors. The jury presumably followed these instructions. Manley, supra, 54 N.J. at 271 , 255 A. 2d 193 (citations omitted). We find that any prejudice resulting from the outburst was harmless error.
F. Hardship on defendant's family as a mitigating factor
Defendant argues that the trial court erred in refusing to allow the jury to consider the hardship of defendant's execution on his wife and children as mitigating factors under the "catch-all" mitigating factor, N.J.S.A. 2C:11-3c(5)(h). He claims that by precluding the jury from considering those factors, the trial court violated his due process rights and his right to be protected from cruel and unusual punishment.
While the penalty-phase jury selection was in progress, the State moved to bar three of defendant's proposed mitigating factors:
27. Mr. Loftin's execution would be a hardship to his family.
28. Mr. Loftin's execution would be a hardship to his five-year old daughter, Danielle.
29. Mr. Loftin's execution would be a hardship to his three-year old son, Jay.
The State had not previously questioned the appropriateness of those factors, and all of the jurors who had been qualified in the first five and one-half weeks of the penalty-phase voir dire had been informed that those mitigating factors were among the factors to be presented. In striking the three mitigating factors, the trial court noted that the factors did not relate to either defendant's character, record, or the circumstances of the offense. The basis for the trial court's ruling was our opinion in DiFrisco, supra, 137 N.J. 434 , 645 A. 2d 734 . In that case the defendant attempted to introduce as a mitigating factor evidence that his execution would cause excessive emotional hardship to his mother, because she had already lost one son. Id. at 505 , 645 A. 2d 734 . The trial court denied the defendant's request to introduce the factor under the "catch-all" category, holding that the factor did not relate to defendant's character, record, or the circumstances of the offense. In affirming the exclusion, we held that it did not *368 come within the catch-all factor because it "neither relates to defendant's character or record, nor to the circumstances of the offense, but rather focuses on the potential impact on a third party. Its exclusion was entirely proper." Id. at 505-06 , 645 A. 2d 734 (emphasis added).
Because of the unique nature of the death penalty, the Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments require in nearly every capital case, that the sentencer "not be precluded from considering as a mitigating factor, any aspect of a defendant's character or record and any of the circumstances of the offense that the defendant proffers as a basis for a sentence less than death." Lockett, supra, 438 U.S. at 604, 98 S.Ct. at 2964, 57 L.Ed. 2d at 990; accord Woodson v. North Carolina, 428 U.S. 280, 304 , 96 S.Ct. 2978, 2991 , 49 L.Ed. 2d 944, 961 (1976). In accordance with the Supreme Court's mandate, we have broadly interpreted the scope of the factors that may be submitted and considered under the catch-all factor. See Gerald, supra, 113 N.J. at 102, 549 A. 2d 792 ; see also State v. Davis, 96 N.J. 611, 620 , 477 A. 2d 308 (1984) (holding that in capital case, "the sentencing process should embrace an evidential inquiry `broad in scope, largely unlimited either as to the kind of information that may be considered, or the sources from which it may come.'") (citations omitted).
Although the scope of the catch-all factor is broad, that scope is not unlimited. Gerald, supra, 113 N.J. at 103, 549 A. 2d 792 . We have consistently held that the proffered evidence must be relevant to a defendant's character, record, or the circumstances of the offense. Ibid.; Davis, supra, 96 N.J. at 618, 477 A. 2d 308 ; accord Lockett, supra, 438 U.S. at 604, 98 S.Ct. at 2964, 57 L.Ed. 2d at 990. Indeed, in DiFrisco II, supra, 137 N.J. at 505-06 , 645 A. 2d 734 , we specifically held that mitigating evidence that focuses on the potential impact on a third party is not relevant to a defendant's character, record, or the circumstances of the offense, and therefore could properly be excluded. Although testimony concerning the potential impact of an execution on a third party may be excluded, a defendant is nevertheless able to provide a *369 wealth of character evidence as revealed by his relationships with his family members.
Even if the trial court's refusal to allow the jury to consider the impact of defendant's execution on his wife and children as mitigating factors was an error, the error would have been harmless, because defendant presented the jury with a multitude of character evidence that directly focused on his relationship with his wife and children. Defendant was allowed to allege and prove as mitigating factors that "he has the love and support of his family" (factor 30); that he "was a considerate and loving son" (factor 11); and that he "provided siblings with a positive sense of direction" (factor 12). In addition, defendant alleged and presented testimony that he "shared a positive relationship with his wife and children" (factor 17); that he "was a loving father" (factor 26); and that he "maintained employment and provided for his wife and children" (factor 17). The accumulation of those mitigating factors was sufficient to cure any error that might have resulted due to preclusion of the rejected mitigating factors regarding the impact of defendant's death on third parties, and therefore we hold that any such error was harmless.
G. Defendant would likely die in prison as a mitigating factor
Defendant contends that the trial court erred by ruling that defendant could not introduce as a catch-all mitigating factor evidence that he was already serving a life sentence, and therefore would likely die in prison before he became eligible for parole. Defendant submits that in light of the United States Supreme Court's recent decision in Simmons v. South Carolina, 512 U.S. 154 , 114 S.Ct. 2187 , 129 L.Ed. 2d 133 (1994), the trial court should have allowed him to use his prolonged parole ineligibility as mitigating evidence. Although the State did not object to the trial court's instructing the jury regarding the possibility of consecutive life sentences, it objected to defendant using his prior life sentence as a mitigating factor.
*370 A capital sentencing jury must be fully informed of its responsibility in determining the appropriateness of the death penalty. Woodson v. North Carolina, supra, 428 U.S. at 304-05 , 96 S.Ct. at 2991 , 49 L.Ed. 2d at 961 ; State v. Bey, 129 N.J. 557, 601 , 610 A. 2d 814 (1992) ( Bey III ); Bey II, supra, 112 N.J. at 162-63, 548 A. 2d 887 . As we stated in Ramseur, supra :
To hide from the jury the full range of its sentencing options, thus permitting its decision to be based on uninformed and possibly inaccurate speculation, is to mock the goals of rationality and consistency required by modern death penalty jurisprudence.
[ 106 N.J. at 311 , 524 A. 2d 188 .]
Not informing the jury about a prior sentence could lead jurors to speculate that a capital defendant might be released earlier than he otherwise would be.
In Biegenwald IV, supra, 126 N.J. at 49, 594 A. 2d 172 , however, we rejected a defendant's attempt to introduce his prior life sentences for murder under the catch-all mitigating factor. "Because the sentencing determination is fact specific and remains subject to significant sentencer discretion, the sentence imposed in another case under different circumstances has little probative value to the present jury's sentencing decision." Ibid. We determined that the argument that a defendant will never be eligible for parole in his lifetime due to prior sentences should not on its own be presented as a mitigating factor. Ibid. We reaffirmed that holding in Bey III, supra, 129 N.J. at 600-01 , 610 A. 2d 814 .
Nevertheless, although we found that a prior life sentence should not be presented as a mitigating factor in Bey III, supra, we held that courts in capital cases should inform juries about the defendant's prior sentences either on defendant's request or when the jury makes such an inquiry. Id. at 603, 610 A. 2d 814 . However, a court should also inform the jurors that they should not consider prior sentences in their decision to impose a life or death sentence because they are not statutory aggravating or mitigating factors. "To permit consideration of pending sentences for prior crimes might lead to the incongruous result that first-offenders *371 would be more likely to be sentenced to death than would repeat-offenders." Ibid. Finally, the court should instruct the jury that it is solely the court's responsibility to determine whether a sentence in the present case is to be served concurrently or consecutively to any prior sentences. Ibid.
Defendant urges us to reconsider our rulings in Biegenwald IV, supra, and Bey III, supra, in light of Simmons, supra . In that case, the United States Supreme Court held that where the defendant's future dangerousness is at issue, and state law prohibits the defendant's release on parole, due process requires that the sentencing jury be told that the defendant is ineligible for parole. Simmons, supra, 512 U.S. at ___ , 114 S.Ct. at 2190 , 129 L.Ed. 2d at 138 . On three separate occasions, Simmons asked the trial court to inform the sentencing jury that under state law he was ineligible for parole; each time the court refused to issue such an instruction. Id. 512 U.S. at ___ , 114 S.Ct. at 2193 , 129 L.Ed. 2d at 139 . Of course, here the State did not proffer defendant's "future dangerousness" as an aggravating factor and the only available alternative sentence to death was not life imprisonment without the possibility of parole. Future dangerousness is not an aggravating factor in New Jersey, and our statute limits prosecutors to the enumerated aggravating factors. Pennington, supra, 119 N.J. at 584, 575 A. 2d 816 . The holding of Simmons, supra, is therefore inapplicable to this case. 512 U.S. at ___ , 114 S.Ct. at 2193 , 129 L.Ed. 2d at 147 .
Although Justice Handler argues that due process requires a trial court to instruct the jury about parole ineligibility, post at 425-26, 680 A. 2d at 741-42 (Handler, J., dissenting), the United States Supreme Court in Simmons held that the due process requirement is met if either the judge or defense counsel provides the relevant parole ineligibility information to the jury. See Simmons, supra, ___ U.S. at ___, 114 S.Ct. at 2196 , 129 L.Ed. 2d at 149-151 ("[D]ue process plainly requires that he be allowed to bring it to the jury's attention by way of argument by defense counsel or an instruction from the court."); Id. at ___, *372 114 S.Ct. at 2199 , 129 L.Ed. 2d at 149 ("[D]ue process requirement is met if the relevant information is intelligently conveyed to the jury; due process does not dictate that the judge herself, rather than defense counsel provide the instruction.") (Ginsburg, J., concurring); Id. at ___, 114 S.Ct. at 2201 , 129 L.Ed. 2d at 151 ("Where the State puts the defendant's future dangerousness in issue, and the only available alternative sentence to death is life imprisonment without parole, due process entitles the defendant to inform the capital sentencing jury — by either argument or instruction — that he is parole ineligible.") (O'Connor, J., concurring).
Nonetheless, in future cases, if the court, based on the evidence presented believes that there is a realistic likelihood that it will impose a sentence to be served consecutively to any of defendant's prior sentences, in the event the jury does not return a death sentence, the jury should be so informed. We believe that in most cases the courts will conclude that there is a "realistic likelihood" that it will impose a consecutive sentence rather than a concurrent sentence in the event of a non-death verdict. However, not every court necessarily will reach that conclusion. In those cases, the court need not inform the jury whether a non-death sentence is likely to be consecutive or concurrent.
In this case, failure to give such information was harmless error. Defense counsel was repeatedly allowed to inform the sentencing jury that defendant had already been sentenced to a life term with thirty years of parole ineligibility, and that if defendant was not sentenced to death he would likely die in prison before becoming eligible for parole. In fact, during summation, defense counsel was permitted to argue that defendant's life should be spared because he would likely die in prison.
What does a life sentence mean? Life means that the individual is sentenced to prison for life, meaning he must serve a minimum mandatory term of thirty years. I'm not saying that a person gets out after thirty years, but only that he is eligible for parole at the end of thirty years.
Additionally, keep in mind, members of the jury, that [defendant] already has been convicted and is presently serving life with thirty years without parole for the Atlantic County conviction. The sentence in murder may run consecutive to the *373 ones in Atlantic County. I think its safe to assume, folks, that [defendant] is going to remain in prison for the rest of his natural life. He is never going to get out. In fact, by simply his conviction for knowing and purposeful murder, it is guaranteed that [defendant] will die in prison. The only question becomes who is going to determine whether he dies, you or God?
Through the arguments of counsel and the voir dire, the jury was "fully informed about their sentencing options," including the practical "effect of a life sentence." Bey III, supra, 129 N.J. at 601 ,

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Source: Frix Law Library, https://www.frixlaw.com/law-library/cases/1992848. Public record. Not legal advice.